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Tajikistan

January 19, 2024

Tajikistan,[c][d] officially the Republic of Tajikistan,[e] is a landlocked country in Central Asia. It has an area of 142,326 km2 (54,952 sq mi) and an estimated population of 9,750,065 people.[13] Dushanbe is the country's capital and largest city. It is bordered by Afghanistan to the south, Uzbekistan to the west, Kyrgyzstan to the north, and China to the east. It is separated narrowly from Pakistan by Afghanistan's Wakhan Corridor. Tajiks form the ethnic majority in the country and their national language is Persian. Their dialect is closely related to the mutually intelligible dialects of Farsi and Dari of Iran and Afghanistan.[14]

Republic of Tajikistan
Ҷумҳурии Тоҷикистон (Tajik)
Jumhurii Tojikiston
Республика Таджикистан (Russian)
Respublika Tadzhikistan
Motto: Истиқлол, Озодӣ, Ватан (Tajik)
Istiqlol, Ozodí, Vatan
"Independence, Freedom, Homeland"
Anthem: Суруди Миллӣ (Tajik)
Surudi Milli
"National Anthem"
Location of Tajikistan (green)
Capital
and largest city
Dushanbe
38°33′N 68°48′E / 38.550°N 68.800°E / 38.550; 68.800
Official languages
Spoken languages
Ethnic groups
(2010[2])
Religion
(2020)[3][4]
Demonym(s)
GovernmentUnitary presidential republic under an authoritarian dictatorship[7]
• President
Emomali Rahmon
Kokhir Rasulzoda
LegislatureSupreme Assembly
• Upper house
National Assembly
• Lower house
Assembly of Representatives
Formation
24 August 1990
31 August 1991
9 September 1991
26 December 1991
6 November 1994
Area
• Total
142,326 km2 (54,952 sq mi) (94th)
• Water
2,575 km2 (994 sq mi)
• Water (%)
1.8
Population
• 1 Jan 2023 estimate
 10,077,600[8] (92th)
• Density
48.6/km2 (125.9/sq mi) (155th)
GDP (PPP)2023 estimate
• Total
 $53.679 billion[9] (119th)
• Per capita
 $5,360[9] (148th)
GDP (nominal)2023 estimate
• Total
 $11.816 billion[9] (151st)
• Per capita
 $1,180[9] (167th)
Gini (2015)34[10]
medium
HDI (2021) 0.685[11]
medium · 122nd
CurrencySomoni (TJS)
Time zoneUTC+5 (TJT)
Date formatdd.mm.yyyy
Driving sideright
Calling code+992
ISO 3166 codeTJ
Internet TLD.tj
  1. Russian has the status of an official language through its use as the official interethnic language as cited in the Constitution of Tajikistan.[12]

The territory that now constitutes Tajikistan was previously home to several ancient cultures of the Neolithic and the Bronze Age, including the city of Sarazm,[15] and was later home to kingdoms ruled by people of various faiths and cultures, including the Oxus civilization, Andronovo culture, Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, and Islam. The area has been ruled by numerous empires and dynasties, including the Achaemenid Empire, Sasanian Empire, Hephthalite Empire, Samanid Empire, and Mongol Empire. After being ruled by the Timurid Empire and Khanate of Bukhara, the Timurid Renaissance flourished. The region was later conquered by the Russian Empire and subsequently by the Soviet Union. Within the Soviet Union, the country's modern borders were drawn when it was part of Uzbekistan as an autonomous republic before becoming a full-fledged Soviet republic in 1929.[16]

On 9 September 1991, Tajikistan declared itself an independent sovereign nation as the Soviet Union was disintegrating. A civil war was fought almost immediately after independence, lasting from May 1992 to June 1997. Since the end of the war, newly established political stability and foreign aid have allowed the country's economy to grow. The country has been led by President Emomali Rahmon since 1994, who rules an authoritarian regime. There is extensive corruption and widespread violations of human rights, including torture, arbitrary imprisonment, worsening political repression, and a lack of religious freedom and other civil liberties.[17][18]

Tajikistan is a presidential republic consisting of four provinces. Most of Tajikistan's population belongs to the Tajik ethnic group,[19] who speak the Tajik language — the first official language — making it one of the three Persian-speaking countries alongside Afghanistan and Iran. Russian is used as the official inter-ethnic language. While the state is constitutionally secular, Islam is nominally adhered to by 96% of the population. In the Gorno-Badakhshan oblast, despite its sparse population, there is large linguistic diversity where Rushani, Shughni, Ishkashimi, Wakhi and Tajik are some of the languages spoken. Mountains cover more than 90% of the country. It is a developing country with a transitional economy that is highly dependent on remittances, aluminium and cotton production. Tajikistan is a member of the United Nations, CIS, OSCE, OIC, ECO, SCO, and CSTO as well as a NATO PfP partner.

Etymology edit

Main article: Tajik people

The term "Tajik" itself ultimately derives from the Middle Persian Tāzīk, the Turkic rendition of the Arabic ethnonym Ṭayyi’, denoting a large Qahtanite Arab tribe who emigrated to the Transoxiana region of Central Asia in the 7th century AD.[20] Tajikistan appeared as Tadjikistan or Tadzhikistan in English prior to 1991. This is due to a transliteration from the Russian: "Таджикистан". In Russian, there is no single letter "j" to represent the phoneme /d͡ʒ/, and therefore дж, or dzh, is used. Tadzhikistan is the most common alternate spelling and is widely used in English literature derived from Russian sources.[21][citation needed] "Tadjikistan" is the spelling in French and can occasionally be found in English language texts.[citation needed] The way of writing Tajikistan in the Perso-Arabic script is: تاجیکستان.

Even though the Library of Congress's 1997 Country Study of Tajikistan found it difficult to definitively state the origins of the word "Tajik" because the term is "embroiled in twentieth-century political disputes about whether Turkic or Iranian peoples were the original inhabitants of Central Asia,"[22] most scholars concluded that contemporary Tajiks are the descendants of the ancient Eastern Iranian inhabitants of Central Asia, in particular, the Sogdians and the Bactrians, and possibly other groups, with an admixture of Western Iranian Persians and non-Iranian peoples.[23][24] According to Richard Nelson Frye, a leading historian of Iranian and Central Asian history, the Persian emigration to Central Asia may be considered the beginning of the modern Tajik nation, and ethnic Persians, along with some elements of the Eastern Iranian Bactrians and Sogdians, as the main ancestors of the modern Tajiks.[25] In later works, Frye expands on the complexity of the historical origins of the Tajiks. In a 1996 publication, Frye explains that many "factors must be taken into account in explaining the evolution of the peoples whose remnants are the Tajiks in Central Asia" and that "the peoples of Central Asia, whether Iranian or Turkic speaking, have one culture, one religion, one set of social values and traditions with only language separating them."[26]

Regarding Tajiks, the Encyclopædia Britannica states:

The Tajiks are the direct descendants of the Iranian peoples whose continuous presence in Central Asia and northern Afghanistan is attested from the middle of the first millennium BC. The ancestors of the Tajiks constituted the core of the ancient population of Khwārezm (Khorezm) and Bactria, which formed part of Transoxania (Sogdiana). Over the course of time, the eastern Iranian dialect that was used by the ancient Tajiks eventually gave way to Farsi, a western dialect spoken in Iran and Afghanistan.[27]

History edit

Main article: History of Tajikistan

Early history edit

 
Ambassador to the Tang dynasty, coming from Kumedh (胡密丹), Tajikistan. Wanghuitu (王会图) circa 650 CE.[28][29]

Cultures in the region have been dated back to at least the fourth millennium BC, including the Bronze Age Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex, the Andronovo cultures and the pro-urban site of Sarazm, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[30]

The earliest recorded history of the region dates back to about 500 BC when much, if not all, of modern Tajikistan, was part of the Achaemenid Empire.[22] Some authors have also suggested that in the seventh and sixth centuries BC, parts of modern Tajikistan, including territories in the Zeravshan valley, formed part of the ancient Hindu Kambojas tribe[31][32] before it became part of the Achaemenid Empire.[33] After the region's conquest by Alexander the Great it became part of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, a successor state of Alexander's empire. Northern Tajikistan (the cities of Khujand and Panjakent) was part of Sogdia, a collection of city-states which was overrun by Scythians and Yuezhi nomadic tribes around 150 BC. The Silk Road passed through the region and following the expedition of Chinese explorer Zhang Qian during the reign of Wudi (141BC–87 BC) commercial relations between Han Empire and Sogdiana flourished.[34][35] Sogdians played a major role in facilitating trade and also worked in other capacities, as farmers, carpetweavers, glassmakers, and woodcarvers.[36]

The Kushan Empire, a collection of Yuezhi tribes, took control of the region in the first century AD and ruled until the fourth century AD during which time Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Manichaeism were all practised in the region.[37] Later the Hephthalite Empire, a collection of nomadic tribes, moved into the region and Arabs brought Islam in the early eighth century.[37] Central Asia continued in its role as a commercial crossroads, linking China, the steppes to the north, and the Islamic heartland.[citation needed]

 
The Samanid ruler Mansur I (961–976)
 
19th-century painting of lake Zorkul and a local Tajik inhabitant

It was briefly under the control of the Tibetan Empire and the Tang dynasty from 650 to 680 CE and then under the control of the Umayyads in 710 CE.

Samanid Empire edit

See also: Samanid Empire

The Samanid Empire, 819 to 999, restored Persian control of the region and enlarged the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara (both cities are today part of Uzbekistan) which became the cultural centers of Iran and the region was known as Khorasan. The empire was centered in Khorasan and Transoxiana; at its greatest extent encompassing modern-day Afghanistan, large parts of Iran, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, parts of Kazakhstan, and Pakistan. Four brothers Nuh, Ahmad, Yahya, and Ilyas founded the Samanid state. Each of them ruled territory under Abbasid suzerainty. In 892, Ismail Samani (892–907) united the Samanid state under one ruler, thus effectively putting an end to the feudal system used by the Samanids. It was also under him that the Samanids became independent of Abbasid authority. The Kara-Khanid Khanate conquered Transoxania (which corresponds approximately with modern-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, southern Kyrgyzstan, and southwest Kazakhstan) and ruled between 999 and 1211.[38][39] Their arrival in Transoxania signalled a definitive shift from Iranian to Turkic predominance in Central Asia,[40] but gradually the Kara-khanids became assimilated into the Perso-Arab Muslim culture of the region.[41]

In the 13th century, the Mongol Empire swept through Central Asia, invaded Khwarezmian Empire and sacked the cities, looting and massacring people everywhere. Turco-Mongol conqueror Tamerlane founded the Timurid Empire in and around modern-day Tajikistan and Central Asia, becoming the first ruler of the Timurid dynasty.[42]

Bukharan rule edit

See also: Khanate of Bukhara

Modern Tajikistan fell under the rule of the Khanate of Bukhara during the 16th century and with the empire's collapse in the 18th century it came under the rule of both the Emirate of Bukhara and Khanate of Kokand. The Emirate of Bukhara remained intact until the 20th century but during the 19th century, for the second time in world history, a European power (the Russian Empire) began to conquer parts of the region.[43]

Imperial Russia edit

See also: The Great Game, Russian conquest of Turkestan, and Russian Turkestan

Russian Imperialism led to the Russian Empire's conquest of Central Asia during the late 19th century's Imperial Era. Between 1864 and 1885, Russia gradually took control of the entire territory of Russian Turkestan, the Tajikistan portion of which had been controlled by the Emirate of Bukhara and Khanate of Kokand. Russia was interested in gaining access to a supply of cotton and in the 1870s attempted to switch cultivation in the region from grain to cotton (a strategy later copied and expanded by the Soviets).[44] By 1885 Tajikistan's territory was either ruled by the Russian Empire or its vassal state, the Emirate of Bukhara, nevertheless Tajiks felt little Russian influence.

During the late 19th century, the Jadidists established themselves as an Islamic social movement throughout the region. Although the Jadidists were pro-modernization and not necessarily anti-Russian, the Russians viewed the movement as a threat because the Russian Empire was predominantly Christian.[45] Russian troops were required to restore order during uprisings against the Khanate of Kokand between 1910 and 1913. Further violence occurred in July 1916 when demonstrators attacked Russian soldiers in Khujand over the threat of forced conscription during World War I. Despite Russian troops quickly bringing Khujand back under control, clashes continued throughout the year in various locations in Tajikistan. [46]

Soviet period edit

Main articles: Basmachi movement and Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic
 
Soviet negotiations with basmachi, 1921

After the Russian Revolution of 1917 guerrillas throughout Central Asia, known as basmachi, waged a war against Bolshevik armies in an attempt to maintain independence.[47] The Bolsheviks prevailed after a four-year war, in which mosques and villages were burned down and the population heavily suppressed. Soviet authorities started a campaign of secularisation. Practising Islam, Judaism, and Christianity was discouraged and repressed, and many mosques, churches, and synagogues were closed.[48] As a consequence of the conflict and Soviet agriculture policies, Central Asia, Tajikistan included, suffered a famine that claimed many lives.[49]

In 1924, the Tajikistan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was created as a part of Uzbekistan,[47] but in 1929 the Tajikistan Soviet Socialist Republic (Tajikistan SSR, Таджикская ССР) was made a separate constituent republic;[47] however, the predominantly ethnic Tajik cities of Samarkand and Bukhara remained in the Uzbek SSR. Between 1927 and 1934, collectivisation of agriculture and a rapid expansion of cotton production took place, especially in the southern region.[50] Soviet collectivisation policy brought violence against peasants and forced resettlement occurred throughout Tajikistan. Consequently, some peasants fought collectivization and revived the Basmachi movement. Some small scale industrial development also occurred during this time along with the expansion of irrigation infrastructure.[50]

 
Soviet Tajikistan in 1964

Two rounds of Stalin's purges (1927–1934 and 1937–1938) resulted in the expulsion of nearly 10,000 people, from all levels of the Communist Party of Tajikistan.[51] Ethnic Russians were sent in to replace those expelled and subsequently Russians dominated party positions at all levels, including the top position of first secretary.[51] Between 1926 and 1959 the proportion of Russians among Tajikistan's population grew from less than 1% to 13%.[52] Bobojon Ghafurov, First Secretary of the Communist Party of Tajikistan from 1946 to 1956, was the only Tajik politician of significance outside of the country during the Soviet Era.[53] He was followed in office by Tursun Uljabayev (1956–61), Jabbor Rasulov (1961–1982), and Rahmon Nabiyev (1982–1985, 1991–1992).

