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Sardinian language

Sardinian or Sard (sardu [ˈsaɾdu], limba sarda [ˈlimba ˈzaɾda] or lìngua sarda [ˈliŋɡwa ˈzaɾda]) is a Romance language spoken by the Sardinians on the Western Mediterranean island of Sardinia.

Sardinian
Sard
  • sardu
  • limba / lìngua sarda
Pronunciation[ˈsaɾdu]
Native toItaly
RegionSardinia
EthnicitySardinians
Native speakers
1 million (2010, 2016)[1][2][3]
Standard forms
Official status
Recognised minority
language in
Italy (1999[4])
Regulated by
Language codes
ISO 639-1sc
ISO 639-2srd
ISO 639-3srd – inclusive code Sardinian
Individual codes:
sro – Campidanese Sardinian
src – Logudorese Sardinian
Glottologsard1257
Linguasphere51-AAA-s
Linguistic map of Sardinia. Sardinian is yellow (Logudorese) and orange (Campidanese).
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
Non-native speaker of the Nuorese dialect of Siniscola.

Many Romance linguists consider it the language that, together with Italian, is the closest to Latin among all its genealogical descendants.[13][14][15] However, it has also incorporated elements of a Pre-Latin (mostly Paleo-Sardinian and, to a much lesser degree, Punic) substratum,[16] as well as a Byzantine Greek, Catalan, Castilian, and Italian superstratum. These elements originate in the political history of Sardinia, whose indigenous society experienced for centuries competition and at times conflict with a series of colonizing newcomers: before the Middle Ages, the island was for a time a Byzantine possession; then, after a significant period of self-rule with the Judicates, when Sardinian was officially employed in accordance with documentary testimonies, it came during the late Middle Ages into the Iberian sphere of influence, during which Catalan and Castilian became the island's prestige languages and would remain so well into the 18th century; and finally, from the early 18th century onward, under the Savoyard and contemporary Italian one,[17] following since then the country's linguistic policies which, to the detriment of Sardinian and the local Catalan, led to diglossia.[18]

The original character of the Sardinian language among the Romance idioms has long been known among linguists.[19][20][21][22] After a long strife for the acknowledgement of the island's cultural patrimony, in 1997, Sardinian, along with the other languages spoken therein, managed to be recognized by regional law in Sardinia without challenge by the central government,[5] and in 1999, Sardinian and eleven other "historical linguistic minorities", i.e. locally indigenous, and not foreign-grown, minority languages of Italy (minoranze linguistiche storiche, as defined by the legislator) were similarly recognized as such by national law (specifically, Law No. 482/1999).[4] Among these, Sardinian is notable as having, in terms of absolute numbers, the largest community of speakers.[23][24][25][26][27][28]

Although the Sardinian-speaking community can be said to share "a high level of linguistic awareness",[29] policies eventually fostering language loss and assimilation have considerably affected Sardinian, whose actual speakers have become noticeably reduced in numbers over the last century.[25] The Sardinian adult population today primarily uses Italian, and less than 15 percent of the younger generations were reported to have been passed down some residual Sardinian,[30][31] usually in a deteriorated form described by linguist Roberto Bolognesi as "an ungrammatical slang".[32]

The rather fragile and precarious state in which the Sardinian language now finds itself, where its use has been discouraged and consequently reduced even within the family sphere, is illustrated by the Euromosaic report, in which Sardinian "is in 43rd place in the ranking of the 50 languages taken into consideration and of which were analysed (a) use in the family, (b) cultural reproduction, (c) use in the community, (d) prestige, (e) use in institutions, (f) use in education".[33]

As the Sardinians have almost completely assimilated into the Italian national mores, including in terms of onomastics, and therefore now only happen to keep but a scant and fragmentary knowledge of their native and once first spoken language, limited in both scope and frequency of use,[34] Sardinian has been classified by UNESCO as "definitely endangered".[35] In fact, the intergenerational chain of transmission appears to have been broken since at least the 1960s, in such a way that the younger generations, who are predominantly Italian monolinguals, do not identify themselves with the indigenous tongue, which is now reduced to the memory of "little more than the language of their grandparents".[36]

As the long- to even medium-term future of the Sardinian language looks far from secure in the present circumstances,[37] Martin Harris concluded in 2003[38] that, assuming the continuation of present trends to language death, it was possible that there would not be a Sardinian language of which to speak in the future, being referred to by linguists as the mere substratum of the now-prevailing idiom, i.e. Italian articulated in its own Sardinian-influenced variety,[39][40] which may come to wholly supplant the islanders' once living native tongue.

Overview Edit

Now the question arises as to whether Sardinian is to be considered a dialect or a language. Politically speaking, of course, it is one of the many dialects of Italy, just like the Serbo-Croatian and the Albanian that are spoken in various Calabrian and Sicilian villages. The question, however, takes on a different nature when considered from a linguistic perspective. Sardinian cannot be said to be closely related to any dialect of mainland Italy; it is an archaic Romance tongue with its own distinctive characteristics, which can be seen in its rather unique vocabulary as well as its morphology and syntax, which differ radically from those of the Italian dialects.

As an insular language par excellence, Sardinian is considered the most conservative Romance language, as well as one of the most highly individual within the family;[42][43] its substratum (Paleo-Sardinian or Nuragic) has also been researched. In the first written testimonies, dating to the eleventh century, Sardinian appears as a language already distinct from the dialects of Italy.[44] A 1949 study by the Italian-American linguist Mario Pei, analyzing the degree of difference from a language's parent (Latin, in the case of Romance languages) by comparing phonology, inflection, syntax, vocabulary, and intonation, indicated the following percentages (the higher the percentage, the greater the distance from Latin): Sardinian 8%, Italian 12%, Spanish 20%, Romanian 23.5%, Occitan 25%, Portuguese 31%, and French 44%.[45] The significant degree to which the Sardinian language has retained its Latin base was also noted by the French geographer Maurice Le Lannou during a research project on the island in 1941.[46]

 
Chart of Romance languages based on structural and comparative criteria (not on socio-functional ones).

Although the lexical base is mostly of Latin origin, Sardinian nonetheless retains a number of traces of the linguistic substratum prior to the Roman conquest of the island: several words and especially toponyms stem from Paleo-Sardinian[47] and, to a lesser extent, Phoenician-Punic. These etyma might refer to an early Mediterranean substratum, which reveal close relations with Basque.[48][49][50]

In addition to the aforementioned substratum, linguists such as Max Leopold Wagner and Benvenuto Aronne Terracini trace much of the distinctive Latin character of Sardinia to the languoids once spoken by the Christian and Jewish Berbers in North Africa, known as African Romance.[51] Indeed, Sardinian was perceived as rather similar to African Latin when the latter was still in use, giving credit to the theory that vulgar Latin in both Africa and Sardinia displayed a significant wealth of parallelisms.[52] J. N. Adams is of the opinion that similarities in many words, such as acina (grape), pala (shoulderblade) and spanu(s) ("reddish-brown"), prove that there might have been a fair amount of vocabulary shared between Sardinia and Africa.[53] According to Wagner, it is notable that Sardinian is the only Romance language whose name for the Milky Way ((b)ía de sa báza, (b)ía de sa bálla, "the Way of Straw") also recurs in the Berber languages.[54]

To most Italians Sardinian is unintelligible, reminding them of Spanish, because of the way in which the language is acoustically articulated;[55] characterized as it is by a sharply outlined physiognomy which is displayed from the earliest sources available, it is in fact considered a distinct language, if not an altogether different branch, among the Romance idioms;[20][56][57][58][59] George Bossong summarises thus: "be this as it may, from a strictly linguistic point of view there can be no doubt that Sardinian is to be classified as an independent Romance language, or even as an independent branch inside the family, and so it is classed alongside the great national languages like French and Italian in all modern manuals of Romance linguistics".[60]

History Edit

Sardinia's relative isolation from mainland Europe encouraged the development of a Romance language that preserves traces of its indigenous, pre-Roman language(s). The language is posited to have substratal influences from Paleo-Sardinian, which some scholars have linked to Basque[61][62] and Etruscan;[63] comparisons have also been drawn with the Berber languages from North Africa[64] to shed more light on the language(s) spoken in Sardinia prior to its Romanization. Subsequent adstratal influences include Catalan, Spanish, and Italian. The situation of the Sardinian language with regard to the politically dominant ones did not change until fascism[65] and, most evidently, the 1950s.[66][67]

Origins of modern Sardinian Edit

Prenuragic and Nuragic era
 
Hunter, Nuragic bronze statuette

The origins of ancient Sardinian, also known as Paleo-Sardinian, are currently unknown. Research has attempted to discover obscure, indigenous, pre-Romance roots. The root s(a)rd, indicating many place names as well as the island's people, is reportedly either associated with or originating from the Sherden, one of the Sea Peoples.[68] Other sources trace instead the root s(a)rd from Σαρδώ, a legendary woman from the Anatolian Kingdom of Lydia,[69][70] or from the Libyan mythological figure of the Sardus Pater Babai ("Sardinian Father" or "Father of the Sardinians").[71][72][73][74][75][76][77]

In 1984, Massimo Pittau claimed to have found the etymology of many Latin words in the Etruscan language, after comparing it with the Nuragic language(s).[63] Etruscan elements, formerly thought to have originated in Latin, would indicate a connection between the ancient Sardinian culture and the Etruscans. According to Pittau, the Etruscan and Nuragic language(s) are descended from Lydian (and therefore Indo-European) as a consequence of contact with Etruscans and other Tyrrhenians from Sardis as described by Herodotus.[63] Although Pittau suggests that the Tirrenii landed in Sardinia and the Etruscans landed in modern Tuscany, his views are not shared by most Etruscologists.

According to Bertoldi and Terracini, Paleo-Sardinian has similarities with the Iberic languages and Siculian; for example, the suffix -ara in proparoxytones indicated the plural. Terracini proposed the same for suffixes in -/àna/, -/ànna/, -/énna/, -/ònna/ + /r/ + a paragogic vowel (such as the toponym Bunnànnaru). Rohlfs, Butler and Craddock add the suffix -/ini/ (such as the toponym Barùmini) as a unique element of Paleo-Sardinian. Suffixes in /a, e, o, u/ + -rr- found a correspondence in north Africa (Terracini), in Iberia (Blasco Ferrer) and in southern Italy and Gascony (Rohlfs), with a closer relationship to Basque (Wagner and Hubschmid). However, these early links to a Basque precursor have been questioned by some Basque linguists.[78] According to Terracini, suffixes in -/ài/, -/éi/, -/òi/, and -/ùi/ are common to Paleo-Sardinian and northern African languages. Pittau emphasized that this concerns terms originally ending in an accented vowel, with an attached paragogic vowel; the suffix resisted Latinization in some place names, which show a Latin body and a Nuragic suffix. According to Bertoldi, some toponyms ending in -/ài/ and -/asài/ indicated an Anatolian influence. The suffix -/aiko/, widely used in Iberia and possibly of Celtic origin, and the ethnic suffix in -/itanos/ and -/etanos/ (for example, the Sardinian Sulcitanos) have also been noted as Paleo-Sardinian elements (Terracini, Ribezzo, Wagner, Hubschmid and Faust).

Some linguists, like Max Leopold Wagner (1931), Blasco Ferrer (2009, 2010) and Arregi (2017[79]) have attempted to revive a theoretical connection with Basque by linking words such as Sardinian idile "marshland" and Basque itil "puddle";[80] Sardinian ospile "fresh grazing for cattle" and Basque hozpil "cool, fresh"; Sardinian arrotzeri "vagabond" and Basque arrotz "stranger"; Sardinian golostiu and Basque gorosti "holly"; Gallurese (Corso-Sardinian) zerru "pig" (with z for [dz]) and Basque zerri (with z for [s]). Genetic data have found the Basques to be close to the Sardinians.[81][82][83]

 
Location of the Sardinian tribes, as described by the Roman sources.[84]
 
Length of the Roman rule and emergence of the Romance languages.[85]

Since the Neolithic period, some degree of variance across the island's regions is also attested. The Arzachena culture, for instance, suggests a link between the northernmost Sardinian region (Gallura) and southern Corsica that finds further confirmation in the Natural History by Pliny the Elder. There are also some stylistic differences across Northern and Southern Nuragic Sardinia, which may indicate the existence of two other tribal groups (Balares and Ilienses) mentioned by the same Roman author. According to the archeologist Giovanni Ugas,[86] these tribes may have in fact played a role in shaping the current regional linguistic differences of the island.

Classical period

Around the 10th and 9th century BC, Phoenician merchants were known to have made their presence in Sardinia, which acted as a geographical mediator in between the Iberian and the Italian peninsula. In the eighth and seventh centuries, the Phoenicians began to develop permanent settlements, politically arranged as city-states in similar fashion to the Lebanese coastal areas. It did not take long before they started gravitating around the Carthaginian sphere of influence, whose level of prosperity spurred Carthage to send a series of expeditionary forces to the island; although they were initially repelled by the natives, the North African city vigorously pursued a policy of active imperialism and, by the sixth century, managed to establish its political hegemony and military control over South-Western Sardinia. Punic began to be spoken in the area, and many words entered ancient Sardinian as well.[87] Words like giara ‘plateau’ (cf. Hebrew yaʿar ‘forest, scrub’), g(r)uspinunasturtium’ (from Punic cusmin), curmafringed rue’ (cf. Arabic ḥarmalSyrian rue’), mítza ‘spring’ (cf. Hebrew mitsa, metza ‘source, fountainhead’), síntzirimarsh horsetail’ (from Punic zunzurcommon knotgrass’), tzeúrra ‘sprout’ (from *zerula, diminutive of Punic zeraʿ ‘seed’), tzichirìadill’ (from Punic sikkíria; cf. Hebrew šēkār ‘ale’) and tzípirirosemary’ (from Punic zibbir) are commonly used, especially in the modern Sardinian varieties of the Campidanese plain, while proceeding northwards the influence is more limited to place names, such as the town of Magomadas, Macumadas in Nuoro or Magumadas in Gesico and Nureci, all of which deriving from the Punic maqom hadash "new city".[88][89]

The Roman domination began in 238 BC, but was often contested by the local Sardinian tribes, who had by then acquired a high level of political organization,[90] and would manage to only partly supplant the pre-Latin Sardinian languages, including Punic. Although the colonists and negotiatores (businessmen) of strictly Italic descent would later play a relevant role in introducing and spreading Latin to Sardinia, Romanisation proved slow to take hold among the Sardinian natives,[91] whose proximity to the Carthaginian cultural influence was noted by Roman authors.[92] Punic continued to be spoken well into the 3rd–4th century AD, as attested by votive inscriptions,[93][94] and it is thought that the natives from the most interior areas, led by the tribal chief Hospito, joined their brethren in making the switch to Latin around the 7th century AD, through their conversion to Christianity.[95][note 1] Cicero, who loathed the Sardinians on the ground of numerous factors, such as their outlandish language, their kinship with Carthage and their refusal to engage with Rome,[96] would call the Sardinian rebels latrones mastrucati ("thieves with rough wool cloaks") or Afri ("Africans") to emphasize Roman superiority over a population mocked as the refuse of Carthage.[note 2]

A number of obscure Nuragic roots remained unchanged, and in many cases Latin accepted the local roots (like nur, presumably cognate of Norax, which makes its appearance in nuraghe, Nurra, Nurri and many other toponyms). Barbagia, the mountainous central region of the island, derives its name from the Latin Barbaria (a term meaning "Land of the Barbarians", similar in origin to the now antiquated word "Barbary"), because its people refused cultural and linguistic assimilation for a long time: 50% of toponyms of central Sardinia, particularly in the territory of Olzai, are actually not related to any known language.[97] According to Terracini, amongst the regions in Europe that went on to draw their language from Latin, Sardinia has overall preserved the highest proportion of pre-Latin toponyms.[98] Besides the place names, on the island there are still a few names of plants, animals and geological formations directly traceable to the ancient Nuragic era.[99]

By the end of the Roman domination, Latin had gradually become however the speech of most of the island's inhabitants.[100] As a result of this protracted and prolonged process of Romanisation, the modern Sardinian language is today classified as Romance or neo-Latin, with some phonetic features resembling Old Latin. Some linguists assert that modern Sardinian, being part of the Island Romance group,[101] was the first language to split off from Latin,[102] all others evolving from Latin as Continental Romance. In fact, contact with Rome might have ceased from as early as the first century BC.[103] In terms of vocabulary, Sardinian retains an array of peculiar Latin-based forms that are either unfamiliar to, or have altogether disappeared in, the rest of the Romance-speaking world.[104][105]

The number of Latin inscriptions on the island is relatively small and fragmented. Some engraved poems in ancient Greek and Latin (the two most prestigious languages in the Roman Empire[106]) are seen in the so-called "Viper's Cave" (Gruta 'e sa Pibera in Sardinian, Grotta della Vipera in Italian, Cripta Serpentum in Latin), a burial monument built in Caralis (Cagliari) by Lucius Cassius Philippus (a Roman who had been exiled to Sardinia) in remembrance of his dead spouse Atilia Pomptilla;[107] we also have some religious works by Eusebius and Saint Lucifer, both from Caralis and in the writing style of whom may be noted the lexicon and perifrastic forms typical of Sardinian (e.g. narrare in place of dicere; compare with Sardinian nàrrere or nàrri(ri) "to say").[108]

After a period of 80 years under the Vandals, Sardinia would again be part of the Byzantine Empire under the Exarchate of Africa[109] for almost another five centuries. Luigi Pinelli believes that the Vandal presence had "estranged Sardinia from Europe, linking its own destiny to Africa's territorial expanse" in a bond that was to strengthen further "under Byzantine rule, not only because the Roman Empire included the island in the African Exarchate, but also because it developed from there, albeit indirectly, its ethnic community, causing it to acquire many of the African characteristics" that would allow ethnologists and historians to elaborate the theory of the Paleo-Sardinians' supposed African origin,[110] now disproved. Casula is convinced that the Vandal domination caused a "clear breaking with the Roman-Latin writing tradition or, at the very least, an appreciable bottleneck" so that the subsequent Byzantine government was able to establish "its own operational institutions" in a "territory disputed between the Greek- and the Latin-speaking world".[111]

Despite a period of almost five centuries, the Greek language only lent Sardinian a few ritual and formal expressions using Greek structure and, sometimes, the Greek alphabet.[112][113] Evidence for this is found in the condaghes, the first written documents in Sardinian. From the long Byzantine era there are only a few entries but they already provide a glimpse of the sociolinguistical situation on the island in which, in addition to the community's everyday Neo-Latin language, Greek was also spoken by the ruling classes.[114] Some toponyms, such as Jerzu (thought to derive from the Greek khérsos, "untilled"), together with the personal names Mikhaleis, Konstantine and Basilis, demonstrate Greek influence.[114]

Judicates period Edit

 
The condaghe of Saint Peter of Silki (1065–1180), written in Sardinian.

As the Muslims made their way into North Africa, what remained of the Byzantine possession of the Exarchate of Africa was only the Balearic Islands and Sardinia. Pinelli believes that this event constituted a fundamental watershed in the historical course of Sardinia, leading to the definitive severance of those previously close cultural ties between Sardinia and the southern shore of the Mediterranean: any previously held commonality shared between Sardinia and Africa "disappeared, like mist in the sun, as a result of North Africa's conquest by Islamic forces, since the latter, due to the fierce resistance of the Sardinians, were not able to spread to the island, as they had in Africa".[110] Michele Amari, quoted by Pinelli, writes that "the attempts of the Muslims of Africa to conquer Sardinia and Corsica were frustrated by the unconquered valour of the poor and valiant inhabitants of those islands, who saved themselves for two centuries from the yoke of the Arabs".[115]

As the Byzantines were fully focused on reconquering southern Italy and Sicily, which had in the meanwhile also fallen to the Muslims, their attention on Sardinia was neglected and communications broke down with Constantinople; this spurred the former Byzantine province of Sardinia to become progressively more autonomous from the Byzantine oecumene, and eventually attain independence.[116] Pinelli argues that "the Arab conquest of North Africa separated Sardinia from that continent without, however, causing the latter to rejoin Europe" and that this event "determined a capital turning point for Sardinia, giving rise to a de facto independent national government".[110] Historian Marc Bloch believed that, owing to Sardinia being a country which found itself in "quasi-isolation" from the rest of the continent, the earliest documentary testimonies, written in Sardinian, were much older than those first issued in Italy.[117]

 
The first page of a copy of the Arborean Carta de Logu (University Public Library of Cagliari).

Sardinian was the first Romance language of all to gain official status, being used by the four Judicates,[118][119][120][121][note 3] former Byzantine districts that became independent political entities after the Arab expansion in the Mediterranean had cut off any ties left between the island and Byzantium. The exceptionality of the Sardinian situation, which in this sense constitutes a unique case throughout the Latin-speaking Europe, consists in the fact that any official text was written solely in Sardinian from the very beginning and completely excluded Latin, unlike what was happening – and would continue to happen – in France, Italy and Iberia at the same time; Latin, although co-official, was in fact used only in documents concerning external relations in which the Sardinian kings (judikes, "judges") engaged.[122] Awareness of the dignity of Sardinian for official purposes was such that, in the words of Livio Petrucci, a Neo-Latin language had come to be used "at a time when nothing similar can be observed in the Italian peninsula" not only "in the legal field" but also "in any other field of writing".[123]

A diplomatic analysis of the earliest Sardinian documents shows that the Judicates provided themselves with chanceries, which employed an indigenous diplomatic model for writing public documents;[124] one of them, dating to 1102, displays text in half-uncial, a script that had long fallen out of use on the European continent and F. Casula believes may have been adopted by the Sardinians of Latin culture as their own "national script" from the 8th until the 12th century,[125] prior to their receiving outside influence from the arrival of mainly Italian notaries.

Extract from Bonarcado's Condaghe,[126] 22 (1120–1146)
" Ego Gregorius, priore de Bonarcadu, partivi cun iudice de Gallulu. Coiuvedi Goantine Mameli, serbu de sancta Maria de Bonarcadu, cun Maria de Lee, ancilla de iudice de Gallul. Fegerunt II fiios: Zipari et Justa. Clesia levait a Zipari et iudice levait a Justa. Testes: Nigola de Pane, Comida Pira, Goantine de Porta, armentariu dessu archipiscobu. "

Old Sardinian had a greater number of archaisms and Latinisms than the present language does, with few Germanic words, mostly coming from Latin itself, and even fewer Arabisms, which had been imported by scribes from Iberia;[127] in spite of their best efforts with a score of expeditions to the island, from which they would get considerable booty and a hefty number of Sardinian slaves, the Arab assailants were in fact each time forcefully driven back and would never manage to conquer and settle on the island.[128]

Although the surviving texts come from such disparate areas as the north and the south of the island, Sardinian then presented itself in a rather homogeneous form:[129] even though the orthographic differences between Logudorese and Campidanese Sardinian were beginning to appear, Wagner found in this period "the original unity of the Sardinian language".[130] In agreement with Wagner is Paolo Merci, who found a "broad uniformity" around this period, as were Antonio Sanna and Ignazio Delogu too, for whom it was the islanders' community life that prevented Sardinian from localism.[129] According to Carlo Tagliavini, these earlier documents show the existence of a Sardinian Koine which pointed to a model based on Logudorese.[131][132]

According to Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, it was in the wake of the fall of the Judicates of Cagliari and Gallura, in the second half of the 13th century, that Sardinian began to fragment into its modern dialects, undergoing some Tuscanization under the rule of the Republic of Pisa;[133] it did not take long before the Genoese too started carving their own sphere of influence in northern Sardinia, both through the mixed Sardinian-Genoese nobility of Sassari and the members of the Doria family.[134] A certain range of dialectal variation is then noted.[67][2]

A special position was occupied by the Judicate of Arborea, the last Sardinian kingdom to fall to foreign powers, in which a transitional dialect was spoken, that of Middle Sardinian. The Carta de Logu of the Kingdom of Arborea, one of the first constitutions in history drawn up in 1355–1376 by Marianus IV and the Queen, the "Lady Judge" (judikessa in Sardinian, jutgessa in Catalan, giudicessa in Italian) Eleanor, was written in this transitional variety of Sardinian, and would remain in force until 1827.[135][136] The Arborean judges' effort to unify the Sardinian dialects were due to their desire to be legitimate rulers of the entire island under a single state (republica sardisca "Sardinian Republic");[137] such political goal, after all, was already manifest in 1164, when the Arborean Judge Barison ordered his great seal to be made with the writings Baresonus Dei Gratia Rei Sardiniee ("Barison, by the grace of God, King of Sardinia") and Est vis Sardorum pariter regnum Populorum ("The people's rule is equal to the Sardinians' own force").[138]

Dante Alighieri wrote in his 1302–05 essay De vulgari eloquentia that Sardinians were strictly speaking not Italians (Latii), even though they appeared superficially similar to them, and they did not speak anything close to a Neo-Latin language of their own (lingua vulgaris), but resorted to aping straightforward Latin instead.[139][140][141][142][143][144][145] Dante's view on the Sardinians, however, is proof of how their language had been following its own course in a way which was already unintelligible to non-islanders, and had become, in Wagner's words, an impenetrable "sphinx" to their judgment.[127] Frequently mentioned is a previous 12th-century poem by the troubadour Raimbaut de Vaqueiras, Domna, tant vos ai preiada ("Lady, so much I have endeared you"); Sardinian epitomizes outlandish speech therein, along with non-Romance languages such as German and Berber, with the troubadour having the lady say "No t'entend plui d'un Todesco / Sardesco o Barbarì" ("I don't understand you more than a German or Sardinian or Berber");[146][147][148][143][149][150][151] the Tuscan poet Fazio degli Uberti refers to the Sardinians in his poem Dittamondo as "una gente che niuno non-la intende / né essi sanno quel ch'altri pispiglia" ("a people that no one is able to understand / nor do they come to a knowledge of what other peoples say about them").[152][145][143]

The Muslim geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi, who lived in Palermo, Sicily at the court of King Roger II, wrote in his work Kitab Nuzhat al-mushtāq fi'khtirāq al-āfāq ("The book of pleasant journeys into faraway lands" or, simply, "The book of Roger") that "Sardinians are ethnically Rūm Afāriqah, like the Berbers; they shun contacts with all the other Rūm nations and are people of purpose and valiant that never leave the arms".[153][154][155][156][157] According to Wagner, the close relationship in the development of Vulgar Latin between North Africa and Sardinia might not have only derived from ancient ethnic affinities between the two populations, but also from their common political past within the Exarchate of Africa.[158]

 
Sardinian-language statutes of Sassari from the 13th–14th centuries

What literature is left to us from this period primarily consists of legal and administrative documents, besides the aforementioned Cartas and condaghes. The first document containing Sardinian elements is a 1063 donation to the abbey of Montecassino signed by Barisone I of Torres.[159] Another such document (the so-called Carta Volgare) comes from the Judicate of Cagliari and was issued by Torchitorio I de Lacon-Gunale in around 1070, written in Sardinian whilst still employing the Greek alphabet.[160] Other documents are the 1080 "Logudorese Privilege", the 1089 Torchitorius' Donation (in the Marseille archives), the 1190–1206 Marsellaise Chart (in Campidanese Sardinian) and an 1173 communication between the Bishop Bernardo of Civita and Benedetto, who oversaw the Opera del Duomo in Pisa. The Statutes of Sassari (1316) and Castelgenovese (c. 1334) are written in Logudorese Sardinian.

The first chronicle in lingua sive ydiomate sardo,[161] called Condagues de Sardina, was published anonymously in the 13th century, relating the events of the Judicate of Torres.

Iberian period – Catalan and Castilian influence Edit

The 1297 feoffment of Sardinia by Pope Boniface VIII led to the creation of the Kingdom of Sardinia: that is, of a state which, although lacking in summa potestas, entered by right as a member in personal union within the broader Mediterranean structure of the Crown of Aragon, a composite state. Thus began a long war between the latter and, to the cry of Helis, Helis, from 1353, the previously allied Judicate of Arborea, in which the Sardinian language was to play the role of an ethnic marker.[162]

The war had, among its motives, a never dormant and ancient Arborean political design to establish "a great island nation-state, wholly indigenous" which was assisted by the massive participation of the rest of the Sardinians, i.e. those not residing within the jurisdiction of Arborea (Sardus de foras),[163] as well as a widespread impatience with the foreign importation of a feudal regime, specifically "more Italie" and "Cathalonie", which threatened the survival of deep-rooted indigenous institutions and, far from ensuring the return of the island to a unitary regime, had only introduced there "tot reges quot sunt ville" ("as many petty rulers as there are villages"),[164] whereas instead "Sardi unum regem se habuisse credebant ("the Sardinians believed they had one single king").

The conflict between the two sovereign and warring parties, during which the Aragonese possessions making up the Kingdom of Sardinia were first administratively split into two separate "halves" (capita) by Peter IV the Ceremonious in 1355, ended after sixty-seven years with the Iberian victory at Sanluri in 1409 and the renunciation of any succession right signed by William II of Narbonne in 1420. This event marked the definitive end of Sardinian independence, whose historical relevance for the island, likened by Francesco C. Casula to "the end of Aztec Mexico", should be considered "neither triumph nor defeat, but the painful birth of today's Sardinia".[165]

Any outbreak of anti-Aragonese rebellion, such as the revolt of Alghero in 1353, that of Uras in 1470 and finally that of Macomer in 1478, celebrated in De bello et interitu marchionis Oristanei,[166] were and would have been systematically neutralised. From that moment, "quedó de todo punto Sardeña por el rey".[167]

Casula believes that the Aragonese winners from the brutal conflict would then move on to destroy the pre-existing documentary production of the still living Sardinian Judicate, which was predominantly written in Sardinian language along with other ones the chancery was engaged with, leaving behind their trail only "a few stones" and, overall, a "small group of documents",[168] many of which are in fact still preserved and/or refer to archives outside the island.[169] Specifically, the Arborean documents and the palace in which they were kept would be completely set on fire on May 21, 1478, as the viceroy triumphantly entered Oristano after having tamed the aforementioned 1478 rebellion, which threatened the revival of an Arborean identity which had been de jure abolished in 1420 but was still very much alive in popular memory.[170]

Thereafter, the ruling class in Sardinia proceeded to adopt Catalan as their primary language. The situation in Cagliari, a city subject to Aragonese repopulation and where, according to Giovanni Francesco Fara (Ioannes Franciscus Fara / Juanne Frantziscu Fara), for a time Catalan took over Sardinian as in Alghero,[171] was emblematic, so much so as to later generate idioms such as no scit su catalanu ("he does not know Catalan") to indicate a person who could not express themselves "correctly".[172] Alghero is still a Catalan-speaking enclave on Sardinia to this day.[173] Nevertheless, the Sardinian language did not disappear from official use: the Catalan juridical tradition in the cities coexisted with that of the Sardinians, marked in 1421 by the Parliamentary extension of the Arborean Carta de Logu to the feudal areas during the Reign of King Alfonso the Magnanimous,[174] and Sardinian continued to be used in documents pertaining to administrative and ecclesiastical spheres until the late 17th century.[175][176] Fara, in the same first modern monograph dedicated to Sardinia, reported the lively multilingualism in "one and the same people", because of immigration "by Spaniards and Italians" who came to the island to trade with the native Sardinians.[171]

The long-lasting war and the so-called Black Death had a devastating effect on the island, depopulating large parts of it. People from the neighbouring island of Corsica, which had been already Tuscanised, began to settle en masse in the northern Sardinian coast, leading to the birth of Sassarese and then Gallurese, two Italo-Dalmatian lects.[177][178]

Extract from sa Vitta et sa Morte, et Passione de sanctu Gavinu, Prothu et Januariu (A. Cano, ~1400)[179]

O

Deus eternu, sempre omnipotente,
In s'aiudu meu ti piacat attender,
Et dami gratia de poder acabare
Su sanctu martiriu, in rima vulgare,
5. De sos sanctos martires tantu gloriosos
Et cavaleris de Cristus victoriosos,
Sanctu Gavinu, Prothu e Januariu,
Contra su demoniu, nostru adversariu,
Fortes defensores et bonos advocados,
10. Qui in su Paradisu sunt glorificados
De sa corona de sanctu martiriu.
Cussos sempre siant in nostru adiutoriu.
Amen.

