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Wikipedia

Pluricentric language

February 09, 2023

A pluricentric language or polycentric language is a language with several interacting codified standard forms, often corresponding to different countries.[1][2][3] Many examples of such languages can be found worldwide among the most-spoken languages, including but not limited to Chinese in Mainland China, Taiwan and Singapore; English in the United Kingdom, the United States, India, and elsewhere; and French in France, Canada, and elsewhere.[4] The converse case is a monocentric language, which has only one formally standardized version. Examples include Japanese and Russian.[5] In some cases, the different standards of a pluricentric language may be elaborated until they become autonomous languages, as happened with Malaysian and Indonesian, and with Hindi and Urdu.[5] The same process is under way in Serbo-Croatian[5][6] and Bulgarian.

Examples of varying degrees of pluricentrism

Arabic

Main article: Varieties of Arabic

Pre-Islamic Arabic can be considered a polycentric language.[7] In Arabic-speaking countries different levels of polycentricity can be detected.[8] Modern Arabic is a pluricentric language with varying branches correlating with different regions where Arabic is spoken and the type of communities speaking it. The vernacular varieties of Arabic include:

In addition, many speakers use Modern Standard Arabic in education and formal settings. Therefore, in Arabic-speaking communities, diglossia is frequent.

Armenian

See also: Armenian orthography reform

The Armenian language is a pluricentric language with two standard varieties, Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian, which have developed as separate literary languages since the eighteenth century.[9] Prior to this, almost all Armenian literature was written in Classical Armenian, which is now solely used as a liturgical language. Eastern and Western Armenian can also refer to the two major dialectal blocks into which the various non-standard dialects of Armenian are categorized. Eastern Armenian is the official language of the Republic of Armenia. It is also spoken, with dialectal variations, by Iranian Armenians, Armenians in Karabakh (see Karabakh dialect), southern Georgia (Javakheti), and in the Armenian diaspora. Western Armenian is spoken almost exclusively in the Armenian diaspora.

Additionally, Armenian is written in two standard orthographies: classical and reformed Armenian orthography. The former is used by practically all speakers of Western Armenian and by Armenians in Iran, while the latter, which was developed in Soviet Armenia in the 20th century, is used in Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh.

Catalan–Valencian–Balearic

Main article: Catalan dialects

The term "Catalan–Valencian–Balearic" is seldom used (for example, in a dictionary by Antoni Maria Alcover i Sureda).

This language is internationally known as Catalan, as in Ethnologue. This is also the most commonly used name in Catalonia, but also in Andorra and the Balearic Islands, probably due to the prestige of the Central Catalan dialect spoken in and around Barcelona. However, in the Valencian Community, the official name of this language is Valencian. One reason for this is political (see Serbo-Croatian for a similar situation), but this variant does have its own literary tradition that dates back to the Reconquista.

Although mutually intelligible with other varieties of Catalan, Valencian has lexical peculiarities and its own spelling rules, which are set out by the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua, created in 1998. However, this institution recognizes that Catalan and Valencian are varieties of the same language. For their part, there are specific varieties in the two major Balearic islands, Mallorcan (mallorquí) in Mallorca, Menorcan (menorquí) in Menorca, Eivissenc in Eivissa. The University of the Balearic Islands is the language regulator for these varieties.

Chinese

Main article: Varieties of Chinese

Until the mid-20th century, most Chinese people spoke only their local varieties of Chinese. These varieties had diverged widely from the written form used by scholars, Literary Chinese, which was modelled on the language of the Chinese classics. As a practical measure, officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on northern varieties, known as Guānhuà (官話, literally "speech of officials"), known as Mandarin in English after the officials. Knowledge of this language was thus essential for an official career, but it was never formally defined.[10]

In the early years of the 20th century, Literary Chinese was replaced as the written standard by written vernacular Chinese, which was based on northern dialects. In the 1930s, a standard national language Guóyǔ (國語, literally "national language") was adopted, with its pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect, but with vocabulary also drawn from other northern varieties.[11] After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the standard was known as Pǔtōnghuà (普通话/普通話, literally "common speech"), but was defined in the same way as Guóyǔ in the Republic of China now governing Taiwan.[10] It also became one of the official languages of Singapore, under the name Huáyǔ (华语/華語, literally "Chinese language").

Although the three standards remain close, they have diverged to some extent. Most Mandarin speakers in Taiwan and Singapore came from the southeast coast of China, where the local dialects lack the retroflex initials /tʂ tʂʰ ʂ/ found in northern dialects, so that many speakers in those places do not distinguish them from the apical sibilants /ts tsʰ s/. Similarly, retroflex codas (erhua) are typically avoided in Taiwan and Singapore. There are also differences in vocabulary, with Taiwanese Mandarin absorbing loanwords from Min Chinese, Hakka Chinese, and Japanese, and Singaporean Mandarin borrowing words from English, Malay, and southern varieties of Chinese.[12][13]

Eastern South Slavic (Bulgarian–Macedonian–Gorani–Paulician)

Further information: Eastern South Slavic, Macedonian language § Relationship to Bulgarian, Bulgarian language § Relationship to Macedonian, and Political views on the Macedonian language
See also: Bulgarian nationalism, Macedonian nationalism, and Accession of North Macedonia to the European Union

Some linguists and scholars, mostly from Bulgaria and Greece, but some also from other countries,[14][15] consider Eastern South Slavic to be a pluricentric language with four standards: Bulgarian (based on the Rup, Balkan and Moesian ("Eastern Bulgarian") dialects), Macedonian (based on the Western and Central Macedonian dialects), Gorani (based on the Torlakian dialects), and Paulician (including Banat Bulgarian).[16] Politicians and nationalists from Bulgaria are likely to refer to this entire grouping as 'Bulgarian', and to be particularly hostile to the notion that Macedonian is an autonomous language separate from Bulgarian, which Macedonian politicians and citizens tend to claim.[16] As of 2021, the hypothesis that Eastern South Slavic, 'Greater Bulgarian', 'Bulgaro-Macedonian', or simply 'Bulgarian', is a pluricentric language with several mutually intelligible official standards in the same way that Serbo-Croatian is, and Czechoslovak used to be,[clarification needed] has not yet been fully developed in linguistics; it is a popular idea in Bulgarian politics, but an unpopular one in North Macedonia.[16]

English

Main articles: List of dialects of English, Regional accents of English, and List of countries by English-speaking population

English is a pluricentric language,[17][18] with differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, spelling, etc., between each of the constituent countries of the United Kingdom, North America, the Caribbean, Ireland, English-speaking African countries, Singapore, India, and Oceania. Educated native English speakers using their version of one of the standard forms of English are almost completely mutually intelligible, but non-standard forms present significant dialectal variations, and are marked by reduced intelligibility.

British and American English are the two most commonly taught varieties in the education systems where English is taught as a second language. British English tends to predominate in Europe and the former British colonies of the West Indies, Africa, and Asia, where English is not the first language of the majority of the population. (The Falkland Islands, a British territory off the southeast coast of South America with English as its native language, have their own dialect, while British English is the standard.) In contrast, American English tends to dominate instruction in Latin America, Liberia, and East Asia[19][20] (In Latin America, British English is taught in schools with British curriculum in countries with descendants of British settlers.)

Due to globalization and the resulting spread of the language in recent decades, English is becoming increasingly decentralized, with daily use and statewide study of the language in schools growing in most regions of the world. However, in the global context, the number of native speakers of English is much smaller than the number of non-native speakers of English of reasonable competence. In 2018, it was estimated that for every native speaker of English, there are six non-native speakers of reasonable competence,[21] raising the questions of English as a lingua franca as the most widely spoken form of the language.

Philippine English (which is predominantly spoken as a second language) has been primarily influenced by American English. The rise of the call center industry in the Philippines has encouraged some Filipinos to "polish" or neutralize their accents to make them more closely resemble the accents of their client countries.

Countries such as Australia, New Zealand, and Canada have their own well-established varieties of English which are the standard within those countries but are far more rarely taught overseas to second language learners.[citation needed][22] (Standard English in Australia and New Zealand is related to British English in its common pronunciation and vocabulary; a similar relationship exists between Canadian English and American English.)

English was historically pluricentric when it was used across the independent kingdoms of England and Scotland prior to the Acts of Union in 1707. English English and Scottish English are now subsections of British English.

French

Main article: Varieties of French

In the modern era, there are several major loci of the French language, including Standard French (also known as Parisian French), Canadian French (including Quebec French and Acadian French), American French (for instance, Louisiana French), Haitian French, and African French.

Until the early 20th century, the French language was highly variable in pronunciation and vocabulary within France, with varying dialects and degrees of intelligibility, the langues d'oïl. However, government policy made it so that the dialect of Paris would be the method of instruction in schools, and other dialects, like Norman, which has influence from Scandinavian languages, were neglected. Controversy still remains in France over the fact that the government recognizes them as languages of France, but provides no monetary support for them nor has the Constitutional Council of France ratified the Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.