Tajiks began to be conscripted into the Soviet Army in 1939 and during World War II around 260,000 Tajik citizens fought against Germany, Finland and Japan. Between 60,000 (4%)[54] and 120,000 (8%)[55] of Tajikistan's 1,530,000 citizens were killed during World War II.[56] Following the war and Stalin's reign, attempts were made to further expand the agriculture and industry of Tajikistan.[53] During 1957–58 Nikita Khrushchev's Virgin Lands Campaign focused attention on Tajikistan, where living conditions, education and industry lagged behind the other Soviet Republics.[53] In the 1980s, Tajikistan had the lowest household saving rate in the USSR,[57] the lowest percentage of households in the two top per capita income groups,[58] and the lowest rate of university graduates per 1000 people.[59] By the late 1980s Tajik nationalists were calling for increased rights. Real disturbances did not occur within the republic until 1990. The following year, the Soviet Union collapsed, and Tajikistan declared its independence on 9 September 1991, a day which is now celebrated as the country's Independence Day.[60]

Independence edit

 
1990 Dushanbe riots
 
Tajik men and women rally on Ozodi square in Dushanbe shortly after independence, 1992.

After the beginning of the Perestroika era, declared by Mikhail Gorbachev throughout the USSR, supporters of the independence of the republics began to speak openly and freely. In Tajikistan SSR, the independence movement had been active since 1987. Supporters of independence were the Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan, the Democratic Party of Tajikistan and the national democratic Rastokhez (Revival) Movement. On the eve of the collapse of the USSR, the population of Tajikistan SSR was divided into two camps. The first wanted independence for Tajikistan, the restoration of Tajik culture and language, the restoration of political and cultural relations with Iran and Afghanistan and other countries, and the second part of the population opposed independence, considering it the best option to remain part of the USSR. During the 1991 Soviet Union Referendum (the first internationally observed referendum in the country's history) on continuing the Soviet system and the Soviet Union itself, nearly 97% of voters in Tajikistan approved of Question 1: "Do you consider it necessary to preserve the USSR as a renewed federation of equal sovereign republics, which will be fully ensured of human rights and freedoms of any nationality?", though by dissolution in December of the same year, a significant proportion of Tajikistan's population supported what was by then the fait accompli of independence for the union-level republics of the Soviet Union.

In February 1990, riots and strikes in Dushanbe and other cities began due to the difficult socio-economic situation, lack of housing, and youth unemployment.[47] The nationalist and democratic opposition and supporters of independence joined the strikes and began to demand the independence of the republic and democratic reforms. Islamists also began to hold strikes to demand respect for their rights and independence of the republic. The Soviet leadership introduced Internal Troops in Dushanbe to eliminate the unrest.[47]

Post-independence edit

See also: Tajikistani Civil War
 
Spetsnaz soldiers during the civil war, 1992

Almost immediately following independence, the nation fell into civil war among various factions; often distinguished by clan loyalties.[61] More than 500,000 residents fled during this time because of persecution, increased poverty and better economic opportunities in the West or in other former Soviet republics.[62] Emomali Rahmon came to power in 1992,[47] defeating former prime minister Abdumalik Abdullajanov in a November presidential election with 58% of the vote.[63] The elections took place shortly after the end of the war, and Tajikistan was in a state of complete devastation. The estimated dead numbered over 100,000. Around 1.2 million people were refugees inside and outside of the country.[61] In 1997, a ceasefire was reached between Rahmon and opposition parties under the guidance of Gerd D. Merrem,[47] Special Representative to the Secretary General, a result widely praised as a successful United Nations peacekeeping initiative. The ceasefire guaranteed 30% of ministerial positions would go to the opposition.[64] Elections were held in 1999, though they were criticised by opposition parties and foreign observers as unfair and Rahmon was re-elected with 98% of the vote.[47] Elections in 2006 were again won by Rahmon (with 79% of the vote) and he began his third term in office. Several opposition parties boycotted the 2006 election and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) criticised it, although observers from the Commonwealth of Independent States claimed the elections were legal and transparent.[65][66] Rahmon's administration came under further criticism from the OSCE in October 2010 for its censorship and repression of the media. The OSCE claimed that the Tajik Government censored Tajik and foreign websites and instituted tax inspections on independent printing houses that led to the cessation of printing activities for a number of independent newspapers.[67]

Russian border troops were stationed along the Tajik–Afghan border until summer 2005. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, French troops have been stationed at Dushanbe Airport in support of air operations of NATO's International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan. United States Army and Marine Corps personnel periodically visit Tajikistan to conduct joint training missions of up to several weeks duration. The Government of India rebuilt the Ayni Air Base, a military airport located 15 km southwest of Dushanbe, at a cost of $70 million, completing the repairs in September 2010.[68] It is now the main base of the Tajikistan air force. There have been talks with Russia concerning use of the Ayni facility,[69] and Russia continues to maintain a large base on the outskirts of Dushanbe.[70]

In 2010, there were concerns among Tajik officials that Islamic militarism in the east of the country was on the rise following the escape of 25 militants from a Tajik prison in August, an ambush that killed 28 Tajik soldiers in the Rasht Valley in September,[71] and another ambush in the valley in October that killed 30 soldiers,[72] followed by fighting outside Gharm that left 3 militants dead. To date the country's Interior Ministry asserts that the central government maintains full control over the country's east, and the military operation in the Rasht Valley was concluded in November 2010.[73] However, fighting erupted again in July 2012.[74] In 2015, Russia sent more troops to Tajikistan.[75]

In May 2015, Tajikistan's national security suffered a serious setback when Colonel Gulmurod Khalimov, commander of the special-purpose police unit (OMON) of the Interior Ministry, defected to the Islamic State.[47][76]

In 2021, following the Fall of Kabul, Tajikistan allegedly got involved in the Panjshir conflict against the Taliban on the side of the National Resistance Front of Afghanistan.[77][78]

In September 2022 armed clashes, including the use of artillery, erupted along much of the border between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.[79]

Politics edit

Main article: Politics of Tajikistan
See also: Elections in Tajikistan, Foreign relations of Tajikistan, Military of Tajikistan, Human rights in Tajikistan, Tajikistani Civil War, and Cabinet of Tajikistan
 
The Palace of Nations in Dushanbe

Almost immediately after independence, Tajikistan was plunged into a civil war that saw various factions fighting one another. These factions were supported by foreign countries including Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Uzbekistan and Russia. Russia and Iran focused on keeping peace in the warring nation to decrease the chances of U.S. or Turkish involvement. Most notably, Russia backed the pro-government faction and deployed troops from the Commonwealth of Independent States to guard the Tajikistan-Afghan border.[80] All but 25,000 of the more than 400,000 ethnic Russians, who were mostly employed in industry, fled to Russia. By 1997, the war had ended after a peace agreement between the government and the Islamist-led opposition, a central government began to take form, with peaceful elections in 1999.[81]

 
President of Tajikistan Emomali Rahmon has ruled the country since 1994.

"Longtime observers of Tajikistan often characterize the country as profoundly averse to risk and skeptical of promises of reform, a political passivity they trace to the country's ruinous civil war," Ilan Greenberg wrote in a news article in The New York Times just before the country's November 2006 presidential election.[82]

 
Supreme Assembly in Dushanbe.

Tajikistan is officially a republic, and holds elections for the presidency and parliament, operating under a presidential system. It is, however, a dominant-party system, where the People's Democratic Party of Tajikistan routinely has a vast majority in Parliament. Emomali Rahmon has held the office of President of Tajikistan continuously since November 1994. The Prime Minister is Kokhir Rasulzoda, the First Deputy Prime Minister is Matlubkhon Davlatov and the two Deputy Prime Ministers are Murodali Alimardon and Ruqiya Qurbanova.

The parliamentary elections of 2005 aroused many accusations from opposition parties and international observers that President Emomali Rahmon corruptly manipulates the election process and unemployment. The most recent elections, in February 2010, saw the ruling PDPT lose four seats in Parliament, yet still maintain a comfortable majority. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe election observers said the 2010 polling "failed to meet many key OSCE commitments" and that "these elections failed on many basic democratic standards."[83][84] The government insisted that only minor violations had occurred, which would not affect the will of the Tajik people.[83][84]

The Tajik government has reportedly clamped down on facial hair as part of a crackdown on Islamic influence and due to its perceived associations with Islamic extremism, which is prevalent in bordering Afghanistan.[85][86]

 
President of Tajikistan Emomali Rahmon with Russian president Vladimir Putin.

The presidential election held on 6 November 2006 was boycotted by "mainline" opposition parties, including the 23,000-member Islamic Renaissance Party. Four remaining opponents "all but endorsed the incumbent", Rahmon.[82]

Freedom of the press is ostensibly officially guaranteed by the government, but independent press outlets remain restricted, as does a substantial amount of web content.[87] According to the Institute for War & Peace Reporting, access is blocked to local and foreign websites including avesta.tj, Tjknews.com, centrasia.org and journalists are often obstructed from reporting on controversial events. In practice, no public criticism of the regime is tolerated and all direct protest is severely suppressed and does not receive coverage in the local media.[88]

In the Economist's democracy index report of 2020, Tajikistan is placed 160th, just after Saudi Arabia, as an "authoritarian regime".[89]

In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Tajikistan, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs in the Xinjiang region.[90]

In October 2020, Tajikistan's authoritarian President Emomali Rahmon was re-elected for another seven-year period with 90 per cent of the votes, following a tightly controlled and largely ceremonial election.[91]

In late April 2021, a conflict over water with Kyrgyzstan escalated into one of the most serious border clashes between the two countries since independence.[92][93]

In July 2021, Tajikistan appealed to members of a Russian-led Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) of ex-Soviet states for help in dealing with security challenges emerging from neighboring Afghanistan.[94] The safety concerns emerged as foreign troops such as the US and British army exited the country, causing over 1,000 Afghan civilians and servicemen to flee to neighboring Tajikistan after Taliban insurgents took control of many parts of Afghanistan.[95]

Geography edit

Main article: Geography of Tajikistan
 
Satellite photograph of Tajikistan
 
Tajikistan map of Köppen climate classification

Tajikistan is landlocked, and is the smallest nation in Central Asia by area. It lies mostly between latitudes 36° and 41° N, and longitudes 67° and 75° E. It is covered by mountains of the Pamir range, and most of the country is over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) above sea level. The only major areas of lower land are in the north (part of the Fergana Valley), and in the southern Kofarnihon and Vakhsh river valleys, which form the Amu Darya. Dushanbe is located on the southern slopes above the Kofarnihon valley.

Mountain Height Location
Ismoil Somoni Peak (highest) 7,495 m 24,590 ft     North-western edge of Gorno-Badakhshan (GBAO), south of the Kyrgyz border
Ibn Sina Peak (Lenin Peak) 7,134 m 23,537 ft     Northern border in the Trans-Alay Range, north-east of Ismoil Somoni Peak
Peak Korzhenevskaya 7,105 m 23,310 ft     North of Ismoil Somoni Peak, on the south bank of Muksu River
Independence Peak (Revolution Peak) 6,974 m 22,881 ft     Central Gorno-Badakhshan, south-east of Ismoil Somoni Peak
Academy of Sciences Range 6,785 m 22,260 ft     North-western Gorno-Badakhshan, stretches in the north–south direction
Karl Marx Peak 6,726 m 22,067 ft     GBAO, near the border to Afghanistan in the northern ridge of the Karakoram Range
Garmo Peak 6,595 m 21,637 ft     Northwestern Gorno-Badakhshan.
Mayakovskiy Peak 6,096 m 20,000 ft     Extreme south-west of GBAO, near the border to Afghanistan.
Concord Peak 5,469 m 17,943 ft     Southern border in the northern ridge of the Karakoram Range
Kyzylart Pass 4,280 m 14,042 ft     Northern border in the Trans-Alay Range

The Amu Darya and Panj rivers mark the border with Afghanistan, and the glaciers in Tajikistan's mountains are the major source of runoff for the Aral Sea. There are over 900 rivers in Tajikistan longer than 10 kilometres.

Administrative divisions edit

Main articles: Regions of Tajikistan and Districts of Tajikistan
 Sughd ProvinceDistricts of Republican SubordinationKhatlon ProvinceGorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province
A clickable map of Tajikistan exhibiting its four provinces.
 