Despite Catalan being widely spoken and written on the island at this time (leaving a lasting influence in Sardinian), there are written records of Sardinian, one of which is the 15th-century Sa Vitta et sa Morte, et Passione de sanctu Gavinu, Brothu et Ianuariu, written by Antòni Canu (1400–1476) and published in 1557.[179]

The 16th century is instead marked by a new literary revival of Sardinian, which was estimated to be the native people's ordinary language by the Jesuits in 1561.[180] Rimas Spirituales, by Hieronimu Araolla,[181] was aimed at "glorifying and enriching Sardinian, our language" (magnificare et arrichire sa limba nostra sarda) as the Spanish, French and Italian poets had already done for their own languages (la Deffense et illustration de la langue françoyse and Il Dialogo delle lingue). This way, Araolla is one of the first Sardinian authors to bind the language to a Sardinian nation,[182] the existence of which is not outright stated but naturally implied.[183][note 4] Antonio Lo Frasso, a poet born in Alghero[184] (a city he remembered fondly)[185] who spent his life in Barcelona, wrote lyric poetry in Sardinian.[186]

Agreeing with Fara's aforementioned De rebus Sardois, the Sardinian attorney Sigismondo Arquer, author of Sardiniae brevis historia et descriptio in Sebastian Münster's Cosmographia universalis (whose report would also be quoted in Conrad Gessner's "On the different languages used by the various nations across the globe" with minor variations[187]), stated that Sardinian prevailed in most of the Kingdom, with particular regard for the rural interior, while Catalan and Spanish were spoken in the cities, where the predominantly Iberian ruling class "occupies most of the official positions"; although the Sardinian language had become fragmented due to foreign domination (i.e. "namely Latins, Pisans, Genoese, Spanish, and Africans"), Arquer pointed to there being many Sardinian words with apparently no traceable origin and reported that Sardinians nevertheless "understand each other perfectly".[188]

The sociolinguistic situation was characterised by the active and passive competence of the two Iberian languages in the cities and of Sardinian in the rest of the island, as reported in various contemporary testimonies: Cristòfor Despuig, in Los Colloquis de la Insigne Ciutat de Tortosa, claimed in 1557 that, although Catalan had carved out a place for itself as llengua cortesana, in many parts of the island the "ancient language of the Kingdom" ("llengua antigua del Regne") was still preserved;[189] the ambassador and visitador reial Martin Carillo (supposed author of the ironic judgment on the Sardinians' tribal and sectarian divisions: "pocos, locos, y mal unidos" "few, thickheaded, and badly united"[190]) noted in 1611 that the main cities spoke Catalan and Spanish, but outside these cities no other language was understood than Sardinian, which in turn was understood by everyone in the entire Kingdom;[189] Joan Gaspar Roig i Jalpí, author of Llibre dels feyts d'armes de Catalunya, reported in the mid-seventeenth century that in Sardinia "parlen la llengua catalana molt polidament, axì com fos a Catalunya" ("they speak Catalan very well, as though I was in Catalonia");[189] Anselm Adorno, originally from Genoa but living in Bruges, noted in his pilgrimages how, many foreigners notwithstanding, the natives still spoke their own language (linguam propriam sardiniscam loquentes);[191]); another testimony is offered by the rector of the Jesuit college of Sassari Baldassarre Pinyes who, in Rome, wrote: "As far as the Sardinian language is concerned, Your Paternity should know that it is not spoken in this city, nor in Alghero, nor in Cagliari: it is only spoken in the towns".[192]

Especially through the reorganization of the monarchy led by the Count-Duke of Olivares, Sardinia would gradually join a broad Spanish cultural sphere. Spanish was perceived as an elitist language, gaining solid ground among the ruling Sardinian class; Spanish had thus a profound influence on Sardinian, especially in those words, styles and cultural models owing to the prestigious international role of the Habsburg monarchy as well as the Court.[note 5][181] Most Sardinian authors would write in both Spanish and Sardinian until the 19th century and were well-versed in the former, like Vicente Bacallar y Sanna that was one of the founders of the Real Academia Española;[193] according to Bruno Anatra's estimates, around 87% of the books printed in Cagliari were in Spanish.[190] A notable exception was Pedro Delitala (1550–1590), who decided to write in Italian instead.[184][194] Nonetheless, the Sardinian language retained much of its importance, earning respect from the Spaniards in light of it being the ethnic code the people from most of the Kingdom kept using, especially in the interior.[195][note 6] New genres of popular poetry were established around this period, like the gosos or gocius (sacred hymns), the anninnia (lullabies), the attitu (funeral laments), the batorinas (quatrains), the berbos and paraulas (curses), and the improvised poetry of the mutu and mutetu.

Sardinian was also one of the few official languages, along with Spanish, Catalan and Portuguese, whose knowledge was required to be an officer in the Spanish tercios.[196]

Ioan Matheu Garipa, a priest from Orgosolo who translated the Italian Leggendario delle Sante Vergini e Martiri di Gesù Cristo into Sardinian (Legendariu de Santas Virgines, et Martires de Iesu Christu) in 1627, was the first author to claim that Sardinian was the closest living relative of classical Latin[note 7] and, like Araolla before him,[182] valued Sardinian as the language of a specific ethno-national community.[197] In this regard, the philologist Paolo Maninchedda argues that by doing so, these authors did not write "about Sardinia or in Sardinian to fit into an island system, but to inscribe Sardinia and its language – and with them, themselves – in a European system. Elevating Sardinia to a cultural dignity equal to that of other European countries also meant promoting the Sardinians, and in particular their educated countrymen, who felt that they had no roots and no place in the continental cultural system".[198]

 
Three gravestones dating to the second half of the 19th century in the historic cemetery of Ploaghe (Logudoro), wherein a total of 39 gravestones have writings in Sardinian and 3 in Italian.[199]

Savoyard period – Italian influence Edit

The War of the Spanish Succession gave Sardinia to Austria, whose sovereignty was confirmed by the 1713–14 treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt. In 1717 a Spanish fleet reoccupied Cagliari, and the following year Sardinia was ceded to Victor Amadeus II of Savoy in exchange for Sicily. The Savoyard representative, the Count of Lucerna di Campiglione, received the definitive deed of cession from the Austrian delegate Don Giuseppe dei Medici, on condition that the "rights, statutes, privileges of the nation" that had been the subject of diplomatic negotiations were preserved.[200] The island thus entered the Italian orbit after the Iberian one,[201] although this transfer would not initially entail any social nor cultural and linguistic changes: Sardinia would still retain for a long time its Iberian character, so much so that only in 1767 were the Aragonese and Spanish dynastic symbols replaced by the Savoyard cross.[202] Until 1848, the Kingdom of Sardinia would be a composite state, and the island of Sardinia would remain a separate country with its own traditions and institutions, albeit without summa potestas and in personal union as an overseas possession of the House of Savoy.[200]

The Sardinian language, although practiced in a state of diglossia, continued to be spoken by all social classes, its linguistic alterity and independence being universally perceived;[203] Spanish, on the other hand, was the prestige code known and used by the Sardinian social strata with at least some education, in so pervasive a manner that Joaquín Arce refers to it in terms of a paradox: Castilian had become the common language of the islanders by the time they officially ceased to be Spanish and, through their annexation by the House of Savoy, became Italian through Piedmont instead.[204][205][206] Given the current situation, the Piedmontese ruling class which held the reins of the island, in this early phase, resolved to maintain its political and social institutions, while at the same time progressively hollowing them out[207] as well as "treating the [Sardinian] followers of one faction and of the other equally, but keeping them divided in such a way as to prevent them from uniting, and for us to put to good use such rivalry when the occasion presents itself".[208]

According to Amos Cardia, this pragmatic stance was rooted in three political reasons: in the first place, the Savoyards did not want to rouse international suspicion and followed to the letter the rules dictated by the Treaty of London, signed on 2 August 1718, whereby they had committed themselves to respect the fundamental laws of the newly acquired Kingdom; in the second place, they did not want to antagonize the hispanophile locals, especially the elites; and finally, they lingered on hoping they could one day manage to dispose of Sardinia altogether, while still keeping the title of Kings by regaining Sicily.[209] In fact, since imposing Italian would have violated one of the fundamental laws of the Kingdom, which the new rulers swore to observe upon taking on the mantle of King, Victor Amadeus II emphasised the need for the operation to be carried out through incremental steps, small enough to go relatively unnoticed (insensibilmente), as early as 1721.[210] Such prudence was again noted, when the King claimed that he was nevertheless not intentioned to ban either Sardinian or Spanish on two separate occasions, in 1726 and 1728.[211]

The fact that the new masters of Sardinia felt at loss as to how they could better deal with a cultural and linguistic environment they perceived as alien to the Mainland,[212] where Italian had long been the prestige and even official language, can be deduced from the study Memoria dei mezzi che si propongono per introdurre l'uso della lingua italiana in questo Regno ("Account of the proposed ways to introduce the Italian language to this Kingdom") commissioned in 1726 by the Piedmontese administration, to which the Jesuit Antonio Falletti from Barolo responded suggesting the ignotam linguam per notam expōnĕre ("to introduce an unknown language [Italian] through a known one [Spanish]") method as the best course of action for Italianisation.[213] In the same year, Victor Amadeus II had already said he could no longer tolerate the lack of ability to speak Italian on the part of the islanders, in view of the inconveniences that such inability was putting through for the functionaries sent from the Mainland.[214] Restrictions to mixed marriages between Sardinian women and the Piedmontese officers dispatched to the island, which had hitherto been prohibited by law,[215] were at one point lifted and even encouraged so as to better introduce the language to the local population.[216][217]

Eduardo Blasco Ferrer argues that, in contrast to the cultural dynamics long established in the Mainland between Italian and the various Romance dialects thereof, in Sardinia the relationship between the Italian language – recently introduced by Savoy – and the native one had been perceived from the start by the locals, educated and uneducated alike, as a relationship (albeit unequal in terms of political power and prestige) between two very different languages, and not between a language and one of its dialects.[218] The plurisecular Iberian period had also contributed in making the Sardinians feel relatively detached from the Italian language and its cultural sphere; local sensibilities towards the language were further exacerbated by the fact that the Spanish ruling class had long considered Sardinian a distinct language, with respect to their own ones and Italian as well.[219] The perception of the alterity of Sardinian was also widely shared among the Italians who happened to visit the island and recounted their experiences with the local population,[220] whom they often likened to the Spanish and the ancient peoples of the Orient, an opinion illustrated by the Duke Francis IV and Antonio Bresciani;[221][222] a popular assertion by the officer Giulio Bechi, who would participate in a military campaign against Sardinian banditry dubbed as caccia grossa ("great hunt"), was that the islanders spoke "a horrible language, as intricate as Saracen, and sounding like Spanish".[223]

However, the Savoyard government eventually decided to directly introduce Italian altogether to Sardinia on the conventional date of 25 July 1760,[224][225][226][227] because of the Savoyards' geopolitical need to draw the island away from Spain's gravitational pull and culturally integrate Sardinia into the orbit of the Italian peninsula,[228] through the thorough assimilation of the island's cultural models, which were deemed by the Savoyard functionaries as "foreign" and "inferior", to Piedmont.[229][230][231][note 8] In fact, the measure in question prohibited, among other things, "the unreserved use of the Castilian idiom in writing and speaking, which, after forty years of Italian rule, was still so deeply rooted in the hearts of the Sardinian teachers".[232] In 1764, the exclusive imposition of the Italian language was finally extended to all sectors of public life,[233][234][235] including education,[236][237] in parallel with the reorganisation of the Universities of Cagliari and Sassari, which saw the arrival of personnel from the Italian mainland, and the reorganisation of lower education, where it was decided likewise to send teachers from Piedmont to make up for the lack of Italian-speaking Sardinian teachers.[238] In 1763, it had already been planned to "send a number of skilled Italian professors" to Sardinia to "rid the Sardinian teachers of their errors" and "steer them along the right path".[232] The purpose did not elude the attention of the Sardinian ruling class, who deplored the fact that "the Piedmontese bishops have introduced preaching in Italian" and, in an anonymous document attributed to the conservative Sardinian Parliament and eloquently called Lamento del Regno ("Grievance of the Kingdom"), denounced how "the arms, the privileges, the laws, the language, University, and currency of Aragon have now been taken away, to the disgrace of Spain, and to the detriment of all particulars".[189][239]

Spanish was replaced as the official language, even though Italian struggled to take roots for a long time: Milà i Fontanals wrote in 1863 that Catalan had been used in notarial instruments from Sardinia well into the 1780s,[189] while parish registers and official deeds continued to be drawn up in Spanish until 1828.[240] The most immediate effect of the order was thus the further marginalization of the Sardinians' native idiom, making way for a thorough Italianisation of the island.[241][242][234][2] For the first time, in fact, even the wealthy and most powerful families of rural Sardinia, the printzipales, started to perceive Sardinian as a handicap.[233] Girolamo Sotgiu asserts on the matter that "the Sardinian ruling class, just as it had become Hispanicized, now became Italianised, without ever managing to become Sardinian, that is to say, to draw from the experience and culture of their people, from which it came, those elements of concreteness without which a culture and a ruling class always seem foreign even in their homeland. This was the objective that the Savoyard government had set itself and which, to a good measure, it managed to pursue".[232]

Francesco Gemelli, in Il Rifiorimento della Sardegna proposto nel miglioramento di sua agricoltura, depicts the island's linguistic pluralism in 1776, and referring to Francesco Cetti's I quadrupedi della Sardegna for a more meticulous analysis of "the character of the Sardinian language ("indole della lingua sarda") and the main differences between Sassarese and Tuscan": "five languages are spoken in Sardinia, that is Spanish, Italian, Sardinian, Algherese, and Sassarese. The former two because of the past and today's domination, and they are understood and spoken through schooling by all the educated people residing in the cities, as well as villages. Sardinian is common to all the Kingdom, and is divided into two main dialects, Campidanese Sardinian and Sardinian from the Upper Half ("capo di sopra"). Algherese is a Catalan dialect, for a Catalan colony is Alghero; and finally Sassarese, which is spoken in Sassari, Tempio and Castel sardo (sic), is a dialect of Tuscan, a relic of their Pisan overlords. Spanish is losing ground to Italian, which has taken over the former in the fields of education and jurisdiction".[243]

The first systematic study on the Sardinian language was written in 1782 by the philologist Matteo Madau, with the title of Il ripulimento della lingua sarda lavorato sopra la sua antologia colle due matrici lingue, la greca e la latina.[244] The intention that motivated Madau was to trace the ideal path through which Sardinian could be elevated to the island's proper national language;[245][246][247] nevertheless, according to Amos Cardia, the Savoyard climate of repression on Sardinian culture would induce Matteo Madau to veil its radical proposals with some literary devices, and the author was eventually unable to ever translate them into reality.[248] The first volume of comparative Sardinian dialectology was produced in 1786 by the Catalan Jesuit Andres Febres, known in Italy and Sardinia by the pseudonym of Bonifacio d'Olmi, who returned from Lima where he had first published a book of Mapuche grammar in 1764.[249] After he moved to Cagliari, he became fascinated with the Sardinian language as well and conducted some research on three specific dialects; the aim of his work, entitled Prima grammatica de' tre dialetti sardi,[250] was to "write down the rules of the Sardinian language" and spur the Sardinians to "cherish the language of their Homeland, as well as Italian". The government in Turin, which had been monitoring Febres' activity, decided that his work would not be allowed to be published: Victor Amadeus III had supposedly not appreciated the fact that the book had a bilingual dedication to him in Italian and Sardinian, a mistake that his successors, while still echoing back to a general concept of "Sardinian ancestral homeland", would from then on avoid, and making exclusive use of Italian to produce their works.[248]

At the end of the 18th century, following the trail of the French Revolution, a group of the Sardinian middle class planned to break away from Savoyard rule and institute an independent Sardinian Republic under French protection; all over the island, a number of political pamphlets printed in Sardinian were illegally distributed, calling for a mass revolt against the "Piedmontese" rule and the barons' abuse. The most famous literary product born out of such political unrest was the poem Su patriottu sardu a sos feudatarios, noted as a testament of the French-inspired democratic and patriotic values, as well as Sardinia's situation under feudalism.[251][252] As for the reactions that the three-year Sardinian revolutionary period aroused in the island's ruling class, who were now in the process of Italianisation, for Sotgiu "its failure was complete: undecided between a breathless municipalism and a dead-end attachment to the Crown, it did not have the courage to lead the revolutionary wave coming from the countryside".[232] In fact, although pamphlets such as "the Achilles of Sardinian Liberation" circulated, denouncing the backwardness of an oppressive feudal system and a Ministry that was said to have "always been the enemy of the Sardinian Nation", and the "social pact between the Sovereign and the Nation" was declared to have been broken, there was no radical change in the form of government: therefore, it is not surprising, according to Sotgiu, that although "the call for the Sardinian nation, its traditions and identity became stronger and stronger, even to the point of requesting the creation of a stable military force of "Sardinian nationals only"", the concrete hypothesis of abolishing the monarchical and feudal regimes did not "make its way into the consciousness of many".[253] The only result was therefore "the defeat of the peasant class emerging from the very core of feudal society, urged on by the masses of peasants and led by the most advanced forces of the Sardinian bourgeoisie"[254] and, conversely, the victory of the feudal barons and "of large strata of the town bourgeoisie that had developed within the framework of the feudal order and feared that the abolition of feudalism and the proclamation of the Republic might simultaneously destroy the very basis of their own wealth and prestige".[255]

In the climate of monarchic restoration that followed Giovanni Maria Angioy's rebellion, whose substantial failure marked therefrom a historic watershed in Sardinia's future,[255] other Sardinian intellectuals, all characterized by an attitude of general devotion to their island as well as proven loyalty to the House of Savoy, posed in fact the question of the Sardinian language, while being careful enough to use only Italian as a language to get their point across. During the 19th century in particular, the Sardinian intellectuality and ruling class found itself divided over the adherence to the Sardinian national values and the allegiance to the new Italian nationality,[256] toward which they eventually leaned in the wake of the abortive Sardinian revolution.[257] The identity crisis of the Sardinian ruling class, and their strive for acceptance into the new citizenship of the Italian identity, would manifest itself with the publication of the so-called Falsi d'Arborea[258] by the unionist Pietro Martini in 1863.

A few years after the major anti-Piedmontese revolt, in 1811, the priest Vincenzo Raimondo Porru published a timid essay of Sardinian grammar, which, however, referred expressively to the Southern dialect (hence the title of Saggio di grammatica del dialetto sardo meridionale[259]) and, out of prudence towards the king, was made with the declared intention of easing the acquisition of Italian among his fellow Sardinians, instead of protecting their language.[260] The more ambitious work of the professor and senator Giovanni Spano, the Ortographia sarda nationale ("Sardinian National Orthography"),[261] although it was officially meant for the same purpose as Porru's,[note 9] attempted in reality to establish a unified Sardinian orthography based on Logudorese, just like Florentine had become the basis for Italian.[262][263]

 
The Kingdom of Sardinia in 1856.

The jurist Carlo Baudi di Vesme claimed that the suppression of Sardinian and the imposition of Italian was desirable to make the islanders into "civilized Italians".[note 10][264] Since Sardinia was, in the words of Di Vesme, "not Spanish, but neither Italian: it is and has been for centuries just Sardinian",[265] it was necessary, at the turn of the circumstances that "inflamed it with ambition, desire and love of all things Italian",[265] to promote these tendencies even more in order "to profit from them in the common interest",[265] for which it proved "almost necessary"[266] to spread the Italian language in Sardinia "presently so little known in the interior"[265] with a view to better enable the Perfect Fusion: "Sardinia will be Piedmont, it will be Italy; it will receive and give us lustre, wealth and power!".[267][268]

The primary and tertiary education was thus offered exclusively through Italian, and Piedmontese cartographers went on to replace many Sardinian place names with Italian ones.[234] The Italian education, being imparted in a language the Sardinians were not familiar with,[note 11] spread Italian for the first time in history to Sardinian villages, marking the troubled transition to the new dominant language; the school environment, which employed Italian as the sole means of communication, grew to become a microcosm around the then-monolingual Sardinian villages.[note 12] In 1811, the canon Salvatore Carboni published in Bologna the polemic book Sos discursos sacros in limba sarda ("Holy Discourses in Sardinian language"), wherein the author lamented the fact that Sardinia, "hoe provinzia italiana non podet tenner sas lezzes e sos attos pubblicos in sa propia limba" ("Being an Italian province nowadays, [Sardinia] cannot have laws and public acts made in its own language"), and while claiming that "sa limba sarda, totu chi non uffiziale, durat in su Populu Sardu cantu durat sa Sardigna" ("the Sardinian language, however unofficial, will last as long as Sardinia among the Sardinians"), he also asked himself "Proite mai nos hamus a dispreziare cun d'unu totale abbandonu sa limba sarda, antiga et nobile cantu s'italiana, sa franzesa et s'ispagnola?" ("Why should we show neglect and contempt for Sardinian, which is a language as ancient and noble as Italian, French and Spanish?").[269]

In 1827, the historical legal code serving as the consuetud de la nació sardesca in the days of the Iberian rule, the Carta de Logu, was abolished and replaced by the more advanced Savoyard code of Charles Felix "Leggi civili e criminali del Regno di Sardegna", written in Italian.[270][271] The Perfect Fusion with the Mainland States, enacted under the auspices of a "transplant, without any reserves and obstacles, [of] the culture and civilization of the Italian Mainland to Sardinia",[272] would result in the loss of the island's residual autonomy[273][270] and marked the moment when "the language of the "Sardinian nation" lost its value as an instrument with which to ethnically identify a particular people and its culture, to be codified and cherished, and became instead one of the many regional dialects subordinated to the national language".[274]

Despite the long-term assimilation policy, the anthem of the Savoyard Kingdom of Sardinia would be S'hymnu sardu nationale ("the Sardinian National Anthem"), also known as Cunservet Deus su Re ("God save the King"), before it was de facto replaced by the Italian Marcia Reale as well, in 1861.[275] However, even when the island became part of the Kingdom of Italy under Victor Emmanuel II in 1861, Sardinia's distinct culture from the now unified Mainland made it an overall neglected province within the newly proclaimed unitary nation state.[276] Between 1848 and 1861, the island was plunged into a social and economic crisis that was to last until the post-war period.[277] Eventually, Sardinian came to be perceived as sa limba de su famine / sa lingua de su famini, literally translating into English as "the language of hunger" (i.e. the language of the poor), and Sardinian parents strongly supported the teaching of the Italian tongue to their children, since they saw it as the portal to escaping from a poverty-stricken, rural, isolated and underprivileged life.

Late modern period Edit

 
A Sardinian family reading L'Unione Sarda ("The Sardinian Union"), a daily newspaper in the Italian language founded in 1889.

At the dawn of the 20th century, Sardinian had remained an object of research almost only among the island's scholars, struggling to garner international interest and even more suffering from a certain marginalization in the strictly Italian sphere: one observes in fact "the prevalence of foreign scholars over Italian ones and/or the existence of fundamental and still irreplaceable contributions by non-Italian linguists".[278] Previously, Sardinian had been mentioned in a book by August Fuchs on irregular verbs in Romance languages (Über die sogennannten unregelmässigen Zeitwörter in den romanischen Sprachen, Berlin, 1840) and, later, in the second edition of Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen (1856–1860) written by Friedrich Christian Diez, credited as one of the founders of Romance philology.[278] The pioneering research of German authors spurred a certain interest in the Sardinian language on the part of some Italian scholars, such as Graziadio Isaia Ascoli and, above all, his disciple Pier Enea Guarnerio, who was the first in Italy to classify Sardinian as a separate member of the Romance language family without subordinating it to the group of "Italian dialects", as was previously the custom in Italy.[279] Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke, an undisputed authority on Romance linguistics, published in 1902 an essay on Logudorese Sardinian from the survey of the condaghe of San Pietro di Silki (Zur Kenntnis des Altlogudoresischen, in Sitzungsberichte der kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaft Wien, Phil. Hist. Kl., 145), the study of which led to the initiation into Sardinian linguistics of the then university student Max Leopold Wagner: it is to the latter's activity that much of the twentieth-century knowledge and research of Sardinian in the phonetic, morphological and, in part, syntactic fields was generated.[279]

During the mobilization for World War I, the Italian Army compelled all people on the island that were "of Sardinian stock" (di stirpe sarda[280]) to enlist as Italian subjects and established the Sassari Infantry Brigade on 1 March 1915 at Tempio Pausania and Sinnai. Unlike the other infantry brigades of Italy, Sassari's conscripts were only Sardinians (including many officers). It is currently the only unit in Italy with an anthem in a language other than Italian: Dimonios ("Devils"), which would be written in 1994 by Luciano Sechi; its title derives from the German-language Rote Teufel ("red devils"), by which they were popularly known among the troops of the Austro-Hungarian Army. Compulsory military service around this period played a role in language shift and is referred to by historian Manlio Brigaglia as "the first great mass "nationalization"" of the Sardinians.[281] Nevertheless, similarly to Navajo-speaking service members in the United States during World War II, as well as Quechua speakers during the Falklands War,[282] native Sardinians were offered the opportunity to be recruited as code talkers to transmit tactical information in Sardinian over radio communications which might have otherwise run the risk of being gained by Austrian troops, since some of them hailed from Italian-speaking areas to which, therefore, the Sardinian language was utterly alien:[283] Alfredo Graziani writes in his war diary that "having learned that many of our phonograms were being intercepted, we adopted the system of communicating on the phone only in Sardinian, certain that in this way they would never be able to understand what one was saying".[284] To avoid infiltration attempts by said Italophone troops, positions were guarded by Sardinian recruits from the Sassari Brigade who required anyone who came to them that they identify themselves first by proving they spoke Sardinian: "si ses italianu, faedda in sardu!".[285][286][283]

The Sardinian-born philosopher Antonio Gramsci commented on the Sardinian linguistic question while writing a letter to his sister Teresina; Gramsci was aware of the long-term ramifications of language shift, and suggested that Teresa let her son acquire Sardinian with no restriction, because doing otherwise would result in "putting his imagination into a straitjacket" as well as him ending up eventually "learning two jargons, and no language at all".[287][288][289]

Coinciding with the year of the Irish War of Independence, Sardinian autonomism re-emerged as an expression of the fighters' movement, coagulating into the Sardinian Action Party (PsdAz) which, before long, would become one of the most important players in the island's political life. At the beginning, the party would not have had strictly ethnic claims though, being the Sardinian language and culture widely perceived, in the words of Fiorenzo Toso, as "symbols of the region's underdevelopment".[277]

The policy of forced assimilation culminated in the twenty years of the Fascist regime, which launched a campaign of violent compression of autonomist demands and finally determined the island's definitive entry into the "national cultural system" through the combined work of the educational system and the one-party system.[290] Local cultural expressions were thus repressed, including Sardinia's festivals[291] and improvised poetry competitions,[292][293][294][295][296] and a large number of Sardinian surnames were changed to sound more Italian. An argument broke out between the Sardinian poet Antioco Casula (popularly known as Montanaru) and the fascist journalist Gino Anchisi, who stated that "once the region is moribund or dead", which the regime declared to be,[note 13] "so will the dialect (sic)", which was interpreted as "the region's revealing spiritual element";[297] in the wake of this debate, Anchisi managed to have Sardinian banned from the printing press, as well.[298][299] The significance of the Sardinian language as it was posed by Casula, in fact, lent itself to potentially subversive themes, being tied to the practices of cultural resistance of an indigenous ethnic group,[300] whose linguistic repertoire had to be introduced in school to preserve a "Sardinian personality" and regain "a dignity" perceived to have been lost in the process.[301] Another famed poet from the island, Salvatore (Bore) Poddighe, fell into a severe depression and took his own life a few years after his masterwork (Sa Mundana Cummedia[302]) had been seized by Cagliari's police commissioner.[303] When the use of Sardinian in school was banned in 1934 as part of a nation-wide educational plan against the alloglot "dialects", the then Sardinian-speaking children were confronted with another means of communication that was supposed to be their own from then onwards.[304]

On a whole, this period saw the most aggressive cultural assimilation effort by the central government,[305] which led to an even further sociolinguistic degradation of Sardinian.[306] While the interior managed to at least partially resist this intrusion at first, everywhere else the regime had succeeded in thoroughly supplanting the local cultural models with new ones hitherto foreign to the community and compress the former into a "pure matter of folklore", marking a severance from the island's heritage that engendered, according to Guido Melis, "an identity crisis with worrying social repercussions", as well as "a rift that could no longer be healed through the generations".[307] This period is identified by Manlio Brigaglia as the second mass "nationalization" of the Sardinians, which was characterized by "a policy deliberately aiming at "Italianisation"" by means of, in his words, "a declared war" against the usage of the Sardinian language by fascism and the Catholic Church alike.[281]

In 1945, following the restoration of political freedoms, the Sardinian Action Party called for autonomy as a federal state within the "new Italy" that had emerged from the Resistance:[277] it was in the context of the second post-war period that, as consensus for autonomy kept growing, the party began to distinguish itself by policies based on Sardinia's linguistic and cultural specificity.[277]

Present situation Edit

 
A bilingual sign in Villasor's town hall.