North American French is the result of French colonization of the New World between the 17th and 18th centuries. In many cases, it contains vocabulary and dialectal quirks not found in Standard Parisian French owing to history: most of the original settlers of Quebec, Acadia, and later what would become Louisiana and northern New England came from Northern and Northwest France, and would have spoken dialects like Norman, Poitevin, and Angevin with far fewer speaking the dialect of Paris. This, plus isolation from developments in France, most notably the drive for standardization by L'Académie française, make North American dialects of the language quite distinct. Acadian French, that which is spoken in New Brunswick, Canada, contains many words that are much older than anything found in modern France, much of it having roots in the 17th century, and a distinct intonation. Québécois, the largest of the dialects, has a distinct pronunciation that is not found in Europe in any measure and a greater difference in vowel pronunciation, and syntax tends to vary greatly. Cajun French has some distinctions not found in Canada in that there is more vocabulary derived from both local Native American and African dialects and a pronunciation of the letter r that has disappeared in France entirely. It is rolled, and with heavier contact with the English language than any of the above the pronunciation has shifted to harder sounding consonants in the 20th century. Cajun French equally has been an oral language for generations and it is only recently that its syntax and features been adapted to French orthography.

Minor standards can also be found in Belgium and Switzerland, with particular influence of Germanic languages on grammar and vocabulary, sometimes through the influence of local dialects. In Belgium, for example, various Germanic influences in spoken French are evident in Wallonia (for example, to blink in English, and blinken in German and Dutch, blinquer in Walloon and local French, cligner in standard French). Ring (rocade or périphérique in standard French) is a common word in the three national languages for beltway or ring road. Also, in Belgium and Switzerland, there are noted differences in the number system when compared to standard Parisian or Canadian French, notably in the use of septante, octante/huitante and nonante for the numbers 70, 80 and 90. In other standards of French, these numbers are usually denoted soixante-dix (sixty-ten), quatre-vingts (four-twenties) and quatre-vingt-dix (four-twenties-and-ten). French varieties spoken in Oceania are also influenced by local languages. New Caledonian French is influenced by Kanak languages in its vocabulary and grammatical structure. African French is another variety.

German

Main article: Standard German

Standard German is often considered an asymmetric pluricentric language;[23] the standard used in Germany is often considered dominant, mostly because of the sheer number of its speakers and their frequent lack of awareness of the Austrian Standard German and Swiss Standard German varieties. Although there is a uniform stage pronunciation based on a manual by Theodor Siebs that is used in theatres, and, nowadays to a lesser extent, in radio and television news all across German-speaking countries, this is not true for the standards applied at public occasions in Austria, South Tyrol and Switzerland, which differ in pronunciation, vocabulary, and sometimes even grammar. (In Switzerland, the letter ß has been removed from the alphabet, with ss as its replacement.) Sometimes this even applies to news broadcasts in Bavaria, a German state with a strong separate cultural identity. The varieties of Standard German used in those regions are to some degree influenced by the respective dialects (but by no means identical to them), by specific cultural traditions (e.g. in culinary vocabulary, which differs markedly across the German-speaking area of Europe), and by different terminology employed in law and administration. A list of Austrian terms for certain food items has even been incorporated into EU law, even though it is clearly incomplete.[24]

Hindustani

The Hindi languages are a large dialect continuum defined as a unit culturally. Medieval Hindustani (then known as Hindi or Hindavi[25]) was based on a register of the Delhi dialect and has two modern literary forms, Standard Hindi and Standard Urdu. Additionally, there are historical literary standards, such as the closely related Braj Bhasha and the more distant Awadhi, as well as recently established standard languages based on what were once considered Hindi dialects: Maithili and Dogri. Other varieties, such as Rajasthani, are often considered distinct languages but have no standard form. Caribbean Hindi and Fijian Hindi also differ significantly from the Sanskritized standard Hindi spoken in India.

Malay–Indonesian

Main articles: Malay language, Comparison of Standard Malay and Indonesian, and Malay trade and creole languages

From a purely linguistic viewpoint, Malaysian and Indonesian are two normative varieties of the same language (Malay). Both lects have the same dialectal basis, and linguistic sources still tend to treat the standards as different forms of a single language.[26] In popular parlance, however, the two varieties are often thought of as distinct tongues in their own rights due to the growing divergence between them and for politically motivated reasons.[citation needed] Nevertheless, they retain a high degree of mutual intelligibility despite a number of differences in vocabulary and grammar. The Malay language itself has many local dialects and creolized versions, whereas the "Indonesian language", the standardized variety in Indonesia acting as a lingua franca of the country, has received a great number of international and local influences.

Malayalam

Malayalam is a pluricentric language with historically more than one written form. Malayalam script is officially recognized, but there are other standardized varieties such as Arabi Malayalam of Mappila Muslims, Karshoni of Saint Thomas Christians and Judeo-Malayalam of Cochin Jews.

Persian

The Persian language has three standard varieties with official status in Iran (locally known as Farsi), Afghanistan (officially known as Dari), and Tajikistan (officially known as Tajik). The standard forms of the three are based on the Tehrani, Kabuli, and Dushanbe varieties, respectively.

The Persian alphabet is used for both Farsi (Iranian) and Dari (Afghan). Traditionally, Tajiki is also written with Perso-Arabic script. In order to increase literacy, a Latin alphabet (based on the Common Turkic Alphabet) was introduced in 1917. Later in the late 1930s, the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic promoted the use of Cyrillic alphabet, which remains the most widely used system today. Attempts to reintroduce the Perso-Arabic script were made.[27]

The language spoken by Bukharan Jews is called Bukhori (or Bukharian), and is written in Hebrew alphabet.

Portuguese

Apart from the Galician question, Portuguese varies mainly between Brazilian Portuguese and European Portuguese (also known as "Lusitanian Portuguese", "Standard Portuguese" or even "Portuguese Portuguese"). Both varieties have undergone significant and divergent developments in phonology and the grammar of their pronominal systems. The result is that communication between the two varieties of the language without previous exposure can be occasionally difficult, although speakers of European Portuguese tend to understand Brazilian Portuguese better than vice versa, due to the heavy exposure to music, soap operas etc. from Brazil. Word ordering can be dramatically different between European and Brazilian Portuguese.[28]

Brazilian and European Portuguese currently have two distinct, albeit similar, spelling standards. A unified orthography for the two varieties (including a limited number of words with dual spelling) has been approved by the national legislatures of Brazil and Portugal and is now official; see Spelling reforms of Portuguese for additional details. Formal written standards remain grammatically close to each other, despite some minor syntactic differences.

African Portuguese and Asian Portuguese are based on the standard European dialect, but have undergone their own phonetic and grammatical developments, sometimes reminiscent of the spoken Brazilian variant. A number of creoles of Portuguese have developed in African countries, for example in Guinea-Bissau and on the island of São Tomé.[28]

Serbo-Croatian

See also: Language secessionism § In Serbo-Croatian

Serbo-Croatian is a pluricentric language with four standards (Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian) promoted in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, and Serbia.[29][30][31][32][33][34] These standards do differ slightly, but do not hinder mutual intelligibility.[35][36][37][38][39][40] Rather, as all four standardised varieties are based on the prestige Shtokavian dialect, major differences in intelligibility are identified not on the basis of standardised varieties, but rather dialects, like Kajkavian and Chakavian.[41][42] Lexical and grammatical differences between the ethnic variants are reportedly limited, even when compared with those between closely related Slavic languages (such as standard Czech and Slovak, Bulgarian and Macedonian). The Montenegrin standard is largely based on the Serbian, while Bosnian is a compromise between Croatian and Serbian ones; Croatian and Serbian standards show 95% mutual intelligibility.[34] Shtokavian is largely mutually unintelligible with Kajkavian (which is closer to Slovene) and only partially intelligible with Chakavian.[citation needed]

Spanish

Main article: Spanish dialects and varieties

Spanish has both national and regional linguistic norms, which vary in terms of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation, but all varieties are mutually intelligible and the same orthographic rules are shared throughout.[43]

In Spain, Standard Spanish is based upon the speech of educated speakers from Madrid.[44] All varieties spoken in the Iberian Peninsula are grouped as Peninsular Spanish. Canarian Spanish (spoken in the Canary Islands), along with Spanish spoken in the Americas (including Spanish spoken in the United States, Central American Spanish, Mexican Spanish, Andean Spanish, and Caribbean Spanish), are particularly related to Andalusian Spanish.

The United States is now the world's second-largest Spanish-speaking country after Mexico in total number of speakers (L1 and L2 speakers). A report said there are 41 million L1 Spanish speakers and another 11.6 million L2 speakers in the U.S. This puts the US ahead of Colombia (48 million) and Spain (46 million) and second only to Mexico (121 million).[45]

The Spanish of Latin Americans has a growing influence on the language across the globe through music, culture and television produced using the language of the largely bilingual speech community of US Latinos.[46][47][48]

In Argentina and Uruguay the Spanish standard is based on the local dialects of Buenos Aires and Montevideo. This is known as Rioplatense Spanish, (from Rio de la Plata (River Plate)) and is distinguishable from other standard Spanish dialects by voseo. In Colombia, Rolo (a name for the dialect of Bogotá) is valued for its clear pronunciation.[49] The Judeo-Spanish (also known as Ladino; not to be confused with Latino) spoken by Sephardi Jews can be found in Israel and elsewhere; it is usually considered a separate language.[citation needed]

Swedish

Two varieties exist,[citation needed] though only one written standard remains (regulated by the Swedish Academy of Sweden): Rikssvenska (literally "Realm Swedish"), the official language of Sweden, and Finlandssvenska (in Finland known as "Högsvenska", 'High Swedish'), which, alongside Finnish, is the other official language of Finland. There are differences in vocabulary and grammar, with the variety used in Finland remaining a little more conservative. The most marked differences are in pronunciation and intonation: Whereas Swedish speakers usually pronounce /k/ before front vowels as [ɕ], this sound is usually pronounced by a Swedo-Finn as [t͡ʃ]; in addition, the two tones that are characteristic of Swedish (and Norwegian) are absent from most Finnish dialects of Swedish, which have an intonation reminiscent of Finnish and thus sound more monotonous when compared to Rikssvenska.