Mountains of Tajikistan

Tajikistan consists of four administrative divisions. These are the provinces (viloyat) of Sughd and Khatlon, the autonomous province of Gorno-Badakhshan (abbreviated as GBAO), and the Region of Republican Subordination (RRP – Raiony Respublikanskogo Podchineniya in transliteration from Russian or NTJ – Ноҳияҳои тобеи ҷумҳурӣ [Nohiyahoi tobei jumhurii] in Tajik; formerly known as Karotegin Province). Each region is divided into several districts (Tajik: Ноҳия, nohiya or raion), which in turn are subdivided into jamoats (village-level self-governing units) and then villages (qyshloqs). As of 2006, there were 58 districts and 367 jamoats in Tajikistan.[96]

Division ISO 3166-2 Map No Capital Area (km2)[96] Pop. (2019)[97]
Sughd TJ-SU 1 Khujand 25,400 2,658,400
Region of Republican Subordination TJ-RR 2 Dushanbe 28,600 2,122,000
Khatlon TJ-KT 3 Bokhtar　 24,800 3,274,900
Gorno-Badakhshan TJ-GB 4 Khorugh 64,200 226,900
Dushanbe Dushanbe 124.6 846,400

Lakes edit

 
Karakul lake

About 2% of the country's area is covered by lakes, the best known of which are the following:

Biodiversity edit

Tajikistan contains five terrestrial ecoregions: Alai-Western Tian Shan steppe, Gissaro-Alai open woodlands, Pamir alpine desert and tundra, Badghyz and Karabil semi-desert, and Paropamisus xeric woodlands.[98]

Economy edit

Main article: Economy of Tajikistan
See also: Agriculture in Tajikistan
 
A Tajik dry fruit seller

In 2019, nearly 29% of Tajikistan's GDP came from immigrant remittances (mostly from Tajiks working in Russia), one of the highest rates in the world.[99][100][101] The current economic situation remains fragile, largely owing to corruption, uneven economic reforms, and economic mismanagement. With foreign revenue precariously dependent upon remittances from migrant workers overseas and exports of aluminium and cotton, the economy is highly vulnerable to external shocks. In fiscal year 2000, international assistance remained an essential source of support for rehabilitation programs that reintegrated former civil war combatants into the civilian economy, which helped keep the peace. International assistance also was necessary to address the second year of severe drought that resulted in a continued shortfall of food production. On 21 August 2001, the Red Cross announced that a famine was striking Tajikistan, and called for international aid for Tajikistan and Uzbekistan;[102] however, access to food remains a problem today. In January 2012, 680,152 of the people living in Tajikistan were living with food insecurity. Out of those, 676,852 were at risk of Phase 3 (Acute Food and Livelihoods Crisis) food insecurity, and 3,300 were at risk of Phase 4 (Humanitarian Emergency). Those with the highest risk of food insecurity were living in the remote Murghob District of GBAO.[103]

 
The TadAZ aluminium smelting plant, in Tursunzoda, is the largest aluminium manufacturing plant in Central Asia, and Tajikistan's chief industrial asset.

Tajikistan's economy grew substantially after the war. The GDP of Tajikistan expanded at an average rate of 9.6% over the period of 2000–2007 according to the World Bank data. This improved Tajikistan's position among other Central Asian countries (namely Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan), which seem to have degraded economically ever since.[104] The primary sources of income in Tajikistan are aluminium production, cotton growing and remittances from migrant workers.[105] Cotton accounts for 60% of agricultural output, supporting 75% of the rural population, and using 45% of irrigated arable land.[106] The aluminium industry is represented by the state-owned Tajik Aluminum Company – the biggest aluminium plant in Central Asia and one of the biggest in the world.[107]

 
Real GDP per capita development of Tajikistan

Tajikistan's rivers, such as the Vakhsh and the Panj, have great hydropower potential, and the government has focused on attracting investment for projects for internal use and electricity exports. Tajikistan is home to the Nurek Dam, the second highest dam in the world.[108] Lately, Russia's RAO UES energy giant has been working on the Sangtuda-1 hydroelectric power station (670 MW capacity) commenced operations on 18 January 2008.[109][110] Other projects at the development stage include Sangtuda-2 by Iran, Zerafshan by the Chinese company SinoHydro, and the Rogun power plant that, at a projected height of 335 metres (1,099 ft), would supersede the Nurek Dam as highest in the world if it is brought to completion.[111][112] A planned project, CASA-1000, will transmit 1000 MW of surplus electricity from Tajikistan to Pakistan with power transit through Afghanistan. The total length of transmission line is 750 km while the project is planned to be on Public-Private Partnership basis with the support of WB, IFC, ADB and IDB. The project cost is estimated to be around US$865 million.[113] Other energy resources include sizeable coal deposits and smaller, relatively unexplored reserves of natural gas and petroleum.[114]

In 2014 Tajikistan was the world's most remittance-dependent economy with remittances accounting for 49% of GDP and expected to fall by 40% in 2015 due to the economic crisis in the Russian Federation.[115] Tajik migrant workers abroad, mainly in the Russian Federation, have become by far the main source of income for millions of Tajikistan's people[116] and with the 2014–2015 downturn in the Russian economy the World Bank has predicted large numbers of young Tajik men will return home and face few economic prospects.[115]

According to some estimates about 20% of the population lives on less than US$1.25 per day.[117] Migration from Tajikistan and the consequent remittances have been unprecedented in their magnitude and economic impact. In 2010, remittances from Tajik labour migrants totalled an estimated $2.1 billion US dollars, an increase from 2009. Tajikistan has achieved transition from a planned to a market economy without substantial and protracted recourse to aid (of which it by now receives only negligible amounts), and by purely market-based means, simply by exporting its main commodity of comparative advantage — cheap labour.[118] The World Bank Tajikistan Policy Note 2006 concludes that remittances have played an important role as one of the drivers of Tajikistan's economic growth during the past several years, have increased incomes, and as a result helped significantly reduce poverty.[119]

Drug trafficking is the major illegal source of income in Tajikistan[120] as it is an important transit country for Afghan narcotics bound for Russian and, to a lesser extent, Western European markets; some opium poppy is also raised locally for the domestic market.[121] However, with the increasing assistance from international organisations, such as UNODC, and co-operation with the US, Russian, EU and Afghan authorities a level of progress on the fight against illegal drug-trafficking is being achieved.[122] Tajikistan holds third place in the world for heroin and raw opium confiscations (1216.3 kg of heroin and 267.8 kg of raw opium in the first half of 2006).[123][124] Drug money corrupts the country's government; according to some experts the well-known personalities that fought on both sides of the civil war and have held the positions in the government after the armistice was signed are now involved in the drug trade.[121] UNODC is working with Tajikistan to strengthen border crossings, provide training, and set up joint interdiction teams. It also helped to establish Tajikistani Drug Control Agency.[125] Tajikistan is also an active member of the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO).

Besides Russia, China is one of the major economic and trade partners of Dushanbe. Tajikistan belongs to the group of countries associated with Chinese investment within the Belt and Road Initiative.[126]

Transportation edit

Main article: Transport in Tajikistan

In 2013 Tajikistan, like many of the other Central Asian countries, was experiencing major development in its transportation sector.

As a landlocked country, Tajikistan has no ports and the majority of transportation is via roads, air, and rail. In recent years Tajikistan has pursued agreements with Iran and Pakistan to gain port access in those countries via Afghanistan. In 2009, an agreement was made between Tajikistan, Pakistan, and Afghanistan to improve and build a 1,300 km (810 mi) highway and rail system connecting the three countries to Pakistan's ports. The proposed route would go through the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province in the eastern part of the country.[127] And in 2012, the presidents of Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Iran signed an agreement to construct roads and railways as well as oil, gas, and water pipelines to connect the three countries.[128]

Rail edit

Main article: Rail transport in Tajikistan

The railroad system totals only 680 kilometres (420 mi) of track,[123] all of it 1,520 mm (4 ft 11+27⁄32 in) broad gauge. The principal segments are in the southern region and connect the capital with the industrial areas of the Hisor and Vakhsh valleys and with Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and Russia.[129] Most international freight traffic is carried by train.[130] The recently constructed Bokhtar–Kulob railway connected the Kulob District with the central area of the country.[130]

Air edit

In 2009 Tajikistan had 26 airports, 18 of which had paved runways, of which two had runways longer than 3,000 meters.[123] The country's main airport is Dushanbe International Airport, which as of April 2015 had regularly scheduled flights to major cities in Russia, Central Asia, as well as Delhi, Dubai, Frankfurt, Istanbul, Kabul, Tehran, and Ürümqi, amongst others. There are also international flights, mainly to Russia, from Khujand Airport in the northern part of the country as well as limited international services from Kulob Airport, and Bokhtar International Airport. Khorog Airport is a domestic airport and also the only airport in the sparsely populated eastern half of the country.

Tajikistan has one major airline (Somon Air) and is also serviced by over a dozen foreign airlines.

Roads edit

The total length of roads in the country is 27,800 kilometres. Automobiles account for more than 90% of the total volume of passenger transportation and more than 80% of domestic freight transportation.[130] Opel passenger cars are most popular.[citation needed]

In 2004 the Tajik–Afghan Friendship Bridge between Afghanistan and Tajikistan was built, improving the country's access to South Asia. The bridge was built by the United States.[131]

As of 2014 many highway and tunnel construction projects are underway or have recently been completed. Major projects include rehabilitation of the Dushanbe – Chanak (Uzbek border), Dushanbe – Kulma (Chinese border), and Kurgan-Tube – Nizhny Pyanj (Afghan border) highways, and construction of tunnels under the mountain passes of Anzob, Shakhristan, Shar-Shar[132] and Chormaghzak.[133] These were supported by international donor countries.[130][134]

Demographics edit

Main article: Demographics of Tajikistan
 
Largest cities or towns in Tajikistan
Tajikistan Statistics Agency
Rank Name Region Pop.
 
Dushanbe
 
Khujand 		1 Dushanbe Dushanbe 1,201,800  
Bokhtar
 
Kulob
2 Khujand Sughd 198,700
3 Bokhtar Khatlon 126,700
4 Kulob Khatlon 105,800
5 Istaravshan Sughd 64,300
6 Tursunzoda Districts of Republican Subordination 57,800
7 Isfara Sughd 54,900
8 Vahdat Districts of Republican Subordination 54,400
9 Konibodom Sughd 54,400
10 Panjakent Sughd 43,800
 
Tajikistan: trends in its Human Development Index indicator 1970–2010
Population in Tajikistan[135][136][137]
Year Million
1926 0.83
1950 1.5
2000 6.2
2021 9.8
 
Group of Tajik women

In 2021, Tajikistan was estimated to have a population of 9,749,625 as per the World Bank data.[13] The Tajiks who speak Tajik (a dialect of Persian) are the main ethnic group, although there are sizeable minorities of Uzbeks and Russians, whose numbers are declining due to emigration.[138] The Pamiris of Badakhshan, a small population of Yaghnobi people, and a sizeable minority of Ismailis are all considered to belong to the larger group of Tajiks. All citizens of Tajikistan are called Tajikistanis.[123]

 
Nowruz celebrations in Tajikistan

In 1989, ethnic Russians in Tajikistan made up 7.6% of the population; by 1998 the proportion had reduced to approximately 0.5% following the Tajikistani Civil War which had displaced the majority of ethnic Russians. Following the end of the war, Russian emigration continued.[139] The ethnic German population of Tajikistan has also declined due to emigration: having topped at 38,853 in 1979, it has almost vanished since the collapse of the Soviet Union.[140]

The Tajiks are the principal ethnic group in most of Tajikistan, as well as in northern and western Afghanistan,[141] and there are more Tajiks in Afghanistan than in Tajikistan. Tajiks are a substantial minority in Uzbekistan.[142] More than 3 million Tajik citizens were officially registered in Russia in 2021.[143]

Languages edit

Main articles: Languages of Tajikistan, Tajikistani Russian, and Russian_dialects § Tajikistani_Russian

The two official languages of Tajikistan are Tajik as the state language and Russian as the interethnic language, as understood in Article 2 of the Constitution: "The state language of Tajikistan shall be Tajik. Russian shall be the language of international communication."[144]

The state (national) language (Tajik: забони давлатӣ, Russian: государственный язык) of the Republic of Tajikistan is Tajik, which is written in the Tajik Cyrillic alphabet. Several linguists recognise the fact that the Tajik language is a variant of the Persian language (or Farsi). Therefore, Tajik speakers have no problems communicating with Persian speakers from Iran and Dari speakers from Afghanistan. Several million native Tajik speakers also live in neighboring Uzbekistan and in Russia.[145]

According to article 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of Tajikistan,[144] Russian is recognized as the second official language of Tajikistan; the official language of inter-ethnic communication (Russian: язык межнационального общения; Tajik: забони муоширати байни миллатҳо) in the country.[146][147] Russian had previously lost its official status after Tajikistan's independence in late 1991, which was then restored with the Constitution.

Approximately 90% of the population of Tajikistan speaks Russian at various levels. The varieties of Russian spoken in Tajikistan are referred to by scholars as Tajik(istani) Russian[148] and it shares some similarities with Uzbek(istani) Russian, such as morphological differences and the lexical differences like the use of words урюк[149] for a wild apricot or кислушка for rhubarb.[150] Previously, from the creation of the Tajikistan SSR until Tajik became the official language of the Tajikistan Soviet Socialist Republic on July 22, 1989, the only official language of the republic was the Russian language, and the Tajik language had only the status of the "national language".

Both Russian and Tajik speakers in the country use the following words in common in address to unfamiliar people and acquaintances.[151]

Words of familial relation
Tajikistani Russian Standard Russian English translation
апа старшая сестра older sister
ака старший брат older brother
хола тетя aunt
янга жена брата, невестка daughter-in-law; sister-in-law

The highly educated part of the population of Tajikistan, as well as the intelligentsia, prefer to speak Russian and Persian, the pronunciation of which in Tajikistan is called the "Iranian style".[152][146][147]

Apart from Russian, Uzbek is actually the second most widely spoken language in Tajikistan after Tajik. Native Uzbek speakers live in the north and west of Tajikistan. In fourth place (after Tajik, Russian and Uzbek) by number of native speakers are various Pamir languages, whose native speakers live in Kuhistani Badakshshan Autonomous Region. The majority of Zoroastrians in Tajikistan speak one of the Pamir languages. Native speakers of the Kyrgyz language live in the north of Kuhistani Badakshshan Autonomous Region. Yagnobi language speakers live in the west of the country. The Parya language of local Romani people (Central Asian Gypsies) is also widely spoken in Tajikistan. Tajikistan also has small communities of native speakers of Persian, Arabic, Pashto, Armenian, Azerbaijani, Tatar, Turkmen, Kazakh, Chinese, Ukrainian.[153]

Among foreign languages, the most popular is English, which is taught in schools in Tajikistan as one of the foreign languages. Some young people, as well as those working in the tourism sector of Tajikistan, speak English at different levels. Of the European languages, there are also a number of native speakers of German[citation needed] and French[citation needed]. Many among the Uzbek population learn Turkish in addition to Russian.