After World War II, awareness around the Sardinian language and the danger of its slipping away did not seem to concern the Sardinian elites and entered the political spaces later than in other European peripheries marked by the presence of local ethno-linguistic minorities;[308] Sardinian was in fact dismissed by the middle class,[306] as both the Sardinian language and culture were still being held responsible for the island's underdevelopment.[273] The Sardinian ruling class, drawn to the Italian modernisation stance on how to steer the islanders to "social development", believed in fact that the Sardinians had been held back by their own "traditional practices" vis-à-vis the mainlanders, and that, in order to catch up with the latter, social and cultural progress could only be brought about through the rejection of said practices.[309][310] As the language bore an increasing amount of stigmatisation and came to be perceived as an undesirable identity marker, the Sardinians were consequently encouraged to part with it by way of linguistic and cultural assimilation.[311]

At the time of drafting of the statute in 1948, the national legislator in Rome eventually decided to specify the "Sardinian specialty" as a criterion for political autonomy uniquely on the grounds of local socio-economic issues; further considerations were discarded which were centred on the ascertainment of a distinct cultural, historical and geographical identity, although they had been hitherto the primary local justifications arguing for home rule,[312][313][314][315][316][317] as they were looked down upon as a potential prelude to more autonomist or even more radical separatist claims;[318] this view would be exemplified by a report of the Italian Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry into Banditry, which warned against a looming threat posed by "isolationist tendencies injurious to the development of Sardinian society and recently manifesting themselves in the proposal to regard Sardinian as the language of an ethnic minority".[319] Eventually, the special statute of 1948 settled instead to concentrate on the arrangement of state-funded plans (baptised with the Italian name of piani di rinascita) for the heavy industrial development of the island.[320]

Therefore, far from generating a Statute grounded on the acknowledgment of a particular cultural identity like, for example, in the Aosta Valley and South Tyrol, what ended up resulting in Sardinia was, in the words of Mariarosa Cardia, an outcome "solely based on economic considerations, because there was not either the will or the ability to devise a strong and culturally motivated autonomy, a "Sardinian specificity" that was not defined in terms of social backwardness and economic deprivation".[321] Emilio Lussu, who admitted that he had only voted in favour of the final draft "to prevent the Statute from being rejected altogether by a single vote, even in such a reduced form", was the only member, at the session of 30 December 1946, to call in vain for the mandatory teaching of the Sardinian language, arguing that it was "a millenary heritage that must be preserved".[322]

In the meantime, the emphasis on Italian continued,[2] with historical sites and ordinary objects being henceforth popularised in Italian for mass consumption (e.g. the various kinds of "traditional" pecorino cheese, zippole instead of tzipulas, carta da musica instead of carasau, formaggelle instead of pardulas / casadinas, etc.).[323] The Ministry of Public Education once requested that the teachers willing to teach Sardinian be put under surveillance.[324][325][326] The rejection of the indigenous language and culture, along with a rigid model of Italian-language education[327] which induced a denigration of Sardinian through corporal punishment and shaming,[328][329] has led to poor schooling for the Sardinians.[330][331][332] Roberto Bolognesi stated that in his school years in Sardinia, he had "witnessed both physical and psychological abuse against monolingual Sardinian-speaking children. The psychological violence consisted usually in calling the children "donkeys" and in inviting the whole class to join the mockery".[333] Early school leaving and high school failure rates in Sardinia prompted a debate in the early Nineties on the efficaciousness of strictly monolingual education, with proposals for a focus on a comparative approach.[334]

Claims for an autonomous solution to the Sardinian economic, social and cultural problems, which the 1948 Statute proved unable to resolve,[273][335] came to the fore once again in the Sixties, with campaigns, often expressed in the form of political demands by Sardinian nationalists,[336][337] to give Sardinian equal status with Italian as a means to promote cultural identity.[338] Antonio Simon Mossa had drawn from his past experiences across the world, including the newly independent country of Algeria,[339] that Sardinians were one of the many ethnic and national minorities facing the danger of cultural assimilation,[340][339] and his fervor reverberated across the Sardinian society, pushing even some non-nationalist groups to take an interest in matters relating to minorities.[341] Although a law was passed as early as 1955 for the establishment of five professorships of Sardinian linguistics,[342] one of the first demands for bilingualism was in fact formulated in a resolution adopted by the University of Cagliari in 1971, calling upon the national and regional authorities to recognize the Sardinians as an ethnic and linguistic minority and Sardinian as the islanders' co-official language.[343][344][345][note 14] At a time when the Italian "modernisation plans" in Sardinia were in full swing, the Italian government was apprehensive about this deliberation by the University of Cagliari as providing the timber for further ethnic unrest in the state's peripheries.[346] Sergio Salvi's description of the Sardinians as a "forbidden nation" in Italy further contributed to the linguistic question gaining more notoriety at the national level.[347] A first legal draft concerning Sardinian as a language to be legally put on an equal position with Italian was developed by the Sardinian Action Party in 1975.[348][349] Critical acclaim in Sardinian cultural circles followed the patriotic poem No sias isciau[note 15] ("Don't be a slave") by Raimondo (Remundu) Piras some months before his death in 1977, urging bilingual education to reverse the ongoing trend of cultural De-Sardization.[296]

Indeed, during the late 70s reports were released that Sardinian was on course of being abandoned in favour of Italian in the towns and among the younger generation.[350] By then, a significant shift to Italian had been noted in rural Sardinia not only in the Campidanese plain, but even in some inner areas that had been previously considered Sardinian-speaking bastions,[351] manifesting a parallel shift of the values upon which the ethnic and cultural identity of the Sardinians was traditionally grounded.[352][note 16] From then onwards, the use of Sardinian would continue to recede because of the strongly negative view the Sardinian community developed toward it, assuming a self-belittling attitude which has been described as the emergence of a "minority complex" fairly typical of linguistic minorities.[353] However, by the Eighties the language had become a point of ethnic pride:[354] it also became a tool through which long held grievances towards the central government's failure at delivering better economic and social conditions could be channeled.[355] A contradicting tendency has been noted by observing that, while Sardinian is held in a much more positive light than before, its actual use has notably decreased and keeps doing so.[356]

A law by popular initiative for Sardinian-Italian bilingualism garnered considerable success as it kept gathering thousands of signatures, but was promptly blocked by the Italian Communist Party and thus never implemented.[357][358] The same Italian Communist Party would later propose, however, another bill of its own initiative "for the protection of the language and culture of the Sardinian people" in 1980.[359] In the end, following tensions and claims of the Sardinian nationalist movement for concrete cultural and political autonomy, including the recognition of the Sardinians as an ethnic and linguistic minority, three separate bills were eventually presented to the Regional Council in the Eighties.[66] In 1981, the Regional Council debated and voted for the introduction of bilingualism in Sardinia for the first time.[349][360] As pressure by a resolution of the Council of Europe continued to bear on Italian policy-makers for the protection of minorities, a Commission was appointed in 1982 to investigate the issue;[361] the following year, a bill was presented to the Italian Parliament, but without success. One of the first laws approved by the Sardinian legislator with respect to the protection and promotion of the Sardinian language and culture was soon rejected by the Constitutional Court in 1994, which deemed it "exorbitant in a multitude of ways with regard to the supplementary and implementing powers enjoyed by the Region in matters of education";[362][363] it was not until 1997 that Sardinian was finally recognized by the regional law (n. 26 of 15 October 1997 "Promotion and enhancement of the culture and language of Sardinia") without there being any recourse from the Italian central government;[5] this law too, however, would prove to be more focused on the traditions and history of the Sardinian people than their language in itself.[342]

A survey conducted by MAKNO in 1984 showed that three-quarters of the Sardinians had a positive attitude towards bilingual education (22% of the interviewees, especially in the Province of Nuoro and Oristano, wanted Sardinian to be compulsory in Sardinian schools, while 54.7% would prefer to see teaching in Sardinian as optional) and official bilingualism like in the Aosta Valley and South Tyrol (62.7% of the population were in favour, 25.9% said no and 11.4% were unsure).[364] Such consensus remains relatively stable to this day;[365] another survey, conducted in 2008, reported that more than half of the interviewees, 57.3%, were in favour of the introduction of Sardinian into schools alongside Italian.[366] More research carried out in 2010 confirmed warm reception among the students' parents to introducing Sardinian at school, even though skepticism circulated around having it taught as the vehicular language of education.[367]

 
Bilingual No-smoking sign in Sardinian and Italian

In the 1990s, there had been a resurgence of Sardinian-language music, ranging from the more traditional genres (cantu a tenore, cantu a chiterra, gosos etc.) to rock (Kenze Neke, Askra, Tzoku, Tazenda etc.) and even hip hop and rap (Dr. Drer e CRC Posse, Quilo, Sa Razza, Malam, Su Akru, Menhir, Stranos Elementos, Malos Cantores, Randagiu Sardu, Futta etc.), and with artists who used the language as a means to promote the island and address its long-standing issues and the new challenges.[368][369][370][371][372] A few films (like Su Re, Bellas Mariposas, Treulababbu, Sonetaula etc.) have also been dubbed in Sardinian,[373] and some others were provided with subtitles in the language.[374] The first scientific work in Sardinian (Sa chistione mundiali de s'Energhia), delving into the question of modern energy supplies, was written by Paolo Giuseppe Mura, Physics Professor at the University of Cagliari, in 1995.[375]

Eventually, sustained activism made possible the ratification by Italy of the European Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities in 1998,[361] which would be followed in 1999 by the formal recognition of twelve minority languages (Sardinian, Albanian, Catalan, German, Greek, Slovenian, Croatian, French, Franco-Provençal, Friulian, Ladin and Occitan) through the framework law no. 482,[4] in keeping with the spirit of Art. 6 of the Italian Constitution ("The Republic safeguards linguistic minorities by means of appropriate measures"[376]). While the first section of said law states that Italian is the official language of the Republic, a number of provisions are included to normalize the use of such languages and let them become part of the national fabric.[377] However, Italy (along with France and Malta[378]) has never ratified the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[379] Nevertheless, the law proved to be a positive step towards the legalization of Sardinian as it put at least an end to the ban on the language which had been in effect since the Italian Unification,[380] and was deemed as a starting point, albeit timid, to pursue a more decentralized school curriculum for the island.[381]

Still, some national school books (education has never fallen under the region's remits and is managed by the state at the central level) have not stopped to squeeze the language into the Italian acceptation of dialetto ("Italian dialect") in spite of its actual recognition by the state.[382] Sardinian is yet to be taught at school, with the exception of a few experimental occasions; Mauro Maxia noticed a lack of interest on the part of school managers, some request for Sardinian language classes notwithstanding.[383] Furthermore, its use has not ceased to be disincentivized as antiquated or even indicative of a lack of education,[384][385] leading many locals to associate it with negative feelings of shame, backwardness, and provincialism.[386][387] Similar issues of identity have been observed in regard to the community's attitude toward what they positively perceive to be part of "modernity", generally associated with the Italian cultural sphere, as opposed to the Sardinian one, whose aspects have long been stigmatized as "primitive" and "barbarous" by the political and social institutions that ruled the island.[388][389] Roberto Bolognesi believes that the enduring stigmatisation of Sardinian as the language of the "socially and culturally disadvantaged" classes leads to the nurturing of a vicious circle that further promotes the language's regression, reinforcing its negative judgement among those who perceive themselves as "most competitive": "a perverse mechanism that has condemned and still condemns Sardinian speakers to social marginalisation, systematically excluding them from those linguistic and cultural interactions in which the prestigious registers and high style of language are developed, first and foremost in schools".[390]

 
Bilingual Italian–Sardinian road sign in Siniscola

A number of other factors like a considerable immigration flow from mainland Italy, the interior rural exodus to urban areas, where Sardinian is spoken by a much lower percentage of the population,[note 17] and the use of Italian as a prerequisite for jobs and social advancement actually hinder any policy set up to promote the language.[34][391][392] Therefore, following the model proposed by a UNESCO panel of experts in 2003, Sardinian is classified by UNESCO as a "definitely endangered" language ("children no longer learn the language as mother tongue in the home"),[393] on the way to become "severely endangered" ("the language is used mostly by the grandparental generation and up").

Language use is far from stable;[66] following the Expanded GIDS (Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale) model, Sardinian would position between 7 ("Shifting: the child-bearing generation knows the language well enough to use it among themselves but none are transmitting it to their children"[394]) and 8a ("Moribund: the only remaining active speakers of the language are members of the grandparent generation"[394]). While an estimated 68 percent of the islanders had in fact a good oral command of Sardinian, language ability among the children has plummeted to less than 13 percent;[34][30][31][395] some linguists, like Mauro Maxia, cite the low number of Sardinian-speaking children (with the notable case of a number of villages where Sardinian has ceased to be spoken altogether since 1993) as indicative of language decline, calling Sardinia a case of "linguistic suicide".[383][396] The depth of the Sardophone networks' increasing assimilation into Italian is illustrated by the latest ISTAT data published in 2017, which confirm Italian as the language that has largely taken root as the means of socialization within Sardinian families (52.1%), relegating the practice of code-switching to 31.5% and the actual use of languages other than Italian to only 15.6%; outside the social circle of family and friends, the numbers define Italian as by far the most prevalent language (87.2%), as opposed to the usage of Sardinian and other languages which has dropped to 2.8%.[397] Today, most people who use Sardinian as part of day-to-day life reside mainly in the sparsely populated areas in the countryside, like the mountainous region of Barbagia.[398][399]

A bill proposed by the cabinet of the former Italian Prime Minister Mario Monti would have further lowered the protection level of Sardinian,[400] distinguishing between the so-called "national minorities", speaking languages protected by international agreements (German, Slovenian, French) and the "linguistic minorities" whose language is not spoken in any state other than Italy (all the other ethno-linguistic groups, including Sardinian). This bill, which was eventually implemented[401] but later deemed unconstitutional by the Court,[402] triggered a reaction on the island.[403][404][405][406] Students expressed an interest in taking all (or part) of their exit examinations in Sardinian.[407][408][409][410][411][412][413][414][415][416][417] In response to a 2013 Italian initiative to remove bilingual signs on the island, a group of Sardinians began a virtual campaign on Google Maps to replace Italian place names with the original Sardinian names. After about one month, Google changed the place names back to Italian.[418][419][420]

 
Church of the Pater Noster (Jerusalem, Israel), Lord's Prayer plaque in Sardinian

After a signature campaign,[421] it has been made possible to change the language setting on Facebook from any language to Sardinian.[422][423][424][425] It is also possible to switch to Sardinian even in Telegram[426][427] and a number of other programs, like F-Droid, Diaspora, OsmAnd, Notepad++, QGIS, Swiftkey, Stellarium,[428] Skype,[429] VLC media player for Android and iOS, Linux Mint Debian Edition 2 "Betsy", Firefox[430][431] etc. The DuckDuckGo search engine is available in Sardinian as well. In 2016, the first automatic translation software from Italian to Sardinian was developed.[432]

In 2015, all the political parties in the Sardinian regional council reached an agreement concerning a series of amendments to the old 1997 law to be able to introduce the optional teaching of the language in Sardinia's schools.[433][434][435] The Unified Text on the Discipline of the Regional linguistic policy[6] was eventually approved on 27 June 2018, with the aim of setting in motion a path towards bilingual administration, contributions to bilingual mass media, publishing, IT schools and websites; it also allowed for the foundation of a Sardinian board (Consulta de su Sardu) with thirty experts that would propose a linguistic standard based on the main historical varieties, and would also have advisory duties towards the Regional body.[436][437] However, said law has yet to be followed up by the respective implementing decrees, the lack of which prevents it from being legally applicable.[438][439][440] Some Sardinian language activists and activist groups have also contested the law itself, considering it a political attack on Sardinian made to try to negate its uniformity and to relegate it to folklore, and also noted how its text contains a few parts that could bring the Italian government to challenge it.[441][442][443]

In 2021 the Prosecutor of Oristano opened a Sardinian linguistic desk, both to support citizens and to provide advice and translations to magistrates and the police. It has been the first time in Italy in which such a service has been offered to a minority language.[444][445]

Although there is still not an option to teach Sardinian on the island itself, let alone in Italy, some language courses are instead sometimes available in Germany (Universities of Stuttgart, Munich, Tübingen, Mannheim[446] etc.), Spain (University of Girona),[447] Iceland[448] and Czech Republic (Brno university).[449][450] Shigeaki Sugeta also taught Sardinian to his students of Romance languages at the Waseda University in Tokyo (Japan),[451][452][453] and would even release a Sardinian–Japanese dictionary out of it.[454][455]

 
The Sardinian-speaking community among the other minority language groups officially recognized by Italy.[456][457]

At present, the Sardinian-speaking community is the least protected one in Italy, despite being the largest minority language group officially recognized by the state.[67][27] In fact the language, which is receding in all domains of use, is still not given access to any field of public life,[34][458] such as education (Italian–Sardinian bilingualism is still frowned upon,[383][409][459][460] while the local public universities play little, if any, role whatsoever in supporting the language[461][462][463]), politics (with the exception of some nationalist groups[464]), justice, administrative authorities and public services, media,[465][466][467][468][469] and cultural,[470] ecclesiastical,[471][472] economic and social activities, as well as facilities.[473] In a case presented to the European Commission by the then MEP Renato Soru in 2017, in which he complained of national negligence with regard to the state's own legislation in comparison to other linguistic minorities, the Commission's response pointed out to the Honourable Member that matters of language policy pursued by individual member states do not fall within its competences.[474]

According to a 2017 report on the digital language diversity in Europe, Sardinian appears to be particularly vital on social media as part of many people's everyday life for private use, but such vitality does not still translate into a strong and wide availability of Internet media for the language.[475] In 2017, a 60-hour Sardinian language course was introduced for the first time in Sardinia and Italy at the University of Cagliari, although such a course had been already available in other universities abroad.[476]

In 2015, the Council of Europe commented on the status of national minorities in Italy, noting the approach of the Italian government towards them with the exception of the German, French and Slovenian languages, where Italy has applied full bilingualism due to international agreements; despite the formal recognition from the Italian state, Italy does not in fact collect any information on the ethnic and linguistic composition of the population, apart from South Tyrol.[477] There is also virtually no print and broadcasting media exposure in politically or numerically weaker minorites like Sardinian. Moreover, the resources allocated to cultural projects like bilingual education, which lacks a consistent approach and offers no guarantee of continuity throughout the years,[478] are largely insufficient to meet "even the most basic expectations".[479][480][481][482][483]

 
Bilingual road signs in Pula.

A solution to the Sardinian question being unlikely to be found anytime soon,[66] the language has become highly endangered:[461] even though the endogamy rate among group members seems to be very high,[34] less than 15 per cent of the Sardinian children use the language to communicate with each other.[484] it appears that the late recognition of Sardinian as a minority language on the part of the state, as well as the gradual but pervasive Italianisation promoted by the latter's education system, the administration system and the media, followed by the intergenerational language replacement, made it so that the vitality of Sardinian has been heavily compromised.[349] The 1995 Euromosaic project, which conducted a research study on the current situation of the ethno-linguitic minorities across Europe under the auspices of the European Commission, concludes their report on Sardinian as follows:

This would appear to be yet another minority language group under threat. The agencies of production and reproduction are not serving the role they did a generation ago. The education system plays no role whatsoever in supporting the language and its production and reproduction. The language has no prestige and is used in work only as a natural as opposed to a systematic process. It seems to be a language relegated to a highly localised function of interaction between friends and relatives. Its institutional base is extremely weak and declining. Yet there is concern among its speakers who have an emotive link to the language and its relationship to Sardinian identity.

— Sardinian language use survey, Euromosaic report[34]

As Matteo Valdes explains, "the island's population sees, day after day, the decline of their original languages. They are complicit in this decline, passing on to their children the language of prestige and power, but at the same time they feel that the loss of local languages is also a loss of themselves, of their history, of their own specific identity or distinctiveness".[485]

With cultural assimilation having already occurred,[486][487] most of the younger generation of islanders, although they do understand some basic Sardinian, is now in fact Italian monolingual and monocultural as they are not able to speak Sardinian anymore, but simply regional Italian (known amongst Italian linguists as italiano regionale sardo or IrS)[488][66][489][490] which in its lowest diastratic forms[491] is, oftentimes derisively,[492] nicknamed italiànu porcheddìnu (literally "swinish Italian") by native Sardinian speakers. Roberto Bolognesi argues that, in the face of the persistent denial and rejection of the Sardinian language, it is as if the latter "had taken revenge" on its original community of speakers "and continues to do so by "polluting" the hegemonic linguistic system", recalling Gramsci's prophetic warning uttered at the dawn of the previous century.[32] In fact, compared to a now prevalent regional Italian that, according to Bolognesi, "is in fact a hybrid language that has arisen from the contact between two different linguistic systems",[493] "the (little) Sardinian which is used by young people often constitutes an ungrammatical jargon filled with obscenities and constructions belonging to Italian":[32] in other words, the population would therefore only master "two crippled languages" (due lingue zoppe) whose manifestations do not arise from a recognisable norm, nor do they constitute a clear source of linguistic security.[32] Bolognesi believes therefore that the Sardinians' utter "rejection of their original linguistic identity has not entailed the hoped-for and automatic homologation to a more socially prestigious identity, but the acquisition of a second-class identity (neither truly Sardinian nor truly Italian), no longer self-centred but rather peripheral with respect to the sources of linguistic and cultural norms, which still remain beyond their reach: on the other side of the Tyrrhenian Sea".[493]

By contrast, Eduardo Blasco Ferrer has been noted how the Sardinian-speaking community engages only in code-switching and usually takes care in refraining from code-mixing between the two different languages.[494]

Negative attitudes among native speakers have been observed towards second-language learners for speaking "poor Sardinian", an attitude considered to be ethnically grounded on the interaction of in-group and out-group dynamics.[495]

In conclusion, the Sardinian language, while still being described as "viable" in 2003,[496] continues to be adversely affected by pervasive and all-encompassing Italianisation through language shift, and is thus nowadays moribund, albeit its replacement continues at a slower pace than before thanks to the commitment of those who, in various contexts, promote its revaluation in a process that has been defined by some scholars as "linguistic re-Sardization".[497] Still, arrangements for bilingualism exist only on paper[498] and factors such as the intergenerational transmission, which remain essential in the reproduction of the ethnolinguistic group, are severely compromised because of Italianisation;[499] many young speakers, who have been raised in Italian rather than Sardinian, have a command of their ethnic language which does not extend beyond a few stereotyped formulas.[500]

Phonology Edit

 
Vowel changes from Latin to early Sardinian.

† Variable presence, depending on dialect.

‡ Mainly in Nuorese.

Sardinian Vowels
Front Central Back
Close i u
Close-mid e o
Open-mid ɛ ɔ
Open a

† Only in Campidanese.

Grammar Edit

Some distinctive features typical of Sardinian include:

Nouns Edit

Verbs Edit

Sardinian verbs are divided into three main classes, each distinguished by a different infinitive ending (-are, -ere, or -ire). The conjugations of regular verbs in the standard language are as follows:[12]

Infinitive cantare tìmere finire
Participle Present cantende timende finende
Past cantadu tìmidu finidu
Indicative Present canto
cantas
cantat
cantamus
cantades
cantant
timo
times
timet
timimus
timides
timent
fino
finis
finit
finimus
finides
finent
Imperfect cantaia
cantaias
cantaiat
cantaìamus
cantaiais
cantaiant
timia
timias
timiat
timìamus
timiais
timiant
finia
finias
finiat
finìamus
finiais
finiant
Subjunctive Present cante
cantes
cantet
cantemus
canteis
cantent
tima
timas
timat
timamus
timais
timant
fina
finas
finat
finamus
finais
finant
Imperfect cantare
cantares
cantaret
cantaremus
cantareis
cantarent
timere
timeres
timeret
timeremus
timereis
timerent
finire
finires
finiret
finiremus
finireis
finirent
Imperative canta
cantade
time
timide
fini
finais

Syntax Edit

Distinctive syntax features include:

  • A common occurrence of a left-dislocated construction: cussa cantone apo cantadu ("That song I have sung": that is, "I've sung that song").
    • In yes/no questions, fronting of a constituent (especially a predicative element) is required, though it is not specifically a question-formation process: Cumprendiu m'as? ("Understood me you have", that is, "Have you understood me?"), Mandicatu at? ("Eaten he/she has", that is "Has he/she eaten?"), Fattu l'at ("Done he/she has", that is "He/She's done it"), etc.
  • Interrogative phrases might be constructed like echo questions, with the interrogative marker remaining in underlying position: Sunt lòmpios cando? ("They arrived when?", that is, "when did they arrive?"), Juanne at pigadu olìas cun chie? ("John has picked olives with whom?"), etc.
  • Impersonal sentence constructions are commonly used to replace the passive voice, which is limited to the formal register: A Juanni ddu ant mortu rather than Juanni est istadu mortu.
  • The use of non de + noun: non de abba, abbardente est ("not of water brandy it+is": that is, "It is not water, but brandy."); non de frades, parent inimigos ("Not of brothers, they seem enemies": that is, "Far from being brothers, they are like enemies").
  • The use of ca (from quia) or chi as subordinate conjunctions: Ja nau ti l'apo ca est issa sa mere ("Already told I have you that is she the boss", that is "I've already told you that it's her the boss").
  • Existential uses of àer / ài ("to have") and èsser / èssi ("to be"): B'at prus de chentu persones inoghe! ("There is over a hundred people in here!"), Nci funt is pratus in mesa ("There are the plates on the table").
  • Ite ("What") + adjective + chi: Ite bellu chi ses! ("What beautiful that (you) are!", that is "How beautiful you are!").
  • Nominal syntagmas without having a head: Cussu ditzionariu de gregu est prus mannu de su de Efis ("That Greek dictionary is bigger than Efisio's"), Cudda machina est prus manna de sa de Juanne ("That car is bigger than John's").
  • Extraposition of the lexical head: Imprestami su tou de ditzionariu ("Please lend me your dictionary").
  • Ancu + subjunctive as a way to express a (malevolent) wish on someone: Ancu ti falet unu lampu! ("May you be struck by lightning!").
  • Prepositional accusative: Apo bidu a Maria ("I've seen Mary").
  • Insertion of the affirmative particle ja / giai: Ja m'apo corcau ("I did go to bed").
    • Use of the same particle to express antiphrastic formulas: Jai ses totu istudiatu, tue! ("You're so well educated!", that is, "You are so ignorant and full of yourself!").
  • Reflexive use of intransitive verbs: Tziu Pascale si nch'est mortu[note 18] eris sero ("Uncle Pascal passed away yesterday"), Mi nch'apo dormiu pro una parica de oras ("I've slept for a couple of hours").
  • Use of àer in reflexive sentences: Si at fertu a s'anca traballende ("He/She injured himself/herself while working").
  • Combination of the perfective and progressive verb aspect: Est istadu traballende totu sa die ("He/She has been working all day").
  • Continuous and progressive aspect of the verb, which is meant to indicate an effective situation rather than typical or habitual: Non ti so cumprendende ("I don't understand you").
  • Relative lack of adverbs: with the exception of some localized words like the Nuorese mescamente ("especially"), as well as some recent loanwords from Italian, all the Sardinian dialects have a number of ways with which to express the meaning conferred to the adverbs by the other Romance languages (e.g. Luchía currit prus a lestru / acoitendi de María, "Lucy runs faster than Mary").
  • The expression of the deontic modality through a periphrastic form, characterized by the verb "to want" in auxiliary position, a feature also common to Southern Corsican, Sicilian, Moroccan Arabic and Moroccan Berber, in addition to some non-standard varieties of English.[501] (e.g. Su dinare bolet / cheret torradu "money has to be paid back").
  • The condaghes seem to demonstrate that unlike other Romance languages, Old Sardinian may have had verb-initial word order, with optional topicalization into the beginning of the sentence.[502] While verb-initial word order is also attested in other old Romance languages, such as Old Venetian, Old French, Old Neapolitan, Old Spanish, Old Sicilian and others, it has been argued that Old Sardinian was alone in licensing verb-initial word order (V1) as the generalized word order, while the others had V1 only as a marked alternative.[503]

Vocabulary comparison with other Romance languages Edit

English Late Latin Sardinian Corsican Sicilian Italian Spanish Catalan French Portuguese Romanian
key clāvem crae/-i chjave/chjavi chiavi chiave llave clau clé chave cheie
night noctem note/-i notte/notti notti notte noche nit nuit noite noapte
sing cantāre cantare/-ai cantà cantari cantare cantar cantar chanter cantar cânta
goat capram cabra/craba capra crapa capra cabra cabra chèvre cabra capră
language linguam limba/lìngua lingua/linga liṅgua lingua lengua llengua langue língua limbă
plaza plateam pratza piazza chiazza piazza plaza plaça place praça piață
bridge pontem ponte/-i ponte/ponti punti ponte puente pont pont ponte pod, punte
church ecclēsiam crèsia/eccresia ghjesgia cresia/chiesa chiesa iglesia església église igreja biserică
hospital hospitālem ispidale/spidali spedale/uspidali spitali ospedale hospital hospital hôpital hospital spital
cheese cāseum (fōrmāticum) casu casgiu tumazzu cacio, formaggio queso formatge fromage queijo brânză, caș

Varieties Edit

 
The word for "peace" in all the varieties of Sardinian.