There are dialects that could be considered different languages due to long periods of isolation and geographical separation from the central dialects of Svealand and Götaland that came to constitute the base for the standard Rikssvenska. Dialects such as Elfdalian, Jamtlandic, and Gutnish all differ as much, or more, from standard Swedish than the standard varieties of Danish. Some of them have a standardized orthography, but the Swedish government has not granted any of them official recognition as regional languages and continues to look upon them as dialects of Swedish. Most of them are severely endangered and spoken by elderly people in the countryside.

Tamil

The vast majority of Tamil speakers reside in southern India, where it is the official language of Tamil Nadu and of Puducherry, and one of 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India. It is also one of two official languages in Sri Lanka, one of four official languages in Singapore, and is used as the medium of instruction in government-aided Tamil primary schools in Malaysia. Other parts of the world have Tamil-speaking populations, but are not loci of planned development.[50]

Tamil is diglossic, with the literary variant used in books, poetry, speeches and news broadcasts while the spoken variant is used in everyday speech, online messaging and movies. While there are significant differences in the standard spoken forms of the different countries, the literary register is mostly uniform, with some differences in semantics that are not perceived by native speakers. There has been no attempt to compile a dictionary of Sri Lankan Tamil.[51]

As a result of the Pure Tamil Movement, Indian Tamil tends to avoid loanwords to a greater extent than Sri Lankan Tamil. Coinages of new technical terms also differ between the two.[52] Tamil policy in Singapore and Malaysia tends to follow that of Tamil Nadu regarding linguistic purism and technical coinages.[53]

There are some spelling differences, particularly in the greater use of Grantha letters to write loanwords and foreign names in Sri Lanka, Singapore and Malaysia. The Tamil Nadu script reform of 1978 has been accepted in Singapore and Malaysia, but not Sri Lanka.[54]

Others

  • Standard Irish (Gaeilge), Scottish Gaelic and possibly Manx can be viewed as three standards arisen through divergence from the Classical Gaelic norm via orthographic reforms.
  • Komi, a Uralic language spoken in northeastern European Russia, has official standards for its Komi-Zyrian and Komi-Permyak dialects.
  • Korean: North and South (to some extent—differences are growing; see North–South differences in the Korean language and Korean dialects)
  • Kurdish language has two main literary norms: Kurmanji (Northern Kurdish) and Sorani (Central Kurdish). The Zaza–Gorani languages, spoken by some Kurds, are occasionally considered to be Kurdish as well, despite not being mutually intelligible.[citation needed]
  • For most of its history, Hebrew did not have a center. The grammar and lexicon were dominated by the canonical texts, but when the pronunciation was standardised for the first time, its users were already scattered. Therefore, three main forms of pronunciations developed, particularly for the purpose of prayer: Ashkenazi, Sephardi, and Temani. When Hebrew was revived as a spoken language, there was a discussion about which pronunciation should be used. Ultimately, the Sephardi pronunciation was chosen even though most of the speakers at the time were of Ashkenazi background, because it was considered more authentic. The standard Israeli pronunciation of today is not Identical to the Sephardi, but is somewhat of a merger with Ashkenazi influences and interpretation. The Ashkenazi pronunciation is still used in Israel by Haredim in prayer and by Jewish communities outside of Israel.
  • Lao and Isan, the situation is in stark contrast to Laos where the Lao language is actively promoted as a language of national unity. Laotian Lao people are very conscious of their distinct, non-Thai language and although influenced by Thai-language media and culture, strive to maintain 'good Lao'. Although spelling has changed, the Lao speakers in Laos continue to use a modified form of the Tai Noi script, the modern Lao alphabet.[55]
  • Norwegian consists of a multitude of spoken dialects displaying a great deal of variation in pronunciation and (to a somewhat lesser extent) vocabulary, with no officially recognized "standard spoken Norwegian" (but see Urban East Norwegian). All Norwegian dialects are mutually intelligible to a certain extent. There are two written standards: Bokmål, "book language", based on Danish (Danish and Norwegian Bokmål are mutually intelligible languages with significant differences primarily in pronunciation rather than vocabulary or grammar), and Nynorsk, "New Norwegian", based primarily on rural Western and rural inland Norwegian dialects.
  • Pashto has three official standard varieties: Central Pashto, which is the most prestigious[citation needed] standard dialect (also used in Kabul), Northern Pashto, and Southern Pashto.
  • Romance languages
    • Romanian in Romania and that in Moldova during the Soviet era, but nowadays, Romania and Moldova use the same standard of Romanian.
    • Romansh, with five written standards (from southwest to northeast: Sursilvan, Sutsilvan, Surmiran, Puter, Vallader) as well as a "compromise" form.
    • Sardinian consists of a conglomerate of spoken dialects, displaying a significant degree of variation in phonetics and sometimes vocabulary. The Spanish subdivision of Sardinia into two administrative areas led to the emergence of two separate orthographies, Logudorese and Campidanese, as standardized varieties of the same language.
  • Ukrainian and Rusyn (Prešov, Lemko, Pannonian) are either considered to be standardized varieties of the same language or separate languages.
  • Dutch is considered pluricentric with recognised varieties in Suriname, ABC Islands, Belgium and the Netherlands.
  • The Albanian language has two main varieties Gheg and Tosk. Gheg is spoken to the north and Tosk spoken to the south of the Shkumbin river. Standard Albanian is a standardised form of spoken Albanian based on Tosk.
  • Belarusian language features two orthographic standards: official Belarusian, sometimes referred to as narkomaŭka, and Taraškievica, also known as "classical orthography". The division stems from 1933 reform believed by some to be an attempt to artificially similarize Belarusian and Russian languages. Originally, these standards differed only in written form, but due to Taraškievica being widely used among Belarusian diaspora, it grew some distinct orthoepic features, as well as differences in vocabulary.
  • Afrikaans varieties of South Africa and Namibia.