Employment edit

In 2009 nearly one million Tajiks worked abroad (mainly in Russia).[154] More than 70% of the female population lives in traditional villages.[155]

Religion edit

Main article: Religion in Tajikistan
See also: Freedom of religion in Tajikistan and Islam in Tajikistan
Religion in Tajikistan, 2010[4][156]
Religion Percent
Islam
 
 96.7%
Christianity
 
 1.6%
Unaffiliated
 
 1.5%
others
 
 0.2%
 
A mosque in Isfara, Tajikistan

Tajikistan considers itself a secular state with a constitution providing for freedom of religion.[157] Sunni Islam of the Hanafi school has been officially recognised by the government since 2009.[158] The government has declared two Islamic holidays, Eid ul-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, as state holidays. According to a US State Department release and Pew research group, the population of Tajikistan is 98% Muslim. Approximately 87–95% of them are Sunni and roughly 3% are Shia and roughly 7% are non-denominational Muslims.[159][160] The Shia part of the population predominantly live in the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region, and are followers of the Ismailite branch of Shia Islam.[161] The remaining 2% of the population are followers of Russian Orthodoxy, Protestantism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism. Many Muslims fast during Ramadan, although only about one third in the countryside and 10% in the cities observe daily prayer and dietary restrictions.[162]

Bukharan Jews had lived in Tajikistan since the second century BC, but today almost none are left. In the 1940s, the Jewish community of Tajikistan numbered nearly 30,000 people. Most were Persian-speaking Bukharan Jews who had lived in the region for millennia along with Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe who resettled there in the Soviet era. The Jewish population is now estimated at less than 500, about half of whom live in Dushanbe.[163]

Relationships between religious groups are generally amicable, although there is some concern among mainstream Muslim leaders[who?] that minority religious groups undermine national unity. There is a concern for religious institutions becoming active in the political sphere. The Islamic Renaissance Party (IRP), a major combatant in the 1992–1997 Civil War and then-proponent of the creation of an Islamic state in Tajikistan, constitutes no more than 30% of the government by statute. Membership in Hizb ut-Tahrir, a militant Islamic party which today aims for an overthrow of secular governments and the unification of Tajiks under one Islamic state, is illegal and members are subject to arrest and imprisonment.[164] Numbers of large mosques appropriate for Friday prayers are limited and some[who?] feel this is discriminatory.

By law, religious communities must register by the State Committee on Religious Affairs (SCRA) and with local authorities. Registration with the SCRA requires a charter, a list of 10 or more members, and evidence of local government approval prayer site location. Religious groups that do not have a physical structure are not allowed to gather publicly for prayer. Failure to register can result in large fines and closure of a place of worship. There are reports that registration on the local level is sometimes difficult to obtain.[165] People under the age of 18 are also barred from public religious practice.[166]

As of January 2016, as part of an "anti-radicalisation campaign", police in the Khatlon region reportedly shaved the beards of 13,000 men and shut down 160 shops selling the hijab. Shaving beards and discouraging women from wearing hijabs is part of a government campaign targeting trends that are deemed "alien and inconsistent with Tajik culture", and "to preserve secular traditions".[167]

Today, approximately 1.6% of the population in Tajikistan is Christian, mostly Orthodox Christians.[4][156] The territory of Tajikistan is part of the Dushanbe and Tajikistan Diocese of the Central Asian Metropolitan District of the Russian Orthodox Moscow Patriarchate. The country is also home to communities of Catholics, Armenian Christians, Protestants, Lutherans, Jehovah's Witnesses, Baptists, Mormons, and Adventists.[168]

Health edit

Main article: Health in Tajikistan
 
A hospital in Dushanbe

Despite repeated efforts by the Tajik government to improve and expand health care, the system remains among the most underdeveloped and poor, with severe shortages of medical supplies. The state's Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare reported that 104,272 disabled people are registered in Tajikistan (2000). This group of people suffers most from poverty in Tajikistan. The government of Tajikistan and the World Bank considered activities to support this part of the population described in the World Bank's Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper.[169] Public expenditure on health was at 1% of the GDP in 2004.[170]

Life expectancy at birth was estimated to be 69 years in 2020.[171] The infant mortality rate was approximately 30.42 deaths per 1,000 children in 2018.[172] In 2014, there were 2.1 physicians per 1,000 people, higher than any other low-income country after North Korea.[173]

Tajikistan has experienced a sharp decrease in number of per capita hospital beds following the dissolution of the USSR (since 1992), even though the number still remains relatively at 4.8 beds per 1,000 people, well above the world average of 2.7 and one of the highest among other low-income countries.[174]

According to World Bank, 96% of births are attended by skilled health staff, a figure which has risen from 66.6% in 1999.[175]

In 2010 the country experienced an outbreak of polio that caused more than 457 cases of polio in both children and adults and resulted in 29 deaths before being brought under control.[176]

In the summer of 2021 coronavirus ravaged the country, and the Tajik president's sister reportedly died in a hospital of COVID-19. According to local media, the president's sister's sons physically assaulted the health minister and a senior doctor.[177]

Education edit

Main article: Education in Tajikistan
 
Tajik National University in Dushanbe

Despite its poverty, Tajikistan has a high rate of literacy due to the old Soviet system of free education, with an estimated 99.8%[178] of the population having the ability to read and write.[123]

Public education in Tajikistan consists of 11 years of primary and secondary education but the government planned to implement a 12-year system in 2016.[179] There is a relatively large number of tertiary education institutions including Khujand State University which has 76 departments in 15 faculties,[179] Tajikistan State University of Law, Business, & Politics, Khorugh State University, Agricultural University of Tajikistan, Tajik National University, and several other institutions. Most, but not all, universities were established during the Soviet Era. As of 2008 tertiary education enrollment was 17%, significantly below the sub-regional average of 37%,[180] although higher than any other low-income country after Syria.[181] Many Tajiks left the education system due to low demand in the labour market for people with extensive educational training or professional skills.[180]

Public spending on education was relatively constant between 2005–2012 and fluctuated from 3.5% to 4.1% of GDP[182] significantly below the OECD average of 6%.[180] The United Nations reported that the level of spending was "severely inadequate to meet the requirements of the country's high-needs education system."[180]

According to a UNICEF-supported survey, about 25 percent of girls in Tajikistan fail to complete compulsory primary education because of poverty and gender bias,[183] although literacy is generally high in Tajikistan.[170] Estimates of out of school children range from 4.6% to 19.4% with the vast majority being girls.[180]

In September 2017, the University of Central Asia launched its second campus in Khorog, Tajikistan, offering majors in Earth & Environmental Sciences and Economics.[184] Tajikistan was ranked 111rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[185][186]

Science on the territory of Tajikistan achieved great success already in the Middle Ages, but the current scientific organizations were created in the Soviet period. During the period of independence, the scientific sphere experienced a severe crisis: the annual number of patent applications for inventions decreased in 1994-2011 from 193 to 5.[187] A significant contribution to science is made by universities, where in 2011 6707 researchers worked, of which 2450 had academic degrees.[188]

Culture edit

Main article: Culture of Tajikistan
See also: Music of Tajikistan, Tajik literature, Public holidays in Tajikistan, Tajik cuisine, and Telecommunications in Tajikistan
 
Tajik traditional dress

The Tajik language is the mother tongue of around 80% of the citizens of Tajikistan. The main urban centers in today's Tajikistan include Dushanbe (the capital), Khujand, Kulob, Panjakent, Bokhtar, Khorugh and Istaravshan. There are also Uzbek, Kyrgyz and Russian minorities.[189]

The Pamiri people of Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province in the southeast, bordering Afghanistan and China, though considered part of the Tajik ethnicity, nevertheless are distinct linguistically and culturally from most Tajiks. In contrast to the mostly Sunni Muslim residents of the rest of Tajikistan, the Pamiris overwhelmingly follow the Ismaili branch of Shia Islam, and speak a number of Eastern Iranian languages, including Shughni, Rushani, Khufi and Wakhi. Isolated in the highest parts of the Pamir Mountains, they have preserved many ancient cultural traditions and folk arts that have been largely lost elsewhere in the country.

The Yaghnobi people live in mountainous areas of northern Tajikistan. The estimated number of Yaghnobis is now about 25,000. Forced migrations in the 20th century decimated their numbers. They speak the Yaghnobi language, which is the only direct modern descendant of the ancient Sogdian language.[190]

Tajikistan artisans created the Dushanbe Tea House, which was presented in 1988 as a gift to the sister city of Boulder, Colorado.[191]

In the country, especially among women from the indigenous population, the wearing traditional national clothing is preserved. The seamstresses and embroiderers of various regions of Tajikistan use modern factory fabrics and local needlework embroidery for home decoration and women's clothing. The practice of Chakan embroidery is preserved among women in certain areas, passing the knowledge down from one generation to the next.[192] Men mainly carry the factory clothing of European style. Some men wear upper national clothes — Jom (Taj. Ҷom), and hats — Tubetsey (Taj. Tқиi).

Sport edit

The national sport of Tajikistan is gushtigiri, a form of traditional wrestling.[193][194]

Another popular sport is buzkashi, a game played on horseback, like polo. Buzkashi may be played as an individual sport and as a team sport. The aim of the game is to grab a 50 kg dead goat, ride clear of the other players, get back to the starting point and drop it in a designated circle. It is also practised in Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. It is often played at Nowruz celebrations.[195]

 
Tajikistan is a popular destination amongst mountaineers. 1982 expedition to Tartu Ülikool 350.

Tajikistan's mountains provide many opportunities for outdoor sports, such as hill-climbing, mountain biking, rock climbing, skiing, snowboarding, hiking, and mountain climbing. The facilities are limited, however. Mountain climbing and hiking tours to the Fann and Pamir Mountains, including the 7,000 m peaks in the region, are seasonally organised by local and international alpine agencies.

Football is the most popular sport in Tajikistan. It is governed by the Tajikistan Football Federation. The Tajikistan national football team competes in FIFA and AFC competitions. The top clubs in Tajikistan compete in the Tajik League.[196][193]

The Tajikistan Cricket Federation was formed in 2012 as the governing body for the sport of cricket in Tajikistan. It was granted affiliate membership of the Asian Cricket Council in the same year.[197]

Rugby union in Tajikistan is a minor but growing sport.[196] In 2008, the sport was officially registered with the Ministry of Justice, and there are currently 3 men's clubs.[198]

Four Tajikistani athletes have won Olympic medals for their country since independence. They are: wrestler Yusup Abdusalomov (silver in Beijing 2008), judoka Rasul Boqiev (bronze in Beijing 2008), boxer Mavzuna Chorieva (bronze in London 2012) and hammer thrower Dilshod Nazarov (gold in Rio de Janeiro 2016).

Khorugh, capital of Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region, is the location of highest altitude where bandy has been played.[199]

Tajikistan has also one ski resort, called Safed Dara (formerly Takob), near the town of Varzob.[200]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ Includes ethnic Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.
  2. ^ Includes ethnic Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.
  3. ^ /tɑːˈdʒiːkɪstɑːn/ ⓘ, /tə-, tæ-/
  4. ^ Tajik: Тоҷикистон, romanized: Tojikiston, pronounced [tʰɔːdʒikʰɪsˈtʰɔːn]; Russian: Таджикистан, romanized: Tadzhikistan, pronounced [tədʐɨkʲɪˈstan]
  5. ^ Tajik: Ҷумҳурии Тоҷикистон, romanized: Jumhurii Tojikiston, pronounced [dʒʊmhʊˈɾijɪ tʰɔdʒɪkʰɪsˈtʰɔn]

References edit

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Further reading edit

See also: Bibliography of the history of Central Asia
  • Kamoludin Abdullaev and Shahram Akbarzadeh, Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan, 3rd. ed., Rowman & Littlefield, 2018.
  • Shirin Akiner, Mohammad-Reza Djalili and Frederic Grare, eds., Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence, Routledge, 1998.
  • Richard Foltz, A History of the Tajiks: Iranians of the East, London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2019.
  • Robert Middleton, Huw Thomas and Markus Hauser, Tajikistan and the High Pamirs, Hong Kong: Odyssey Books, 2008 (ISBN 978-9-622177-73-4).
  • Nahaylo, Bohdan and Victor Swoboda. Soviet Disunion: A History of the Nationalities problem in the USSR (1990) excerpt
  • Kirill Nourdhzanov and Christian Blauer, Tajikistan: A Political and Social History, Canberra: ANU E-Press, 2013.
  • Rashid, Ahmed. The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism? (2017)
  • Smith, Graham, ed. The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union (2nd ed. 1995)
  • Monica Whitlock, Land Beyond the River: The Untold Story of Central Asia, New York: St. Martin's Press, 2003.
  • Poopak NikTalab. Sarve Samarghand (Cedar of Samarkand), continuous interpretation of Rudaki's poems, Tehran 2020, Faradid Publications {Introduction}
  • Sharma, Raj Kumar, "Food Security and Political Stability in Tajikistan", New Delhi, Vij Books, 2018.