Historically, the Sardinians have always been a small-numbered population scattered across isolated cantons, sharing demographic patterns similar to the neighbouring Corsica; as a result, Sardinian developed a broad spectrum of dialects over the time. Starting from Francesco Cetti's description in the 18th century,[504][505][506][507] Sardinian has been presented as a pluricentric language, being traditionally subdivided into two standardized varieties spoken by roughly half of the entire community: the dialects spoken in North-Central Sardinia, centered on the orthography known as Logudorese (su sardu logudoresu), and the dialects spoken in South-Central Sardinia, centered on another orthography called Campidanese (su sardu campidanesu).[508]

All the Sardinian dialects differ primarily in phonetics, which does not considerably hamper intelligibility;[509][510][511][512] the view of there being a dialectal boundary rigidly separating the two varieties of High Sardinian has been in fact subjected to more recent research, which shows a fluid dialect continuum from the northern to the southern ends of the island.[513][514][515][516] The dualist perception of the Sardinian dialects, rather than pointing to an actual isogloss, is in fact the result of a psychological adherence to the way Sardinia was administratively subvidided into a Caput Logudori (Cabu de Susu) and a Caput Calaris (Cabu de Jossu) by the Spanish.[517]

The dialects centered on the "Logudorese Sardinian model" are generally considered more conservative, with the Nuorese dialect of Sardinian (su sardu nugoresu) being deemed the most conservative of all. They have all retained the classical Latin pronunciation of the stop velars (kena versus cena, "supper"),[518] the front middle vowels (compare Campidanese iotacism, probably from Byzantine Greek)[519] and assimilation of close-mid vowels (cane versus cani, "dog" and gattos versus gattus, "cats"). Labio-velars become plain labials (limba versus lingua, "language" and abba versus acua, "water").[520] I is prosthesized before consonant clusters beginning in s (iscala versus Campidanese Sardinian scala, "stairway" and iscola versus scola, "school"). An east-west strip of villages in central Sardinia, mainly in the central part of the Province of Oristano, and central part of the Province of Nuoro, speaks a transitional group of dialects (su sardu de mesania). Examples include is limbas (the languages) and is abbas (the waters). The dialects centered on the Campidanese model, spreading from Cagliari (once the metropolis of the Roman province), show relatively more influences from Carthage, Rome, Constantinople and Late Latin. Examples include is fruminis (the rivers) and is domus (the houses).

Some dialects of Sardinian from the extreme ends of the aforementioned continuum have been estimated in another research to have 88% of matches in 110-item wordlist, similarly to the 85–88% number of matches between Provençal Occitan and some Catalan dialects[521] which by some standards is usually (even though arbitrarily) considered characteristic for two different, albeit very closely related, languages.[522] ISO 639 counts four Sardinian languages (Campidanese, Gallurese, Logudorese and Sassarese), each with its own language code.

Non-Sardinian language varieties spoken in Sardinia
 
Corso-Sardinian (orange and yellow) with regard to Sardinian proper (green).

Sardinian is the indigenous and historical language of most Sardinian communities. However, Sardinian is not spoken as the native and primary language in a significant number of other ones, roughly amounting to 20% of the Sardinian population;[67][511] Sassari, the second-largest city on Sardinia and the main center of the northern half of the island, is amongst the latter. The aforementioned Gallurese and Sassarese, despite being often colloquially considered part of Sardinian, are two Corso-Sardinian transitional languages; they are spoken in the northernmost part of Sardinia,[523][524] although some Sardinian is also understood by the majority of people living therein (73.6% in Gallura and 67.8% in the Sassarese-speaking subregion).

Francesco Cetti, responsible for the dialectal partition of the Sardinian language in his early dissertation, went on to deem these Corso-Sardinian varieties spoken in the island "foreign" (i.e. not indigenous to Sardinia) and therefore "not national" (i.e. non-Sardinian) in that he averred they would be "an Italian dialect, much more Tuscan in fact than the vast majority of Italy's dialects themselves".[525]

There are also two language islands, the Catalan Algherese-speaking community from the inner city of Alghero (northwest Sardinia) and the Ligurian-speaking towns of Carloforte, in San Pietro Island, and Calasetta in Sant'Antioco island (south-west Sardinia).[523][526]

Sample of text Edit

English Logudorese Sardinian Campidanese Sardinian LSC (Sardinian Written Standard) Latin Italian

Our Father, who art in heaven,
hallowed be thy name.
thy kingdom come,
thy will be done,
on earth as it is in heaven.
Give us this day our daily bread,
and forgive us our debts,
as we forgive our debtors.
And lead us not into temptation,
but deliver us from evil.

Babbu nostru chi ses in chelu,
Santificadu siat su nomine tou.
Benzat a nois su rennu tou,
Siat fata sa boluntade tua,
comente in chelu gai in terra.
Dona nos oe su pane nostru de donzi die,
Et perdona nos sos peccados nostros,
Comente nois perdonamus a sos depidores nostros.
Et no nos lesses ruer in tentatzione,
Et libera nos dae male.

Babbu nostu chi ses in celu,
Santificau siat su nomini tuu.
Bengiat a nosus su regnu tuu,
Siat fata sa boluntadi tua,
comenti in celu aici in terra.
Donasi oi su pani nostu de dogna dii,
Et perdonasi is peccaus nostus,
Comenti nosus perdonaus a is depidoris nostus.
Et no si lessis arrui in tentatzioni,
Et liberasi de mali.

Babbu nostru chi ses in chelu,
Santificadu siat su nòmine tuo.
Bèngiat a nois su rennu tuo,
Siat fata sa voluntade tua,
comente in chelu gasi in terra.
Dona་nos oe su pane nostru de ònnia die,
E perdona་nos is pecados nostros,
Comente nois perdonamus a is depidores nostros.
E no nos lasses arrùere in tentatzione,
E lìbera་nos de male.

Pater noster qui es in cælis,
sanctificetur nomen tuum.
adveniat regnum tuum,
fiat voluntas tua,
sicut in cælo et in terra.
Panem nostrum quotidianum da nobis hodie,
et dimitte nobis debita nostra,
sicut et nos dimittimus debitoribus nostris.
et ne nos inducas in tentationem
sed libera nos a malo.

Padre Nostro, che sei nei cieli,
Sia santificato il tuo nome.
Venga il tuo regno,
Sia fatta la tua volontà,
Come in cielo, così in terra.
Dacci oggi il nostro pane quotidiano,
E rimetti a noi i nostri debiti
Come noi li rimettiamo ai nostri debitori.
E non-ci indurre in tentazione,
Ma liberaci dal male.

Standardization Edit

Until 2001, there was not a unifying orthographic standard available for all the dialects of Sardinian, neither in the literary nor in the oral domain (one designed for the latter does not exist to this day).

After the Middle Ages, where a certain orthographic uniformity can be observed, the only steps to provide the language with a single standard, called "illustrious Sardinian", were undertaken by such writers as Hieronimu Araolla, Ioan Mattheu Garipa and Matteo Madau, who had based their works on the model of medieval Sardinian.[527][528] However, attempts to formalise and spread this orthography would be hindered by the Iberian and later Savoyard authorities.[529]

The dialectally fragmented nature of the language is such that it is popularly contended that Sardinian is divided into two or more groups, which have provided themselves with a series of traditional orthographies already, albeit with many changes over the time. While this belief is not grounded on linguistic considerations, it is however motivated by political and social reasons.[506][509][513][514][515][516][507]

In addition to the orthographies commonly referred to as "Logudorese" and "Campidanese", the Nuorese orthography, the Arborense one and even those restricted to individual towns were also developed, sometimes finding common ground with some general rules, such as those required by the Ozieri Award.[530] It is often the case, however, that speakers who are not commonly taught the Sardinian language and are thus literate only in Italian, for lack of a bilingual education, transcribe their local spelling following rules pertaining to the latter rather than the former.[531]

However, some attempts have been made to introduce a single orthographic form for administrative purposes over the recent decades; said form does not aim to refer to morphology and syntax, which is already fairly homogeneous,[532] but concerns itself primarily with spelling.

To allow for an effective implementation of the provisions on the language, as per the regional law no. 26/1997 and the national law no. 482/1999, the Sardinian Autonomous Region arranged for a commission of experts to elaborate a standard capable of overcoming the hurdle posed by the dialectal differences and thereby providing a unified writing system. A first proposal (the LSU: Limba Sarda Unificada, published on 28 February 2001) was tabled, which identified a model language of reference (based on the analysis of local varieties of Sardinian and on the selection of the most representative and compatible models) so as to guarantee the necessary characteristics of certainty, coherence, univocity, and supra-local diffusion. The people appointed for the task were Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Roberto Bolognesi, Diego Salvatore Corraine, Ignazio Delogu, Antonietta Dettori, Giulio Paulis, Massimo Pittau, Tonino Rubattu, Leonardo Sole, Heinz Jürgen Wolf, and Matteo Porru acting as the Committee's secretary. This study, although scientifically valid, has never been adopted at an institutional level: critics argued that it was an "artificial" system "imposed" on Sardinian speakers.[533]

Nevertheless, the LSU would act as a springboard for a subsequent drafting proposal, this time drawn by a new Committee composed of Giulio Angioni, Roberto Bolognesi, Manlio Brigaglia, Michel Contini, Diego Corraine, Giovanni Lupinu, Anna Oppo, Giulio Paulis, Maria Teresa Pinna Catte and Mario Puddu. The new project continued to be worked on, going by the name of LSC (Limba Sarda Comuna). The new experimental standard proposal, published in 2006, was characterised by taking the mesania (transitional) varieties as reference,[534] and welcoming elements of the spoken language so as to be perceived as a more "natural" mediation; it also ensured that the common orthography would be provided with the characteristics of over-dialectality and supra-municipality, while being open to integrating the phonetic peculiarities of the local variants.[535] Despite this, there was some criticism for this norm as well, both by those who proposed amendments to improve it,[536][537] and by those who preferred to insist with the idea of dividing Sardinian into two macro-variants with their own separate orthographies.[538]

The Sardinian Regional Government, with the resolution of the Regional Council n. 16/14 of 18 April 2006 "Limba Sarda Comuna. Adoption of the reference standards of an experimental nature for the written language output of the Regional Administration", has experimentally adopted the LSC as the official orthography for the acts and documents issued by the Region of Sardinia (even if, as per Article 8 of the national Law no. 482/99, only the text written in Italian has legal value), giving citizens the right to write to the Public Administration in their own variety and establishing the regional language desk Ufitziu de sa Limba Sarda. The resolution does not aim to impose the guide and further notes that it is "open to integrations" and that "all solutions are of equal linguistic value".

In the following years, the Region has abided by the LSC standard in the translation of many documents and resolutions and in many other areas. In addition, the LSC standard has been adopted on a voluntary basis by many other institutions, schools and media, often in a complementary manner with orthographic norms closer to the local spelling. Regarding these uses, a percentage estimate was made, considering only the projects financed or co-financed by the Region for the diffusion of the Sardinian language in the municipal and supra-municipal language offices, for the teaching in schools and the media from 2007 to 2013.[539]

The monitoring, by the Sardinian Language and Culture Service of the Department of Public Education, was published on the website of the Sardinian Autonomous Region in April 2014. Regarding the school projects financed in 2013, for example, it appears that there was a clear preference, in schools, for the use of the LSC orthographic standard together with a local spelling (51%), compared to the exclusive use of the LSC (11%) or the exclusive use of a local spelling (33%).[539]

On the other hand, regarding the editorial projects in Sardinian language in the regional media, financed by the Region in 2012, we find a greater presence of the LSC (which could derive from a reward of 2 points in the formation of the rankings to take funding, a reward that was not present in the notice for schools). According to those data, it appears that 35% of textual production in media projects was in LSC, 35% in LSC and in local spellings and 25% in local spellings only.[539]

The local language offices, co-financed by the Regional Government, in 2012 used LSC in 50% of their writing, LSC together with local spelling for 9% and local spellings for 41%.[539]

A recent research on the use of the LSC orthography in schools, carried out in the municipality of Orosei, showed that the students of the local middle school had no problem using that standard despite the fact that the Sardinian they spoke was partly different. No pupil rejected it or considered it "artificial", a thing that proved its validity as a didactic tool. The results were first presented in 2016 and published in an article in 2021.[540][541]

Surnames, given names, and toponyms Edit

From the Sardinian language stem both the historical Sardinian given names, which the natives used to confer on each other until contemporary times, as well as most of the traditional surnames still common on the island. Sardinian place names have a very ancient history and, in some cases, have originated a significant debate about their origins.[542]

See also Edit

References Edit

Notes Edit

  1. ^ Pope Symmachus (498–514 C.E.), a Sardinian by birth, described himself as ex paganitate veniens, "coming from a pagan land". Gregory the Great (590–614 C.E.) reproached the people of Barbagia for still worshipping stone and wooden idols (Wagner 1951: 73).
  2. ^ "Fallacissimum genus esse Phoenicum omnia monumenta vetustatis atque omnes historiae nobis prodiderunt. ab his orti Poeni multis Carthaginiensium rebellionibus, multis violatis fractisque foederibus nihil se degenerasse docuerunt. A Poenis admixto Afrorum genere Sardi non deducti in Sardiniam atque ibi constituti, sed amandati et repudiati coloni. [...] Neque ego, cum de vitiis gentis loquor, neminem excipio; sed a me est de universo genere dicendum, in quo fortasse aliqui suis moribus et humanitate stirpis ipsius et gentis vitia vicerunt. magnam quidem esse partem sine fide, sine societate et coniunctione nominis nostri res ipsa declarat. quae est enim praeter Sardiniam provincia quae nullam habeat amicam populo Romano ac liberam civitatem? Africa ipsa parens illa Sardiniae, quae plurima et acerbissima cum maioribus nostris bella gessit." "Cicero: Pro Scauro". Retrieved 28 November 2015. ("All the monuments of the ancients and all histories have handed down to us the tradition that the nation of the Phoenicians is the most treacherous of all nations. The Poeni, who are descended from them, have proved by many rebellions of the Carthaginians, and very many broken and violated treaties, that they have in no respect degenerated from them. The Sardinians, who are sprung from the Poeni, with an admixture of African blood, were not led into Sardinia as colonists and established there, but are rather a tribe who were draughted off, and put there to get rid of them. Nor indeed, when I speak of the vices of the nation, do I except no one. But I am forced to speak generally of the entire race; in which, perhaps, some individuals by their own civilized habits and natural humanity have got the better of the vices of their family and nation. That the greater part of the nation is destitute of faith, destitute of any community and connection with our name, the facts themselves plainly show. For what province is there besides Sardinia which has not one city in it on friendly terms with the Roman people, not one free city? Africa itself is the parent of Sardinia, which has waged many most bitter wars against our ancestors." Translation by C. D. Yonge, B. A. London. Henry G. Bohn, York Street, Covent Garden. 1856, "Perseus Digital Library".)
  3. ^ As Ludovico Antonio Muratori noted, "Potissimum vero ad usurpandum in scriptis Italicum idioma gentem nostram fuisse adductam puto finitimarum exemplo, Provincialium, Corsorum atque Sardorum" ("In reality, I believe that our people [Italians] have been induced to employ the Italian language for writing by following the example of our neighbours, the Provençals, the Corsicans and the Sardinians") and "Sardorum quoque et Corsorum exemplum memoravi Vulgari sua Lingua utentium, utpote qui Italis preivisse in hoc eodem studio videntur" ("Moreover, I made reference to the example of the Sardinians and the Corsicans, who used their own vulgar language, as being those who preceded the Italians in such regard"). Antonio, Ludovico Antonio (1739). Antiquitates Italicae Moedii Evi, Mediolani, t. 2, col.1049
  4. ^ Incipit to "Lettera al Maestro" in Ines Loi Corvetto (1993). La Sardegna e la Corsica. Torino: UTET. Hieronimu Araolla (1915). Max Leopold Wagner (ed.). Die Rimas Spirituales Von Girolamo Araolla. Nach Dem Einzigen Erhaltenen Exemplar Der Universitätsbibliothek in Cagliari. Princeton University. p. 76.: Semper happisi desiggiu, Illustrissimu Segnore, de magnificare, & arrichire sa limba nostra Sarda; dessa matessi manera qui sa naturale insoro tottu sas naciones dessu mundu hant magnificadu & arrichidu; comente est de vider per isos curiosos de cuddas.
  5. ^ Jacinto Arnal de Bolea (1636), El Forastero, Antonio Galcerin editor, Cagliari – "....ofreciéndonos a la vista la insigne ciudad de Càller, corte que me dixeron era de aquel reino. ....La hermosura de las damas, el buen gusto de su alino, lo prendido y bien saconado de lo curioso-dandole vida con mil donaires-, la grandeza en los titulos, el lucimientos en los cavalleros, el concurso grande de la nobleza y el agasajo para un forastero no os los podrà zifrar mi conocimiento. Basta para su alavanza el deciros que alcuna vez, con olvido en mi peregrinaciò y con descuido en mis disdichas, discurria por los templos no estrano y por las calles no atajado, me hallava con evidencias grandes que era aquel sitio el alma de Madrid, que con tanta urbanidad y cortesìa se exercitavan en sus nobles correspondencias"
  6. ^ Juan Francisco Carmona Cagliari, 1610–1670, Alabança de San George obispu suelense: Citizen (in Spanish): "You, shepherd! What frightens you? Have you never seen some people gathering?"; Shepherd (in Sardinian): "Are you asking me if I'm married?"; Citizen (in Spanish): "You're not getting a grasp of what I say, do you? Oh, what an idiot shepherd!"; Shepherd (in Sardinian): "I'm actually thirsty and tired"; Citizen (in Spanish): "I'd better speak in Sardinian so that we understand each other better. (in Sardinian) Tell me, shepherd, where are you from?"; Shepherd: "I'm from Suelli, my lord, I've been ordered to bring my lord a present"; Citizen: "Ah, now you understand what I said, don't you!"". ("Ciudadano: Que tiens pastor, de que te espantas? que nunca has visto pueblo congregado?; Pastor: E ite mi nais, si seu coiadu?; Ciudadano: Que no me entiendes? o, que pastor bozal aqui me vino; Pastor: A fidi tengu sidi e istau fadiau; Ciudadano: Mejor sera que en sardo tambien able pues algo dello se y nos oigamos. Nada mi su pastori de undi seis?; Pastor: De Suedi mi Sennori e m'anti cumandadu portari unu presenti a monsignori; Ciudadano: Jmoi jà mi jntendeis su que apu nadu").
  7. ^ "In this Roman Court, having come into possession of a book in Italian, a new edition […] I have translated it into Sardinian to give news of it to the devotees of my homeland who are eager to know these legends. I have translated them into Sardinian, rather than into another language, out of love for the people […] who did not need an interpreter to enunciate them, and also because of the fact that the Sardinian language is noble by virtue of its participation in Latinity, since no language spoken is as close to classical Latin as Sardinian. […] Since, if the Italian language is much appreciated, and if among all the vernacular languages is in first place for having much followed in the footsteps of Latin, no less should the Sardinian language be appreciated considering that it is not only a relative of Latin, but is largely straightforward Latin. […] And even if this were not so, it is sufficient reason to write in Sardinian to see that all nations write and print books in their natural language, boasting of having history and moral subjects written in the vernacular, so that all may benefit from them. And since the Sardinian Latin language is as clear and intelligible (when written, and pronounced as it should be), if not even more so, than the vulgar ones, since the Italians, and Spaniards, and all those who practice Latin in general understand it." Original text: "Sendemi vennidu à manos in custa Corte Romana vnu Libru in limba Italiana, nouamente istampadu, […] lu voltao in limba Sarda pro dare noticia de cuddas assos deuotos dessa patria mia disijosos de tales legendas. Las apo voltadas in sardu menjus qui non-in atera limba pro amore de su vulgu […] qui non-tenjan bisonju de interprete pro bi-las decrarare, & tambene pro esser sa limba sarda tantu bona, quanta participat de sa latina, qui nexuna de quantas limbas si plàtican est tantu parente assa latina formale quantu sa sarda. […] Pro su quale si sa limba Italiana si preciat tantu de bona, & tenet su primu logu inter totas sas limbas vulgares pro esser meda imitadore dessa Latina, non-si diat preciare minus sa limba Sarda pusti non-solu est parente dessa Latina, pero ancora sa majore parte est latina vera. […] Et quando cussu non-esseret, est suficiente motiuu pro iscrier in Sardu, vider, qui totas sas nationes iscriven, & istampan libros in sas proprias limbas naturales in soro, preciandosi de tenner istoria, & materias morales iscritas in limba vulgare, pro qui totus si potan de cuddas aprofetare. Et pusti sa limba latina Sarda est clara & intelligibile (iscrita, & pronunciada comente conuenit) tantu & plus qui non-quale si querjat dessas vulgares, pusti sos Italianos, & Ispagnolos, & totu cuddos qui tenen platica de latinu la intenden medianamente." Garipa, Ioan Matheu. Legendariu de santas virgines, et martires de Iesu Crhistu, 1627, Per Lodouicu Grignanu, Roma
  8. ^ King Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia, Royal Note, 23 July 1760: "Dovendosi per tali insegnamenti (scuole inferiori) adoperare fra le lingue più colte quella che è meno lontana dal materno dialetto ed a un tempo la più corrispondente alle pubbliche convenienze, si è determinato di usare nelle scuole predette l'italiana, siccome quella appunto che non essendo più diversa dalla sarda di quello fosse la castigliana, poiché anzi la maggior parte dei sardi più colti già la possiede; resta altresì la più opportuna per maggiormente agevolare il commercio ed aumentare gli scambievoli comodi; ed i Piemontesi che verranno nel Regno, non avranno a studiare una nuova lingua per meglio abituarsi al servizio pubblico e dei sardi, i quali in tal modo potranno essere impiegati anche nel continente."
  9. ^ In Spano's dedication to Charles Albert's wife, out of devotion to the new rulers, there are several passages in which the author sings the praises of the Savoyards and their cultural policies pursued in Sardinia, such as "It was destiny that the sweet Italian tongue, although born on the pleasant banks of the Arno, would one day also become rich heritage of the Tirso's inhabitants" (p. 5) and, formulating a vow of loyalty to the new dynasty of regents that followed the Spanish ones, "Sardinia owes so much to the most August HOUSE OF SAVOY, which, once the Hispanic domination had ceased, so wisely promoted the development of science, and also commanded during the middle of the last century, that Tuscan be made the language of the Dicasteries and public education" (p. 6). The Preface, entitled Al giovanetto alunno, states the intention, already common to Porru, to publish a work dedicated to the teaching of Italian, through the differences and similarities provided by another language more familiar to the Sardinian subjects.
  10. ^ "Una innovazione in materia di incivilimento della Sardegna e d'istruzione pubblica, che sotto vari aspetti sarebbe importantissima, si è quella di proibire severamente in ogni atto pubblico civile non meno che nelle funzioni ecclesiastiche, tranne le prediche, l'uso dei dialetti sardi, prescrivendo l'esclusivo impiego della lingua italiana. Attualmente in sardo si gettano i così detti pregoni o bandi; in sardo si cantano gl'inni dei Santi (Goccius), alcuni dei quali privi di dignità [...] È necessario inoltre scemare l'uso del dialetto sardo [sic] ed introdurre quello della lingua italiana anche per altri non men forti motivi; ossia per incivilire alquanto quella nazione, sì affinché vi siano più universalmente comprese le istruzioni e gli ordini del Governo,... sì finalmente per togliere una delle maggiori divisioni, che sono fra la Sardegna e i Regi stati di terraferma." Carlo Baudi di Vesme (1848). Considerazioni politiche ed economiche sulla Sardegna. Dalla Stamperia Reale. pp. 49–51.
  11. ^ Andrea Manca dell'Arca, an agronomist from Sassari (a city which, like most of Northern Sardinia, had been historically more exposed via Corsica to the Italian culture than the rest of the island) had so illustrated how Italian was still perceived by the locals: "Italian is as familiar to me as Latin, French or other foreign languages which one only partially learns through grammar study and the books, without fully mastering them" (È tanto nativa per me la lingua italiana, come la latina, francese o altre forestiere che solo s'imparano in parte colla grammatica, uso e frequente lezione de' libri, ma non si possiede appieno). Ricordi di Santu Lussurgiu di Francesco Maria Porcu in Santu Lussurgiu dalle Origini alla "Grande Guerra" – Grafiche editoriali Solinas – Nuoro, 2005
  12. ^ The introduction of Italian as a foreign language to the Sardinian villages is exemplified in a passage from the contemporary Francesco (Frantziscu) Masala's Sa limba est s'istoria de su mundu; Condaghe de Biddafraigada ("The language is the world's history; Biddafraigada's Condaghe"), Condaghes, p. 4: "A sos tempos de sa pitzinnìa, in bidda, totus chistionaiamus in limba sarda. In domos nostras no si faeddaiat atera limba. E deo, in sa limba nadìa, comintzei a connoscher totu sas cosas de su mundu. A sos ses annos, intrei in prima elementare e su mastru de iscola proibeit, a mie e a sos fedales mios, de faeddare in s'unica limba chi connoschiamus: depiamus chistionare in limba italiana, "la lingua della Patria", nos nareit, seriu seriu, su mastru de iscola. Gai, totus sos pitzinnos de 'idda, intraian in iscola abbistos e allirgos e nde bessian tontos e cari-tristos." ("When I was a little kid growing up in the village, we all used to speak in the Sardinian language. We did not speak any other language in our homes. And I began to know all the things of the world in the native language. At the age of six, I went to first grade and the school teacher forbade me as well as my peers to speak in the only language we knew: from that moment on, we only had to speak in Italian, "the language of the Fatherland", he told us seriously. Thus, the children of our village would come to school bright and happy, and walk out of school empty-headed and with a gloomy look on our faces.")
  13. ^ Casula's reply to Anchisi, arguing in favour of Sardinian as the only means through which the island's "cultural reawakening" could be pursued, was never published in the newspaper L'Unione Sarda, whose editorial staff properly censored it in accordance with the regime's directives. The newspaper then justified itself in the following way, in a personal letter addressed to Casula on 12 September: "Your article could not be published because part of it clearly exalts the region too much. This is absolutely forbidden by the current provisions of the Head of Government's press office, which specifically state: 'In no way and for no reason does the region exist'. We are very sorry. However, we would ask you to redo the article by simply talking about your poetry in dialect [sic] without touching on this dangerous subject!" Francesco Casula. "Sa chistione de sa limba in Montanaru e oe" (PDF). p. 66.
  14. ^ Istanza del Prof. A. Sanna sulla pronuncia della Facoltà di Lettere in relazione alla difesa del patrimonio etnico-linguistico sardo. Il prof.Antonio Sanna fa a questo proposito una dichiarazione: "Gli indifferenti problemi della scuola, sempre affrontati in Sardegna in torma empirica, appaiono oggi assai particolari e non risolvibili in un generico quadro nazionale; il tatto stesso che la scuola sia diventata scuola di massa comporta il rifiuto di una didattica inadeguata, in quanto basata sull'apprendimento concettuale attraverso una lingua, per molti aspetti estranea al tessuto culturale sardo. Poiché esiste un popolo sardo con una propria lingua dai caratteri diversi e distinti dall'italiano, ne discende che la lingua ufficiale dello Stato, risulta in effetti una lingua straniera, per di più insegnata con metodi didatticamente errati, che non tengono in alcun conto la lingua materna dei Sardi: e ciò con grave pregiudizio per un'efficace trasmissione della cultura sarda, considerata come sub-cultura. Va dunque respinto il tentativo di considerare come unica soluzione valida per questi problemi una forzata e artificiale forma di acculturazione dall'esterno, la quale ha dimostrato (e continua a dimostrare tutti) suoi gravi limiti, in quanto incapace di risolvere i problemi dell'isola. È perciò necessario promuovere dall'interno i valori autentici della cultura isolana, primo fra tutti quello dell'autonomia, e "provocare un salto di qualità senza un'acculturazione di tipo colonialistico, e il superamento cosciente del dislivello di cultura" (Lilliu). La Facoltà di Lettere e Filosofia dell'Università di Cagliari, coerentemente con queste premesse con l'istituzione di una Scuola Superiore di Studi Sardi, è pertanto invitata ad assumere l'iniziativa di proporre alle autorità politiche della Regione Autonoma e dello Stato il riconoscimento della condizione di minoranza etnico-linguistica per la Sardegna e della lingua sarda come lingua <<nazionale>> della minoranza. È di conseguenza opportuno che si predispongano tutti i provvedimenti a livello scolastico per la difesa e conservazione dei valori tradizionali della lingua e della cultura sarda e, in questo contesto, di tutti i dialetti e le tradizioni culturali presenti in Sardegna (ci si intende riferire al Gallurese, al Sassarese, all'Algherese e al Ligure-Carlofortino). In ogni caso tali provvedimenti dovranno comprendere necessariamente, ai livelli minimi dell'istruzione, la partenza dell'insegnamento del sardo e dei vari dialetti parlati in Sardegna, l'insegnamento nella scuola dell'obbligo riservato ai Sardi o coloro che dimostrino un'adeguata conoscenza del sardo, o tutti quegli altri provvedimenti atti a garantire la conservazione dei valori tradizionali della cultura sarda. È bene osservare come, nel quadro della diffusa tendenza a livello internazionale per la difesa delle lingue delle minoranze minacciate, provvedimenti simili a quelli proposti sono presi in Svizzera per la minoranza ladina fin dal 1938 (48000 persone), in Inghilterra per il Galles, in Italia per le minoranze valdostana, slovena e ultimamente ladina (15000 persone), oltre che per quella tedesca; a proposito di queste ultime e specificamente in relazione al nuovo ordinamento scolastico alto-atesino. Il presidente del Consiglio on. Colombo, nel raccomandare ala Camera le modifiche da apportare allo Statuto della Regione Trentino-Alto Adige (il cosiddetto "pacchetto"), <<modifiche che non-escono dal concetto di autonomia indicato dalla Costituzione>>, ha ritenuto di dover sottolineare l'opportunità "che i giovani siano istruiti nella propria lingua materna da insegnanti appartenenti allo stesso gruppo linguistico"; egli inoltre aggiungeva che "solo eliminando ogni motivo di rivendicazione si crea il necessario presupposto per consentire alla scuola di svolgere la sua funzione fondamentale in un clima propizio per la migliore formazione degli allievi". Queste chiare parole del presidente del Consiglio ci consentono di credere che non-si voglia compiere una discriminazione nei confronti della minoranza sarda, ma anche per essa valga il principio enunciato dall'opportunità dell'insegnamento della lingua materna ad opera di insegnanti appartenenti allo stesso gruppo linguistico, onde consentire alla scuola di svolgere anche in Sardegna la sua funzione fondamentale in un clima propizio alla migliore formazione per gli allievi. Si chiarisce che tutto ciò non è sciovinismo né rinuncia a una cultura irrinunciabile, ma una civile e motivata iniziativa per realizzare in Sardegna una vera scuola, una vera rinascita, "in un rapporto di competizione culturale con lo stato (...) che arricchisce la Nazione" (Lilliu)". Il Consiglio unanime approva le istanze proposte dal prof. Sanna e invita le competenti autorità politiche a promuovere tutte le iniziative necessarie, sul piano sia scolastico che politico-economico, a sviluppare coerentemente tali principi, nel contempo acquisendo dati atti a mettere in luce il suesposto stato. Cagliari, 19 Febbraio 1971. Priamo Farris (2016). Problemas e aficàntzias de sa pianificatzioni linguistica in Sardigna. Limba, Istòria, Sotziedadi / Problemi e prospettive della pianificazione linguistica in Sardegna. Lingua, Storia, Società. Youcanprint.
  15. ^ "O sardu, si ses sardu e si ses bonu, / Semper sa limba tua apas presente: / No sias che isciau ubbidiente / Faeddende sa limba 'e su padronu. / Sa nassione chi peldet su donu / De sa limba iscumparit lentamente, / Massimu si che l'essit dae mente / In iscritura che in arrejonu. / Sa limba 'e babbos e de jajos nostros / No l'usades pius nemmancu in domo / Prite pobera e ruza la creides. / Si a iscola no che la jughides / Po la difunder menzus, dae como / Sezis dissardizende a fizos bostros." ("Oh Sardinian! If you are Sardinian and a good Sardinian as well, you should always keep your language etched in your mind: do not be like a submissive slave, speaking your master's language. The nation that loses the gift of its own language is fated to slowly fade out of existence, especially when it does not come to its mind anymore to write and speak. Not even at home is the language of our ancestors used anymore, for you consider it wretched and uncout. If you do not bring it to be taught in school so as to better spread its use, from now on you are going to be stripping the Sardinian identity out of your children.") In "Piras, Raimondo. No sias isciau".
  16. ^ Gavino Pau, in an article published on La Nuova Sardegna (18 aprile 1978, Una lingua defunta da studiare a scuola "A defunct language to be studied in school"), claimed that "per tutti l'italiano era un'altra lingua nella quale traducevamo i nostri pensieri che, irrefrenabili, sgorgavano in sardo" and went on to conclude that for the Sardinian language "abbiamo vissuto, per essa abbiamo sofferto, per essa viviamo e vivremo. Il giorno che essa morrà, moriremo anche noi come sardi." (cit. in Giovanni Melis Onnis (2014). Fueddariu sardu campidanesu-italianu (PDF). Domus de Janas. p. Presentazione.)
  17. ^ Similar dynamics led the Irish language to be primarily spoken only in certain areas, known as Gaeltacht (Edwards J., Language, society and identity, Oxford, 1985)
  18. ^ As opposed to the transitive use of morrer / morri a..., which means "to kill" instead. E.g.: Pascale at mortu a tziu Bachis ("Pascal has killed uncle Bachisio").