See also

References

  1. ^ Stewart 1968, p. 534.
  2. ^ Kloss 1967, p. 31.
  3. ^ Clyne 1992, p. 1.
  4. ^ Clyne 1992, pp. 1–3.
  5. ^ a b c Clyne 1992, p. 3.
  6. ^ Kordić, Snježana (2007). "La langue croate, serbe, bosniaque et monténégrine" [Croatian, Serbian, Bosniakian, and Montenegrin] (PDF). In Madelain, Anne (ed.). Au sud de l'Est. vol. 3 (in French). Paris: Non Lieu. pp. 71–78. ISBN 978-2-35270-036-4. OCLC 182916790. SSRN 3439662. CROSBI 429734. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 8 May 2019.
  7. ^ Abd-el-Jawad 1992, p. 262.
  8. ^ Abd-el-Jawad 1992, p. 271.
  9. ^ Dum-Tragut, Jasmine (2009). Armenian: Modern Eastern Armenian. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp. xiii, 1. OCLC 932596142.
  10. ^ a b Norman, Jerry (1988). Chinese. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 136–137. ISBN 978-0-521-29653-3.
  11. ^ Ramsey, S. Robert (1987). The Languages of China. Princeton University Press. pp. 3–15. ISBN 978-0-691-01468-5.
  12. ^ Bradley, David (1992). "Chinese as a pluricentric language". In Clyne, Michael G. (ed.). Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 305–324. ISBN 978-3-11-012855-0.
  13. ^ Chen, Ping (1999). Modern Chinese: History and sociolinguistics. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 46–49. ISBN 978-0-521-64572-0.
  14. ^ Language profile Macedonian 11 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine, UCLA International Institute
  15. ^ Poulton, Hugh (2000). Who are the Macedonians?. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 116. ISBN 978-1-85065-534-3.
  16. ^ a b c Kamusella, Tomasz (17 June 2021). Politics and the Slavic Languages. p. 125. ISBN 9781000395990. Retrieved 23 August 2021.
  17. ^ Crystal, David (2003). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Blackwell.
  18. ^ Matthews, P.H. (2007). Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics. Oxford University Press.
  19. ^ Yuko Goto Butler. "How Are Nonnative-English-Speaking Teachers Perceived by Young Learners?" TESOL Quarterly. Vol. 41, No. 4 (Dec., 2007), pp. 731-755.
  20. ^ Timothy J. Riney, Naoyuki Takagi & Kumiko Inutsuka. "Phonetic Parameters and Perceptual Judgments of Accent in English by American and Japanese Listeners." TESOL Quarterly Vol. 39, No. 3 (Sep., 2005), pp. 441-466
  21. ^ Dollinger, Stefan (2019). "Creating Canadian English". Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK: 18.
  22. ^ Leitner, Gerhard (1992). Clyne, Michael (ed.). English as a pluricentric language. Berlin: Mouton. p. 208.
  23. ^ Ammon 1995, pp. 484–499.
  24. ^ [Protocol number 10 on the usage of specific Austrian terms of the German language within the European Union] (PDF) (in German). European Commission. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
  25. ^ Shaban, Abdul. "Urdu and Urdu Medium Schools in Maharashtra." Economic & Political Weekly 50.29 (2015): 47.
  26. ^ An example of equal treatment of Malaysian and Indonesian: the Pusat Rujukan Persuratan Melayu database from the Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka has a "Istilah MABBIM" section dedicated to documenting Malaysian, Indonesian and Bruneian official terminologies: see example
  27. ^ 'Tajikistan to use Persian alphabet,' Iranian website says. Tajikistan News ASIA-Plus. Published 3 May 2008, retrieved 9 April 2019.
  28. ^ a b Wetzels, W. Leo; Menuzzi, Sergio; Costa, João (7 April 2016). The Handbook of Portuguese Linguistics. John Wiley & Sons.
  29. ^ Mørk, Henning (2002). Serbokroatisk grammatik: substantivets morfologi [Serbo-Croatian Grammar: Noun Morphology]. Arbejdspapirer ; vol. 1 (in Danish). Århus: Slavisk Institut, Århus Universitet. p. unpaginated (Preface). OCLC 471591123.
  30. ^ Brozović, Dalibor (1992). "Serbo-Croatian as a pluricentric language". In Clyne, Michael G (ed.). Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Contributions to the sociology of language 62. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 347–380. ISBN 3-11-012855-1. OCLC 24668375. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
  31. ^ Bunčić, Daniel (2008). "Die (Re-)Nationalisierung der serbokroatischen Standards" [The (Re-)Nationalisation of Serbo-Croatian Standards]. In Kempgen, Sebastian (ed.). Deutsche Beiträge zum 14. Internationalen Slavistenkongress, Ohrid, 2008. Welt der Slaven (in German). Munich: Otto Sagner. p. 93. ISBN 978-3-86688-007-8. OCLC 238795822. (ÖNB).
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  35. ^ Pohl, Hans-Dieter (1996). "Serbokroatisch - Rückblick und Ausblick" [Serbo-Croatian – Looking backward and forward]. In Ohnheiser, Ingeborg (ed.). Wechselbeziehungen zwischen slawischen Sprachen, Literaturen und Kulturen in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart : Akten der Tagung aus Anlaß des 25jährigen Bestehens des Instituts für Slawistik an der Universität Innsbruck, Innsbruck, 25. - 27. Mai 1995. Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Kulturwissenschaft, Slavica aenipontana ; vol. 4 (in German). Innsbruck: Non Lieu. p. 219. ISBN 3-85124-180-0. OCLC 243829127. (ÖNB).
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Bibliography

  • Annamalai, E. (1992). "Chinese as a pluricentric language". In Clyne, Michael G. (ed.). Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 305–324. ISBN 978-3-11-012855-0.
  • Abd-el-Jawad, Hassan R.S. (1992). "Is Arabic a pluricentric language?". In Clyne, Michael G. (ed.). Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Contributions to the sociology of language 62. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 261–303. ISBN 3-11-012855-1.
  • Ammon, Ulrich (1995). Die deutsche Sprache in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz: das Problem der nationalen Varietäten [German Language in Germany, Austria and Switzerland: The Problem of National Varieties] (in German). Berlin & New York: Walter de Gruyter. p. 575. ISBN 3-11-014753-X. OCLC 33981055.
  • Blum, Daniel (2002). Sprache und Politik : Sprachpolitik und Sprachnationalismus in der Republik Indien und dem sozialistischen Jugoslawien (1945-1991) [Language and Policy: Language Policy and Linguistic Nationalism in the Republic of India and the Socialist Yugoslavia (1945-1991)]. Beiträge zur Südasienforschung ; vol. 192 (in German). Würzburg: Ergon. p. 200. ISBN 3-89913-253-X. OCLC 51961066.
  • Clyne, Michael G., ed. (1992). Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Contributions to the sociology of language 62. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-012855-1.
  • Clyne, Michael G.; & Kipp, Sandra. (1999). Pluricentric languages in an immigrant context: Spanish, Arabic and Chinese. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-016577-5.
  • Daneš, František (1988). "Herausbildung und Reform von Standardsprachen" [Development and Reform of Standard Languages]. In Ammon, Ulrich; Dittmar, Norbert; Mattheier, Klaus J (eds.). Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society II. Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft 3.2. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 1506–1516. ISBN 3-11-011645-6. OCLC 639109991.
  • Dua, Hans Raj (1992). "Hindi-Urdu as a pluricentric language". In Clyne, Michael G (ed.). Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Contributions to the sociology of language 62. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 381–400. ISBN 3-11-012855-1. OCLC 24668375.
  • Kloss, Heinz (1967). "'Abstand languages' and 'ausbau languages'". Anthropological Linguistics. 9 (7): 29–41. JSTOR 30029461.
  • Kordić, Snježana (2009). "Policentrični standardni jezik" [Polycentric Standard Language] (PDF). In Badurina, Lada; Pranjković, Ivo; Silić, Josip (eds.). Jezični varijeteti i nacionalni identiteti (in Serbo-Croatian). Zagreb: Disput. pp. 83–108. ISBN 978-953-260-054-4. OCLC 437306433. SSRN 3438216. CROSBI 426269. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 9 May 2018. (ÖNB).
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Further reading

  • Dollinger, Stefan (2019). The Pluricentricity Debate: On Austrian German and other Germanic Standard Varieties. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-63179-5.
  • Kircher, Ruth (2012). "How pluricentric is the French language? An investigation of attitudes towards Quebec French compared to European French". Journal of French Language Studies. 22 (3): 345–370. doi:10.1017/S0959269512000014. S2CID 143695569.
  • Louw, Robertus de (2016). "Is Dutch a pluricentric language with two centres of standardization? An overview of the differences between Netherlandic and Belgian Dutch from a Flemish perspective". Werkwinkel. 11 (1): 113–135. doi:10.1515/werk-2016-0006.

External links

  • by Rudolf Muhr
  • International working group on Non-Dominant Varieties of pluricentric languages