External links edit

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tajikistan, officially, republic, landlocked, country, central, asia, area, estimated, population, people, dushanbe, country, capital, largest, city, bordered, afghanistan, south, uzbekistan, west, kyrgyzstan, north, china, east, separated, narrowly, from, pak. Tajikistan c d officially the Republic of Tajikistan e is a landlocked country in Central Asia It has an area of 142 326 km2 54 952 sq mi and an estimated population of 9 750 065 people 13 Dushanbe is the country s capital and largest city It is bordered by Afghanistan to the south Uzbekistan to the west Kyrgyzstan to the north and China to the east It is separated narrowly from Pakistan by Afghanistan s Wakhan Corridor Tajiks form the ethnic majority in the country and their national language is Persian Their dialect is closely related to the mutually intelligible dialects of Farsi and Dari of Iran and Afghanistan 14 Republic of TajikistanҶumҳurii Toҷikiston Tajik Jumhurii TojikistonRespublika Tadzhikistan Russian Respublika TadzhikistanFlag EmblemMotto Istiklol Ozodӣ Vatan Tajik Istiqlol Ozodi Vatan Independence Freedom Homeland Anthem Surudi Millӣ Tajik Surudi Milli National Anthem source source source track track track Location of Tajikistan green Capitaland largest cityDushanbe38 33 N 68 48 E 38 550 N 68 800 E 38 550 68 800Official languagesTajik language national Russian interethnic 1 Spoken languagesTajik languageRussian a UzbekKyrgyzTurkmenShughniRushaniYaghnobiBartangiSanglechi IshkashimiCentral Asian ArabicParyaBukhoriTatarWakhiothersEthnic groups 2010 2 84 3 Tajiks12 2 Uzbeks0 8 Kyrgyz0 4 Pamiris0 5 East Slavs b 2 2 OthersReligion 2020 3 4 96 4 Islam 96 Hanafi Sunni 0 4 Nizari Shia 1 8 Christianity 1 5 Irreligion 0 3 OthersDemonym s Tajikistani 5 Tajik 6 GovernmentUnitary presidential republic under an authoritarian dictatorship 7 PresidentEmomali Rahmon Prime MinisterKokhir RasulzodaLegislatureSupreme Assembly Upper houseNational Assembly Lower houseAssembly of RepresentativesFormation Sovereignty declared24 August 1990 Republic of Tajikistan declared31 August 1991 Independence declared from USSR9 September 1991 Independence recognized26 December 1991 Current constitution6 November 1994Area Total142 326 km2 54 952 sq mi 94th Water2 575 km2 994 sq mi Water 1 8Population 1 Jan 2023 estimate10 077 600 8 92th Density48 6 km2 125 9 sq mi 155th GDP PPP 2023 estimate Total 53 679 billion 9 119th Per capita 5 360 9 148th GDP nominal 2023 estimate Total 11 816 billion 9 151st Per capita 1 180 9 167th Gini 2015 34 10 mediumHDI 2021 0 685 11 medium 122ndCurrencySomoni TJS Time zoneUTC 5 TJT Date formatdd mm yyyyDriving siderightCalling code 992ISO 3166 codeTJInternet TLD tjRussian has the status of an official language through its use as the official interethnic language as cited in the Constitution of Tajikistan 12 The territory that now constitutes Tajikistan was previously home to several ancient cultures of the Neolithic and the Bronze Age including the city of Sarazm 15 and was later home to kingdoms ruled by people of various faiths and cultures including the Oxus civilization Andronovo culture Buddhism Nestorian Christianity Hinduism Zoroastrianism Manichaeism and Islam The area has been ruled by numerous empires and dynasties including the Achaemenid Empire Sasanian Empire Hephthalite Empire Samanid Empire and Mongol Empire After being ruled by the Timurid Empire and Khanate of Bukhara the Timurid Renaissance flourished The region was later conquered by the Russian Empire and subsequently by the Soviet Union Within the Soviet Union the country s modern borders were drawn when it was part of Uzbekistan as an autonomous republic before becoming a full fledged Soviet republic in 1929 16 On 9 September 1991 Tajikistan declared itself an independent sovereign nation as the Soviet Union was disintegrating A civil war was fought almost immediately after independence lasting from May 1992 to June 1997 Since the end of the war newly established political stability and foreign aid have allowed the country s economy to grow The country has been led by President Emomali Rahmon since 1994 who rules an authoritarian regime There is extensive corruption and widespread violations of human rights including torture arbitrary imprisonment worsening political repression and a lack of religious freedom and other civil liberties 17 18 Tajikistan is a presidential republic consisting of four provinces Most of Tajikistan s population belongs to the Tajik ethnic group 19 who speak the Tajik language the first official language making it one of the three Persian speaking countries alongside Afghanistan and Iran Russian is used as the official inter ethnic language While the state is constitutionally secular Islam is nominally adhered to by 96 of the population In the Gorno Badakhshan oblast despite its sparse population there is large linguistic diversity where Rushani Shughni Ishkashimi Wakhi and Tajik are some of the languages spoken Mountains cover more than 90 of the country It is a developing country with a transitional economy that is highly dependent on remittances aluminium and cotton production Tajikistan is a member of the United Nations CIS OSCE OIC ECO SCO and CSTO as well as a NATO PfP partner Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Early history 2 2 Samanid Empire 2 3 Bukharan rule 2 4 Imperial Russia 2 5 Soviet period 2 6 Independence 2 7 Post independence 3 Politics 4 Geography 4 1 Administrative divisions 4 2 Lakes 4 3 Biodiversity 5 Economy 6 Transportation 6 1 Rail 6 2 Air 6 3 Roads 7 Demographics 7 1 Languages 7 2 Employment 7 3 Religion 7 4 Health 7 5 Education 8 Culture 8 1 Sport 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External linksEtymology editMain article Tajik people The term Tajik itself ultimately derives from the Middle Persian Tazik the Turkic rendition of the Arabic ethnonym Ṭayyi denoting a large Qahtanite Arab tribe who emigrated to the Transoxiana region of Central Asia in the 7th century AD 20 Tajikistan appeared as Tadjikistan or Tadzhikistan in English prior to 1991 This is due to a transliteration from the Russian Tadzhikistan In Russian there is no single letter j to represent the phoneme d ʒ and therefore dzh or dzh is used Tadzhikistan is the most common alternate spelling and is widely used in English literature derived from Russian sources 21 citation needed Tadjikistan is the spelling in French and can occasionally be found in English language texts citation needed The way of writing Tajikistan in the Perso Arabic script is تاجیکستان Even though the Library of Congress s 1997 Country Study of Tajikistan found it difficult to definitively state the origins of the word Tajik because the term is embroiled in twentieth century political disputes about whether Turkic or Iranian peoples were the original inhabitants of Central Asia 22 most scholars concluded that contemporary Tajiks are the descendants of the ancient Eastern Iranian inhabitants of Central Asia in particular the Sogdians and the Bactrians and possibly other groups with an admixture of Western Iranian Persians and non Iranian peoples 23 24 According to Richard Nelson Frye a leading historian of Iranian and Central Asian history the Persian emigration to Central Asia may be considered the beginning of the modern Tajik nation and ethnic Persians along with some elements of the Eastern Iranian Bactrians and Sogdians as the main ancestors of the modern Tajiks 25 In later works Frye expands on the complexity of the historical origins of the Tajiks In a 1996 publication Frye explains that many factors must be taken into account in explaining the evolution of the peoples whose remnants are the Tajiks in Central Asia and that the peoples of Central Asia whether Iranian or Turkic speaking have one culture one religion one set of social values and traditions with only language separating them 26 Regarding Tajiks the Encyclopaedia Britannica states The Tajiks are the direct descendants of the Iranian peoples whose continuous presence in Central Asia and northern Afghanistan is attested from the middle of the first millennium BC The ancestors of the Tajiks constituted the core of the ancient population of Khwarezm Khorezm and Bactria which formed part of Transoxania Sogdiana Over the course of time the eastern Iranian dialect that was used by the ancient Tajiks eventually gave way to Farsi a western dialect spoken in Iran and Afghanistan 27 History editMain article History of Tajikistan Early history edit nbsp Ambassador to the Tang dynasty coming from Kumedh 胡密丹 Tajikistan Wanghuitu 王会图 circa 650 CE 28 29 Cultures in the region have been dated back to at least the fourth millennium BC including the Bronze Age Bactria Margiana Archaeological Complex the Andronovo cultures and the pro urban site of Sarazm a UNESCO World Heritage Site 30 The earliest recorded history of the region dates back to about 500 BC when much if not all of modern Tajikistan was part of the Achaemenid Empire 22 Some authors have also suggested that in the seventh and sixth centuries BC parts of modern Tajikistan including territories in the Zeravshan valley formed part of the ancient Hindu Kambojas tribe 31 32 before it became part of the Achaemenid Empire 33 After the region s conquest by Alexander the Great it became part of the Greco Bactrian Kingdom a successor state of Alexander s empire Northern Tajikistan the cities of Khujand and Panjakent was part of Sogdia a collection of city states which was overrun by Scythians and Yuezhi nomadic tribes around 150 BC The Silk Road passed through the region and following the expedition of Chinese explorer Zhang Qian during the reign of Wudi 141BC 87 BC commercial relations between Han Empire and Sogdiana flourished 34 35 Sogdians played a major role in facilitating trade and also worked in other capacities as farmers carpetweavers glassmakers and woodcarvers 36 The Kushan Empire a collection of Yuezhi tribes took control of the region in the first century AD and ruled until the fourth century AD during which time Buddhism Nestorian Christianity Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism were all practised in the region 37 Later the Hephthalite Empire a collection of nomadic tribes moved into the region and Arabs brought Islam in the early eighth century 37 Central Asia continued in its role as a commercial crossroads linking China the steppes to the north and the Islamic heartland citation needed nbsp The Samanid ruler Mansur I 961 976 nbsp 19th century painting of lake Zorkul and a local Tajik inhabitantIt was briefly under the control of the Tibetan Empire and the Tang dynasty from 650 to 680 CE and then under the control of the Umayyads in 710 CE Samanid Empire edit See also Samanid Empire The Samanid Empire 819 to 999 restored Persian control of the region and enlarged the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara both cities are today part of Uzbekistan which became the cultural centers of Iran and the region was known as Khorasan The empire was centered in Khorasan and Transoxiana at its greatest extent encompassing modern day Afghanistan large parts of Iran Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Kyrgyzstan parts of Kazakhstan and Pakistan Four brothers Nuh Ahmad Yahya and Ilyas founded the Samanid state Each of them ruled territory under Abbasid suzerainty In 892 Ismail Samani 892 907 united the Samanid state under one ruler thus effectively putting an end to the feudal system used by the Samanids It was also under him that the Samanids became independent of Abbasid authority The Kara Khanid Khanate conquered Transoxania which corresponds approximately with modern day Uzbekistan Tajikistan southern Kyrgyzstan and southwest Kazakhstan and ruled between 999 and 1211 38 39 Their arrival in Transoxania signalled a definitive shift from Iranian to Turkic predominance in Central Asia 40 but gradually the Kara khanids became assimilated into the Perso Arab Muslim culture of the region 41 In the 13th century the Mongol Empire swept through Central Asia invaded Khwarezmian Empire and sacked the cities looting and massacring people everywhere Turco Mongol conqueror Tamerlane founded the Timurid Empire in and around modern day Tajikistan and Central Asia becoming the first ruler of the Timurid dynasty 42 Bukharan rule edit See also Khanate of Bukhara Modern Tajikistan fell under the rule of the Khanate of Bukhara during the 16th century and with the empire s collapse in the 18th century it came under the rule of both the Emirate of Bukhara and Khanate of Kokand The Emirate of Bukhara remained intact until the 20th century but during the 19th century for the second time in world history a European power the Russian Empire began to conquer parts of the region 43 Imperial Russia edit See also The Great Game Russian conquest of Turkestan and Russian Turkestan Russian Imperialism led to the Russian Empire s conquest of Central Asia during the late 19th century s Imperial Era Between 1864 and 1885 Russia gradually took control of the entire territory of Russian Turkestan the Tajikistan portion of which had been controlled by the Emirate of Bukhara and Khanate of Kokand Russia was interested in gaining access to a supply of cotton and in the 1870s attempted to switch cultivation in the region from grain to cotton a strategy later copied and expanded by the Soviets 44 By 1885 Tajikistan s territory was either ruled by the Russian Empire or its vassal state the Emirate of Bukhara nevertheless Tajiks felt little Russian influence During the late 19th century the Jadidists established themselves as an Islamic social movement throughout the region Although the Jadidists were pro modernization and not necessarily anti Russian the Russians viewed the movement as a threat because the Russian Empire was predominantly Christian 45 Russian troops were required to restore order during uprisings against the Khanate of Kokand between 1910 and 1913 Further violence occurred in July 1916 when demonstrators attacked Russian soldiers in Khujand over the threat of forced conscription during World War I Despite Russian troops quickly bringing Khujand back under control clashes continued throughout the year in various locations in Tajikistan 46 Soviet period edit Main articles Basmachi movement and Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic nbsp Soviet negotiations with basmachi 1921After the Russian Revolution of 1917 guerrillas throughout Central Asia known as basmachi waged a war against Bolshevik armies in an attempt to maintain independence 47 The Bolsheviks prevailed after a four year war in which mosques and villages were burned down and the population heavily suppressed Soviet authorities started a campaign of secularisation Practising Islam Judaism and Christianity was discouraged and repressed and many mosques churches and synagogues were closed 48 As a consequence of the conflict and Soviet agriculture policies Central Asia Tajikistan included suffered a famine that claimed many lives 49 In 1924 the Tajikistan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was created as a part of Uzbekistan 47 but in 1929 the Tajikistan Soviet Socialist Republic Tajikistan SSR Tadzhikskaya SSR was made a separate constituent republic 47 however the predominantly ethnic Tajik cities of Samarkand and Bukhara remained in the Uzbek SSR Between 1927 and 1934 collectivisation of agriculture and a rapid expansion of cotton production took place especially in the southern region 50 Soviet collectivisation policy brought violence against peasants and forced resettlement occurred throughout Tajikistan Consequently some peasants fought collectivization and revived the Basmachi movement Some small scale industrial development also occurred during this time along with the expansion of irrigation infrastructure 50 nbsp Soviet Tajikistan in 1964Two rounds of Stalin s purges 1927 1934 and 1937 1938 resulted in the expulsion of nearly 10 000 people from all levels of the Communist Party of Tajikistan 51 Ethnic Russians were sent in to replace those expelled and subsequently Russians dominated party positions at all levels including the top position of first secretary 51 Between 1926 and 1959 the proportion of Russians among Tajikistan s population grew from less than 1 to 13 52 Bobojon Ghafurov First Secretary of the Communist Party of