Citations Edit

  1. ^ Alkire, Ti; Rosen, Carol (2010). Romance languages: a Historical Introduction. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 3.
  2. ^ a b c d Lubello, Sergio (2016). Manuale Di Linguistica Italiana, Manuals of Romance linguistics. De Gruyter. p. 499.
  3. ^ AA. VV. (2016). Calendario Atlante De Agostini 2017. Novara: Istituto Geografico De Agostini. p. 230.
  4. ^ a b c "Norme in materia di tutela delle minoranze linguistiche storiche", parlamento.it, Italian Parliament
  5. ^ a b c . Regione autonoma della Sardegna – Regione Autònoma de Sardigna. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 15 June 2018.
  6. ^ a b "Legge Regionale 3 Luglio 2018, n. 22". Regione autonoma della Sardegna – Regione Autònoma de Sardigna.
  7. ^ Massimo Pittau (2005). Grammatica del sardo illustre. Sassari: Carlo Delfino Editore.
  8. ^ Francesco Corda (1994). Grammatica moderna del sardo logudorese: con una proposta ortografica, elementi di metrica e un glossario. Cagliari: Edizioni della Torre.
  9. ^ Antonio Lepori (1979). Prontuario di grammatica sarda: variante campidanese. Cagliari: Litografia C.U.E.C.
  10. ^ "Arrègulas po ortografia, fonètica, morfologia e fueddàriu de sa norma campidanesa de sa lìngua sarda" (PDF). Quartu S. Elena: Alfa Editrice. 2009.
  11. ^ Bartolomeo Porcheddu (2012). Grammàtica de sa limba sarda comuna. Ossi: LogoSardigna.
  12. ^ a b "Limba Sarda Comuna. Normas linguìsticas de referèntzia a caràtere isperimentale pro sa limba sarda iscrita de s'Amministratzione regionale" (PDF). Regione Autonoma della Sardegna.
  13. ^ Carlo Tagliavini (1982). Le origini delle lingue neolatine. Bologna: Patron. p. 122.
  14. ^ Henriette Walter (1994). L'Aventure des langues en Occident. Paris: Robert Laffont. p. 158.
  15. ^ "Romance languages". Encyclopedia Britannica. ...if the Romance languages are compared with Latin, it is seen that by most measures Sardinian and Italian are least differentiated.
  16. ^ Antonio Mele, Edoardo Murgia (2015). Termini prelatini della lingua sarda tuttora vivi nell'uso. Olzai: Ilienses.
  17. ^ Mereu, D. (2020). Cagliari Sardinian. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 50(3), 389–405. doi:10.1017/S0025100318000385
  18. ^ The Oxford guide to the Romance languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2016. p. 272.
  19. ^ "Il più caratteristico degli idiomi neolatini, di gran lunga più caratteristico del ladino o del franco-provenzale." ("The most characteristic of the Neo-Latin languages, by far more characteristic than Ladin or Franco-Provençal.") Matteo Bartoli (1903). "Un po' di sardo" in Archeografo triestino, vol. I, serie III. Trieste.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  20. ^ a b "Da G. I. Ascoli in poi, tutti i linguisti sono concordi nell'assegnare al sardo un posto particolare fra gl'idiomi neolatini per i varî caratteri che lo distinguono non-solo dai dialetti italiani, ma anche dalle altre lingue della famiglia romanza, e che appaiono tanto nella fonetica, quanto nella morfologia e nel lessico." ("From G. I. Ascoli onwards, all linguists agree in giving Sardinian a special place among the neo-Latin languages because of the various characteristics that distinguish it not only from the Italian dialects, but also from the other languages of the Romance family, and that appear as much in its phonetics as in its morphology and lexicon.") Almagia, Roberto; Cortesi, Fabrizio; Salfi, Mario; Sera, Gioacchino; Taramelli, Antonio; Momigliano, Arnaldo; Ciasca, Raffaele; Bottiglioni, Gino; Garzia, Raffa; Gabriel, Gavino; Brunelli, Enrico; Vardabasso, Silvio (1936). Sardegna in Enciclopedia Italiana, Treccani, "Parlari".
  21. ^ "Il Sardo ha una sua speciale fisionomia ed individualità che lo rende, in certo qual modo, il più caratteristico degli idiomi neolatini; e questa speciale individualità del Sardo, come lingua di tipo arcaico e con una fisionomia inconfondibile, traspare già fin dai più antichi testi." Carlo Tagliavini (1982). Le origini delle lingue neolatine. Bologna: Patron. p. 388.
  22. ^ Lai, Rosangela. 2018. "Language Planning and Language Policy in Sardinia". Language Problems & Language Planning. 42(1): 70–88. ISSN: 0272-2690, E-ISSN: 1569-9889 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/lplp.00012.lai, pp. 70–71
  23. ^ "With some 1,6 million speakers, Sardinia is the largest minority language in Italy. Sardinians form an ethnic minority since they show a strong awareness of being an indigenous group with a language and a culture of their own. Although Sardinian appears to be recessive in use, it is still spoken and understood by a majority of the population on the island." Kurt Braunmüller, Gisella Ferraresi (2003). Aspects of multilingualism in European language history. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: University of Hamburg. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 238.
  24. ^ "Nel 1948 la Sardegna diventa, anche per le sue peculiarità linguistiche, Regione Autonoma a statuto speciale. Tuttavia a livello politico, ufficiale, non cambia molto per la minoranza linguistica sarda, che, con circa 1,2 milioni di parlanti, è la più numerosa tra tutte le comunità alloglotte esistenti sul territorio italiano." Wolftraud De Concini (2003). Gli altri d'Italia: minoranze linguistiche allo specchio. Pergine Valsugana: Comune. p. 196.
  25. ^ a b "Sebbene in continua diminuzione, i sardi costituiscono tuttora la più grossa minoranza linguistica dello stato italiano con ca. 1.000.000 di parlanti stimati (erano 1.269.000 secondo le stime basate sul censimento del 2001)". Sergio Lubello (2016). Manuale Di Linguistica Italiana, Manuals of Romance linguistics. De Gruyter. p. 499.
  26. ^ . Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 July 2016.
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  29. ^ Durk Gorter; Heiko F. Marten; Luk Van Mensel. Minority Languages in the Linguistic Landscape. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 112.
  30. ^ a b La Nuova Sardegna, 04/11/10, Per salvare i segni dell'identità – di Paolo Coretti
  31. ^ a b Corongiu, Giuseppe (2010). La politica linguistica per la lingua sarda, in Maccani, Lucia; Viola, Marco. Il valore delle minoranze. La leva ordinamentale per la promozione delle comunità di lingua minoritaria. Trento: Provincia Autonoma di Trento. p. 122.
  32. ^ a b c d Roberto Bolognesi (2000). "Un programma sperimentale di educazione linguistica in Sardegna" (PDF). p. 126.
  33. ^ Roberto Bolognesi (2000). "Un programma sperimentale di educazione linguistica in Sardegna" (PDF). p. 120.
  34. ^ a b c d e f "Sardinian language use survey, 1995". Euromosaic. To access the data, click on List by languages, Sardinian, then scroll to "Sardinian language use survey".
  35. ^ "Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger". UNESCO.
  36. ^ Lai, Rosangela. 2018. "Language Planning and Language Policy in Sardinia". Language Problems & Language Planning. 42(1): 70–88. ISSN: 0272-2690, E-ISSN: 1569-9889 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/lplp.00012.lai, p. 73
  37. ^ Martin Harris, Nigel Vincent (2003). The Romance languages. London, New York. p. 21.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  38. ^ "If present trends continue, it is possible that within a few generations the regional variety of Italian will supplant Sardinian as the popular idiom and that linguists of the future will be obliged to refer to Sardinian only as a substratal influence which has shaped a regional dialect of Italian rather than as a living language descended directly from Latin." Martin Harris, Nigel Vincent (2003). The Romance languages. London, New York. p. 349.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  39. ^ "il sardo continua ad agire anche nelle menti dei sardi che il sardo non lo conoscono né lo parlano, che non l'hanno mai appreso e imparato; il sardo agisce se non altro nelle strutture linguistiche d'ogni livello dell'italiano regionale di Sardegna, che è il codice usato dai più (agisce nella fonetica, nella sintassi e in ampi settori del lessico)..." Virdis, Maurizio (2003). La lingua sarda oggi: bilinguismo, problemi di identità culturale e realtà scolastica, cit. in Convegno dalla lingua materna al plurilinguismo, Gorizia, 6.
  40. ^ Maurizio Virdis (2012). Prospettive identitarie in Sardegna, in Contarini, Silvia. Marras, Margherita. Pias, Giuliana. L'identità sarda del XXI secolo tra globale, locale e postcoloniale. Nuoro: Il Maestrale. p. 34.
  41. ^ "Sorge ora la questione se il sardo si deve considerare come un dialetto o come una lingua. È evidente che esso è, politicamente, uno dei tanti dialetti dell'Italia, come lo è anche, p. es., il serbo-croato o l'albanese parlato in vari paesi della Calabria e della Sicilia. Ma dal punto di vista linguistico la questione assume un altro aspetto. Non si può dire che il sardo abbia una stretta parentela con alcun dialetto dell'italiano continentale; è un parlare romanzo arcaico e con proprie spiccate caratteristiche, che si rivelano in un vocabolario molto originale e in una morfologia e sintassi assai differenti da quelle dei dialetti italiani" (Wagner 1951:90–91). He was writing in 1951, several decades before Sardinian, or Italy's eleven other minority languages, would be officially recognized by the Parliament with the passing of Law 482 in 1999.
  42. ^ "Sardinian is an insular language par excellence: it is at once the most archaic and the most individual among the Romance group." Rebecca Posner, John N. Green (1982). Language and Philology in Romance. The Hague, Paris, New York: Mouton Publishers. p. 171.
  43. ^ Corsale, Andrea; Sistu, Giovanni (2019). Sardegna: geografie di un'isola. Milano: Franco Angeli. p. 187.
  44. ^ The Oxford guide to the Romance languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2016. p. 270.
  45. ^ Pei, Mario (1949). "A New Methodology for Romance Classification". WORD. 5 (2): 135–146. doi:10.1080/00437956.1949.11659494.
  46. ^ "Il fondo della lingua sarda di oggi è il latino. La Sardegna è il solo paese del mondo in cui la lingua dei Romani si sia conservata come lingua viva. Questa circostanza ha molto facilitato le mie ricerche nell'isola, perché almeno la metà dei pastori e dei contadini non conoscono l'italiano." Maurice Le Lannou (1941–1979). Manlio Brigaglia (ed.). Pastori e contadini in Sardegna. Cagliari: Edizioni della Torre. p. 279.
  47. ^ "Prima di tutto, la neonata lingua sarda ingloba un consistente numero di termini e di cadenze provenienti da una lingua originaria preromana, che potremmo chiamare "nuragica"." Salvatore Tola (2006). La Letteratura in Lingua sarda. Testi, autori, vicende. Cagliari: CUEC. p. 9.
  48. ^ Atti del VI [i.e. Sesto] Congresso internazionale di studi sardi. 1962. p. 5.
  49. ^ Giovanni Lilliu (1988). La civiltà dei Sardi. Dal Paleolitico all'età dei nuraghi. Nuova ERI. p. 269.
  50. ^ Yakov Malkiel (1947). Romance Philology. Vol. 1. p. 199.
  51. ^ Max Leopold Wagner (1952). "Il Nome Sardo del Mese di Giugno (Lámpadas) e i Rapporti del Latino d'Africa con quello della Sardegna". Italica. 29 (3): 151–157. doi:10.2307/477388. JSTOR 477388.
  52. ^ Paolo Pompilio (1455–91): "ubi pagani integra pene latinitate loquuntur et, ubi uoces latinae franguntur, tum in sonum tractusque transeunt sardinensis sermonis, qui, ut ipse noui, etiam ex latino est" ("where villagers speak an almost intact Latin and, when Latin words are corrupted, then they pass to the sound and habits of the Sardinian language, which, as I myself know, also comes from Latin")". Quoted in Loporcaro, Michele (2015). Vowel Length from Latin to Romance, Oxford University Press, p. 48
  53. ^ Adams, J.N. (2007). The Regional Diversification of Latin 200 BC – AD 600. Cambridge University Press. p. 576. ISBN 978-1139468817.
  54. ^ "Wagner prospetta l'ipotesi che la denominazione sarda, identica a quella berbera, sia una reminiscenza atavica di lontane tradizioni comuni e così commenta (p. 277): "Parlando delle sopravvivenze celtiche, dice il Bertoldi: "Come nell'Irlanda odierna, anche nella Gallia antica una maggiore cedevolezza della "materia" linguistica, suoni e forme, rispetto allo "spirito" che resiste più tenace". Questo vale forse anche per la Sardegna; antichissime usanze, superstizioni, leggende si mantengono più saldamente che non i fugaci fenomeni linguistici"." Max Leopold Wagner (1951–1997). La lingua sarda. Nuoro: Ilisso. p. 10.
  55. ^ "Sardinian is unintelligible to most Italians and gives an acoustic impression more similar to Spanish than Italian. It is clearly and energetically articulated but has always been regarded as barbarous by the soft-speaking Italians." "Sardinian language". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  56. ^ Tullio De Mauro (1979). L'Italia delle Italie. Firenze: Nuova Guaraldi Editrice. p. 89.
  57. ^ "minoranze linguistiche in "Enciclopedia dell'Italiano"". www.treccani.it.
  58. ^ "Sardinian is a highly original conglomerate of dialects with respect to the Neo-Latin varieties and thoroughly distinct from the Italo-Romance typology, and its separateness as a group of its own among the Romance languages is indisputable." "(Toso, Fiorenzo). Lingue sotto il tetto d'Italia. Le minoranze alloglotte da Bolzano a Carloforte – 8. Il sardo".
  59. ^ Martin Maiden; John Charles Smith; Adam Ledgeway (2013). The Cambridge History of the Romance Languages. Vol. II. Cambridge University Press. p. 301.
  60. ^ The Oxford guide to the Romance languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2016. p. 65.
  61. ^ Eduardo Blasco Ferrer (2010). Paleosardo: Le radici linguistiche della Sardegna neolitica. De Gruyter Mouton.
  62. ^ Juan Martín Elexpuru Agirre (2017). Euskararen aztarnak Sardinian?. Pamiela Argitaletxea.
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  64. ^ This is the case, for example, of the pre-Roman prefixes ta, tha, ti, thi, tu which make their appearance in names relating to small animals (e.g. tilicherta "lizard", tilipirche "grasshopper", etc.) but even to other words beyond that semantic field (e.g. thàlau "bran", tugru "neck"). Max Leopold Wagner (1951). La lingua sarda. p. 251.
  65. ^ "Dopo pisani e genovesi si erano susseguiti aragonesi di lingua catalana, spagnoli di lingua castigliana, austriaci, piemontesi ed, infine, italiani [...] Nonostante questi impatti linguistici, la "limba sarda" si mantiene relativamente intatta attraverso i secoli. [...] Fino al fascismo: che vietò l'uso del sardo non solo in chiesa, ma anche in tutte le manifestazioni folkloristiche." Wolftraud De Concini (2003). Gli altri d'Italia: minoranze linguistiche allo specchio. Pergine Valsugana : Comune. pp. 195–196.
  66. ^ a b c d e Rindler-Schjerve, Rosita (1993). "Sardinian : Italian". In Posner, Rebecca; Green, John N. (eds.). Bilingualism and Linguistic Conflict in Romance. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 271–294. ISBN 9783110117240.
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  78. ^ Trask, L. The History of Basque Routledge: 1997 ISBN 0-415-13116-2
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  84. ^ Attilio Mastino (2005). Storia della Sardegna antica. Edizioni Il Maestrale. p. 307. ISBN 88-86109-98-9.
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  86. ^ Giovanni Ugas – L'alba dei Nuraghi (2005) p. 241
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  88. ^ Giulio Paulis, "Sopravvivenze della lingua punica in Sardegna", in L'Africa romana, Atti del VII Convegno di Studio (Sassari 1989) (Sassari: Gallizzi, 1990), 599–639.
  89. ^ Giulio Paulis, "L'influsso linguistico fenicio-punico in Sardegna. Nuove acquisizioni e prospettive di ricerca", in Circolazioni culturali nel Mediterraneo antico: Atti della VI giornata camito-semtica e indoeuropea, I Convegno Internazionale di linguistica dell'area mediterranea, Sassari 24–27 aprile 1991, ed. Paolo Filigheddu (Cagliari: Corda, 1994), 213–19.
  90. ^ Giovanni Lilliu, Sopravvivenze nuragiche in età romana cit., in "L'Africa romana", VII, Gallizzi , Sassari 1990, p. 443
  91. ^ "Sardinia was under the control of Carthage from around 500BC. It was conquered by Rome in 238/7 BC, but was isolated and apparently despised by the Romans, and Romanization was not rapid." James Noel Adams (9 January 2003). Bilingualism and the Latin Language. Cambridge University Press. p. 209. ISBN 9780521817714.
  92. ^ "E viceversa gli scrittori romani giudicavano la Sardegna una terra malsana, dove dominava la pestilentia (la malaria), abitata da popoli di origine africana ribelli e resistenti, impegnati in latrocinia ed in azioni di pirateria che si spingevano fino al litorale etrusco; un luogo terribile, scarsamente urbanizzato, destinato a diventare nei secoli la terra d'esilio per i condannati ad metalla". Attilio Mastino (2009). Storia della Sardegna antica (2 ed.). Il Maestrale. pp. 15–16.
  93. ^ Ignazio Putzu, "La posizione linguistica del sardo nel contesto mediterraneo", in Neues aus der Bremer Linguistikwerkstatt: aktuelle Themen und Projekte, ed. Cornelia Stroh (Bochum: Universitätsverlag Dr. N. Brockmeyer, 2012), 183.
  94. ^ Ferruccio Barreca (1988). La civiltà fenicio-punica in Sardegna. Sassari: Carlo Delfino Editore.
  95. ^ "The last to use that idiom, the inhabitants of Barbagia, renounced it in the seventh century together with paganism in favor of Latin, still an archaic substratum in the Sardinian language." Proceedings, VII Congress, Boulder-Denver, Colorado, 14 August – 19 September 1965, International Association for Quaternary Research, Indiana University Press, p. 28
  96. ^ "Cicerone in particolare odiava i Sardi per il loro colorito terreo, per la loro lingua incomprensibile, per l'antiestetica mastruca, per le loro origini africane e per l'estesa condizione servile, per l'assenza di città alleate dei Romani, per il rapporto privilegiato dei Sardi con l'antica Cartagine e per la resistenza contro il dominio di Roma." Attilio Mastino (2009). Storia della Sardegna antica (2 ed.). Il Maestrale. p. 16.
  97. ^ Wolf H. J., 1998, Toponomastica barbaricina, p. 20 Papiros publisher, Nuoro
  98. ^ Archivio glottologico italiano. Vol. 53–54. 1968. p. 209.
  99. ^ Cf. Max Leopold Wagner (1960–1964). D.E.S. – Dizionario etimologico sardo. Heidelberg.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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  103. ^ "Although it is an established historical fact that Roman dominion over Sardinia lasted until the fifth century, it has been argued, on purely linguistic grounds, that linguistic contact with Rome ceased much earlier than this, possibly as early as the first century BC." Martin Harris, Nigel Vincent (2000). The Romance languages. London and New York: Routledge. p. 315.
  104. ^ Michele Loporcaro (2009). Profilo linguistico dei dialetti italiani. Editori Laterza. p. 170.
  105. ^ For a list of widely used words in Sardinian that were already considered quite archaic by the time of Marcus Terentius Varro, see Eduardo Blasco Ferrer; Peter Koch; Daniela Marzo (2017). Manuale di linguistica sarda. Manuals of Romance linguistics. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 89–90.
  106. ^ Cum utroque sermone nostro sis paratus. Svetonio, De vita Caesarum, Divus Claudius, 42
  107. ^ "Le ultime provengono, per lo più, come quelle metriche della "Grotta della Vipera" nel sobborgo cagliaritano di Sant'Avendrace, da tombe di continentali immigrati. Oltre a ciò il numero delle iscrizioni latine in Sardegna non è molto elevato e il loro contenuto è spesso frammentario; e, per di più, quasi due terzi di esse provengono da Cagliari e dal suo distretto." Max Leopold Wagner (1951–1997). La lingua sarda. Nuoro: Ilisso. p. 75.
  108. ^ Max Leopold Wagner (1951–1997). La lingua sarda. Nuoro: Ilisso. pp. 75–76.
  109. ^ "Dopo la dominazione vandalica, durata ottanta anni, la Sardegna ritornava di nuovo all'impero, questa volta a quello d'Oriente. Anche sotto i Bizantini la Sardegna rimase alle dipendenze dell'esarcato africano, ma l'amministrazione civile fu separata da quella militare; alla prima fu preposto un praeses, alla seconda un dux; tutti e due erano alle dipendenze del praefectus praetorii e del magister militum africani." Max Leopold Wagner (1951–1997). La lingua sarda. Nuoro: Ilisso. p. 64.
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  118. ^ "La lingua sarda acquisì dignità di lingua nazionale già dall'ultimo scorcio del secolo XI quando, grazie a favorevoli circostanze storico-politiche e sociali, sfuggì alla limitazione dell'uso orale per giungere alla forma scritta, trasformandosi in volgare sardo." Cecilia Tasca (a cura di), 2003. Manoscritti e lingua sarda, La memoria storica, p. 15
  119. ^ "Moreover, the Sardinians are the first Romance-speaking people of all who made the language of the common folk the official language of the State, the Government..." Puddu, Mario (2002). Istoria de sa limba sarda, Ed. Domus de Janas, Selargius, p. 14
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  122. ^ "Un caso unico – e a parte – nel dominio romanzo è costituito dalla Sardegna, in cui i documenti giuridici incominciano ad essere redatti interamente in volgare già alla fine dell'XI secolo e si fanno più frequenti nei secoli successivi. (...) L'eccezionalità della situazione sarda nel panorama romanzo consiste – come si diceva – nel fatto che tali testi sono stati scritti sin dall'inizio interamente in volgare. Diversamente da quanto succede a questa altezza cronologica (e anche dopo) in Francia, in Provenza, in Italia e nella Penisola iberica, il documento sardo esclude del tutto la compresenza di volgare e latino. (...) il sardo era usato prevalentemente in documenti a circolazione interna, il latino in documenti che concernevano il rapporto con il continente." Lorenzo Renzi, Alvise Andreose (2009). Manuale di linguistica e filologia romanza. Il Mulino. pp. 256–257.
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  127. ^ a b Salvatore Tola (2006). La Letteratura in Lingua sarda. Testi, autori, vicende. Cagliari: CUEC. p. 11.
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  129. ^ a b Salvatore Tola (2006). La Letteratura in Lingua sarda. Testi, autori, vicende. Cagliari: CUEC. p. 17.
  130. ^ "Ma, prescindendo dalle divergenze stilistiche e da altri particolari minori, si può dire che la lingua dei documenti antichi è assai omogenea e che, ad ogni modo, l'originaria unità della lingua sarda vi si intravede facilmente." Max Leopold Wagner (1951–1997). La lingua sarda. Nuoro: Ilisso. p. 84.
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  139. ^ "Sardos etiam, qui non-Latii sunt sed Latiis associandi videntur, eiciamus, quoniam soli sine proprio vulgari esse videntur, gramaticam tanquam simie homines imitantes: nam domus nova et dominus meus locuntur". Dantis Alagherii De Vulgari Eloquentia, (Lib. I, XI, 7), The Latin Library
  140. ^ "As for the Sardinians, who are not Italian but may be associated with Italians for our purposes, out they must go, because they alone seem to lack a vernacular of their own, instead imitating gramatica as apes do humans: for they say domus nova [my house] and dominus meus [my master]." "Dante Online – Le Opere". www.danteonline.it.
  141. ^ "Dante, for instance, said that Sardinians were like monkeys imitating men." "Sardinian language". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  142. ^ "Eliminiamo anche i Sardi (che non sono Italiani, ma sembrano accomunabili agli Italiani) perché essi soli appaiono privi di un volgare loro proprio e imitano la "gramatica" come le scimmie imitano gli uomini: dicono infatti "domus nova" e "dominus meus"". De Vulgari Eloquentia. Paraphrase and notes by Sergio Cecchin. Opere minori di Dante Alighieri, vol. II, UTET, Torino 1986
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  153. ^ "Wa ahl Ğazīrat Sardāniya fī aṣl Rūm Afāriqa mutabarbirūn mutawaḥḥišūn min ağnās ar-Rūm wa hum ahl nağida wa hazm lā yufariqūn as-silāḥ". . Archived from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 24 June 2016.. Annali della Facoltà di Lingue e Letterature Straniere dell'Università di Sassari, Vol. 3 (2003 pubbl. 2005), pp. 287–297. ISSN 1828-5384
  154. ^ Attilio Mastino (2005). Storia della Sardegna antica. Edizioni Il Maestrale. p. 83.
  155. ^ Translation provided by Michele Amari: "I sardi sono di schiatta Rum Afariqah (latina d'Africa), berberizzanti. Rifuggono (dal consorzio) di ogni altra nazione di Rum: sono gente di proposito e valorosa, che non lascia mai l'arme." Note to the passage by Mohamed Mustafa Bazama: "Questo passo, nel testo arabo, è un poco differente, traduco qui testualmente: "gli abitanti della Sardegna, in origine sono dei Rum Afariqah, berberizzanti, indomabili. Sono una (razza a sé) delle razze dei Rum. [...] Sono pronti al richiamo d'aiuto, combattenti, decisivi e mai si separano dalle loro armi (intende guerrieri nati)." Mohamed Mustafa Bazama (1988). Arabi e sardi nel Medioevo. Cagliari: Editrice democratica sarda. pp. 17, 162.
  156. ^ Another translation into Italian from the original passage in Arabic: "I sardi, popolo di razza latina africana piuttosto barbaro, che vive appartato dal consorzio delle altre genti latine, sono intrepidi e risoluti; essi non abbandonano mai le armi." Al Idrisi, traduzione e note di Umberto Rizzitano (2008). Il Libro di Ruggero. Il diletto di chi è appassionato per le peregrinazioni attraverso il mondo. Palermo: Flaccovio Editore.
  157. ^ Luigi Pinelli (1977). Gli Arabi e la Sardegna : le invasioni arabe in Sardegna dal 704 al 1016. Cagliari: Edizioni della Torre. p. 30, 42.
  158. ^ "Non vi è dubbio che vi erano rapporti più stretti tra la latinità dell'Africa settentrionale e quella della Sardegna. Senza parlare della affinità della razza e degli elementi libici che possano ancora esistere in sardo, non bisogna dimenticare che la Sardegna rimase, durante vari secoli, alle dipendenze dell'esarcato africano". Wagner, M. (1952). Il Nome Sardo del Mese di Giugno (Lámpadas) e i Rapporti del Latino d'Africa con quello della Sardegna. Italica, 29(3), p.152. doi:10.2307/477388
  159. ^ Archivio Cassinense Perg. Caps. XI, n. 11 " e "TOLA P., Codice Diplomatico della Sardegna, I, Sassari, 1984, p. 153
  160. ^ Eduardo Blasco Ferrer (1984). Storia Linguistica Della Sardegna. De Gruyter. p. 65.
  161. ^ Antonietta Orunesu, Valentino Pusceddu (1993). Cronaca medioevale sarda: i sovrani di Torres. Quartu S.Elena: Astra. p. 11.
  162. ^ Francesco Cesare Casula states that "those who did not speak or understand Sardinian, for fear that they were Aragonese, were killed", reporting the case of two Sicilian jugglers who, finding themselves in Bosa at the time, were attacked because they were "believed to be Iberian because of their incomprehensible language". Francesco Cesare Casula (1978). Breve storia della scrittura in Sardegna. La "documentaria" nell'epoca aragonese. Cagliari: Editrice Democratica Sarda. pp. 56–57.
  163. ^ Francesco Cesare Casula (24 November 2012). "Le rivolte antiaragonesi nella Sardegna regnicola, 5". Il Regno di Sardegna. Logus. ISBN 9788898062102.
  164. ^ Francesco Cesare Casula (24 November 2012). "Guerre fra l'Arborea e l'Aragona, 2". Il Regno di Sardegna. Logus. ISBN 9788898062102.
  165. ^ Casula, Francesco Cesare (1982). Profilo storico della Sardegna catalano-aragonese. Cagliari: Edizioni della Torre. p. 128.
  166. ^ Maria Teresa Laneri (2003). Proto Arca Sardo: De bello et interitu marchionis Oristanei. Cagliari: CUEC.
  167. ^ Max Leopold Wagner (1997). La lingua sarda. Storia, spirito e forma. Nuoro: Ilisso. pp. 68–69.
  168. ^ Francesco Cesare Casula (1978). Breve storia della scrittura in Sardegna. La "documentaria" nell'epoca aragonese. Cagliari: Editrice Democratica Sarda. p. 29.
  169. ^ Casula, Francesco Cesare (1978). Breve storia della scrittura in Sardegna. La "documentaria" nell'epoca aragonese. Cagliari: Editrice Democratica Sarda. p. 28.
  170. ^ Francesco Cesare Casula (24 November 2012). "La Sardegna catalano-aragonese, 6". Il Regno di Sardegna. Logus. ISBN 9788898062102.
  171. ^ a b "[Sardinians] speak a peculiar language, Sardinian, and use it to write both in poetry and prose, especially in Logudoro where it has been kept purer, and more elegant and rich. And, since many Spaniards, both Aragonese and Catalan, and Italians immigrated to Sardinia, and keep doing so to trade, Spanish, Catalan and Italian are also spoken; so, all these languages are spoken to a conversational level by a single people. However, those from Cagliari and Alghero usually speak their masters' language, Catalan, whilst the other people retain the genuine language of the Sardinians." Original text: "[Sardi] Loquuntur lingua propria sardoa, tum ritmice, tum soluta oratione, praesertim in Capite Logudorii, ubi purior copiosior, et splendidior est. Et quia Hispani plures Aragonenses et Cathalani et Itali migrarunt in eam, et commerciorum caussa quotidie adventant, loquuntur etiam lingua hispanica et cathalana et italica; hisque omnibus linguis concionatur in uno eodemque populo. Caralitani tamen et Algharenses utuntur suorum maiorum lingua cathalana; alii vero genuinam retinent Sardorum linguam." Ioannes Franciscus Fara (1835). De Chorographia Sardiniæ Libri duo. De Rebus Sardois Libri quatuor. Torino: Typographia regia. p. 51.
  172. ^ Max Leopold Wagner (1997). La lingua sarda. Storia, spirito e forma. Nuoro: Ilisso. p. 185.
  173. ^ "Why is Catalan spoken in L'Alguer? – Corpus Oral de l'Alguerès".
  174. ^ See J. Dexart (1645). Capitula sive acta curiarum Regni Sardiniae. Calari. lib. I, tit. 4, cap. 1
  175. ^ Max Leopold Wagner (1951). La lingua sarda: storia, spirito e forma. Bern: Francke. p. 186.
  176. ^ Eduardo Blasco Ferrer; Peter Koch; Daniela Marzo (2017). Manuale di linguistica sarda. Manuals of Romance linguistics. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 33.
  177. ^ Carlo Maxia, Studi Sardo-Corsi, Dialettologia e storia della lingua fra le due isole
  178. ^ "Ciurrata di la linga gadduresa, Atti del II Convegno Internazionale di Studi" (PDF).
  179. ^ a b Antoni Cano (2002). Dino Manca (ed.). Sa Vitta et sa Morte, et Passione de sanctu Gavinu, Prothu et Januariu (PDF). CUEC.
  180. ^ Turtas, Raimondo (1981). La questione linguistica nei collegi gesuitici in Sardegna nella seconda metà del Cinquecento, in "Quaderni sardi di storia" 2, p. 57-87, at p. 60
  181. ^ a b "Sardegna Cultura – Lingua sarda – Letteratura – Dalle origini al '700". www.sardegnacultura.it.
  182. ^ a b "First attempts at national self-assertion through language date back to the 16th century, when G. Araolla, a speaker of Sassarese, wrote a poem intended to enrich and honour the Sardinian language." Rebecca Posner, John N. Green (1993). Bilingualism and Linguistic Conflict in Romance. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 286.
  183. ^ "Intendendo esservi una "naturalità" della lingua propria delle diverse "nazioni", così come v'è la lingua naturale della "nazione sarda", espressione, quest'ultima, non usata ma ben sottintesa." Ignazio Putzu, Gabriella Mazzon (2013). Lingue, letterature, nazioni. Centri e periferie tra Europa e Mediterraneo. Franco Angeli Edizioni. p. 597.
  184. ^ a b J. Arce, La literatura hispánica de Cerdeña. Revista de la Facultad de Filología, 1956
  185. ^ "... L'Alguer castillo fuerte bien murado / con frutales por tierra muy divinos / y por la mar coral fino eltremado / es ciudad de mas de mil vezinos..." Joaquín Arce (1960). España en Cerdeña. p. 359.
  186. ^ An example of it are the octaves found in Lo Frasso, Antonio (1573). Los diez libros de fortuna d'Amor "Non podende sufrire su tormentu / de su fogu ardente innamorosu. / Videndemi foras de sentimentu / et sensa una hora de riposu, / pensende istare liberu e contentu / m'agato pius aflitu e congoixosu, / in essermi de te senora apartadu, / mudende ateru quelu, ateru istadu ..." Antonio de Lo Frasso (1573–1740). Los Cinco Ultimos Libros de Fortuna de Amor. Vol. 2. Londra: Henrique Chapel. pp. 141–144.
  187. ^ Conrad Gessner (1555). De differentiis linguarum tum veterum tum quae hodie apud diversas nationes in toto orbe terraru in usu sunt, Sardorum lingua. pp. 66–67.