February 09, 2023
pluricentric, language, pluricentric, language, polycentric, language, language, with, several, interacting, codified, standard, forms, often, corresponding, different, countries, many, examples, such, languages, found, worldwide, among, most, spoken, language. A pluricentric language or polycentric language is a language with several interacting codified standard forms often corresponding to different countries 1 2 3 Many examples of such languages can be found worldwide among the most spoken languages including but not limited to Chinese in Mainland China Taiwan and Singapore English in the United Kingdom the United States India and elsewhere and French in France Canada and elsewhere 4 The converse case is a monocentric language which has only one formally standardized version Examples include Japanese and Russian 5 In some cases the different standards of a pluricentric language may be elaborated until they become autonomous languages as happened with Malaysian and Indonesian and with Hindi and Urdu 5 The same process is under way in Serbo Croatian 5 6 and Bulgarian Contents 1 Examples of varying degrees of pluricentrism 1 1 Arabic 1 2 Armenian 1 3 Catalan Valencian Balearic 1 4 Chinese 1 5 Eastern South Slavic Bulgarian Macedonian Gorani Paulician 1 6 English 1 7 French 1 8 German 1 9 Hindustani 1 10 Malay Indonesian 1 11 Malayalam 1 12 Persian 1 13 Portuguese 1 14 Serbo Croatian 1 15 Spanish 1 16 Swedish 1 17 Tamil 1 18 Others 2 See also 3 References 4 Bibliography 5 Further reading 6 External linksExamples of varying degrees of pluricentrism EditThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Pluricentric language news newspapers books scholar JSTOR October 2016 Learn how and when to remove this template message Arabic Edit Main article Varieties of Arabic Pre Islamic Arabic can be considered a polycentric language 7 In Arabic speaking countries different levels of polycentricity can be detected 8 Modern Arabic is a pluricentric language with varying branches correlating with different regions where Arabic is spoken and the type of communities speaking it The vernacular varieties of Arabic include Peninsular Arabic Hejazi Arabic urban cities of western Saudi Arabia Najdi Arabic much of central Saudi Arabia Omani Arabic Persian Gulf Arabic spoken around the coasts of the Persian Gulf in Kuwait Bahrain Qatar the United Arab Emirates as well as parts of Saudi Arabia Iraq Iran and Oman Yemeni Arabic Levantine Arabic spoken in the Levant region Syrian Arabic Jordanian Arabic Lebanese Arabic Palestinian Arabic Maghrebi Arabic spoken in the Maghreb region Algerian Arabic Libyan Arabic Moroccan Arabic Tunisian Arabic Mesopotamian Arabic Baghdad Arabic Egyptian Arabic Sudanese Arabic and many others In addition many speakers use Modern Standard Arabic in education and formal settings Therefore in Arabic speaking communities diglossia is frequent Armenian Edit See also Armenian orthography reform The Armenian language is a pluricentric language with two standard varieties Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian which have developed as separate literary languages since the eighteenth century 9 Prior to this almost all Armenian literature was written in Classical Armenian which is now solely used as a liturgical language Eastern and Western Armenian can also refer to the two major dialectal blocks into which the various non standard dialects of Armenian are categorized Eastern Armenian is the official language of the Republic of Armenia It is also spoken with dialectal variations by Iranian Armenians Armenians in Karabakh see Karabakh dialect southern Georgia Javakheti and in the Armenian diaspora Western Armenian is spoken almost exclusively in the Armenian diaspora Additionally Armenian is written in two standard orthographies classical and reformed Armenian orthography The former is used by practically all speakers of Western Armenian and by Armenians in Iran while the latter which was developed in Soviet Armenia in the 20th century is used in Armenia and Nagorno Karabakh Catalan Valencian Balearic Edit This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed December 2015 Learn how and when to remove this template message Main article Catalan dialects The term Catalan Valencian Balearic is seldom used for example in a dictionary by Antoni Maria Alcover i Sureda This language is internationally known as Catalan as in Ethnologue This is also the most commonly used name in Catalonia but also in Andorra and the Balearic Islands probably due to the prestige of the Central Catalan dialect spoken in and around Barcelona However in the Valencian Community the official name of this language is Valencian One reason for this is political see Serbo Croatian for a similar situation but this variant does have its own literary tradition that dates back to the Reconquista Although mutually intelligible with other varieties of Catalan Valencian has lexical peculiarities and its own spelling rules which are set out by the Academia Valenciana de la Llengua created in 1998 However this institution recognizes that Catalan and Valencian are varieties of the same language For their part there are specific varieties in the two major Balearic islands Mallorcan mallorqui in Mallorca Menorcan menorqui in Menorca Eivissenc in Eivissa The University of the Balearic Islands is the language regulator for these varieties Chinese Edit Main article Varieties of Chinese Until the mid 20th century most Chinese people spoke only their local varieties of Chinese These varieties had diverged widely from the written form used by scholars Literary Chinese which was modelled on the language of the Chinese classics As a practical measure officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on northern varieties known as Guanhua 官話 literally speech of officials known as Mandarin in English after the officials Knowledge of this language was thus essential for an official career but it was never formally defined 10 In the early years of the 20th century Literary Chinese was replaced as the written standard by written vernacular Chinese which was based on northern dialects In the 1930s a standard national language Guoyǔ 國語 literally national language was adopted with its pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect but with vocabulary also drawn from other northern varieties 11 After the establishment of the People s Republic of China in 1949 the standard was known as Pǔtōnghua 普通话 普通話 literally common speech but was defined in the same way as Guoyǔ in the Republic of China now governing Taiwan 10 It also became one of the official languages of Singapore under the name Huayǔ 华语 華語 literally Chinese language Although the three standards remain close they have diverged to some extent Most Mandarin speakers in Taiwan and Singapore came from the southeast coast of China where the local dialects lack the retroflex initials tʂ tʂʰ ʂ found in northern dialects so that many speakers in those places do not distinguish them from the apical sibilants ts tsʰ s Similarly retroflex codas erhua are typically avoided in Taiwan and Singapore There are also differences in vocabulary with Taiwanese Mandarin absorbing loanwords from Min Chinese Hakka Chinese and Japanese and Singaporean Mandarin borrowing words from English Malay and southern varieties of Chinese 12 13 Eastern South Slavic Bulgarian Macedonian Gorani Paulician Edit Further information Eastern South Slavic Macedonian language Relationship to Bulgarian Bulgarian language Relationship to Macedonian and Political views on the Macedonian language See also Bulgarian nationalism Macedonian nationalism and Accession of North Macedonia to the European Union Some linguists and scholars mostly from Bulgaria and Greece but some also from other countries 14 15 consider Eastern South Slavic to be a pluricentric language with four standards Bulgarian based on the Rup Balkan and Moesian Eastern Bulgarian dialects Macedonian based on the Western and Central Macedonian dialects Gorani based on the Torlakian dialects and Paulician including Banat Bulgarian 16 Politicians and nationalists from Bulgaria are likely to refer to this entire grouping as Bulgarian and to be particularly hostile to the notion that Macedonian is an autonomous language separate from Bulgarian which Macedonian politicians and citizens tend to claim 16 As of 2021 the hypothesis that Eastern South Slavic Greater Bulgarian Bulgaro Macedonian or simply Bulgarian is a pluricentric language with several mutually intelligible official standards in the same way that Serbo Croatian is and Czechoslovak used to be clarification needed has not yet been fully developed in linguistics it is a popular idea in Bulgarian politics but an unpopular one in North Macedonia 16 English Edit Main articles List of dialects of English Regional accents of English and List of countries by English speaking population English is a pluricentric language 17 18 with differences in pronunciation vocabulary spelling etc between each of the constituent countries of the United Kingdom North America the Caribbean Ireland English speaking African countries Singapore India and Oceania Educated native English speakers using their version of one of the standard forms of English are almost completely mutually intelligible but non standard forms present significant dialectal variations and are marked by reduced intelligibility British and American English are the two most commonly taught varieties in the education systems where English is taught as a second language British English tends to predominate in Europe and the former British colonies of the West Indies Africa and Asia where English is not the first language of the majority of the population The Falkland Islands a British territory off the southeast coast of South America with English as its native language have their own dialect while British English is the standard In contrast American English tends to dominate instruction in Latin America Liberia and East Asia 19 20 In Latin America British English is taught in schools with British curriculum in countries with descendants of British settlers Due to globalization and the resulting spread of the language in recent decades English is becoming increasingly decentralized with daily use and statewide study of the language in schools growing in most regions of the world However in the global context the number of native speakers of English is much smaller than the number of non native speakers of English of reasonable competence In 2018 it was estimated that for every native speaker of English there are six non native speakers of reasonable competence 21 raising the questions of English as a lingua franca as the most widely spoken form of the language Philippine English which is predominantly spoken as a second language has been primarily influenced by American English The rise of the call center industry in the Philippines has encouraged some Filipinos to polish or neutralize their accents to make them more closely resemble the accents of their client countries Countries such as Australia New Zealand and Canada have their own well established