Tajikistan from 1946 to 1956 was the only Tajik politician of significance outside of the country during the Soviet Era 53 He was followed in office by Tursun Uljabayev 1956 61 Jabbor Rasulov 1961 1982 and Rahmon Nabiyev 1982 1985 1991 1992 Tajiks began to be conscripted into the Soviet Army in 1939 and during World War II around 260 000 Tajik citizens fought against Germany Finland and Japan Between 60 000 4 54 and 120 000 8 55 of Tajikistan s 1 530 000 citizens were killed during World War II 56 Following the war and Stalin s reign attempts were made to further expand the agriculture and industry of Tajikistan 53 During 1957 58 Nikita Khrushchev s Virgin Lands Campaign focused attention on Tajikistan where living conditions education and industry lagged behind the other Soviet Republics 53 In the 1980s Tajikistan had the lowest household saving rate in the USSR 57 the lowest percentage of households in the two top per capita income groups 58 and the lowest rate of university graduates per 1000 people 59 By the late 1980s Tajik nationalists were calling for increased rights Real disturbances did not occur within the republic until 1990 The following year the Soviet Union collapsed and Tajikistan declared its independence on 9 September 1991 a day which is now celebrated as the country s Independence Day 60 Independence edit nbsp 1990 Dushanbe riots nbsp Tajik men and women rally on Ozodi square in Dushanbe shortly after independence 1992 After the beginning of the Perestroika era declared by Mikhail Gorbachev throughout the USSR supporters of the independence of the republics began to speak openly and freely In Tajikistan SSR the independence movement had been active since 1987 Supporters of independence were the Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan the Democratic Party of Tajikistan and the national democratic Rastokhez Revival Movement On the eve of the collapse of the USSR the population of Tajikistan SSR was divided into two camps The first wanted independence for Tajikistan the restoration of Tajik culture and language the restoration of political and cultural relations with Iran and Afghanistan and other countries and the second part of the population opposed independence considering it the best option to remain part of the USSR During the 1991 Soviet Union Referendum the first internationally observed referendum in the country s history on continuing the Soviet system and the Soviet Union itself nearly 97 of voters in Tajikistan approved of Question 1 Do you consider it necessary to preserve the USSR as a renewed federation of equal sovereign republics which will be fully ensured of human rights and freedoms of any nationality though by dissolution in December of the same year a significant proportion of Tajikistan s population supported what was by then the fait accompli of independence for the union level republics of the Soviet Union In February 1990 riots and strikes in Dushanbe and other cities began due to the difficult socio economic situation lack of housing and youth unemployment 47 The nationalist and democratic opposition and supporters of independence joined the strikes and began to demand the independence of the republic and democratic reforms Islamists also began to hold strikes to demand respect for their rights and independence of the republic The Soviet leadership introduced Internal Troops in Dushanbe to eliminate the unrest 47 Post independence edit See also Tajikistani Civil War nbsp Spetsnaz soldiers during the civil war 1992Almost immediately following independence the nation fell into civil war among various factions often distinguished by clan loyalties 61 More than 500 000 residents fled during this time because of persecution increased poverty and better economic opportunities in the West or in other former Soviet republics 62 Emomali Rahmon came to power in 1992 47 defeating former prime minister Abdumalik Abdullajanov in a November presidential election with 58 of the vote 63 The elections took place shortly after the end of the war and Tajikistan was in a state of complete devastation The estimated dead numbered over 100 000 Around 1 2 million people were refugees inside and outside of the country 61 In 1997 a ceasefire was reached between Rahmon and opposition parties under the guidance of Gerd D Merrem 47 Special Representative to the Secretary General a result widely praised as a successful United Nations peacekeeping initiative The ceasefire guaranteed 30 of ministerial positions would go to the opposition 64 Elections were held in 1999 though they were criticised by opposition parties and foreign observers as unfair and Rahmon was re elected with 98 of the vote 47 Elections in 2006 were again won by Rahmon with 79 of the vote and he began his third term in office Several opposition parties boycotted the 2006 election and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe OSCE criticised it although observers from the Commonwealth of Independent States claimed the elections were legal and transparent 65 66 Rahmon s administration came under further criticism from the OSCE in October 2010 for its censorship and repression of the media The OSCE claimed that the Tajik Government censored Tajik and foreign websites and instituted tax inspections on independent printing houses that led to the cessation of printing activities for a number of independent newspapers 67 Russian border troops were stationed along the Tajik Afghan border until summer 2005 Since the September 11 2001 attacks French troops have been stationed at Dushanbe Airport in support of air operations of NATO s International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan United States Army and Marine Corps personnel periodically visit Tajikistan to conduct joint training missions of up to several weeks duration The Government of India rebuilt the Ayni Air Base a military airport located 15 km southwest of Dushanbe at a cost of 70 million completing the repairs in September 2010 68 It is now the main base of the Tajikistan air force There have been talks with Russia concerning use of the Ayni facility 69 and Russia continues to maintain a large base on the outskirts of Dushanbe 70 In 2010 there were concerns among Tajik officials that Islamic militarism in the east of the country was on the rise following the escape of 25 militants from a Tajik prison in August an ambush that killed 28 Tajik soldiers in the Rasht Valley in September 71 and another ambush in the valley in October that killed 30 soldiers 72 followed by fighting outside Gharm that left 3 militants dead To date the country s Interior Ministry asserts that the central government maintains full control over the country s east and the military operation in the Rasht Valley was concluded in November 2010 73 However fighting erupted again in July 2012 74 In 2015 Russia sent more troops to Tajikistan 75 In May 2015 Tajikistan s national security suffered a serious setback when Colonel Gulmurod Khalimov commander of the special purpose police unit OMON of the Interior Ministry defected to the Islamic State 47 76 In 2021 following the Fall of Kabul Tajikistan allegedly got involved in the Panjshir conflict against the Taliban on the side of the National Resistance Front of Afghanistan 77 78 In September 2022 armed clashes including the use of artillery erupted along much of the border between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan 79 Politics editMain article Politics of Tajikistan See also Elections in Tajikistan Foreign relations of Tajikistan Military of Tajikistan Human rights in Tajikistan Tajikistani Civil War and Cabinet of Tajikistan nbsp The Palace of Nations in DushanbeAlmost immediately after independence Tajikistan was plunged into a civil war that saw various factions fighting one another These factions were supported by foreign countries including Afghanistan Iran Pakistan Uzbekistan and Russia Russia and Iran focused on keeping peace in the warring nation to decrease the chances of U S or Turkish involvement Most notably Russia backed the pro government faction and deployed troops from the Commonwealth of Independent States to guard the Tajikistan Afghan border 80 All but 25 000 of the more than 400 000 ethnic Russians who were mostly employed in industry fled to Russia By 1997 the war had ended after a peace agreement between the government and the Islamist led opposition a central government began to take form with peaceful elections in 1999 81 nbsp President of Tajikistan Emomali Rahmon has ruled the country since 1994 Longtime observers of Tajikistan often characterize the country as profoundly averse to risk and skeptical of promises of reform a political passivity they trace to the country s ruinous civil war Ilan Greenberg wrote in a news article in The New York Times just before the country s November 2006 presidential election 82 nbsp Supreme Assembly in Dushanbe Tajikistan is officially a republic and holds elections for the presidency and parliament operating under a presidential system It is however a dominant party system where the People s Democratic Party of Tajikistan routinely has a vast majority in Parliament Emomali Rahmon has held the office of President of Tajikistan continuously since November 1994 The Prime Minister is Kokhir Rasulzoda the First Deputy Prime Minister is Matlubkhon Davlatov and the two Deputy Prime Ministers are Murodali Alimardon and Ruqiya Qurbanova The parliamentary elections of 2005 aroused many accusations from opposition parties and international observers that President Emomali Rahmon corruptly manipulates the election process and unemployment The most recent elections in February 2010 saw the ruling PDPT lose four seats in Parliament yet still maintain a comfortable majority The Organization for Security and Co operation in Europe election observers said the 2010 polling failed to meet many key OSCE commitments and that these elections failed on many basic democratic standards 83 84 The government insisted that only minor violations had occurred which would not affect the will of the Tajik people 83 84 The Tajik government has reportedly clamped down on facial hair as part of a crackdown on Islamic influence and due to its perceived associations with Islamic extremism which is prevalent in bordering Afghanistan 85 86 nbsp President of Tajikistan Emomali Rahmon with Russian president Vladimir Putin The presidential election held on 6 November 2006 was boycotted by mainline opposition parties including the 23 000 member Islamic Renaissance Party Four remaining opponents all but endorsed the incumbent Rahmon 82 Freedom of the press is ostensibly officially guaranteed by the government but independent press outlets remain restricted as does a substantial amount of web content 87 According to the Institute for War amp Peace Reporting access is blocked to local and foreign websites including avesta tj Tjknews com centrasia org and journalists are often obstructed from reporting on controversial events In practice no public criticism of the regime is tolerated and all direct protest is severely suppressed and does not receive coverage in the local media 88 In the Economist s democracy index report of 2020 Tajikistan is placed 160th just after Saudi Arabia as an authoritarian regime 89 In July 2019 UN ambassadors of 37 countries including Tajikistan signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China s treatment of Uyghurs in the Xinjiang region 90 In October 2020 Tajikistan s authoritarian President Emomali Rahmon was re elected for another seven year period with 90 per cent of the votes following a tightly controlled and largely ceremonial election 91 In late April 2021 a conflict over water with Kyrgyzstan escalated into one of the most serious border clashes between the two countries since independence 92 93 In July 2021 Tajikistan appealed to members of a Russian led Collective Security Treaty Organization CSTO of ex Soviet states for help in dealing with security challenges emerging from neighboring Afghanistan 94 The safety concerns emerged as foreign troops such as the US and British army exited the country causing over 1 000 Afghan civilians and servicemen to flee to neighboring Tajikistan after Taliban insurgents took control of many parts of Afghanistan 95 Geography editMain article Geography of Tajikistan nbsp Satellite photograph of Tajikistan nbsp Tajikistan map of Koppen climate classificationTajikistan is landlocked and is the smallest nation in Central Asia by area It lies mostly between latitudes 36 and 41 N and longitudes 67 and 75 E It is covered by mountains of the Pamir range and most of the country is over 3 000 metres 9 800 ft above sea level The only major areas of lower land are in the north part of the Fergana Valley and in the southern Kofarnihon and Vakhsh river valleys which form the Amu Darya Dushanbe is located on the southern slopes above the Kofarnihon valley Mountain Height LocationIsmoil Somoni Peak highest 7 495 m 24 590 ft North western edge of Gorno Badakhshan GBAO south of the Kyrgyz borderIbn Sina Peak Lenin Peak 7 134 m 23 537 ft Northern border in the Trans Alay Range north east of Ismoil Somoni PeakPeak Korzhenevskaya 7 105 m 23 310 ft North of Ismoil Somoni Peak on the south bank of Muksu RiverIndependence Peak Revolution Peak 6 974 m 22 881 ft Central Gorno Badakhshan south east of Ismoil Somoni PeakAcademy of Sciences Range 6 785 m 22 260 ft North western Gorno Badakhshan stretches in the north south directionKarl Marx Peak 6 726 m 22 067 ft GBAO near the border to Afghanistan in the northern ridge of the Karakoram RangeGarmo Peak 6 595 m 21 637 ft Northwestern Gorno Badakhshan Mayakovskiy Peak 6 096 m 20 000 ft Extreme south west of GBAO near the border to Afghanistan Concord Peak 5 469 m 17 943 ft Southern border in the northern ridge of the Karakoram RangeKyzylart Pass 4 280 m 14 042 ft Northern border in the Trans Alay RangeThe Amu Darya and Panj rivers mark the border with Afghanistan and the glaciers in Tajikistan s mountains are the major source of runoff for the Aral Sea There are over 900 rivers in Tajikistan longer than 10 kilometres Administrative divisions edit Main articles Regions of Tajikistan and Districts of Tajikistan nbsp A clickable map of Tajikistan exhibiting its four provinces nbsp Mountains of TajikistanTajikistan consists of four administrative divisions These are the provinces viloyat of Sughd and Khatlon the autonomous province of Gorno Badakhshan abbreviated as GBAO and the Region of Republican Subordination RRP Raiony Respublikanskogo Podchineniya in transliteration from Russian or NTJ Noҳiyaҳoi tobei ҷumҳurӣ Nohiyahoi tobei jumhurii in Tajik formerly known as Karotegin Province Each region is divided into several districts Tajik Noҳiya nohiya or raion which in turn are subdivided into jamoats village level self governing units and then villages qyshloqs As of 2006 update there were 58 districts and 367 jamoats in Tajikistan 96 Division ISO 3166 2 Map No Capital Area km2 96 Pop 2019 97 Sughd TJ SU 1 Khujand 25 400 2 658 400Region of Republican Subordination TJ RR 2 Dushanbe 28 600 2 122 000Khatlon TJ KT 3 Bokhtar 24 800 3 274 900Gorno Badakhshan TJ GB 4 Khorugh 64 200 226 900Dushanbe Dushanbe 124 6 846 400Lakes edit nbsp Karakul lakeAbout 2 of the country s area is covered by lakes the best known of which are the following Kayrakum Qairoqqum Reservoir Sughd Iskanderkul Fann Mountains Kulikalon Kul i Kalon Fann Mountains Nurek Reservoir Khatlon Karakul Kyrgyz Kara Kol eastern Pamir Sarez Pamir Shadau Lake Pamir Zorkul Pamir Biodiversity edit Tajikistan contains five terrestrial ecoregions Alai Western Tian Shan steppe Gissaro Alai open woodlands Pamir alpine desert and tundra Badghyz and Karabil semi desert and Paropamisus xeric woodlands 98 Economy editMain article Economy of Tajikistan See also Agriculture in Tajikistan nbsp A Tajik dry fruit sellerIn 2019 nearly 29 of Tajikistan s GDP came from immigrant remittances mostly from Tajiks working in Russia one of the highest rates in the world 99 100 101 The current economic situation remains fragile largely owing to corruption uneven economic reforms and economic mismanagement With foreign revenue precariously dependent upon remittances from migrant workers overseas and exports of aluminium and cotton the economy is highly vulnerable to external shocks In fiscal year 2000 international assistance remained an