  188. ^ "Habuerunt quidem Sardi linguam propriam, sed quum diversi populi immigraverint in eam atque ab exteris principibus eius imperium usurpatum fuerit, nempe Latinis, Pisanis, Genuensibus, Hispanis et Afris, corrupta fuit multum lingua eorum, relictis tamen plurimis vocabulis, quae in nullo inveniuntur idiomate. [...] Hinc est quod Sardi in diversis locis tam diverse loquuntur, iuxta quod tam varium habuerunt imperium, etiamsi ipsi mutuo sese recte intelligant. Sunt autem duae praecipuae in ea insula linguae, una qua utuntur in civitatibus, et altera qua extra civitates. Oppidani loquuntur fere lingua Hispanica, Tarraconensi seu Catalana, quam didicerunt ab Hispanis, qui plerumque magistratum in eisdem gerunt civitatibus: alii vero genuinam retinent Sardorum Linguam." Sigismondo Arquer; Maria Teresa Laneri (2008). Sardiniae brevis historia et descriptio. CUEC. pp. 30–31.
  189. ^ a b c d e Jordi Carbonell i de Ballester (2018). "5.2". Elements d'història de la llengua catalana. Publicacions de la Universitat de València.
  190. ^ a b Eduardo Blasco Ferrer; Giorgia Ingrassia (2009). Storia della lingua sarda: dal paleosardo alla musica rap, evoluzione storico-culturale, letteraria, linguistica. Scelta di brani esemplari commentati e tradotti. Cagliari: Cuec. p. 92.
  191. ^ Michelle Hobart (2017). A Companion to Sardinian History, 500–1500. Leiden, Boston: Brill. pp. 111–112.
  192. ^ Raimondo Turtas (2001). Studiare, istruire, governare. La formazione dei letrados nella Sardegna spagnola. EDES. p. 236.
  193. ^ "Vicenç Bacallar, el sard botifler als orígens de la Real Academia Española". VilaWeb.cat.
  194. ^ Rime diverse, Cagliari, 1595
  195. ^ Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Giorgia Ingrassia (edited by). Storia della lingua sarda: dal paleosardo alla musica rap, evoluzione storico-culturale, letteraria, linguistica. Scelta di brani esemplari commentati e tradotti, 2009, Cuec, Cagliari, p. 99
  196. ^ Olaya, Vicente G. (2019), "La segunda vida de los tercios", El País (in Spanish), retrieved 4 June 2019: "Los tercios españoles solo podían ser comandados por soldados que hablasen castellano, catalán, portugués o sardo. Cualquier otro tenía vedado su ascenso, por eso los italianos que chapurreaban español se hacían pasar por valencianos para intentar su promoción."; "The Spanish tercios could only be commanded by soldiers who spoke Castilian, Catalan, Portuguese or Sardinian. Everyone else had his promotion forbidden, that's why the Italians who spoke Spanish badly tried to pass themselves off as Valencians to try to get promoted."
  197. ^ "Totu sas naziones iscrient e imprentant sos libros in sas propias limbas nadias e duncas peri sa Sardigna – sigomente est una natzione – depet iscriere e imprentare sos libros in limba sarda. Una limba – sighit Garipa – chi de seguru bisongiat de irrichimentos e de afinicamentos, ma non est de contu prus pagu de sas ateras limbas neolatinas." ("All the nations write and print books in their native languages and therefore Sardinia – which is a nation – should do so as well, in Sardinian language. A language – follows Garipa – which certainly needs a little enrichment and refinement, but is no less important than the other Neolatin languages"). Casula, Francesco. Sa chistione de sa limba in Montanaru e oe
  198. ^ "...non-scrivono di Sardegna o in sardo per inserirsi in un sistema isolano, ma per iscrivere la Sardegna e la sua lingua – e con esse, se stessi – in un sistema europeo. Elevare la Sardegna ad una dignità culturale pari a quella di altri paesi europei significava anche promuovere i sardi, e in particolare i sardi colti, che si sentivano privi di radici e di appartenenza nel sistema culturale continentale." Paolo Maninchedda (2000): Nazionalismo, cosmopolitismo e provincialismo nella tradizione letteraria della Sardegna (secc. XV–XVIII), in: Revista de filología Románica, 17, p. 178
  199. ^ "Cimitero antico". Ploaghe's official website.
  200. ^ a b Manlio Brigaglia (1982). La Sardegna. Vol. 1. La geografia, la storia, l'arte e la letteratura. Cagliari: Edizioni Della Torre. p. 65.
  201. ^ "I territori della casa di Savoia si allargano fino al Ticino; importante è l'annessione della Sardegna (1718), perché la vita amministrativa e culturale dell'isola, che prima si svolgeva in spagnolo, si viene orientando, seppur molto lentamente, verso la lingua italiana". Bruno Migliorini (1969). Breve storia della lingua italiana. Firenze: Sansoni. p. 214.
  202. ^ See M. Lepori (2003). Dalla Spagna ai Savoia. Ceti e corona della Sardegna del Settecento. Roma.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  203. ^ Eduardo Blasco Ferrer; Peter Koch; Daniela Marzo (2017). Manuale di linguistica sarda. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 169.
  204. ^ Joaquín Arce (1960). España en Cerdeña. Aportación cultural y testimonios de su influjo. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Instituto Jerónimo Zurita. p. 128.
  205. ^ Joaquín Arce. La literatura hispánica de Cerdeña. Archivum: Revista de la Facultad de Filosofía y Letras (PDF). Vol. 6. p. 139.
  206. ^ Eduardo Blasco Ferrer; Peter Koch; Daniela Marzo (2017). Manuale di linguistica sarda. Manuals of Romance linguistics. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 168–169.
  207. ^ Eduardo Blasco Ferrer; Peter Koch; Daniela Marzo (2017). Manuale di linguistica sarda. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 201.
  208. ^ Manlio Brigaglia (1982). La Sardegna. Vol. 1. La geografia, la storia, l'arte e la letteratura. Cagliari: Edizioni Della Torre. p. 64.
  209. ^ Amos Cardia (2006). S'italianu in Sardìnnia candu, cumenti e poita d'ant impostu: 1720–1848; poderi e lìngua in Sardìnnia in edadi spanniola. Ghilarza: Iskra. pp. 86–87.
  210. ^ Roberto Palmarocchi (1936). Sardegna sabauda. Il regime di Vittorio Amedeo II. Cagliari: Tip. Mercantile G. Doglio. p. 95.
  211. ^ Roberto Palmarocchi (1936). Sardegna sabauda. Vol. I. Cagliari: Tip. Mercantile G. Doglio. p. 87.
  212. ^ Cardia, Amos (2006). S'italianu in Sardìnnia candu, cumenti e poita d'ant impostu: 1720–1848; poderi e lìngua in Sardìnnia in edadi spanniola, Iskra, Ghilarza, p. 86
  213. ^ Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Giorgia Ingrassia (2009). Storia della lingua sarda : dal paleosardo alla musica rap, evoluzione storico-culturale, letteraria, linguistica. Scelta di brani esemplari commentati e tradotti. Cagliari: Cuec. p. 110.
  214. ^ Rossana Poddine Rattu. Biografia dei viceré sabaudi del Regno di Sardegna (1720–1848). Cagliari: Della Torre. p. 31.
  215. ^ Luigi La Rocca (1905). La cessione del Regno di Sardegna alla Casa Sabauda. Gli atti diplomatici e di possesso con documenti inediti, in "Miscellanea di Storia Italiana. Terza Serie", v.10. Torino: Fratelli Bocca. pp. 180–188.
  216. ^ Eduardo Blasco Ferrer; Peter Koch; Daniela Marzo (2017). Manuale di linguistica sarda. Manuals of Romance linguistics. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 210.
  217. ^ On further information as to the role played by mixed marriages in general to spread Italian among the islanders, see Ines Loi Corvetto. L'italiano regionale di Sardegna. Bologna: Zanichelli. pp. 21–25. ; Francesco Bruni. L'italiano nelle regioni. Lingua nazionale e identità regionali. Torino: UTET. p. 913.
  218. ^ "La più diffusa, e storicamente precocissima, consapevolezza nell'isola circa lo statuto di lingua a sé del sardo, ragion per cui il rapporto tra il sardo e l'italiano ha teso a porsi fin dall'inizio nei termini di quello tra due lingue diverse (benché con potere e prestigio evidentemente diversi), a differenza di quanto normalmente avvenuto in altre regioni italiane, dove, tranne nel caso di altre minoranze storiche, la percezione dei propri "dialetti" come "lingue" diverse dall'italiano sembrerebbe essere un fatto relativamente più recente e, almeno apparentemente, meno profondamente e drammaticamente avvertito." Eduardo Blasco Ferrer; Peter Koch; Daniela Marzo (2017). Manuale di linguistica sarda. Manuals of Romance linguistics. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 209.
  219. ^ "La consapevolezza di alterità rispetto all'italiano si spiega facilmente non solo per i quasi 400 anni di fila sotto il dominio ispanico, che hanno agevolato nei sardi, rispetto a quanto avvenuto in altre regioni italiane, una prospettiva globalmente più distaccata nei confronti della lingua italiana, ma anche per il fatto tutt'altro che banale che già i catalani e i castigliani consideravano il sardo una lingua a sé stante, non solo rispetto alla propria ma anche rispetto all'italiano." Eduardo Blasco Ferrer; Peter Koch; Daniela Marzo (2017). Manuale di linguistica sarda. Manuals of Romance linguistics. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 210.
  220. ^ "Ma la percezione di alterità linguistica era condivisa e avvertita anche da qualsiasi italiano che avesse occasione di risiedere o passare nell'Isola." Eduardo Blasco Ferrer; Peter Koch; Daniela Marzo (2017). Manuale di linguistica sarda. Manuals of Romance linguistics. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 209.
  221. ^ "Lingue fuori dell'Italiano e del Sardo nessuno ne impara, e pochi uomini capiscono il francese; piuttosto lo spagnuolo. La lingua spagnuola s'accosta molto anche alla Sarda, e poi con altri paesi poco sono in relazione. [...] La popolazione della Sardegna pare dalli suoi costumi, indole, etc., un misto di popoli di Spagna, e del Levante conservano vari usi, che hanno molta analogia con quelli dei Turchi, e dei popoli del Levante; e poi vi è mescolato molto dello Spagnuolo, e dirò così, che pare una originaria popolazione del Levante civilizzata alla Spagnuola, che poi coll'andare del tempo divenne più originale, e formò la Nazione Sarda, che ora distinguesi non solo dai popoli del Levante, ma anche da quelli della Spagna." Francesco D'Austria-Este (1993) [First published 1812]. Descrizione della Sardegna (1812), ed. Giorgio Bardanzellu. Cagliari: Della Torre. pp. 43, 64.
  222. ^ Antonio Bresciani (1861). Dei costumi dell'isola di Sardegna comparati cogli antichissimi popoli orientali (PDF). Napoli: Giannini Francesco.
  223. ^ Giulio Bechi (1997) [First published 1900]. Caccia grossa. Scene e figure del banditismo sardo. Nuoro: Ilisso. p. 43.
  224. ^ "Come data ufficiale per la estensione della lingua italiana in Sardegna viene comunemente citato il 1764, anno in cui fu emanata un'apposita carta reale per le Università, ma questa, in effetti, fu preceduta nel 1760 da un piano regio per le scuole inferiori e seguita nel 1770 da un regio editto per la magistratura. Occorse dunque un periodo di dieci anni per rendere ufficiale, nell'isola, l'adozione dell'italiano, la cui diffusione fu da principio assai lenta anche negli ambienti colti, come attesta l'uso frequente della lingua spagnola in atti e documenti pubblici fino ai primi decenni dell'Ottocento." Francesco Corda (1994). Grammatica moderna del sardo logudorese: con una proposta ortografica, elementi di metrica e un glossario. Cagliari: Edizioni della Torre. pp. 6–7.
  225. ^ Bolognesi, Roberto (1998). The Phonology of Campidanian Sardinian: A Unitary Account of a Self-Organizing Structure. Holland Academic Graphics. p. 3.
  226. ^ Amos Cardia (2006). S'italianu in Sardìnnia candu, cumenti e poita d'ant impostu: 1720–1848; poderi e lìngua in Sardìnnia in edadi spanniola. Ghilarza: Iskra. pp. 88, 91.
  227. ^ Alessandro Mongili (2015). Topologie postcoloniali. Innovazione e modernizzazione in Sardegna. Cagliari. p. Premessa, 18; Postcolonial Sardinia, 65; Mondi post, informatica ed esclusione, 21.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  228. ^ "L'attività riformatrice si allargò anche ad altri campi: scuole in lingua italiana per riallacciare la cultura isolana a quella del continente, lotta contro il banditismo, ripopolamento di terre e ville deserte con Liguri, Piemontesi, Còrsi." Roberto Almagia et al., Sardegna, Enciclopedia Italiana (1936), Treccani, "Storia"
  229. ^ "L'italianizzazione dell'isola fu un obiettivo fondamentale della politica sabauda, strumentale a un più ampio progetto di assimilazione della Sardegna al Piemonte." Amos Cardia (2006). S'italianu in Sardìnnia candu, cumenti e poita d'ant impostu: 1720–1848; poderi e lìngua in Sardìnnia in edadi spanniola. Ghilarza: Iskra. p. 92.
  230. ^ "Ai funzionari sabaudi, inseriti negli ingranaggi dell'assolutismo burocratico ed educati al culto della regolarità e della precisione, l'isola appariva come qualcosa di estraneo e di bizzarro, come un Paese in preda alla barbarie e all'anarchia, popolato di selvaggi tutt'altro che buoni. Era difficile che quei funzionari potessero considerare il diverso altrimenti che come puro negativo. E infatti essi presero ad applicare alla Sardegna le stesse ricette applicate al Piemonte.". Luciano Guerci (2006). L'Europa del Settecento : permanenze e mutamenti. UTET. p. 576.
  231. ^ "En aquest sentit, la italianització definitiva de l'illa representava per a ell l'objectiu més urgent, i va decidir de contribuir-hi tot reformant les Universitats de Càller i de Sàsser, bandejant-ne alhora els jesuïtes de la direcció per tal com mantenien encara una relació massa estreta amb la cultura espanyola. El ministre Bogino havia entès que només dins d'una Universitat reformada podia crear-se una nova generació de joves que contribuïssin a homogeneïtzar de manera absoluta Sardenya amb el Piemont." Joan Armangué i Herrero. Represa i exercici de la consciència lingüística a l'Alguer (ss.XVIII-XX). Arxiu de Tradicions de l'Alguer. Cagliari, I.1
  232. ^ a b c d Manlio Brigaglia (1982). La Sardegna. Vol. 1. La geografia, la storia, l'arte e la letteratura. Cagliari: Edizioni Della Torre. p. 77.
  233. ^ a b Roberto Bolognesi, Wilbert Heeringa (2005). Sardegna fra tante lingue. Condaghes. p. 25.
  234. ^ a b c Sergio Salvi (1974). Le lingue tagliate. Storia delle minoranze linguistiche in Italia. Milano: Rizzoli. p. 181.
  235. ^ Martin Maiden; John Charles Smith; Adam Ledgeway (2013). The Cambridge History of the Romance Languages. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 302.
  236. ^ "In Sardegna, dopo il passaggio alla casa di Savoia, lo spagnolo perde terreno, ma lentissimamente: solo nel 1764 l'italiano diventa lingua ufficiale nei tribunali e nell'insegnamento". Bruno Migliorini (1957). La Rassegna della letteratura italiana. Vol. 61. Firenze: Le Lettere. p. 398.
  237. ^ "Anche la sostituzione dell'italiano allo spagnolo non avvenne istantaneamente: quest'ultimo restò lingua ufficiale nelle scuole e nei tribunali fino al 1764, anno in cui da Torino fu disposta una riforma delle università di Cagliari e Sassari e si stabilì che l'insegnamento scolastico dovesse essere solamente in italiano." Michele Loporcaro (2009). Profilo linguistico dei dialetti italiani. Editori Laterza. p. 9.
  238. ^ Amos Cardia (2006). S'italianu in Sardìnnia candu, cumenti e poita d'ant impostu: 1720–1848; poderi e lìngua in Sardìnnia in edadi spanniola. Ghilarza: Iskra. p. 89.
  239. ^ Rivista storica italiana. Vol. 104. Edizioni scientifiche italiane. 1992. p. 55.
  240. ^ Clemente Caria (1981). Canto sacro-popolare in Sardegna. Oristano: S'Alvure. p. 45.
  241. ^ "Sardegna Cultura – Lingua sarda – Letteratura – Dalle origini al '700". www.sardegnacultura.it.
  242. ^ "sardi, dialetti in "Enciclopedia dell'Italiano"". www.treccani.it.
  243. ^ "Cinque linguaggi parlansi in Sardegna, lo spagnuolo, l'italiano, il sardo, l'algarese, e 'l sassarese. I primi due per ragione del passato e del presente dominio, e delle passate, e presenti scuole intendonsi e parlansi da tutte le pulite persone nelle città, e ancor ne' villaggi. Il sardo è comune a tutto il Regno, e dividesi in due precipui dialetti, sardo campidanese e sardo del capo di sopra. L'algarese è un dialetto del catalano, perché colonia di catalani è Algheri; e finalmente il sassarese che si parla in Sassari, in Tempio e in Castel sardo, è un dialetto del toscano, reliquia del dominio de' Pisani. Lo spagnuolo va perdendo terreno a misura che prende piede l'italiano, il quale ha dispossessato il primo delle scuole, e de' tribunali." Francesco Gemelli, Luigi Valenti Gonzaga (1776). Rifiorimento della Sardegna proposto nel miglioramento di sua agricoltura. Vol. 2. Torino. Giammichele Briolo.
  244. ^ Madau, Matteo (1782). Saggio d'un opera intitolata Il ripulimento della lingua sarda lavorato sopra la sua analogia colle due matrici lingue, la greca e la latina, Bernardo Titard, Cagliari
  245. ^ "MADAO, Matteo in "Dizionario Biografico"". www.treccani.it.
  246. ^ "Ichnussa – la biblioteca digitale della poesia sarda". www.poesias.it.
  247. ^ Un arxipèlag invisible: la relació impossible de Sardenya i Còrsega sota nacionalismes, segles XVIII-XX – Marcel Farinelli, Universitat Pompeu Fabra. Institut Universitari d'Història Jaume Vicens i Vives, p. 285
  248. ^ a b Amos Cardia (2006). S'italianu in Sardìnnia candu, cumenti e poita d'ant impostu: 1720–1848; poderi e lìngua in Sardìnnia in edadi spanniola. Ghilarza: Iskra. pp. 111–112.
  249. ^ "Febrés, la prima grammatica sul sardo. A lezione di limba dal gesuita catalano". Sardiniapost.it. 8 June 2019.
  250. ^ Febres, Andres (1786). Prima grammatica de' tre dialetti sardi , Cagliari [the volume can be found in Cagliari's University Library, Baille Collection, ms. 11.2.K., n.18]
  251. ^ Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Giorgia Ingrassia (edited by). Storia della lingua sarda: dal paleosardo alla musica rap, evoluzione storico-culturale, letteraria, linguistica. Scelta di brani esemplari commentati e tradotti, 2009, Cuec, Cagliari, p. 127
  252. ^ Sergio Salvi (1974). Le lingue tagliate. Storia delle minoranze linguistiche in Italia. Milano: Rizzoli. pp. 182–183.
  253. ^ Manlio Brigaglia (1982). La Sardegna. Vol. 1. La geografia, la storia, l'arte e la letteratura. Cagliari: Edizioni Della Torre. p. 90.
  254. ^ Manlio Brigaglia (1982). La Sardegna. Vol. 1. La geografia, la storia, l'arte e la letteratura. Cagliari: Edizioni Della Torre. p. 90.
  255. ^ a b Manlio Brigaglia (1982). La Sardegna. Vol. 1. La geografia, la storia, l'arte e la letteratura. Cagliari: Edizioni Della Torre. p. 95.
  256. ^ Maurizio Virdis. "Geostorica sarda. Produzione letteraria nella e nelle lingue di Sardegna". Literature 8.2. Rhesis UniCa. p. 21.
  257. ^ "Nel caso della Sardegna, la scelta della patria italiana è avvenuta da parte delle élite legate al dominio sabaudo sin dal 1799, in modo esplicito, più che altro come strategia di un ceto che andava formandosi attraverso la fusione fra aristocrazia, nobiltà di funzione e borghesia, in reazione al progetto antifeudale, democratico e repubblicano della Sarda rivoluzione." Mongili, Alessandro. Topologie postcoloniali. Innovazione e modernizzazione in Sardegna, Condaghes, chpt. 1.2 "indicibile è il sardo"
  258. ^ Maurizio Virdis (2012). Prospettive identitarie in Sardegna, in Contarini, Silvia. Marras, Margherita. Pias, Giuliana. L'identità sarda del XXI secolo tra globale, locale e postcoloniale. Nuoro: Il Maestrale. pp. 32–33.
  259. ^ Saggio di grammatica sul dialetto sardo meridionale dedicato a sua altezza reale Maria Cristina di Bourbon infanta delle Sicilie duchessa del genevese, Cagliari, Reale stamperia, 1811
  260. ^ "[Il Porru] In generale considera la lingua un patrimonio che deve essere tutelato e migliorato con sollecitudine. In definitiva, per il Porru possiamo ipotizzare una probabilmente sincera volontà di salvaguardia della lingua sarda che però, dato il clima di severa censura e repressione creato dal dominio sabaudo, dovette esprimersi tutta in funzione di un miglior apprendimento dell'italiano. Siamo nel 1811, ancora a breve distanza dalla stagione calda della rivolta antifeudale e repubblicana, dentro il periodo delle congiure e della repressione." Amos Cardia (2006). S'italianu in Sardìnnia candu, cumenti e poita d'ant impostu: 1720–1848; poderi e lìngua in Sardìnnia in edadi spanniola. Ghilarza: Iskra. pp. 112–113.
  261. ^ Johanne Ispanu (1840). (PDF). Kalaris: Reale Stamperia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 27 June 2019.
  262. ^ "Il presente lavoro però restringesi propriamente al solo Logudorese ossia Centrale, che questo forma la vera lingua nazionale, la più antica ed armoniosa e che soffrì alterazioni meno delle altre". Ispanu, Johanne (1840). Ortographia sarda nationale o siat grammatica de sa limba logudoresa cumparada cum s'italiana, p. 12
  263. ^ "[...] Nonetheless, the two works by Spano are of extraordinary importance, as they put on the table in Sardinia the "question of the Sardinian language", the language that should have been the unified and unifying one, to be enforced on the island over its singular dialects; the language of the Sardinian nation, through which the island was keen to project itself onto the other European nations, that already reached or were about to reach their political and cultural actualization in the 1800s, including the Italian nation. And just along the lines of what had been theorized and put into effect in favour of the Italian nation, that was successfully completing the process of linguistic unification by elevating the Florentine dialect to the role of "national language", so in Sardinia the long-desired "Sardinian national language" was given the name of "illustrious Sardinian"." Original: "[...] Ciononostante le due opere dello Spano sono di straordinaria importanza, in quanto aprirono in Sardegna la discussione sul problema della lingua sarda, quella che sarebbe dovuta essere la lingua unificata ed unificante, che si sarebbe dovuta imporre in tutta l'isola sulle particolarità dei singoli dialetti e suddialetti, la lingua della nazione sarda, con la quale la Sardegna intendeva inserirsi tra le altre nazioni europee, quelle che nell'Ottocento avevano già raggiunto o stavano per raggiungere la loro attuazione politica e culturale, compresa la nazione italiana. E proprio sulla falsariga di quanto era stato teorizzato ed anche attuato a favore della nazione italiana, che nell'Ottocento stava per portare a termine il processo di unificazione linguistica, elevando il dialetto fiorentino e toscano al ruolo di "lingua nazionale", chiamandolo italiano illustre, anche in Sardegna l'auspicata lingua nazionale sarda fu denominata sardo illustre"". Massimo Pittau (2005). Grammatica del sardo illustre: con la messa cristiana in lingua sarda. Sassari: C. Delfino. pp. 11–12. Introduction
  264. ^ "In una sua opera del 1848 egli mostra di considerare la situazione isolana come carica di pericoli e di minacce per il Piemonte e propone di procedere colpendo innanzitutto con decisione la lingua sarda, proibendola cioè "severamente in ogni atto pubblico civile non meno che nelle funzioni ecclesiastiche, tranne le prediche". Baudi di Vesme non si fa illusioni: l'antipiemontesismo non è mai venuto meno nonostante le proteste e le riaffermazioni di fratellanza con i popoli di terraferma; si è vissuti anzi fino a quel momento – aggiunge – non in attesa di una completa unificazione della Sardegna al resto dello Stato ma addirittura di un "rinnovamento del novantaquattro", cioè della storica "emozione popolare" che aveva portato alla cacciata dei Piemontesi. Ma, rimossi gli ostacoli che sul piano politico-istituzionale e soprattutto su quello etnico e linguistico differenziano la Sardegna dal Piemonte, nulla potrà più impedire che l'isola diventi un tutt'uno con gli altri Stati del re e si italianizzi davvero". Federico Francioni, Storia dell'idea di "nazione sarda", in Manlio Brigaglia (1982). La Sardegna. La cultura popolare, l'economia, l'autonomia. Vol. 2. Cagliari: Edizioni Della Torre. pp. 173–174.
  265. ^ a b c d Carlo Baudi di Vesme (1848). Considerazioni politiche ed economiche sulla Sardegna. Dalla Stamperia Reale. p. 306.
  266. ^ Carlo Baudi di Vesme (1848). Considerazioni politiche ed economiche sulla Sardegna. Dalla Stamperia Reale. p. 305.
  267. ^ Carlo Baudi di Vesme (1848). Considerazioni politiche ed economiche sulla Sardegna. Dalla Stamperia Reale. p. 313.
  268. ^ Sebastiano Ghisu (2021). "3, 8". Filosofia de logu. Milano: Meltemi.
  269. ^ Salvatore Carboni (1881). Sos discursos sacros in limba sarda. Bologna: Imprenta Pontificia Mareggiani. In Sergio Salvi (1974). Le lingue tagliate. Storia delle minoranze linguistiche in Italia. Milano: Rizzoli. pp. 186–187.
  270. ^ a b Sergio Salvi (1974). Le lingue tagliate. Storia delle minoranze linguistiche in Italia. Milano: Rizzoli. p. 184.
  271. ^ "Des del seu càrrec de capità general, Carles Fèlix havia lluitat amb mà rígida contra les darreres actituds antipiemonteses que encara dificultaven l'activitat del govern. Ara promulgava el Codi felicià (1827), amb el qual totes les lleis sardes eren recollides i, sovint, modificades. Pel que ara ens interessa, cal assenyalar que el nou codi abolia la Carta de Logu – la "consuetud de la nació sardesca", vigent des de l'any 1421 – i allò que restava de l'antic dret municipalista basat en el privilegi." Joan Armangué i Herrero, Represa i exercici de la consciència lingüística a l'Alguer (ss.XVIII-XX), Arxiu de Tradicions de l'Alguer, Cagliari, I.1
  272. ^ "Il trapiantamento in Sardegna, senza riserve ed ostacoli, della civiltà e cultura continentale, la formazione d'una sola famiglia civile, composta di Liguri, Piemontesi, Sardi, e Savoiardi, sotto un solo Padre meglio che Re, il Grande Carlo Alberto." Pietro Martini (1847). Sull'unione civile della Sardegna colla Liguria, col Piemonte e colla Savoia. Cagliari: Timon. p. 4.
  273. ^ a b c "Lingue sotto il tetto d'Italia. Le minoranze alloglotte da Bolzano a Carloforte – 8. Il sardo | Treccani, il portale del sapere". www.treccani.it.
  274. ^ "...la 'lingua della sarda nazione' perse il valore di strumento di identificazione etnica di un popolo e della sua cultura, da codificare e valorizzare, per diventare uno dei tanti dialetti regionali subordinati alla lingua nazionale." Dettori, Antonietta, 2001. Sardo e italiano: tappe fondamentali di un complesso rapporto, in Argiolas, Mario; Serra, Roberto. Limba lingua language: lingue locali, standardizzazione e identità in Sardegna nell'era della globalizzazione, Cagliari, CUEC, p. 88
  275. ^ "Spanu, Gian Nicola. Il primo inno d'Italia è sardo" (PDF).
  276. ^ "In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of Italy, and the island became part of the unified Italian state. Sardinia's distinct language and culture as well as its geographic isolation from the Italian mainland, made it something of a forgotten province, however." "Sardinia, History, People and Points of Interest. Sardinia in a united Italy". Britannica.
  277. ^ a b c d Fiorenzo Toso (2008). "2". Le minoranze linguistiche in Italia. Bologna: Società editrice Il Mulino. ISBN 
sardinian, language, this, article, about, modern, romance, language, ancient, sardinian, paleo, this, article, long, read, navigate, comfortably, please, consider, splitting, content, into, articles, condensing, adding, subheadings, please, discuss, this, iss. This article is about the modern Romance language For ancient Sardinian see Paleo Sardinian language This article may be too long to read and navigate comfortably Please consider splitting content into sub articles condensing it or adding subheadings Please discuss this issue on the article s talk page June 2023 Sardinian or Sard sardu ˈsaɾdu limba sarda ˈlimba ˈzaɾda or lingua sarda ˈliŋɡwa ˈzaɾda is a Romance language spoken by the Sardinians on the Western Mediterranean island of Sardinia SardinianSardsardulimba lingua sardaPronunciation ˈsaɾdu Native toItalyRegionSardiniaEthnicitySardiniansNative speakers1 million 2010 2016 1 2 3 Language familyIndo European ItalicLatino FaliscanRomanceSardinianStandard formswritten Limba Sarda Comuna written Logudorese Sardinian sardu logudoresu written Campidanese Sardinian sardu campidanesu Official statusRecognised minoritylanguage inItaly 1999 4 Sardinia 1997 5 2018 6 Regulated byLogudorese orthography 7 8 Campidanese orthography 9 10 Limba Sarda Comuna inclusive orthographic code 11 12 Language codesISO 639 1 span class plainlinks sc span ISO 639 2 span class plainlinks srd span ISO 639 3 a href https iso639 3 sil org code srd class extiw title iso639 3 srd srd a inclusive code SardinianIndividual codes a href https iso639 3 sil org code sro class extiw title iso639 3 sro sro a Campidanese Sardinian a href https iso639 3 sil org code src class extiw title iso639 3 src src a Logudorese SardinianGlottologsard1257Linguasphere51 AAA sLinguistic map of Sardinia Sardinian is yellow Logudorese and orange Campidanese This article contains IPA phonetic symbols Without proper rendering support you may see question marks boxes or other symbols instead of Unicode characters For an introductory guide on IPA symbols see Help IPA source source source source source source source source source source source source source source track track Non native speaker of the Nuorese dialect of Siniscola Many Romance linguists consider it the language that together with Italian is the closest to Latin among all its genealogical descendants 13 14 15 However it has also incorporated elements of a Pre Latin mostly Paleo Sardinian and to a much lesser degree Punic substratum 16 as well as a Byzantine Greek Catalan Castilian and Italian superstratum These elements originate in the political history of Sardinia whose indigenous society experienced for centuries competition and at times conflict with a series of colonizing newcomers before the Middle Ages the island was for a time a Byzantine possession then after a significant period of self rule with the Judicates when Sardinian was officially employed in accordance with documentary testimonies it came during the late Middle Ages into the Iberian sphere of influence during which Catalan and Castilian became the island s prestige languages and would remain so well into the 18th century and finally from the early 18th century onward under the Savoyard and contemporary Italian one 17 following since then the country s linguistic policies which to the detriment of Sardinian and the local Catalan led to diglossia 18 The original character of the Sardinian language among the Romance idioms has long been known among linguists 19 20 21 22 After a long strife for the acknowledgement of the island s cultural patrimony in 1997 Sardinian along with the other languages spoken therein managed to be recognized by regional law in Sardinia without challenge by the central government 5 and in 1999 Sardinian and eleven other historical linguistic minorities i e locally indigenous and not foreign grown minority languages of Italy minoranze linguistiche storiche as defined by the legislator were similarly recognized as such by national law specifically Law No 482 1999 4 Among these Sardinian is notable as having in terms of absolute numbers the largest community of speakers 23 24 25 26 27 28 Although the Sardinian speaking community can be said to share a high level of linguistic awareness 29 policies eventually fostering language loss and assimilation have considerably affected Sardinian whose actual speakers have become noticeably reduced in numbers over the last century 25 The Sardinian adult population today primarily uses Italian and less than 15 percent of the younger generations were reported to have been passed down some residual Sardinian 30 31 usually in a deteriorated form described by linguist Roberto Bolognesi as an ungrammatical slang 32 The rather fragile and precarious state in which the Sardinian language now finds itself where its use has been discouraged and consequently reduced even within the family sphere is illustrated by the Euromosaic report in which Sardinian is in 43rd place in the ranking of the 50 languages taken into consideration and of which were analysed a use in the family b cultural reproduction c use in the community d prestige e use in institutions f use in education 33 As the Sardinians have almost completely assimilated into the Italian national mores including in terms of onomastics and therefore now only happen to keep but a scant and fragmentary knowledge of their native and once first spoken language limited in both scope and frequency of use 34 Sardinian has been classified by UNESCO as definitely endangered 35 In fact the intergenerational chain of transmission appears to have been broken since at least the 1960s in such a way that the younger generations who are