varieties of English which are the standard within those countries but are far more rarely taught overseas to second language learners citation needed 22 Standard English in Australia and New Zealand is related to British English in its common pronunciation and vocabulary a similar relationship exists between Canadian English and American English English was historically pluricentric when it was used across the independent kingdoms of England and Scotland prior to the Acts of Union in 1707 English English and Scottish English are now subsections of British English French Edit This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed September 2018 Learn how and when to remove this template message Main article Varieties of French In the modern era there are several major loci of the French language including Standard French also known as Parisian French Canadian French including Quebec French and Acadian French American French for instance Louisiana French Haitian French and African French Until the early 20th century the French language was highly variable in pronunciation and vocabulary within France with varying dialects and degrees of intelligibility the langues d oil However government policy made it so that the dialect of Paris would be the method of instruction in schools and other dialects like Norman which has influence from Scandinavian languages were neglected Controversy still remains in France over the fact that the government recognizes them as languages of France but provides no monetary support for them nor has the Constitutional Council of France ratified the Charter for Regional or Minority Languages North American French is the result of French colonization of the New World between the 17th and 18th centuries In many cases it contains vocabulary and dialectal quirks not found in Standard Parisian French owing to history most of the original settlers of Quebec Acadia and later what would become Louisiana and northern New England came from Northern and Northwest France and would have spoken dialects like Norman Poitevin and Angevin with far fewer speaking the dialect of Paris This plus isolation from developments in France most notably the drive for standardization by L Academie francaise make North American dialects of the language quite distinct Acadian French that which is spoken in New Brunswick Canada contains many words that are much older than anything found in modern France much of it having roots in the 17th century and a distinct intonation Quebecois the largest of the dialects has a distinct pronunciation that is not found in Europe in any measure and a greater difference in vowel pronunciation and syntax tends to vary greatly Cajun French has some distinctions not found in Canada in that there is more vocabulary derived from both local Native American and African dialects and a pronunciation of the letter r that has disappeared in France entirely It is rolled and with heavier contact with the English language than any of the above the pronunciation has shifted to harder sounding consonants in the 20th century Cajun French equally has been an oral language for generations and it is only recently that its syntax and features been adapted to French orthography Minor standards can also be found in Belgium and Switzerland with particular influence of Germanic languages on grammar and vocabulary sometimes through the influence of local dialects In Belgium for example various Germanic influences in spoken French are evident in Wallonia for example to blink in English and blinken in German and Dutch blinquer in Walloon and local French cligner in standard French Ring rocade or peripherique in standard French is a common word in the three national languages for beltway or ring road Also in Belgium and Switzerland there are noted differences in the number system when compared to standard Parisian or Canadian French notably in the use of septante octante huitante and nonante for the numbers 70 80 and 90 In other standards of French these numbers are usually denoted soixante dix sixty ten quatre vingts four twenties and quatre vingt dix four twenties and ten French varieties spoken in Oceania are also influenced by local languages New Caledonian French is influenced by Kanak languages in its vocabulary and grammatical structure African French is another variety German Edit Main article Standard German Standard German is often considered an asymmetric pluricentric language 23 the standard used in Germany is often considered dominant mostly because of the sheer number of its speakers and their frequent lack of awareness of the Austrian Standard German and Swiss Standard German varieties Although there is a uniform stage pronunciation based on a manual by Theodor Siebs that is used in theatres and nowadays to a lesser extent in radio and television news all across German speaking countries this is not true for the standards applied at public occasions in Austria South Tyrol and Switzerland which differ in pronunciation vocabulary and sometimes even grammar In Switzerland the letter ss has been removed from the alphabet with ss as its replacement Sometimes this even applies to news broadcasts in Bavaria a German state with a strong separate cultural identity The varieties of Standard German used in those regions are to some degree influenced by the respective dialects but by no means identical to them by specific cultural traditions e g in culinary vocabulary which differs markedly across the German speaking area of Europe and by different terminology employed in law and administration A list of Austrian terms for certain food items has even been incorporated into EU law even though it is clearly incomplete 24 Hindustani Edit The Hindi languages are a large dialect continuum defined as a unit culturally Medieval Hindustani then known as Hindi or Hindavi 25 was based on a register of the Delhi dialect and has two modern literary forms Standard Hindi and Standard Urdu Additionally there are historical literary standards such as the closely related Braj Bhasha and the more distant Awadhi as well as recently established standard languages based on what were once considered Hindi dialects Maithili and Dogri Other varieties such as Rajasthani are often considered distinct languages but have no standard form Caribbean Hindi and Fijian Hindi also differ significantly from the Sanskritized standard Hindi spoken in India Malay Indonesian Edit Main articles Malay language Comparison of Standard Malay and Indonesian and Malay trade and creole languages From a purely linguistic viewpoint Malaysian and Indonesian are two normative varieties of the same language Malay Both lects have the same dialectal basis and linguistic sources still tend to treat the standards as different forms of a single language 26 In popular parlance however the two varieties are often thought of as distinct tongues in their own rights due to the growing divergence between them and for politically motivated reasons citation needed Nevertheless they retain a high degree of mutual intelligibility despite a number of differences in vocabulary and grammar The Malay language itself has many local dialects and creolized versions whereas the Indonesian language the standardized variety in Indonesia acting as a lingua franca of the country has received a great number of international and local influences Malayalam Edit Malayalam is a pluricentric language with historically more than one written form Malayalam script is officially recognized but there are other standardized varieties such as Arabi Malayalam of Mappila Muslims Karshoni of Saint Thomas Christians and Judeo Malayalam of Cochin Jews Persian Edit The Persian language has three standard varieties with official status in Iran locally known as Farsi Afghanistan officially known as Dari and Tajikistan officially known as Tajik The standard forms of the three are based on the Tehrani Kabuli and Dushanbe varieties respectively The Persian alphabet is used for both Farsi Iranian and Dari Afghan Traditionally Tajiki is also written with Perso Arabic script In order to increase literacy a Latin alphabet based on the Common Turkic Alphabet was introduced in 1917 Later in the late 1930s the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic promoted the use of Cyrillic alphabet which remains the most widely used system today Attempts to reintroduce the Perso Arabic script were made 27 The language spoken by Bukharan Jews is called Bukhori or Bukharian and is written in Hebrew alphabet Portuguese Edit Apart from the Galician question Portuguese varies mainly between Brazilian Portuguese and European Portuguese also known as Lusitanian Portuguese Standard Portuguese or even Portuguese Portuguese Both varieties have undergone significant and divergent developments in phonology and the grammar of their pronominal systems The result is that communication between the two varieties of the language without previous exposure can be occasionally difficult although speakers of European Portuguese tend to understand Brazilian Portuguese better than vice versa due to the heavy exposure to music soap operas etc from Brazil Word ordering can be dramatically different between European and Brazilian Portuguese 28 Brazilian and European Portuguese currently have two distinct albeit similar spelling standards A unified orthography for the two varieties including a limited number of words with dual spelling has been approved by the national legislatures of Brazil and Portugal and is now official see Spelling reforms of Portuguese for additional details Formal written standards remain grammatically close to each other despite some minor syntactic differences African Portuguese and Asian Portuguese are based on the standard European dialect but have undergone their own phonetic and grammatical developments sometimes reminiscent of the spoken Brazilian variant A number of creoles of Portuguese have developed in African countries for example in Guinea Bissau and on the island of Sao Tome 28 Serbo Croatian Edit See also Language secessionism In Serbo Croatian Serbo Croatian is a pluricentric language with four standards Bosnian Croatian Montenegrin and Serbian promoted in Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia Montenegro and Serbia 29 30 31 32 33 34 These standards do differ slightly but do not hinder mutual intelligibility 35 36 37 38 39 40 Rather as all four standardised varieties are based on the prestige Shtokavian dialect major differences in intelligibility are identified not on the basis of standardised varieties but rather dialects like Kajkavian and Chakavian 41 42 Lexical and grammatical differences between the ethnic variants are reportedly limited even when compared with those between closely related Slavic languages such as standard Czech and Slovak Bulgarian and Macedonian The Montenegrin standard is largely based on the Serbian while Bosnian is a compromise between Croatian and Serbian ones Croatian and Serbian standards show 95 mutual intelligibility 34 Shtokavian is largely mutually unintelligible with Kajkavian which is closer to Slovene and only partially intelligible with Chakavian