essential source of support for rehabilitation programs that reintegrated former civil war combatants into the civilian economy which helped keep the peace International assistance also was necessary to address the second year of severe drought that resulted in a continued shortfall of food production On 21 August 2001 the Red Cross announced that a famine was striking Tajikistan and called for international aid for Tajikistan and Uzbekistan 102 however access to food remains a problem today In January 2012 680 152 of the people living in Tajikistan were living with food insecurity Out of those 676 852 were at risk of Phase 3 Acute Food and Livelihoods Crisis food insecurity and 3 300 were at risk of Phase 4 Humanitarian Emergency Those with the highest risk of food insecurity were living in the remote Murghob District of GBAO 103 nbsp The TadAZ aluminium smelting plant in Tursunzoda is the largest aluminium manufacturing plant in Central Asia and Tajikistan s chief industrial asset Tajikistan s economy grew substantially after the war The GDP of Tajikistan expanded at an average rate of 9 6 over the period of 2000 2007 according to the World Bank data This improved Tajikistan s position among other Central Asian countries namely Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan which seem to have degraded economically ever since 104 The primary sources of income in Tajikistan are aluminium production cotton growing and remittances from migrant workers 105 Cotton accounts for 60 of agricultural output supporting 75 of the rural population and using 45 of irrigated arable land 106 The aluminium industry is represented by the state owned Tajik Aluminum Company the biggest aluminium plant in Central Asia and one of the biggest in the world 107 nbsp Real GDP per capita development of TajikistanTajikistan s rivers such as the Vakhsh and the Panj have great hydropower potential and the government has focused on attracting investment for projects for internal use and electricity exports Tajikistan is home to the Nurek Dam the second highest dam in the world 108 Lately Russia s RAO UES energy giant has been working on the Sangtuda 1 hydroelectric power station 670 MW capacity commenced operations on 18 January 2008 109 110 Other projects at the development stage include Sangtuda 2 by Iran Zerafshan by the Chinese company SinoHydro and the Rogun power plant that at a projected height of 335 metres 1 099 ft would supersede the Nurek Dam as highest in the world if it is brought to completion 111 112 A planned project CASA 1000 will transmit 1000 MW of surplus electricity from Tajikistan to Pakistan with power transit through Afghanistan The total length of transmission line is 750 km while the project is planned to be on Public Private Partnership basis with the support of WB IFC ADB and IDB The project cost is estimated to be around US 865 million 113 Other energy resources include sizeable coal deposits and smaller relatively unexplored reserves of natural gas and petroleum 114 In 2014 Tajikistan was the world s most remittance dependent economy with remittances accounting for 49 of GDP and expected to fall by 40 in 2015 due to the economic crisis in the Russian Federation 115 Tajik migrant workers abroad mainly in the Russian Federation have become by far the main source of income for millions of Tajikistan s people 116 and with the 2014 2015 downturn in the Russian economy the World Bank has predicted large numbers of young Tajik men will return home and face few economic prospects 115 According to some estimates about 20 of the population lives on less than US 1 25 per day 117 Migration from Tajikistan and the consequent remittances have been unprecedented in their magnitude and economic impact In 2010 remittances from Tajik labour migrants totalled an estimated 2 1 billion US dollars an increase from 2009 Tajikistan has achieved transition from a planned to a market economy without substantial and protracted recourse to aid of which it by now receives only negligible amounts and by purely market based means simply by exporting its main commodity of comparative advantage cheap labour 118 The World Bank Tajikistan Policy Note 2006 concludes that remittances have played an important role as one of the drivers of Tajikistan s economic growth during the past several years have increased incomes and as a result helped significantly reduce poverty 119 Drug trafficking is the major illegal source of income in Tajikistan 120 as it is an important transit country for Afghan narcotics bound for Russian and to a lesser extent Western European markets some opium poppy is also raised locally for the domestic market 121 However with the increasing assistance from international organisations such as UNODC and co operation with the US Russian EU and Afghan authorities a level of progress on the fight against illegal drug trafficking is being achieved 122 Tajikistan holds third place in the world for heroin and raw opium confiscations 1216 3 kg of heroin and 267 8 kg of raw opium in the first half of 2006 123 124 Drug money corrupts the country s government according to some experts the well known personalities that fought on both sides of the civil war and have held the positions in the government after the armistice was signed are now involved in the drug trade 121 UNODC is working with Tajikistan to strengthen border crossings provide training and set up joint interdiction teams It also helped to establish Tajikistani Drug Control Agency 125 Tajikistan is also an active member of the Economic Cooperation Organization ECO Besides Russia China is one of the major economic and trade partners of Dushanbe Tajikistan belongs to the group of countries associated with Chinese investment within the Belt and Road Initiative 126 Transportation editMain article Transport in Tajikistan In 2013 Tajikistan like many of the other Central Asian countries was experiencing major development in its transportation sector As a landlocked country Tajikistan has no ports and the majority of transportation is via roads air and rail In recent years Tajikistan has pursued agreements with Iran and Pakistan to gain port access in those countries via Afghanistan In 2009 an agreement was made between Tajikistan Pakistan and Afghanistan to improve and build a 1 300 km 810 mi highway and rail system connecting the three countries to Pakistan s ports The proposed route would go through the Gorno Badakhshan Autonomous Province in the eastern part of the country 127 And in 2012 the presidents of Tajikistan Afghanistan and Iran signed an agreement to construct roads and railways as well as oil gas and water pipelines to connect the three countries 128 Rail edit Main article Rail transport in Tajikistan The railroad system totals only 680 kilometres 420 mi of track 123 all of it 1 520 mm 4 ft 11 27 32 in broad gauge The principal segments are in the southern region and connect the capital with the industrial areas of the Hisor and Vakhsh valleys and with Uzbekistan Turkmenistan Kazakhstan and Russia 129 Most international freight traffic is carried by train 130 The recently constructed Bokhtar Kulob railway connected the Kulob District with the central area of the country 130 Air edit In 2009 Tajikistan had 26 airports 18 of which had paved runways of which two had runways longer than 3 000 meters 123 The country s main airport is Dushanbe International Airport which as of April 2015 had regularly scheduled flights to major cities in Russia Central Asia as well as Delhi Dubai Frankfurt Istanbul Kabul Tehran and Urumqi amongst others There are also international flights mainly to Russia from Khujand Airport in the northern part of the country as well as limited international services from Kulob Airport and Bokhtar International Airport Khorog Airport is a domestic airport and also the only airport in the sparsely populated eastern half of the country Tajikistan has one major airline Somon Air and is also serviced by over a dozen foreign airlines Roads edit The total length of roads in the country is 27 800 kilometres Automobiles account for more than 90 of the total volume of passenger transportation and more than 80 of domestic freight transportation 130 Opel passenger cars are most popular citation needed In 2004 the Tajik Afghan Friendship Bridge between Afghanistan and Tajikistan was built improving the country s access to South Asia The bridge was built by the United States 131 As of 2014 update many highway and tunnel construction projects are underway or have recently been completed Major projects include rehabilitation of the Dushanbe Chanak Uzbek border Dushanbe Kulma Chinese border and Kurgan Tube Nizhny Pyanj Afghan border highways and construction of tunnels under the mountain passes of Anzob Shakhristan Shar Shar 132 and Chormaghzak 133 These were supported by international donor countries 130 134 Demographics editMain article Demographics of Tajikistan vte Largest cities or towns in Tajikistan Tajikistan Statistics AgencyRank Name Region Pop nbsp Dushanbe nbsp Khujand 1 Dushanbe Dushanbe 1 201 800 nbsp Bokhtar nbsp Kulob2 Khujand Sughd 198 7003 Bokhtar Khatlon 126 7004 Kulob Khatlon 105 8005 Istaravshan Sughd 64 3006 Tursunzoda Districts of Republican Subordination 57 8007 Isfara Sughd 54 9008 Vahdat Districts of Republican Subordination 54 4009 Konibodom Sughd 54 40010 Panjakent Sughd 43 800 nbsp Tajikistan trends in its Human Development Index indicator 1970 2010Population in Tajikistan 135 136 137 Year Million1926 0 831950 1 52000 6 22021 9 8 nbsp Group of Tajik womenIn 2021 Tajikistan was estimated to have a population of 9 749 625 as per the World Bank data 13 The Tajiks who speak Tajik a dialect of Persian are the main ethnic group although there are sizeable minorities of Uzbeks and Russians whose numbers are declining due to emigration 138 The Pamiris of Badakhshan a small population of Yaghnobi people and a sizeable minority of Ismailis are all considered to belong to the larger group of Tajiks All citizens of Tajikistan are called Tajikistanis 123 nbsp Nowruz celebrations in TajikistanIn 1989 ethnic Russians in Tajikistan made up 7 6 of the population by 1998 the proportion had reduced to approximately 0 5 following the Tajikistani Civil War which had displaced the majority of ethnic Russians Following the end of the war Russian emigration continued 139 The ethnic German population of Tajikistan has also declined due to emigration having topped at 38 853 in 1979 it has almost vanished since the collapse of the Soviet Union 140 The Tajiks are the principal ethnic group in most of Tajikistan as well as in northern and western Afghanistan 141 and there are more Tajiks in Afghanistan than in Tajikistan Tajiks are a substantial minority in Uzbekistan 142 More than 3 million Tajik citizens were officially registered in Russia in 2021 143 Languages edit Main articles Languages of Tajikistan Tajikistani Russian and Russian dialects Tajikistani Russian The two official languages of Tajikistan are Tajik as the state language and Russian as the interethnic language as understood in Article 2 of the Constitution The state language of Tajikistan shall be Tajik Russian shall be the language of international communication 144 The state national language Tajik zaboni davlatӣ Russian gosudarstvennyj yazyk of the Republic of Tajikistan is Tajik which is written in the Tajik Cyrillic alphabet Several linguists recognise the fact that the Tajik language is a variant of the Persian language or Farsi Therefore Tajik speakers have no problems communicating with Persian speakers from Iran and Dari speakers from Afghanistan Several million native Tajik speakers also live in neighboring Uzbekistan and in Russia 145 According to article 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of Tajikistan 144 Russian is recognized as the second official language of Tajikistan the official language of inter ethnic communication Russian yazyk mezhnacionalnogo obsheniya Tajik zaboni muoshirati bajni millatҳo in the country 146 147 Russian had previously lost its official status after Tajikistan s independence in late 1991 which was then restored with the Constitution Approximately 90 of the population of Tajikistan speaks Russian at various levels The varieties of Russian spoken in Tajikistan are referred to by scholars as Tajik istani Russian 148 and it shares some similarities with Uzbek istani Russian such as morphological differences and the lexical differences like the use of words uryuk 149 for a wild apricot or kislushka for rhubarb 150 Previously from the creation of the Tajikistan SSR until Tajik became the official language of the Tajikistan Soviet Socialist Republic on July 22 1989 the only official language of the republic was the Russian language and the Tajik language had only the status of the national language Both Russian and Tajik speakers in the country use the following words in common in address to unfamiliar people and acquaintances 151 Words of familial relation Tajikistani Russian Standard Russian English translationapa starshaya sestra older sisteraka starshij brat older brotherhola tetya auntyanga zhena brata nevestka daughter in law sister in lawThe highly educated part of the population of Tajikistan as well as the intelligentsia prefer to speak Russian and Persian the pronunciation of which in Tajikistan is called the Iranian style 152 146 147 Apart from Russian Uzbek is actually the second most widely spoken language in Tajikistan after Tajik Native Uzbek speakers live in the north and west of Tajikistan In fourth place after Tajik Russian and Uzbek by number of native speakers are various Pamir languages whose native speakers live in Kuhistani Badakshshan Autonomous Region The majority of Zoroastrians in Tajikistan speak one of the Pamir languages Native speakers of the Kyrgyz language live in the north of Kuhistani Badakshshan Autonomous Region Yagnobi language speakers live in the west of the country The Parya language of local Romani people Central Asian Gypsies is also widely spoken in Tajikistan Tajikistan also has small communities of native speakers of Persian Arabic Pashto Armenian Azerbaijani Tatar Turkmen Kazakh Chinese Ukrainian 153 Among foreign languages the most popular is English which is taught in schools in Tajikistan as one of the foreign languages Some young people as well as those working in the tourism sector of Tajikistan speak English at different levels Of the European languages there are also a number of native speakers of German citation needed and French citation needed Many among the Uzbek population learn Turkish in addition to Russian Employment edit In 2009 nearly one million Tajiks worked abroad mainly in Russia 154 More than 70 of the female population lives in traditional villages 155 Religion edit Main article Religion in Tajikistan See also Freedom of religion in Tajikistan and Islam in Tajikistan Religion in Tajikistan 2010 4 156 Religion PercentIslam 96 7 Christianity 1 6 Unaffiliated 1 5 others 0 2 nbsp A mosque in Isfara TajikistanTajikistan considers itself a secular state with a constitution providing for freedom of religion 157 Sunni Islam of the Hanafi school has been officially recognised by the government since 2009 158 The government has declared two Islamic holidays Eid ul Fitr and Eid al Adha as state holidays According to a US State Department release and Pew research group the population of Tajikistan is 98 Muslim Approximately 87 95 of them are Sunni and roughly 3 are Shia and roughly 7 are non denominational Muslims 159 160 The Shia part of the population predominantly live in the Gorno Badakhshan Autonomous Region and are followers of the Ismailite branch of Shia Islam 161 The remaining 2 of the population are followers of Russian Orthodoxy Protestantism Zoroastrianism and Buddhism Many Muslims fast during Ramadan although only about one third in the countryside and 10 in the cities observe daily prayer and dietary restrictions 162 Bukharan Jews had lived in Tajikistan since the second century BC but today almost none are left In the 1940s the Jewish community of Tajikistan numbered nearly 30 000 people Most were Persian speaking Bukharan Jews who had lived in the region for millennia along with Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe who resettled there in the Soviet era The Jewish population is now estimated at less than 500 about half of whom live in