predominantly Italian monolinguals do not identify themselves with the indigenous tongue which is now reduced to the memory of little more than the language of their grandparents 36 As the long to even medium term future of the Sardinian language looks far from secure in the present circumstances 37 Martin Harris concluded in 2003 38 that assuming the continuation of present trends to language death it was possible that there would not be a Sardinian language of which to speak in the future being referred to by linguists as the mere substratum of the now prevailing idiom i e Italian articulated in its own Sardinian influenced variety 39 40 which may come to wholly supplant the islanders once living native tongue Contents 1 Overview 2 History 2 1 Origins of modern Sardinian 2 2 Judicates period 2 3 Iberian period Catalan and Castilian influence 2 4 Savoyard period Italian influence 2 5 Late modern period 3 Present situation 4 Phonology 5 Grammar 5 1 Nouns 5 2 Verbs 5 3 Syntax 5 4 Vocabulary comparison with other Romance languages 6 Varieties 6 1 Sample of text 7 Standardization 8 Surnames given names and toponyms 9 See also 10 References 10 1 Notes 10 2 Citations 11 Bibliography 12 External linksOverview EditNow the question arises as to whether Sardinian is to be considered a dialect or a language Politically speaking of course it is one of the many dialects of Italy just like the Serbo Croatian and the Albanian that are spoken in various Calabrian and Sicilian villages The question however takes on a different nature when considered from a linguistic perspective Sardinian cannot be said to be closely related to any dialect of mainland Italy it is an archaic Romance tongue with its own distinctive characteristics which can be seen in its rather unique vocabulary as well as its morphology and syntax which differ radically from those of the Italian dialects Max Leopold Wagner 41 As an insular language par excellence Sardinian is considered the most conservative Romance language as well as one of the most highly individual within the family 42 43 its substratum Paleo Sardinian or Nuragic has also been researched In the first written testimonies dating to the eleventh century Sardinian appears as a language already distinct from the dialects of Italy 44 A 1949 study by the Italian American linguist Mario Pei analyzing the degree of difference from a language s parent Latin in the case of Romance languages by comparing phonology inflection syntax vocabulary and intonation indicated the following percentages the higher the percentage the greater the distance from Latin Sardinian 8 Italian 12 Spanish 20 Romanian 23 5 Occitan 25 Portuguese 31 and French 44 45 The significant degree to which the Sardinian language has retained its Latin base was also noted by the French geographer Maurice Le Lannou during a research project on the island in 1941 46 nbsp Chart of Romance languages based on structural and comparative criteria not on socio functional ones Although the lexical base is mostly of Latin origin Sardinian nonetheless retains a number of traces of the linguistic substratum prior to the Roman conquest of the island several words and especially toponyms stem from Paleo Sardinian 47 and to a lesser extent Phoenician Punic These etyma might refer to an early Mediterranean substratum which reveal close relations with Basque 48 49 50 In addition to the aforementioned substratum linguists such as Max Leopold Wagner and Benvenuto Aronne Terracini trace much of the distinctive Latin character of Sardinia to the languoids once spoken by the Christian and Jewish Berbers in North Africa known as African Romance 51 Indeed Sardinian was perceived as rather similar to African Latin when the latter was still in use giving credit to the theory that vulgar Latin in both Africa and Sardinia displayed a significant wealth of parallelisms 52 J N Adams is of the opinion that similarities in many words such as acina grape pala shoulderblade and spanu s reddish brown prove that there might have been a fair amount of vocabulary shared between Sardinia and Africa 53 According to Wagner it is notable that Sardinian is the only Romance language whose name for the Milky Way b ia de sa baza b ia de sa balla the Way of Straw also recurs in the Berber languages 54 To most Italians Sardinian is unintelligible reminding them of Spanish because of the way in which the language is acoustically articulated 55 characterized as it is by a sharply outlined physiognomy which is displayed from the earliest sources available it is in fact considered a distinct language if not an altogether different branch among the Romance idioms 20 56 57 58 59 George Bossong summarises thus be this as it may from a strictly linguistic point of view there can be no doubt that Sardinian is to be classified as an independent Romance language or even as an independent branch inside the family and so it is classed alongside the great national languages like French and Italian in all modern manuals of Romance linguistics 60 History EditSee also History of Sardinia Sardinia s relative isolation from mainland Europe encouraged the development of a Romance language that preserves traces of its indigenous pre Roman language s The language is posited to have substratal influences from Paleo Sardinian which some scholars have linked to Basque 61 62 and Etruscan 63 comparisons have also been drawn with the Berber languages from North Africa 64 to shed more light on the language s spoken in Sardinia prior to its Romanization Subsequent adstratal influences include Catalan Spanish and Italian The situation of the Sardinian language with regard to the politically dominant ones did not change until fascism 65 and most evidently the 1950s 66 67 Origins of modern Sardinian Edit Prenuragic and Nuragic eraSee also Paleo Sardinian language and Nuragic civilization nbsp Hunter Nuragic bronze statuetteThe origins of ancient Sardinian also known as Paleo Sardinian are currently unknown Research has attempted to discover obscure indigenous pre Romance roots The root s a rd indicating many place names as well as the island s people is reportedly either associated with or originating from the Sherden one of the Sea Peoples 68 Other sources trace instead the root s a rd from Sardw a legendary woman from the Anatolian Kingdom of Lydia 69 70 or from the Libyan mythological figure of the Sardus Pater Babai Sardinian Father or Father of the Sardinians 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 In 1984 Massimo Pittau claimed to have found the etymology of many Latin words in the Etruscan language after comparing it with the Nuragic language s 63 Etruscan elements formerly thought to have originated in Latin would indicate a connection between the ancient Sardinian culture and the Etruscans According to Pittau the Etruscan and Nuragic language s are descended from Lydian and therefore Indo European as a consequence of contact with Etruscans and other Tyrrhenians from Sardis as described by Herodotus 63 Although Pittau suggests that the Tirrenii landed in Sardinia and the Etruscans landed in modern Tuscany his views are not shared by most Etruscologists According to Bertoldi and Terracini Paleo Sardinian has similarities with the Iberic languages and Siculian for example the suffix ara in proparoxytones indicated the plural Terracini proposed the same for suffixes in ana anna enna onna r a paragogic vowel such as the toponym Bunnannaru Rohlfs Butler and Craddock add the suffix ini such as the toponym Barumini as a unique element of Paleo Sardinian Suffixes in a e o u rr found a correspondence in north Africa Terracini in Iberia Blasco Ferrer and in southern Italy and Gascony Rohlfs with a closer relationship to Basque Wagner and Hubschmid However these early links to a Basque precursor have been questioned by some Basque linguists 78 According to Terracini suffixes in ai ei oi and ui are common to Paleo Sardinian and northern African languages Pittau emphasized that this concerns terms originally ending in an accented vowel with an attached paragogic vowel the suffix resisted Latinization in some place names which show a Latin body and a Nuragic suffix According to Bertoldi some toponyms ending in ai and asai indicated an Anatolian influence The suffix aiko widely used in Iberia and possibly of Celtic origin and the ethnic suffix in itanos and etanos for example the Sardinian Sulcitanos have also been noted as Paleo Sardinian elements Terracini Ribezzo Wagner Hubschmid and Faust Some linguists like Max Leopold Wagner 1931 Blasco Ferrer 2009 2010 and Arregi 2017 79 have attempted to revive a theoretical connection with Basque by linking words such as Sardinian idile marshland and Basque itil puddle 80 Sardinian ospile fresh grazing for cattle and Basque hozpil cool fresh Sardinian arrotzeri vagabond and Basque arrotz stranger Sardinian golostiu and Basque gorosti holly Gallurese Corso Sardinian zerru pig with z for dz and Basque zerri with z for s Genetic data have found the Basques to be close to the Sardinians 81 82 83 nbsp Location of the Sardinian tribes as described by the Roman sources 84 nbsp Length of the Roman rule and emergence of the Romance languages 85 Since the Neolithic period some degree of variance across the island s regions is also attested The Arzachena culture for instance suggests a link between the northernmost Sardinian region Gallura and southern Corsica that finds further confirmation in the Natural History by Pliny the Elder There are also some stylistic differences across Northern and Southern Nuragic Sardinia which may indicate the existence of two other tribal groups Balares and Ilienses mentioned by the same Roman author According to the archeologist Giovanni Ugas 86 these tribes may have in fact played a role in shaping the current regional linguistic differences of the island Classical periodSee also Corsica and Sardinia Around the 10th and 9th century BC Phoenician merchants were known to have made their presence in Sardinia which acted as a geographical mediator in between the Iberian and the Italian peninsula In the eighth and seventh centuries the Phoenicians began to develop permanent settlements politically arranged as city states in similar fashion to the Lebanese coastal areas It did not take long before they started gravitating around the Carthaginian sphere of influence whose level of prosperity spurred Carthage to send a series of expeditionary forces to the island although they were initially repelled by the natives the North African city vigorously pursued a policy of active imperialism and by the sixth century managed to establish its political hegemony and military control over South Western Sardinia Punic began to be spoken in the area and many words entered ancient Sardinian as well 87 Words like giara plateau cf Hebrew yaʿar forest scrub g r uspinu nasturtium from Punic cusmin curma fringed rue cf Arabic ḥarmal Syrian rue mitza spring cf Hebrew mitsa metza source fountainhead sintziri marsh horsetail from Punic zunzur common knotgrass tzeurra sprout from zerula diminutive of Punic zeraʿ seed tzichiria dill from Punic sikkiria cf Hebrew sekar ale and tzipiri rosemary from Punic zibbir are commonly used especially in the modern Sardinian varieties of the Campidanese plain while proceeding northwards the influence is more limited to place names such as the town of Magomadas Macumadas in Nuoro or Magumadas in Gesico and Nureci all of which deriving from the Punic maqom hadash new city 88 89 The Roman domination began in 238 BC but was often contested by the local Sardinian tribes who had by then acquired a high level of political organization 90 and would manage to only partly supplant the pre Latin Sardinian languages including Punic Although the colonists and negotiatores businessmen of strictly Italic descent would later play a relevant role in introducing and spreading Latin to Sardinia Romanisation proved slow to take hold among the Sardinian natives 91 whose proximity to the Carthaginian cultural influence was noted by Roman authors 92 Punic continued to be spoken well into the 3rd 4th century AD as attested by votive inscriptions 93 94 and it is thought that the natives from the most interior areas led by the tribal chief Hospito joined their brethren in making the switch to Latin around the 7th century AD through their conversion to Christianity 95 note 1 Cicero who loathed the Sardinians on the ground of numerous factors such as their outlandish language their kinship with Carthage and their refusal to engage with Rome 96 would call the Sardinian rebels latrones mastrucati thieves with rough wool cloaks or Afri Africans to emphasize Roman superiority over a population mocked as the refuse of Carthage note 2 A number of obscure Nuragic roots remained unchanged and in many cases Latin accepted the local roots like nur presumably cognate of Norax which makes its appearance in nuraghe Nurra Nurri and many other toponyms Barbagia the mountainous central region of the island derives its name from the Latin Barbaria a term meaning Land of the Barbarians similar in origin to the now antiquated word Barbary because its people refused cultural and linguistic assimilation for a long time 50 of toponyms of central Sardinia particularly in the territory of Olzai are actually not related to any known language 97 According to Terracini amongst the regions in Europe that went on to draw their language from Latin Sardinia has overall preserved the highest proportion of pre Latin toponyms 98 Besides the place names on the island there are still a few names of plants animals and geological formations directly traceable to the ancient Nuragic era 99 By the end of the Roman domination Latin had gradually become however the speech of most of the island s inhabitants 100 As a result of this protracted and prolonged process of Romanisation the modern Sardinian language is today classified as Romance or neo Latin with some phonetic features resembling Old Latin Some linguists assert that modern Sardinian being part of the Island Romance group 101 was the first language to split off from Latin 102 all others evolving from Latin as Continental Romance In fact contact with Rome might have ceased from as early as the first century BC 103 In terms of vocabulary Sardinian retains an array of peculiar Latin based forms that are either unfamiliar to or have altogether disappeared in the rest of the Romance speaking world 104 105 The number of Latin inscriptions on the island is relatively small and fragmented Some engraved poems in ancient Greek and Latin the two most prestigious languages in the Roman Empire 106 are seen in the so called Viper s Cave Gruta e sa Pibera in Sardinian Grotta della Vipera in Italian Cripta Serpentum in Latin a burial monument built in Caralis Cagliari by Lucius Cassius Philippus a Roman who had been exiled to Sardinia in remembrance of his dead spouse Atilia Pomptilla 107 we also have some religious works by Eusebius and Saint Lucifer both from Caralis and in the writing style of whom may be noted the lexicon and perifrastic forms typical of Sardinian e g narrare in place of dicere compare with Sardinian narrere or narri ri to say 108 After a period of 80 years under the Vandals Sardinia would again be part of the Byzantine Empire under the Exarchate of Africa 109 for almost another five centuries Luigi Pinelli believes that the Vandal presence had estranged Sardinia from Europe linking its own destiny to Africa s territorial expanse in a bond that was to strengthen further under Byzantine rule not only because the Roman Empire included the island in the African Exarchate but also because it developed from there albeit indirectly its ethnic community causing it to acquire many of the African characteristics that would allow ethnologists and historians to elaborate the theory of the Paleo Sardinians supposed African origin 110 now disproved Casula is convinced that the Vandal domination caused a clear breaking with the Roman Latin writing tradition or at the very least an appreciable bottleneck so that the subsequent Byzantine government was able to establish its own operational institutions in a territory disputed between the Greek and the Latin speaking world 111 Despite a period of almost five centuries the Greek language only lent Sardinian a few ritual and formal expressions using Greek structure and sometimes the Greek alphabet 112 113 Evidence for this is found in the condaghes the first written documents in Sardinian From the long Byzantine era there are only a few entries but they already provide a glimpse of the sociolinguistical situation on the island in which in addition to the community s everyday Neo Latin language Greek was also spoken by the ruling classes 114 Some toponyms such as Jerzu thought to derive from the Greek khersos untilled together with the personal names Mikhaleis Konstantine and Basilis demonstrate Greek influence 114 Judicates period Edit See also Sardinian medieval kingdoms nbsp The condaghe of Saint Peter of Silki 1065 1180 written in Sardinian As the Muslims made their way into North Africa what remained of the Byzantine possession of the Exarchate of Africa was only the Balearic Islands and Sardinia Pinelli believes that this event constituted a fundamental watershed in the historical course of Sardinia leading to the definitive severance of those previously close cultural ties between Sardinia and the southern shore of the Mediterranean any previously held commonality shared between Sardinia and Africa disappeared like mist in the sun as a result of North Africa s conquest by Islamic forces since the latter due to the fierce resistance of the Sardinians were not able to spread to the island as they had in Africa 110 Michele Amari quoted by Pinelli writes that the attempts of the Muslims of Africa to conquer Sardinia and Corsica were frustrated by the unconquered valour of the poor and valiant inhabitants of those islands who saved themselves for two centuries from the yoke of the Arabs 115 As the Byzantines were fully focused on reconquering southern Italy and Sicily which had in the meanwhile also fallen to the Muslims their attention on Sardinia was neglected and communications broke down with Constantinople this spurred the former Byzantine province of Sardinia to become progressively more autonomous from the Byzantine oecumene and eventually attain independence 116 Pinelli argues that the Arab conquest of North Africa separated Sardinia from that continent without however causing the latter to rejoin Europe and that this event determined a capital turning point for Sardinia giving rise to a de facto independent national government 110 Historian Marc Bloch believed that owing to Sardinia being a country which found itself in quasi isolation from the rest of the continent the earliest documentary testimonies written in Sardinian were much older than those first issued in Italy 117 nbsp The first page of a copy of the Arborean Carta de Logu University Public Library of Cagliari Sardinian was the first Romance language of all to gain official status being used by the four Judicates 118 119 120 121 note 3 former Byzantine districts that became independent political entities after the Arab expansion in the Mediterranean had cut off any ties left between the island and Byzantium The exceptionality of the Sardinian situation which in this sense constitutes a unique case throughout the Latin speaking Europe consists in the fact that any official text was written solely in Sardinian from the very beginning and completely excluded Latin unlike what was happening and would continue to happen in France Italy and Iberia at the same time Latin although co official was in fact used only in documents concerning external relations in which the Sardinian kings judikes judges engaged 122 Awareness of the dignity of Sardinian for official purposes was such that in the words of Livio Petrucci a Neo Latin language had come to be used at a time when nothing similar can be observed in the Italian peninsula not only in the legal field but also in any other field of writing 123 A diplomatic analysis of the earliest Sardinian documents shows that the Judicates provided themselves with chanceries which employed an indigenous diplomatic model for writing public documents 124 one of them dating to 1102 displays text in half uncial a script that had long fallen out of use on the European continent and F Casula believes may have been adopted by the Sardinians of Latin culture as their own national script from the 8th until the 12th century 125 prior to their receiving outside influence from the arrival of mainly Italian notaries Extract from Bonarcado s Condaghe 126 22 1120 1146 Ego Gregorius priore de Bonarcadu partivi cun iudice de Gallulu Coiuvedi Goantine Mameli serbu de sancta Maria de Bonarcadu cun Maria de Lee ancilla de iudice de Gallul Fegerunt II fiios Zipari et Justa Clesia levait a Zipari et iudice levait a Justa Testes Nigola de Pane Comida Pira Goantine de Porta armentariu dessu archipiscobu Old Sardinian had a greater number of archaisms and Latinisms than the present language does with few Germanic words mostly coming from Latin itself and even fewer Arabisms which had been imported by scribes from Iberia 127 in spite of their best efforts with a score of expeditions to the island from which they would get considerable booty and a hefty number of Sardinian slaves the Arab assailants were in fact each time forcefully driven back and would never manage to conquer and settle on the island 128 Although the surviving texts come from such disparate areas as the north and the south of the island Sardinian then presented itself in a rather homogeneous form 129 even though the orthographic differences between Logudorese and Campidanese Sardinian were beginning to appear Wagner found in this period the original unity of the Sardinian language 130 In agreement with Wagner is Paolo Merci who found a broad uniformity around this period as were Antonio Sanna and Ignazio Delogu too for whom it was the islanders community life that prevented Sardinian from localism 129 According to Carlo Tagliavini these earlier documents show the existence of a Sardinian Koine which pointed to a model based on Logudorese 131 132 According to Eduardo Blasco Ferrer it was in the wake of the fall of the Judicates of Cagliari and Gallura in the second half of the 13th century that Sardinian began to fragment into its modern dialects undergoing some Tuscanization under the rule of the Republic of Pisa 133 it did not take long before the Genoese too started carving their own sphere of influence in northern Sardinia both through the mixed Sardinian Genoese nobility of Sassari and the members of the Doria family 134 A certain range of dialectal variation is then noted 67 2 A special position was occupied by the Judicate of Arborea the last Sardinian kingdom to fall to foreign powers in which a transitional dialect was spoken that of Middle Sardinian The Carta de Logu of the Kingdom of Arborea one of the first constitutions in history drawn up in 1355 1376 by Marianus IV and the Queen the Lady Judge judikessa in Sardinian jutgessa in Catalan giudicessa in Italian Eleanor was written in this transitional variety of Sardinian and would remain in force until 1827 135 136 The Arborean judges effort to unify the Sardinian dialects were due to their desire to be legitimate rulers of the entire island under a single state republica sardisca Sardinian Republic 137 such political goal after all was already manifest in 1164 when the Arborean Judge Barison ordered his great seal to be made with the writings Baresonus Dei Gratia Rei Sardiniee Barison by the grace of God King of Sardinia and Est vis Sardorum pariter regnum Populorum The people s rule is equal to the Sardinians own force 138 Dante Alighieri wrote in his 1302 05 essay De vulgari eloquentia that Sardinians were strictly speaking not Italians Latii even though they appeared superficially similar to them and they did not speak anything close to a Neo Latin language of their own lingua vulgaris but resorted to aping straightforward Latin instead 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 Dante s view on the Sardinians however is proof of how their language had been following its own course in a way which was already unintelligible to non islanders and had become in Wagner s words an impenetrable sphinx to their judgment 127 Frequently mentioned is a previous 12th century poem by the troubadour Raimbaut de Vaqueiras Domna tant vos ai preiada Lady so much I have endeared you Sardinian epitomizes outlandish speech therein along with non Romance languages such as German and Berber with the troubadour having the lady say No t entend plui d un Todesco Sardesco o Barbari I don t understand you more than a German or Sardinian or Berber 146 147 148 143 149 150 151 the Tuscan poet Fazio degli Uberti refers to the Sardinians in his poem Dittamondo as una gente che niuno non la intende ne essi sanno quel ch altri pispiglia a people that no one is able to understand nor do they come to a knowledge of what other peoples say about them 152 145 143 The Muslim geographer Muhammad al Idrisi who lived in Palermo Sicily at the court of King Roger II wrote in his work Kitab Nuzhat al mushtaq fi khtiraq al afaq The book of pleasant journeys into faraway lands or simply The book of Roger that Sardinians are ethnically Rum Afariqah like the Berbers they shun contacts with all the other Rum nations and are people of purpose and valiant that never leave the arms 153 154 155 156 157 According to Wagner the close relationship in the development of Vulgar Latin between North Africa and Sardinia might not have only derived from ancient ethnic affinities between the two populations but also from their common political past within the Exarchate of Africa 158 nbsp Sardinian language statutes of Sassari from the 13th 14th centuriesWhat literature is left to us from this period primarily consists of legal and administrative documents besides the aforementioned Cartas and condaghes The first document containing Sardinian elements is a 1063 donation to the abbey of Montecassino signed by Barisone I of Torres 159 Another such document the so called Carta Volgare comes from the Judicate of Cagliari and was issued by Torchitorio I de Lacon Gunale in around 1070 written in Sardinian whilst still employing the Greek alphabet 160 Other documents are the 1080 Logudorese Privilege the 1089 Torchitorius Donation in the Marseille archives the 1190 1206 Marsellaise Chart in Campidanese Sardinian and an 1173 communication between the Bishop Bernardo of Civita and Benedetto who oversaw the Opera del Duomo in Pisa The Statutes of Sassari 1316 and Castelgenovese c 1334 are written in Logudorese Sardinian The first chronicle in lingua sive ydiomate sardo 161 called Condagues de Sardina was published anonymously in the 13th century relating the events of the Judicate of Torres Iberian period Catalan and Castilian influence Edit See also Kingdom of Sardinia in the Crown of Aragon and in the Spanish Empire The 1297 feoffment of Sardinia by Pope Boniface VIII led to the creation of the Kingdom of Sardinia that is of a state which although lacking in summa potestas entered by right as a member in personal union within the broader Mediterranean structure of the Crown of Aragon a composite state Thus began a long war between the latter and to the cry of Helis Helis from 1353 the previously allied Judicate of Arborea in which the Sardinian language was to play the role of an ethnic marker 162 The war had among its motives a never dormant and ancient Arborean political design to establish a great island nation state wholly indigenous which was assisted by the massive participation of the rest of the Sardinians i e those not residing within the jurisdiction of Arborea Sardus de foras 163 as well as a widespread impatience with the foreign importation of a feudal regime specifically more Italie and Cathalonie which threatened the survival of deep rooted indigenous institutions and far from ensuring the return of the island to a unitary regime had only introduced there tot reges quot sunt ville as many petty rulers as there are villages 164 whereas instead Sardi unum regem se habuisse credebant the Sardinians believed they had one single king The conflict between the two sovereign and warring parties during which the Aragonese possessions making up the Kingdom of Sardinia were first administratively split into two separate halves capita by Peter IV the Ceremonious in 1355 ended after sixty seven years with the Iberian victory at Sanluri in 1409 and the renunciation of any succession right signed by William II of Narbonne in 1420 This event marked the definitive end of Sardinian independence whose historical relevance for the island likened by Francesco C Casula to the end of Aztec Mexico should be considered neither triumph nor defeat but the painful birth of today s Sardinia 165 Any outbreak of anti Aragonese rebellion such as the revolt of Alghero in 1353 that of Uras in 1470 and finally that of Macomer in 1478 celebrated in De bello et interitu marchionis Oristanei 166 were and would have been systematically neutralised From that moment quedo de todo punto Sardena por el rey 167 Casula believes that the Aragonese winners from the brutal conflict would then move on to destroy the pre existing documentary production of the still living Sardinian Judicate which was predominantly written in Sardinian language along with other ones the chancery was engaged with leaving behind their trail only a few stones and overall a small group of documents 168 many of which are in fact still preserved and or refer to archives outside the island 169 Specifically the Arborean documents and the palace in which they were kept would be completely set on fire on May 21 1478 as the viceroy triumphantly entered Oristano after having tamed the aforementioned 1478 rebellion which threatened the revival of an Arborean identity which had been de jure abolished in 1420 but was still very much alive in popular memory 170 Thereafter the ruling class in Sardinia proceeded to adopt Catalan as their primary language The situation in Cagliari a city subject to Aragonese repopulation and where according to Giovanni Francesco Fara Ioannes Franciscus Fara Juanne Frantziscu Fara for a time Catalan took over Sardinian as in Alghero 171 was emblematic so much so as to later generate idioms such as no scit su catalanu he does not know Catalan to indicate a person who could not express themselves correctly 172 Alghero is still a Catalan speaking enclave on Sardinia to this day 173 Nevertheless the Sardinian language did not disappear from official use the Catalan juridical tradition in the cities coexisted with that of the Sardinians marked in 1421 by the Parliamentary extension of the Arborean Carta de Logu to the feudal areas during the Reign of King Alfonso the Magnanimous 174 and Sardinian continued to be used in documents pertaining to administrative and ecclesiastical spheres until the late 17th century 175 176 Fara in the same first modern monograph dedicated to Sardinia reported the lively multilingualism in one and the same people because of immigration by Spaniards and Italians who came to the island to trade with the native Sardinians 171 The long lasting war and the so called Black Death had a devastating effect on the island depopulating large parts of it People from the neighbouring island of Corsica which had been already Tuscanised began to settle en masse in the northern Sardinian coast leading to the birth of Sassarese and then Gallurese two Italo Dalmatian lects 177 178 Extract from sa Vitta et sa Morte et Passione de sanctu Gavinu Prothu et Januariu A Cano 1400 179 O Deus eternu sempre omnipotente In s aiudu meu ti piacat attender Et dami gratia de poder acabare Su sanctu martiriu in rima vulgare 5 De sos sanctos martires tantu gloriosos Et cavaleris de Cristus victoriosos Sanctu Gavinu Prothu e Januariu Contra su demoniu nostru adversariu Fortes defensores et bonos advocados 10 Qui in su Paradisu sunt glorificados De sa corona de sanctu martiriu Cussos sempre siant in nostru adiutoriu Amen Despite Catalan being widely spoken and written on the island at this time leaving