citation needed Spanish Edit Main article Spanish dialects and varieties Spanish has both national and regional linguistic norms which vary in terms of vocabulary grammar and pronunciation but all varieties are mutually intelligible and the same orthographic rules are shared throughout 43 In Spain Standard Spanish is based upon the speech of educated speakers from Madrid 44 All varieties spoken in the Iberian Peninsula are grouped as Peninsular Spanish Canarian Spanish spoken in the Canary Islands along with Spanish spoken in the Americas including Spanish spoken in the United States Central American Spanish Mexican Spanish Andean Spanish and Caribbean Spanish are particularly related to Andalusian Spanish The United States is now the world s second largest Spanish speaking country after Mexico in total number of speakers L1 and L2 speakers A report said there are 41 million L1 Spanish speakers and another 11 6 million L2 speakers in the U S This puts the US ahead of Colombia 48 million and Spain 46 million and second only to Mexico 121 million 45 The Spanish of Latin Americans has a growing influence on the language across the globe through music culture and television produced using the language of the largely bilingual speech community of US Latinos 46 47 48 In Argentina and Uruguay the Spanish standard is based on the local dialects of Buenos Aires and Montevideo This is known as Rioplatense Spanish from Rio de la Plata River Plate and is distinguishable from other standard Spanish dialects by voseo In Colombia Rolo a name for the dialect of Bogota is valued for its clear pronunciation 49 The Judeo Spanish also known as Ladino not to be confused with Latino spoken by Sephardi Jews can be found in Israel and elsewhere it is usually considered a separate language citation needed Swedish Edit Two varieties exist citation needed though only one written standard remains regulated by the Swedish Academy of Sweden Rikssvenska literally Realm Swedish the official language of Sweden and Finlandssvenska in Finland known as Hogsvenska High Swedish which alongside Finnish is the other official language of Finland There are differences in vocabulary and grammar with the variety used in Finland remaining a little more conservative The most marked differences are in pronunciation and intonation Whereas Swedish speakers usually pronounce k before front vowels as ɕ this sound is usually pronounced by a Swedo Finn as t ʃ in addition the two tones that are characteristic of Swedish and Norwegian are absent from most Finnish dialects of Swedish which have an intonation reminiscent of Finnish and thus sound more monotonous when compared to Rikssvenska There are dialects that could be considered different languages due to long periods of isolation and geographical separation from the central dialects of Svealand and Gotaland that came to constitute the base for the standard Rikssvenska Dialects such as Elfdalian Jamtlandic and Gutnish all differ as much or more from standard Swedish than the standard varieties of Danish Some of them have a standardized orthography but the Swedish government has not granted any of them official recognition as regional languages and continues to look upon them as dialects of Swedish Most of them are severely endangered and spoken by elderly people in the countryside Tamil Edit The vast majority of Tamil speakers reside in southern India where it is the official language of Tamil Nadu and of Puducherry and one of 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India It is also one of two official languages in Sri Lanka one of four official languages in Singapore and is used as the medium of instruction in government aided Tamil primary schools in Malaysia Other parts of the world have Tamil speaking populations but are not loci of planned development 50 Tamil is diglossic with the literary variant used in books poetry speeches and news broadcasts while the spoken variant is used in everyday speech online messaging and movies While there are significant differences in the standard spoken forms of the different countries the literary register is mostly uniform with some differences in semantics that are not perceived by native speakers There has been no attempt to compile a dictionary of Sri Lankan Tamil 51 As a result of the Pure Tamil Movement Indian Tamil tends to avoid loanwords to a greater extent than Sri Lankan Tamil Coinages of new technical terms also differ between the two 52 Tamil policy in Singapore and Malaysia tends to follow that of Tamil Nadu regarding linguistic purism and technical coinages 53 There are some spelling differences particularly in the greater use of Grantha letters to write loanwords and foreign names in Sri Lanka Singapore and Malaysia The Tamil Nadu script reform of 1978 has been accepted in Singapore and Malaysia but not Sri Lanka 54 Others Edit This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed February 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Standard Irish Gaeilge Scottish Gaelic and possibly Manx can be viewed as three standards arisen through divergence from the Classical Gaelic norm via orthographic reforms Komi a Uralic language spoken in northeastern European Russia has official standards for its Komi Zyrian and Komi Permyak dialects Korean North and South to some extent differences are growing see North South differences in the Korean language and Korean dialects Kurdish language has two main literary norms Kurmanji Northern Kurdish and Sorani Central Kurdish The Zaza Gorani languages spoken by some Kurds are occasionally considered to be Kurdish as well despite not being mutually intelligible citation needed For most of its history Hebrew did not have a center The grammar and lexicon were dominated by the canonical texts but when the pronunciation was standardised for the first time its users were already scattered Therefore three main forms of pronunciations developed particularly for the purpose of prayer Ashkenazi Sephardi and Temani When Hebrew was revived as a spoken language there was a discussion about which pronunciation should be used Ultimately the Sephardi pronunciation was chosen even though most of the speakers at the time were of Ashkenazi background because it was considered more authentic The standard Israeli pronunciation of today is not Identical to the Sephardi but is somewhat of a merger with Ashkenazi influences and interpretation The Ashkenazi pronunciation is still used in Israel by Haredim in prayer and by Jewish communities outside of Israel Lao and Isan the situation is in stark contrast to Laos where the Lao language is actively promoted as a language of national unity Laotian Lao people are very conscious of their distinct non Thai language and although influenced by Thai language media and culture strive to maintain good Lao Although spelling has changed the Lao speakers in Laos continue to use a modified form of the Tai Noi script the modern Lao alphabet 55 Norwegian consists of a multitude of spoken dialects displaying a great deal of variation in pronunciation and to a somewhat lesser extent vocabulary with no officially recognized standard spoken Norwegian but see Urban East Norwegian All Norwegian dialects are mutually intelligible to a certain extent There are two written standards Bokmal book language based on Danish Danish and Norwegian Bokmal are mutually intelligible languages with significant differences primarily in pronunciation rather than vocabulary or grammar and Nynorsk New Norwegian based primarily on rural Western and rural inland Norwegian dialects Pashto has three official standard varieties Central Pashto which is the most prestigious citation needed standard dialect also used in Kabul Northern Pashto and Southern Pashto Romance languages Romanian in Romania and that in Moldova during the Soviet era but nowadays Romania and Moldova use the same standard of Romanian Romansh with five written standards from southwest to northeast Sursilvan Sutsilvan Surmiran Puter Vallader as well as a compromise form Sardinian consists of a conglomerate of spoken dialects displaying a significant degree of variation in phonetics and sometimes vocabulary The Spanish subdivision of Sardinia into two administrative areas led to the emergence of two separate orthographies Logudorese and Campidanese as standardized varieties of the same language Ukrainian and Rusyn Presov Lemko Pannonian are either considered to be standardized varieties of the same language or separate languages Dutch is considered pluricentric with recognised varieties in Suriname ABC Islands Belgium and the Netherlands The Albanian language has two main varieties Gheg and Tosk Gheg is spoken to the north and Tosk spoken to the south of the Shkumbin river Standard Albanian is a standardised form of spoken Albanian based on Tosk Belarusian language features two orthographic standards official Belarusian sometimes referred to as narkomaŭka and Taraskievica also known as classical orthography The division stems from 1933 reform believed by some to be an attempt to artificially similarize Belarusian and Russian languages Originally these standards differed only in written form but due to Taraskievica being widely used among Belarusian diaspora it grew some distinct orthoepic features as well as differences in vocabulary Afrikaans varieties of South Africa and Namibia See also EditAbstand and ausbau languages Binary distribution Dialect continuum Diasystem Diglossia Digraphia Language secessionism Lingua franca Macrolanguage Mutual intelligibility Standard language Variety linguistics World languageReferences Edit Stewart 1968 p 534 Kloss 1967 p 31 Clyne 1992 p 1 Clyne 1992 pp 1 3 a b c Clyne 1992 p 3 Kordic Snjezana 2007 La langue croate serbe bosniaque et montenegrine Croatian Serbian Bosniakian and Montenegrin PDF In Madelain Anne ed Au sud de l Est vol 3 in French Paris Non Lieu pp 71 78 ISBN 978 2 35270 036 4 OCLC 182916790 SSRN 3439662 CROSBI 429734 Archived PDF from the original on 4 August 2012 Retrieved 8 May 2019 Abd el Jawad 1992 p 262 Abd el Jawad 1992 p 271 Dum Tragut Jasmine 2009 Armenian Modern Eastern Armenian Amsterdam John Benjamins pp xiii 1 OCLC 932596142 a b Norman Jerry 1988 Chinese Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 136 137 ISBN 978 0 521 29653 3 Ramsey S Robert 1987 The Languages of China Princeton University Press pp 3 15 ISBN 978 0 691 01468 5 Bradley David 1992 Chinese as a pluricentric language In Clyne Michael G ed Pluricentric Languages Differing Norms in Different Nations Walter de Gruyter pp 305 324 ISBN 978 3 11 012855 0 Chen Ping 1999 Modern Chinese History and sociolinguistics New York Cambridge University Press pp 46 49 ISBN 978 0 521 64572 0 Language profile Macedonian Archived 11 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine UCLA International Institute Poulton Hugh 2000 Who are the Macedonians C Hurst amp Co Publishers p 116 ISBN 978 1 85065 534 3 a b c Kamusella Tomasz 17 June 2021 Politics and the Slavic Languages p 125 ISBN 9781000395990 Retrieved 23 August 2021 Crystal David 2003 A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics Blackwell Matthews P H 2007 Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics Oxford University Press Yuko Goto Butler How Are Nonnative English Speaking Teachers Perceived by Young Learners TESOL Quarterly Vol 41 No 4 Dec 2007 pp 731 755 Timothy J Riney Naoyuki Takagi amp Kumiko Inutsuka Phonetic Parameters and Perceptual Judgments of Accent in English by American and Japanese Listeners TESOL Quarterly Vol 39 No 3 Sep 2005 pp 441 466 Dollinger Stefan 2019 Creating Canadian English Cambridge University Press Cambridge UK 18 Leitner Gerhard 1992 Clyne Michael ed English as a pluricentric language Berlin Mouton p 208 Ammon 1995 pp 484 499 Protokoll Nr 10 uber die Verwendung spezifisch osterreichischer Ausdrucke der deutschen Sprache im Rahmen der Europaischen Union Protocol number 10 on the usage of specific Austrian terms of the German language within the European Union PDF in German European Commission Archived from the original PDF on 5 March 2016 Retrieved 13 November 2015 Shaban Abdul Urdu and Urdu Medium Schools in Maharashtra Economic amp Political Weekly 50 29 2015 47 An example of equal treatment of Malaysian and Indonesian the Pusat Rujukan Persuratan Melayu database from the Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka has a Istilah MABBIM section dedicated to documenting Malaysian Indonesian and Bruneian official terminologies see example Tajikistan to use Persian alphabet Iranian website says Tajikistan News ASIA Plus Published 3 May 2008 retrieved 9 April 2019 a b Wetzels W Leo Menuzzi Sergio Costa Joao 7 April 2016 The Handbook of Portuguese Linguistics John Wiley amp Sons Mork Henning 2002 Serbokroatisk grammatik substantivets morfologi Serbo Croatian Grammar Noun Morphology Arbejdspapirer vol 1 in Danish Arhus Slavisk Institut Arhus Universitet p unpaginated Preface OCLC 471591123 Brozovic Dalibor 1992 Serbo Croatian as a pluricentric language In Clyne Michael G ed Pluricentric Languages Differing Norms in Different Nations Contributions to the sociology of language 62 Berlin amp New York Mouton de Gruyter pp 347 380 ISBN 3 11 012855 1 OCLC 24668375 Retrieved 2 August 2012 Buncic Daniel 2008 Die Re Nationalisierung der serbokroatischen Standards The Re Nationalisation of Serbo Croatian Standards In Kempgen Sebastian ed Deutsche Beitrage zum 14 Internationalen Slavistenkongress Ohrid 2008 Welt der Slaven in German Munich Otto Sagner p 93 ISBN 978 3 86688 007 8 OCLC 238795822 ONB Kordic Snjezana 2018 1st pub 2010 Jezik i nacionalizam Language and Nationalism PDF Rotulus Universitas in Serbo Croatian Zagreb Durieux pp 69 168 doi 10 2139 ssrn 3467646 ISBN 978 953 188 311 5 LCCN 2011520778 OCLC 729837512 OL 15270636W S2CID 220918333 CROSBI 475567 Archived PDF from the original on 1 June 2012 Retrieved 3 March 2022 Zanelli Aldo 2018 Eine Analyse der Metaphern in der kroatischen Linguistikfachzeitschrift Jezik von 1991 bis 1997 An analysis of the metaphors in the Croatian linguistic journal Jezik from 1991 to 1997 Studien zur Slavistik 41 in German Hamburg Dr Kovac pp 20 21 ISBN 978 3 8300 9773 0 OCLC 1023608613 CROSBI 935754 NSK FFZG a b Sipka Danko 2019 Lexical layers of identity words meaning and culture in the Slavic languages New York Cambridge University Press p 166 doi 10 1017 9781108685795 ISBN 978 953 313 086 6 LCCN 2018048005 OCLC 1061308790 S2CID 150383965 Pohl Hans Dieter 1996 Serbokroatisch Ruckblick und Ausblick Serbo Croatian Looking backward and forward In Ohnheiser Ingeborg ed Wechselbeziehungen zwischen slawischen Sprachen Literaturen und Kulturen in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart Akten der Tagung aus Anlass des 25jahrigen Bestehens des Instituts fur Slawistik an der Universitat Innsbruck Innsbruck 25 27 Mai 1995 Innsbrucker Beitrage zur Kulturwissenschaft Slavica aenipontana vol 4 in German Innsbruck Non Lieu p 219 ISBN 3 85124 180 0 OCLC 243829127 ONB Kordic Snjezana 2008 Nationale Varietaten der serbokroatischen Sprache National Varieties of Serbo Croatian PDF In Golubovic Biljana Raecke Jochen eds Bosnisch Kroatisch Serbisch als Fremdsprachen an den Universitaten der Welt Die Welt der Slaven Sammelbande Sborniki Band 31 in German Munich Otto Sagner pp 93 102 ISBN 978 3 86688 032 0 OCLC 244788988 SSRN 3434432 CROSBI 426566 Archived PDF from the original on 4 August 2012 Retrieved 5 October 2013 ONB Groschel Bernhard 2009 Das Serbokroatische zwischen Linguistik und Politik mit einer Bibliographie zum postjugoslavischen Sprachenstreit Serbo Croatian Between Linguistics and Politics With a Bibliography of the Post Yugoslav Language Dispute Lincom Studies in Slavic Linguistics 34 in German Munich Lincom Europa p 451 ISBN 978 3 929075 79 3 LCCN 2009473660 OCLC 428012015 OL 15295665W Thomas Paul Louis 2003 Le serbo croate bosniaque croate montenegrin serbe de l etude d une langue a l identite des langues Serbo Croatian Bosnian Croatian Montenegrin Serbian from the study of a language to the identity of languages Revue des etudes slaves in French 74 2 3 325 ISSN 0080 2557 OCLC 754204160 ZDB ID 208723 6 Retrieved 5 March 2013 ONB Kordic Snjezana 2004 Le serbo croate aujourd hui entre aspirations politiques et faits linguistiques Serbo Croatian nowadays between political aspirations and linguistic facts Revue des etudes slaves in French 75 1 31 43 doi 10 3406 slave 2004 6860 ISSN 0080 2557 OCLC 754207802 S2CID 228222009 SSRN 3433041 CROSBI 430127 ZDB ID 208723 6 Archived PDF from the original on 29 May 2012 Retrieved 16 April 2020 ONB Kafadar Enisa 2009 Bosnisch Kroatisch Serbisch Wie spricht man eigentlich in Bosnien Herzegowina Bosnian Croatian Serbian How do people really speak in Bosnia Herzegovina In Henn Memmesheimer Beate Franz Joachim eds Die Ordnung des Standard und die Differenzierung der Diskurse Teil 1 in German Frankfurt am Main Peter Lang p 103 ISBN 9783631599174 OCLC 699514676 Retrieved 9 August 2012 http bib irb hr datoteka 475567 Jezik i nacionalizam pdf bare URL PDF Bez tlake na jeziku Thompson R W 1992 Spanisch as a pluricentric language In Clyne Michael G ed Pluricentric Languages Differing Norms in Different Nations Contributions to the sociology of language 62 Berlin amp New York Mouton de Gruyter pp 45 70 ISBN 978 3 11 012855 0 Retrieved 4 August 2012 Penny Ralph 2000 Variation and Change in Spanish Cambridge University Press p 199 ISBN 0 521 78045 4 whatever might be claimed by other centres such as Valladolid it was educated varieties of Madrid Spanish that were mostly regularly reflected in the written standard US now has more Spanish speakers than Spain only Mexico has more TheGuardian com 29 June 2015 Mar Molinero C amp Paffey D 2011 Linguistic imperialism who owns global Spanish The handbook of Hispanic sociolinguistics 747 764 Mar Molinero Clare The European linguistic legacy in a global era Linguistic imperialism Spanish and the Instituto Cervantes In Language Ideologies Policies and Practices pp 76 88 Palgrave Macmillan UK 2006 Mar Molinero C 2008 Subverting Cervantes language authority in global Spanish International Multilingual Research Journal 2 1 2 27 47 The clearest Spanish Annamalai 1992 p 94 Annamalai 1992 p 95 Annamalai 1992 p 96 Annamalai 1992 p 98 Annamalai 1992 pp 96 98 Session VI of the People s Supreme Assembly II Legistlature The Constitution of the Lao People s Democratic Republic Archived 2011 08 06 at the Wayback Machine 15 Aug 1991 Bibliography EditAnnamalai E 1992 Chinese as a pluricentric language In Clyne Michael G ed Pluricentric Languages Differing Norms in Different Nations Walter de Gruyter pp 305 324 ISBN 978 3 11 012855 0 Abd el Jawad Hassan R S 1992 Is Arabic a pluricentric language In Clyne Michael G ed Pluricentric Languages Differing Norms in Different Nations Contributions to the sociology of language 62 Berlin amp New York Mouton de Gruyter pp 261 303 ISBN 3 11 012855 1 Ammon Ulrich 1995 Die deutsche Sprache in Deutschland Osterreich und der Schweiz das Problem der nationalen Varietaten German Language in Germany Austria and Switzerland The Problem of National Varieties in German Berlin amp New York Walter de Gruyter p 575 ISBN 3 11 014753 X OCLC 33981055 Blum Daniel 2002 Sprache und Politik Sprachpolitik und Sprachnationalismus in der Republik Indien und dem sozialistischen Jugoslawien 1945 1991 Language and Policy Language Policy and Linguistic Nationalism in the Republic of India and the Socialist Yugoslavia 1945 1991 Beitrage zur Sudasienforschung vol 192 in German Wurzburg Ergon p 200 ISBN 3 89913 253 X OCLC 51961066 Clyne Michael G ed 1992 Pluricentric Languages Differing Norms in Different Nations Contributions to the sociology of language 62 Berlin amp New York Mouton de Gruyter ISBN 3 11 012855 1 Clyne Michael G amp Kipp Sandra 1999 Pluricentric languages in an immigrant context Spanish Arabic and Chinese Berlin Mouton de Gruyter ISBN 3 11 016577 5 Danes Frantisek 1988 Herausbildung und Reform von Standardsprachen Development and Reform of Standard Languages In Ammon Ulrich Dittmar Norbert Mattheier Klaus J eds Sociolinguistics An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society II Handbucher zur Sprach und Kommunikationswissenschaft 3 2 Berlin amp New York Mouton de Gruyter pp 1506 1516 ISBN 3 11 011645 6 OCLC 639109991 Dua Hans Raj 1992 Hindi Urdu as a pluricentric language In Clyne Michael G ed Pluricentric Languages Differing Norms in Different Nations Contributions to the sociology of language 62 Berlin amp New York Mouton de Gruyter pp 381 400 ISBN 3 11 012855 1 OCLC 24668375 Kloss Heinz 1967 Abstand languages and ausbau languages Anthropological Linguistics 9 7 29 41 JSTOR 30029461 Kordic Snjezana 2009 Policentricni standardni jezik Polycentric Standard Language PDF In Badurina Lada Pranjkovic Ivo Silic Josip eds Jezicni varijeteti i nacionalni identiteti in Serbo Croatian Zagreb Disput pp 83 108 ISBN 978 953 260 054 4 OCLC 437306433 SSRN 3438216 CROSBI 426269 Archived PDF from the original on 4 August 2012 Retrieved 9 May 2018 ONB Stewart William A 1968 1962 A Sociolinguistic Typology for Describing National Multilingualism In Fishman Joshua A ed Readings in the Sociology of Language The Hague Paris Mouton pp 531 545 doi 10 1515 9783110805376 531 ISBN 978 3 11 080537 6 Further reading EditDollinger Stefan 2019 The Pluricentricity Debate On Austrian German and other Germanic Standard Varieties London Routledge ISBN 978 0 429 63179 5 Kircher Ruth 2012 How pluricentric is the French language An investigation of attitudes towards Quebec French compared to European French Journal of French Language Studies 22 3 345 370 doi 10 1017 S0959269512000014 S2CID 143695569 Louw Robertus de 2016 Is Dutch a pluricentric language with two centres of standardization An overview of the differences between Netherlandic and Belgian Dutch from a Flemish perspective Werkwinkel 11 1 113 135 doi 10 1515 werk 2016 0006 External links EditLanguage Attitudes and language conceptions in non dominating varieties of pluricentric languages by Rudolf Muhr International working group on Non Dominant Varieties of pluricentric languages Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Pluricentric language amp oldid 1138252280, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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