Dushanbe 163 Relationships between religious groups are generally amicable although there is some concern among mainstream Muslim leaders who that minority religious groups undermine national unity There is a concern for religious institutions becoming active in the political sphere The Islamic Renaissance Party IRP a major combatant in the 1992 1997 Civil War and then proponent of the creation of an Islamic state in Tajikistan constitutes no more than 30 of the government by statute Membership in Hizb ut Tahrir a militant Islamic party which today aims for an overthrow of secular governments and the unification of Tajiks under one Islamic state is illegal and members are subject to arrest and imprisonment 164 Numbers of large mosques appropriate for Friday prayers are limited and some who feel this is discriminatory By law religious communities must register by the State Committee on Religious Affairs SCRA and with local authorities Registration with the SCRA requires a charter a list of 10 or more members and evidence of local government approval prayer site location Religious groups that do not have a physical structure are not allowed to gather publicly for prayer Failure to register can result in large fines and closure of a place of worship There are reports that registration on the local level is sometimes difficult to obtain 165 People under the age of 18 are also barred from public religious practice 166 As of January 2016 as part of an anti radicalisation campaign police in the Khatlon region reportedly shaved the beards of 13 000 men and shut down 160 shops selling the hijab Shaving beards and discouraging women from wearing hijabs is part of a government campaign targeting trends that are deemed alien and inconsistent with Tajik culture and to preserve secular traditions 167 Today approximately 1 6 of the population in Tajikistan is Christian mostly Orthodox Christians 4 156 The territory of Tajikistan is part of the Dushanbe and Tajikistan Diocese of the Central Asian Metropolitan District of the Russian Orthodox Moscow Patriarchate The country is also home to communities of Catholics Armenian Christians Protestants Lutherans Jehovah s Witnesses Baptists Mormons and Adventists 168 Health edit Main article Health in Tajikistan nbsp A hospital in DushanbeDespite repeated efforts by the Tajik government to improve and expand health care the system remains among the most underdeveloped and poor with severe shortages of medical supplies The state s Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare reported that 104 272 disabled people are registered in Tajikistan 2000 This group of people suffers most from poverty in Tajikistan The government of Tajikistan and the World Bank considered activities to support this part of the population described in the World Bank s Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper 169 Public expenditure on health was at 1 of the GDP in 2004 170 Life expectancy at birth was estimated to be 69 years in 2020 171 The infant mortality rate was approximately 30 42 deaths per 1 000 children in 2018 172 In 2014 there were 2 1 physicians per 1 000 people higher than any other low income country after North Korea 173 Tajikistan has experienced a sharp decrease in number of per capita hospital beds following the dissolution of the USSR since 1992 even though the number still remains relatively at 4 8 beds per 1 000 people well above the world average of 2 7 and one of the highest among other low income countries 174 According to World Bank 96 of births are attended by skilled health staff a figure which has risen from 66 6 in 1999 175 In 2010 the country experienced an outbreak of polio that caused more than 457 cases of polio in both children and adults and resulted in 29 deaths before being brought under control 176 In the summer of 2021 coronavirus ravaged the country and the Tajik president s sister reportedly died in a hospital of COVID 19 According to local media the president s sister s sons physically assaulted the health minister and a senior doctor 177 Education edit Main article Education in Tajikistan nbsp Tajik National University in DushanbeDespite its poverty Tajikistan has a high rate of literacy due to the old Soviet system of free education with an estimated 99 8 178 of the population having the ability to read and write 123 Public education in Tajikistan consists of 11 years of primary and secondary education but the government planned to implement a 12 year system in 2016 179 There is a relatively large number of tertiary education institutions including Khujand State University which has 76 departments in 15 faculties 179 Tajikistan State University of Law Business amp Politics Khorugh State University Agricultural University of Tajikistan Tajik National University and several other institutions Most but not all universities were established during the Soviet Era As of 2008 update tertiary education enrollment was 17 significantly below the sub regional average of 37 180 although higher than any other low income country after Syria 181 Many Tajiks left the education system due to low demand in the labour market for people with extensive educational training or professional skills 180 Public spending on education was relatively constant between 2005 2012 and fluctuated from 3 5 to 4 1 of GDP 182 significantly below the OECD average of 6 180 The United Nations reported that the level of spending was severely inadequate to meet the requirements of the country s high needs education system 180 According to a UNICEF supported survey about 25 percent of girls in Tajikistan fail to complete compulsory primary education because of poverty and gender bias 183 although literacy is generally high in Tajikistan 170 Estimates of out of school children range from 4 6 to 19 4 with the vast majority being girls 180 In September 2017 the University of Central Asia launched its second campus in Khorog Tajikistan offering majors in Earth amp Environmental Sciences and Economics 184 Tajikistan was ranked 111rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2023 185 186 Science on the territory of Tajikistan achieved great success already in the Middle Ages but the current scientific organizations were created in the Soviet period During the period of independence the scientific sphere experienced a severe crisis the annual number of patent applications for inventions decreased in 1994 2011 from 193 to 5 187 A significant contribution to science is made by universities where in 2011 6707 researchers worked of which 2450 had academic degrees 188 Culture editMain article Culture of Tajikistan See also Music of Tajikistan Tajik literature Public holidays in Tajikistan Tajik cuisine and Telecommunications in Tajikistan nbsp Tajik traditional dressThe Tajik language is the mother tongue of around 80 of the citizens of Tajikistan The main urban centers in today s Tajikistan include Dushanbe the capital Khujand Kulob Panjakent Bokhtar Khorugh and Istaravshan There are also Uzbek Kyrgyz and Russian minorities 189 The Pamiri people of Gorno Badakhshan Autonomous Province in the southeast bordering Afghanistan and China though considered part of the Tajik ethnicity nevertheless are distinct linguistically and culturally from most Tajiks In contrast to the mostly Sunni Muslim residents of the rest of Tajikistan the Pamiris overwhelmingly follow the Ismaili branch of Shia Islam and speak a number of Eastern Iranian languages including Shughni Rushani Khufi and Wakhi Isolated in the highest parts of the Pamir Mountains they have preserved many ancient cultural traditions and folk arts that have been largely lost elsewhere in the country The Yaghnobi people live in mountainous areas of northern Tajikistan The estimated number of Yaghnobis is now about 25 000 Forced migrations in the 20th century decimated their numbers They speak the Yaghnobi language which is the only direct modern descendant of the ancient Sogdian language 190 Tajikistan artisans created the Dushanbe Tea House which was presented in 1988 as a gift to the sister city of Boulder Colorado 191 In the country especially among women from the indigenous population the wearing traditional national clothing is preserved The seamstresses and embroiderers of various regions of Tajikistan use modern factory fabrics and local needlework embroidery for home decoration and women s clothing The practice of Chakan embroidery is preserved among women in certain areas passing the knowledge down from one generation to the next 192 Men mainly carry the factory clothing of European style Some men wear upper national clothes Jom Taj Ҷom and hats Tubetsey Taj Tkii Sport edit The national sport of Tajikistan is gushtigiri a form of traditional wrestling 193 194 Another popular sport is buzkashi a game played on horseback like polo Buzkashi may be played as an individual sport and as a team sport The aim of the game is to grab a 50 kg dead goat ride clear of the other players get back to the starting point and drop it in a designated circle It is also practised in Afghanistan Kyrgyzstan Kazakhstan Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan It is often played at Nowruz celebrations 195 nbsp Tajikistan is a popular destination amongst mountaineers 1982 expedition to Tartu Ulikool 350 Tajikistan s mountains provide many opportunities for outdoor sports such as hill climbing mountain biking rock climbing skiing snowboarding hiking and mountain climbing The facilities are limited however Mountain climbing and hiking tours to the Fann and Pamir Mountains including the 7 000 m peaks in the region are seasonally organised by local and international alpine agencies Football is the most popular sport in Tajikistan It is governed by the Tajikistan Football Federation The Tajikistan national football team competes in FIFA and AFC competitions The top clubs in Tajikistan compete in the Tajik League 196 193 The Tajikistan Cricket Federation was formed in 2012 as the governing body for the sport of cricket in Tajikistan It was granted affiliate membership of the Asian Cricket Council in the same year 197 Rugby union in Tajikistan is a minor but growing sport 196 In 2008 the sport was officially registered with the Ministry of Justice and there are currently 3 men s clubs 198 Four Tajikistani athletes have won Olympic medals for their country since independence They are wrestler Yusup Abdusalomov silver in Beijing 2008 judoka Rasul Boqiev bronze in Beijing 2008 boxer Mavzuna Chorieva bronze in London 2012 and hammer thrower Dilshod Nazarov gold in Rio de Janeiro 2016 Khorugh capital of Gorno Badakhshan Autonomous Region is the location of highest altitude where bandy has been played 199 Tajikistan has also one ski resort called Safed Dara formerly Takob near the town of Varzob 200 See also edit nbsp Geography portal nbsp Tajikistan portal nbsp Asia portal2006 Tajikistan earthquake Armed Forces of the Republic of Tajikistan Central Asian Union Dushanbe Foreign relations of Tajikistan Gorno Badakhshan Autonomous Province Ittihodi Scouthoi Tojikiston List of cities in Tajikistan LGBT rights in Tajikistan Mount Imeon Outline of Tajikistan Russian Turkistan Telecommunications in Tajikistan Yaghnob Valley Tajikistani Civil WarNotes edit Includes ethnic Russians Ukrainians and Belarusians Includes ethnic Russians Ukrainians and Belarusians t ɑː ˈ dʒ iː k ɪ s t ɑː n t e t ae Tajik Toҷikiston romanized Tojikiston pronounced tʰɔːdʒikʰɪsˈtʰɔːn Russian Tadzhikistan romanized Tadzhikistan pronounced tedʐɨkʲɪˈstan Tajik Ҷumҳurii Toҷikiston romanized Jumhurii Tojikiston pronounced dʒʊmhʊˈɾijɪ tʰɔdʒɪkʰɪsˈtʰɔn References edit nbsp This article incorporates public domain material from The World Factbook CIA nbsp This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan country studies Federal Research Division Constitution of Tajikistan Nacionalnyj sostav vladenie yazykami i grazhdanstvo naseleniya Respubliki Tadzhikistan Tom III stat tj 2019 Report on International Religious Freedom Tajikistan U S Department of State Archived from the original on 27 September 2022 Retrieved 22 January 2023 a b c Religious Composition by Country 2010 2050 Pew Research Center Archived 2 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine Pewforum org 2 April 2015 Retrieved on 20 January 2017 Tajikistan World Factbook www cia gov Archived from the original on 20 August 2021 Retrieved 8 May 2021 M A Geography B A Geography Ever Wonder What Residents of a Particular Country Are Called ThoughtCo Archived from the original on 21 August 2016 Retrieved 31 May 2019 Democracy Index 2020 Economist Intelligence Unit Archived from the original on 3 March 2021 Retrieved 17 December 2021 Agency on Statistics under President of the Republic of Tajikistan 1 January 2023 Retrieved 2 January 2024 a b c d World Economic Outlook Database October 2023 Edition Tajikistan 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2019 pp 33 61 Richard Nelson Frye Persien bis zum Einbruch des Islam original English title The Heritage Of Persia German version tr by Paul Baudisch Kindler Verlag AG Zurich 1964 pp 485 498 Frye Richard Nelson 1996 The heritage of Central Asia from antiquity to the Turkish expansion Princeton Markus Wiener Publishers p 4 ISBN 1 55876 110 1 Archived from the original on 24 January 2023 Retrieved 29 May 2020 Tajikistan History Archived 12 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine Britannica Online Encyclopedia Xiong Victor Cunrui 6 April 2017 Historical Dictionary of Medieval China Rowman amp Littlefield p 43 ISBN 978 1 4422 7616 1 Archived from the original on 24 January 2023 Retrieved 13 July 2022 Xuanzang calls this region Kiumito which is thought to be Komdei of Ptolemy and Kumadh or Kumedh of Muslim writers See Studies in Indian History and Civilization Agra p 351 India and the World 1964 p 71 Dr Buddha Prakash India and Central Asia 1955 p 35 P C Bagch Centre UNESCO World Heritage 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Tasisi nahustin timi duhtaronai rogbӣ dar Toҷikiston Establishment of the first girls rugby team in Tajikistan BBC Tajik Persian in Tajik Retrieved 5 October 2020 permanent dead link Google Translate google co uk Archived from the original on 30 January 2017 Retrieved 13 November 2016 Safed Dara Trip Advisor Archived from the original on 11 August 2017 Further reading editSee also Bibliography of the history of Central Asia Kamoludin Abdullaev and Shahram Akbarzadeh Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan 3rd ed Rowman amp Littlefield 2018 Shirin Akiner Mohammad Reza Djalili and Frederic Grare eds Tajikistan The Trials of Independence Routledge 1998 Richard Foltz A History of the Tajiks Iranians of the East London Bloomsbury Publishing 2019 Robert Middleton Huw Thomas and Markus Hauser Tajikistan and the High Pamirs Hong Kong Odyssey Books 2008 ISBN 978 9 622177 73 4 Nahaylo Bohdan and Victor Swoboda Soviet Disunion A History of the Nationalities problem in the USSR 1990 excerpt Kirill Nourdhzanov and Christian Blauer Tajikistan A Political and Social History Canberra ANU E Press 2013 Rashid Ahmed The Resurgence of Central Asia Islam or Nationalism 2017 Smith Graham ed The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union 2nd ed 1995 Monica Whitlock Land Beyond the River The Untold Story of Central Asia New York St Martin s Press 2003 Poopak NikTalab Sarve Samarghand Cedar of Samarkand continuous interpretation of Rudaki s poems Tehran 2020 Faradid Publications Introduction Sharma Raj Kumar Food Security and Political Stability in Tajikistan New Delhi Vij Books 2018 External links editTajikistan at Wikipedia s sister projects nbsp Definitions from Wiktionary nbsp Media from Commons nbsp News from Wikinews nbsp Quotations from Wikiquote nbsp Texts from Wikisource nbsp Textbooks from Wikibooks nbsp Resources from Wikiversity nbsp Travel information from Wikivoyage Tajikistan at UCB Libraries GovPubs Tajikistan The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency Tajikistan at Curlie Tajikistan profile from the BBC News nbsp Wikimedia Atlas of Tajikistan Key Development Forecasts for Tajikistan from International Futures Flight Information Region In Tajikistan 39 N 71 E 39 N 71 E 39 71 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Tajikistan amp oldid 1196848284, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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