a lasting influence in Sardinian there are written records of Sardinian one of which is the 15th century Sa Vitta et sa Morte et Passione de sanctu Gavinu Brothu et Ianuariu written by Antoni Canu 1400 1476 and published in 1557 179 The 16th century is instead marked by a new literary revival of Sardinian which was estimated to be the native people s ordinary language by the Jesuits in 1561 180 Rimas Spirituales by Hieronimu Araolla 181 was aimed at glorifying and enriching Sardinian our language magnificare et arrichire sa limba nostra sarda as the Spanish French and Italian poets had already done for their own languages la Deffense et illustration de la langue francoyse and Il Dialogo delle lingue This way Araolla is one of the first Sardinian authors to bind the language to a Sardinian nation 182 the existence of which is not outright stated but naturally implied 183 note 4 Antonio Lo Frasso a poet born in Alghero 184 a city he remembered fondly 185 who spent his life in Barcelona wrote lyric poetry in Sardinian 186 Agreeing with Fara s aforementioned De rebus Sardois the Sardinian attorney Sigismondo Arquer author of Sardiniae brevis historia et descriptio in Sebastian Munster s Cosmographia universalis whose report would also be quoted in Conrad Gessner s On the different languages used by the various nations across the globe with minor variations 187 stated that Sardinian prevailed in most of the Kingdom with particular regard for the rural interior while Catalan and Spanish were spoken in the cities where the predominantly Iberian ruling class occupies most of the official positions although the Sardinian language had become fragmented due to foreign domination i e namely Latins Pisans Genoese Spanish and Africans Arquer pointed to there being many Sardinian words with apparently no traceable origin and reported that Sardinians nevertheless understand each other perfectly 188 The sociolinguistic situation was characterised by the active and passive competence of the two Iberian languages in the cities and of Sardinian in the rest of the island as reported in various contemporary testimonies Cristofor Despuig in Los Colloquis de la Insigne Ciutat de Tortosa claimed in 1557 that although Catalan had carved out a place for itself as llengua cortesana in many parts of the island the ancient language of the Kingdom llengua antigua del Regne was still preserved 189 the ambassador and visitador reial Martin Carillo supposed author of the ironic judgment on the Sardinians tribal and sectarian divisions pocos locos y mal unidos few thickheaded and badly united 190 noted in 1611 that the main cities spoke Catalan and Spanish but outside these cities no other language was understood than Sardinian which in turn was understood by everyone in the entire Kingdom 189 Joan Gaspar Roig i Jalpi author of Llibre dels feyts d armes de Catalunya reported in the mid seventeenth century that in Sardinia parlen la llengua catalana molt polidament axi com fos a Catalunya they speak Catalan very well as though I was in Catalonia 189 Anselm Adorno originally from Genoa but living in Bruges noted in his pilgrimages how many foreigners notwithstanding the natives still spoke their own language linguam propriam sardiniscam loquentes 191 another testimony is offered by the rector of the Jesuit college of Sassari Baldassarre Pinyes who in Rome wrote As far as the Sardinian language is concerned Your Paternity should know that it is not spoken in this city nor in Alghero nor in Cagliari it is only spoken in the towns 192 Especially through the reorganization of the monarchy led by the Count Duke of Olivares Sardinia would gradually join a broad Spanish cultural sphere Spanish was perceived as an elitist language gaining solid ground among the ruling Sardinian class Spanish had thus a profound influence on Sardinian especially in those words styles and cultural models owing to the prestigious international role of the Habsburg monarchy as well as the Court note 5 181 Most Sardinian authors would write in both Spanish and Sardinian until the 19th century and were well versed in the former like Vicente Bacallar y Sanna that was one of the founders of the Real Academia Espanola 193 according to Bruno Anatra s estimates around 87 of the books printed in Cagliari were in Spanish 190 A notable exception was Pedro Delitala 1550 1590 who decided to write in Italian instead 184 194 Nonetheless the Sardinian language retained much of its importance earning respect from the Spaniards in light of it being the ethnic code the people from most of the Kingdom kept using especially in the interior 195 note 6 New genres of popular poetry were established around this period like the gosos or gocius sacred hymns the anninnia lullabies the attitu funeral laments the batorinas quatrains the berbos and paraulas curses and the improvised poetry of the mutu and mutetu Sardinian was also one of the few official languages along with Spanish Catalan and Portuguese whose knowledge was required to be an officer in the Spanish tercios 196 Ioan Matheu Garipa a priest from Orgosolo who translated the Italian Leggendario delle Sante Vergini e Martiri di Gesu Cristo into Sardinian Legendariu de Santas Virgines et Martires de Iesu Christu in 1627 was the first author to claim that Sardinian was the closest living relative of classical Latin note 7 and like Araolla before him 182 valued Sardinian as the language of a specific ethno national community 197 In this regard the philologist Paolo Maninchedda argues that by doing so these authors did not write about Sardinia or in Sardinian to fit into an island system but to inscribe Sardinia and its language and with them themselves in a European system Elevating Sardinia to a cultural dignity equal to that of other European countries also meant promoting the Sardinians and in particular their educated countrymen who felt that they had no roots and no place in the continental cultural system 198 nbsp Three gravestones dating to the second half of the 19th century in the historic cemetery of Ploaghe Logudoro wherein a total of 39 gravestones have writings in Sardinian and 3 in Italian 199 Savoyard period Italian influence Edit See also Kingdom of Sardinia under the House of Savoy Kingdom of Italy and Italianisation The War of the Spanish Succession gave Sardinia to Austria whose sovereignty was confirmed by the 1713 14 treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt In 1717 a Spanish fleet reoccupied Cagliari and the following year Sardinia was ceded to Victor Amadeus II of Savoy in exchange for Sicily The Savoyard representative the Count of Lucerna di Campiglione received the definitive deed of cession from the Austrian delegate Don Giuseppe dei Medici on condition that the rights statutes privileges of the nation that had been the subject of diplomatic negotiations were preserved 200 The island thus entered the Italian orbit after the Iberian one 201 although this transfer would not initially entail any social nor cultural and linguistic changes Sardinia would still retain for a long time its Iberian character so much so that only in 1767 were the Aragonese and Spanish dynastic symbols replaced by the Savoyard cross 202 Until 1848 the Kingdom of Sardinia would be a composite state and the island of Sardinia would remain a separate country with its own traditions and institutions albeit without summa potestas and in personal union as an overseas possession of the House of Savoy 200 The Sardinian language although practiced in a state of diglossia continued to be spoken by all social classes its linguistic alterity and independence being universally perceived 203 Spanish on the other hand was the prestige code known and used by the Sardinian social strata with at least some education in so pervasive a manner that Joaquin Arce refers to it in terms of a paradox Castilian had become the common language of the islanders by the time they officially ceased to be Spanish and through their annexation by the House of Savoy became Italian through Piedmont instead 204 205 206 Given the current situation the Piedmontese ruling class which held the reins of the island in this early phase resolved to maintain its political and social institutions while at the same time progressively hollowing them out 207 as well as treating the Sardinian followers of one faction and of the other equally but keeping them divided in such a way as to prevent them from uniting and for us to put to good use such rivalry when the occasion presents itself 208 According to Amos Cardia this pragmatic stance was rooted in three political reasons in the first place the Savoyards did not want to rouse international suspicion and followed to the letter the rules dictated by the Treaty of London signed on 2 August 1718 whereby they had committed themselves to respect the fundamental laws of the newly acquired Kingdom in the second place they did not want to antagonize the hispanophile locals especially the elites and finally they lingered on hoping they could one day manage to dispose of Sardinia altogether while still keeping the title of Kings by regaining Sicily 209 In fact since imposing Italian would have violated one of the fundamental laws of the Kingdom which the new rulers swore to observe upon taking on the mantle of King Victor Amadeus II emphasised the need for the operation to be carried out through incremental steps small enough to go relatively unnoticed insensibilmente as early as 1721 210 Such prudence was again noted when the King claimed that he was nevertheless not intentioned to ban either Sardinian or Spanish on two separate occasions in 1726 and 1728 211 The fact that the new masters of Sardinia felt at loss as to how they could better deal with a cultural and linguistic environment they perceived as alien to the Mainland 212 where Italian had long been the prestige and even official language can be deduced from the study Memoria dei mezzi che si propongono per introdurre l uso della lingua italiana in questo Regno Account of the proposed ways to introduce the Italian language to this Kingdom commissioned in 1726 by the Piedmontese administration to which the Jesuit Antonio Falletti from Barolo responded suggesting the ignotam linguam per notam expōnĕre to introduce an unknown language Italian through a known one Spanish method as the best course of action for Italianisation 213 In the same year Victor Amadeus II had already said he could no longer tolerate the lack of ability to speak Italian on the part of the islanders in view of the inconveniences that such inability was putting through for the functionaries sent from the Mainland 214 Restrictions to mixed marriages between Sardinian women and the Piedmontese officers dispatched to the island which had hitherto been prohibited by law 215 were at one point lifted and even encouraged so as to better introduce the language to the local population 216 217 Eduardo Blasco Ferrer argues that in contrast to the cultural dynamics long established in the Mainland between Italian and the various Romance dialects thereof in Sardinia the relationship between the Italian language recently introduced by Savoy and the native one had been perceived from the start by the locals educated and uneducated alike as a relationship albeit unequal in terms of political power and prestige between two very different languages and not between a language and one of its dialects 218 The plurisecular Iberian period had also contributed in making the Sardinians feel relatively detached from the Italian language and its cultural sphere local sensibilities towards the language were further exacerbated by the fact that the Spanish ruling class had long considered Sardinian a distinct language with respect to their own ones and Italian as well 219 The perception of the alterity of Sardinian was also widely shared among the Italians who happened to visit the island and recounted their experiences with the local population 220 whom they often likened to the Spanish and the ancient peoples of the Orient an opinion illustrated by the Duke Francis IV and Antonio Bresciani 221 222 a popular assertion by the officer Giulio Bechi who would participate in a military campaign against Sardinian banditry dubbed as caccia grossa great hunt was that the islanders spoke a horrible language as intricate as Saracen and sounding like Spanish 223 However the Savoyard government eventually decided to directly introduce Italian altogether to Sardinia on the conventional date of 25 July 1760 224 225 226 227 because of the Savoyards geopolitical need to draw the island away from Spain s gravitational pull and culturally integrate Sardinia into the orbit of the Italian peninsula 228 through the thorough assimilation of the island s cultural models which were deemed by the Savoyard functionaries as foreign and inferior to Piedmont 229 230 231 note 8 In fact the measure in question prohibited among other things the unreserved use of the Castilian idiom in writing and speaking which after forty years of Italian rule was still so deeply rooted in the hearts of the Sardinian teachers 232 In 1764 the exclusive imposition of the Italian language was finally extended to all sectors of public life 233 234 235 including education 236 237 in parallel with the reorganisation of the Universities of Cagliari and Sassari which saw the arrival of personnel from the Italian mainland and the reorganisation of lower education where it was decided likewise to send teachers from Piedmont to make up for the lack of Italian speaking Sardinian teachers 238 In 1763 it had already been planned to send a number of skilled Italian professors to Sardinia to rid the Sardinian teachers of their errors and steer them along the right path 232 The purpose did not elude the attention of the Sardinian ruling class who deplored the fact that the Piedmontese bishops have introduced preaching in Italian and in an anonymous document attributed to the conservative Sardinian Parliament and eloquently called Lamento del Regno Grievance of the Kingdom denounced how the arms the privileges the laws the language University and currency of Aragon have now been taken away to the disgrace of Spain and to the detriment of all particulars 189 239 Spanish was replaced as the official language even though Italian struggled to take roots for a long time Mila i Fontanals wrote in 1863 that Catalan had been used in notarial instruments from Sardinia well into the 1780s 189 while parish registers and official deeds continued to be drawn up in Spanish until 1828 240 The most immediate effect of the order was thus the further marginalization of the Sardinians native idiom making way for a thorough Italianisation of the island 241 242 234 2 For the first time in fact even the wealthy and most powerful families of rural Sardinia the printzipales started to perceive Sardinian as a handicap 233 Girolamo Sotgiu asserts on the matter that the Sardinian ruling class just as it had become Hispanicized now became Italianised without ever managing to become Sardinian that is to say to draw from the experience and culture of their people from which it came those elements of concreteness without which a culture and a ruling class always seem foreign even in their homeland This was the objective that the Savoyard government had set itself and which to a good measure it managed to pursue 232 Francesco Gemelli in Il Rifiorimento della Sardegna proposto nel miglioramento di sua agricoltura depicts the island s linguistic pluralism in 1776 and referring to Francesco Cetti s I quadrupedi della Sardegna for a more meticulous analysis of the character of the Sardinian language indole della lingua sarda and the main differences between Sassarese and Tuscan five languages are spoken in Sardinia that is Spanish Italian Sardinian Algherese and Sassarese The former two because of the past and today s domination and they are understood and spoken through schooling by all the educated people residing in the cities as well as villages Sardinian is common to all the Kingdom and is divided into two main dialects Campidanese Sardinian and Sardinian from the Upper Half capo di sopra Algherese is a Catalan dialect for a Catalan colony is Alghero and finally Sassarese which is spoken in Sassari Tempio and Castel sardo sic is a dialect of Tuscan a relic of their Pisan overlords Spanish is losing ground to Italian which has taken over the former in the fields of education and jurisdiction 243 The first systematic study on the Sardinian language was written in 1782 by the philologist Matteo Madau with the title of Il ripulimento della lingua sarda lavorato sopra la sua antologia colle due matrici lingue la greca e la latina 244 The intention that motivated Madau was to trace the ideal path through which Sardinian could be elevated to the island s proper national language 245 246 247 nevertheless according to Amos Cardia the Savoyard climate of repression on Sardinian culture would induce Matteo Madau to veil its radical proposals with some literary devices and the author was eventually unable to ever translate them into reality 248 The first volume of comparative Sardinian dialectology was produced in 1786 by the Catalan Jesuit Andres Febres known in Italy and Sardinia by the pseudonym of Bonifacio d Olmi who returned from Lima where he had first published a book of Mapuche grammar in 1764 249 After he moved to Cagliari he became fascinated with the Sardinian language as well and conducted some research on three specific dialects the aim of his work entitled Prima grammatica de tre dialetti sardi 250 was to write down the rules of the Sardinian language and spur the Sardinians to cherish the language of their Homeland as well as Italian The government in Turin which had been monitoring Febres activity decided that his work would not be allowed to be published Victor Amadeus III had supposedly not appreciated the fact that the book had a bilingual dedication to him in Italian and Sardinian a mistake that his successors while still echoing back to a general concept of Sardinian ancestral homeland would from then on avoid and making exclusive use of Italian to produce their works 248 At the end of the 18th century following the trail of the French Revolution a group of the Sardinian middle class planned to break away from Savoyard rule and institute an independent Sardinian Republic under French protection all over the island a number of political pamphlets printed in Sardinian were illegally distributed calling for a mass revolt against the Piedmontese rule and the barons abuse The most famous literary product born out of such political unrest was the poem Su patriottu sardu a sos feudatarios noted as a testament of the French inspired democratic and patriotic values as well as Sardinia s situation under feudalism 251 252 As for the reactions that the three year Sardinian revolutionary period aroused in the island s ruling class who were now in the process of Italianisation for Sotgiu its failure was complete undecided between a breathless municipalism and a dead end attachment to the Crown it did not have the courage to lead the revolutionary wave coming from the countryside 232 In fact although pamphlets such as the Achilles of Sardinian Liberation circulated denouncing the backwardness of an oppressive feudal system and a Ministry that was said to have always been the enemy of the Sardinian Nation and the social pact between the Sovereign and the Nation was declared to have been broken there was no radical change in the form of government therefore it is not surprising according to Sotgiu that although the call for the Sardinian nation its traditions and identity became stronger and stronger even to the point of requesting the creation of a stable military force of Sardinian nationals only the concrete hypothesis of abolishing the monarchical and feudal regimes did not make its way into the consciousness of many 253 The only result was therefore the defeat of the peasant class emerging from the very core of feudal society urged on by the masses of peasants and led by the most advanced forces of the Sardinian bourgeoisie 254 and conversely the victory of the feudal barons and of large strata of the town bourgeoisie that had developed within the framework of the feudal order and feared that the abolition of feudalism and the proclamation of the Republic might simultaneously destroy the very basis of their own wealth and prestige 255 In the climate of monarchic restoration that followed Giovanni Maria Angioy s rebellion whose substantial failure marked therefrom a historic watershed in Sardinia s future 255 other Sardinian intellectuals all characterized by an attitude of general devotion to their island as well as proven loyalty to the House of Savoy posed in fact the question of the Sardinian language while being careful enough to use only Italian as a language to get their point across During the 19th century in particular the Sardinian intellectuality and ruling class found itself divided over the adherence to the Sardinian national values and the allegiance to the new Italian nationality 256 toward which they eventually leaned in the wake of the abortive Sardinian revolution 257 The identity crisis of the Sardinian ruling class and their strive for acceptance into the new citizenship of the Italian identity would manifest itself with the publication of the so called Falsi d Arborea 258 by the unionist Pietro Martini in 1863 A few years after the major anti Piedmontese revolt in 1811 the priest Vincenzo Raimondo Porru published a timid essay of Sardinian grammar which however referred expressively to the Southern dialect hence the title of Saggio di grammatica del dialetto sardo meridionale 259 and out of prudence towards the king was made with the declared intention of easing the acquisition of Italian among his fellow Sardinians instead of protecting their language 260 The more ambitious work of the professor and senator Giovanni Spano the Ortographia sarda nationale Sardinian National Orthography 261 although it was officially meant for the same purpose as Porru s note 9 attempted in reality to establish a unified Sardinian orthography based on Logudorese just like Florentine had become the basis for Italian 262 263 nbsp The Kingdom of Sardinia in 1856 The jurist Carlo Baudi di Vesme claimed that the suppression of Sardinian and the imposition of Italian was desirable to make the islanders into civilized Italians note 10 264 Since Sardinia was in the words of Di Vesme not Spanish but neither Italian it is and has been for centuries just Sardinian 265 it was necessary at the turn of the circumstances that inflamed it with ambition desire and love of all things Italian 265 to promote these tendencies even more in order to profit from them in the common interest 265 for which it proved almost necessary 266 to spread the Italian language in Sardinia presently so little known in the interior 265 with a view to better enable the Perfect Fusion Sardinia will be Piedmont it will be Italy it will receive and give us lustre wealth and power 267 268 The primary and tertiary education was thus offered exclusively through Italian and Piedmontese cartographers went on to replace many Sardinian place names with Italian ones 234 The Italian education being imparted in a language the Sardinians were not familiar with note 11 spread Italian for the first time in history to Sardinian villages marking the troubled transition to the new dominant language the school environment which employed Italian as the sole means of communication grew to become a microcosm around the then monolingual Sardinian villages note 12 In 1811 the canon Salvatore Carboni published in Bologna the polemic book Sos discursos sacros in limba sarda Holy Discourses in Sardinian language wherein the author lamented the fact that Sardinia hoe provinzia italiana non podet tenner sas lezzes e sos attos pubblicos in sa propia limba Being an Italian province nowadays Sardinia cannot have laws and public acts made in its own language and while claiming that sa limba sarda totu chi non uffiziale durat in su Populu Sardu cantu durat sa Sardigna the Sardinian language however unofficial will last as long as Sardinia among the Sardinians he also asked himself Proite mai nos hamus a dispreziare cun d unu totale abbandonu sa limba sarda antiga et nobile cantu s italiana sa franzesa et s ispagnola Why should we show neglect and contempt for Sardinian which is a language as ancient and noble as Italian French and Spanish 269 In 1827 the historical legal code serving as the consuetud de la nacio sardesca in the days of the Iberian rule the Carta de Logu was abolished and replaced by the more advanced Savoyard code of Charles Felix Leggi civili e criminali del Regno di Sardegna written in Italian 270 271 The Perfect Fusion with the Mainland States enacted under the auspices of a transplant without any reserves and obstacles of the culture and civilization of the Italian Mainland to Sardinia 272 would result in the loss of the island s residual autonomy 273 270 and marked the moment when the language of the Sardinian nation lost its value as an instrument with which to ethnically identify a particular people and its culture to be codified and cherished and became instead one of the many regional dialects subordinated to the national language 274 Despite the long term assimilation policy the anthem of the Savoyard Kingdom of Sardinia would be S hymnu sardu nationale the Sardinian National Anthem also known as Cunservet Deus su Re God save the King before it was de facto replaced by the Italian Marcia Reale as well in 1861 275 However even when the island became part of the Kingdom of Italy under Victor Emmanuel II in 1861 Sardinia s distinct culture from the now unified Mainland made it an overall neglected province within the newly proclaimed unitary nation state 276 Between 1848 and 1861 the island was plunged into a social and economic crisis that was to last until the post war period 277 Eventually Sardinian came to be perceived as sa limba de su famine sa lingua de su famini literally translating into English as the language of hunger i e the language of the poor and Sardinian parents strongly supported the teaching of the Italian tongue to their children since they saw it as the portal to escaping from a poverty stricken rural isolated and underprivileged life Late modern period Edit nbsp A Sardinian family reading L Unione Sarda The Sardinian Union a daily newspaper in the Italian language founded in 1889 At the dawn of the 20th century Sardinian had remained an object of research almost only among the island s scholars struggling to garner international interest and even more suffering from a certain marginalization in the strictly Italian sphere one observes in fact the prevalence of foreign scholars over Italian ones and or the existence of fundamental and still irreplaceable contributions by non Italian linguists 278 Previously Sardinian had been mentioned in a book by August Fuchs on irregular verbs in Romance languages Uber die sogennannten unregelmassigen Zeitworter in den romanischen Sprachen Berlin 1840 and later in the second edition of Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen 1856 1860 written by Friedrich Christian Diez credited as one of the founders of Romance philology 278 The pioneering research of German authors spurred a certain interest in the Sardinian language on the part of some Italian scholars such as Graziadio Isaia Ascoli and above all his disciple Pier Enea Guarnerio who was the first in Italy to classify Sardinian as a separate member of the Romance language family without subordinating it to the group of Italian dialects as was previously the custom in Italy 279 Wilhelm Meyer Lubke an undisputed authority on Romance linguistics published in 1902 an essay on Logudorese Sardinian from the survey of the condaghe of San Pietro di Silki Zur Kenntnis des Altlogudoresischen in Sitzungsberichte der kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaft Wien Phil Hist Kl 145 the study of which led to the initiation into Sardinian linguistics of the then university student Max Leopold Wagner it is to the latter s activity that much of the twentieth century knowledge and research of Sardinian in the phonetic morphological and in part syntactic fields was generated 279 During the mobilization for World War I the Italian Army compelled all people on the island that were of Sardinian stock di stirpe sarda 280 to enlist as Italian subjects and established the Sassari Infantry Brigade on 1 March 1915 at Tempio Pausania and Sinnai Unlike the other infantry brigades of Italy Sassari s conscripts were only Sardinians including many officers It is currently the only unit in Italy with an anthem in a language other than Italian Dimonios Devils which would be written in 1994 by Luciano Sechi its title derives from the German language Rote Teufel red devils by which they were popularly known among the troops of the Austro Hungarian Army Compulsory military service around this period played a role in language shift and is referred to by historian Manlio Brigaglia as the first great mass nationalization of the Sardinians 281 Nevertheless similarly to Navajo speaking service members in the United States during World War II as well as Quechua speakers during the Falklands War 282 native Sardinians were offered the opportunity to be recruited as code talkers to transmit tactical information in Sardinian over radio communications which might have otherwise run the risk of being gained by Austrian troops since some of them hailed from Italian speaking areas to which therefore the Sardinian language was utterly alien 283 Alfredo Graziani writes in his war diary that having learned that many of our phonograms were being intercepted we adopted the system of communicating on the phone only in Sardinian certain that in this way they would never be able to understand what one was saying 284 To avoid infiltration attempts by said Italophone troops positions were guarded by Sardinian recruits from the Sassari Brigade who required anyone who came to them that they identify themselves first by proving they spoke Sardinian si ses italianu faedda in sardu 285 286 283 The Sardinian born philosopher Antonio Gramsci commented on the Sardinian linguistic question while writing a letter to his sister Teresina Gramsci was aware of the long term ramifications of language shift and suggested that Teresa let her son acquire Sardinian with no restriction because doing otherwise would result in putting his imagination into a straitjacket as well as him ending up eventually learning two jargons and no language at all 287 288 289 Coinciding with the year of the Irish War of Independence Sardinian autonomism re emerged as an expression of the fighters movement coagulating into the Sardinian Action Party PsdAz which before long would become one of the most important players in the island s political life At the beginning the party would not have had strictly ethnic claims though being the Sardinian language and culture widely perceived in the words of Fiorenzo Toso as symbols of the region s underdevelopment 277 The policy of forced assimilation culminated in the twenty years of the Fascist regime which launched a campaign of violent compression of autonomist demands and finally determined the island s definitive entry into the national cultural system through the combined work of the educational system and the one party system 290 Local cultural expressions were thus repressed including Sardinia s festivals 291 and improvised poetry competitions 292 293 294 295 296 and a large number of Sardinian surnames were changed to sound more Italian An argument broke out between the Sardinian poet Antioco Casula popularly known as Montanaru and the fascist journalist Gino Anchisi who stated that once the region is moribund or dead which the regime declared to be note 13 so will the dialect sic which was interpreted as the region s revealing spiritual element 297 in the wake of this debate Anchisi managed to have Sardinian banned from the printing press as well 298 299 The significance of the Sardinian language as it was posed by Casula in fact lent itself to potentially subversive themes being tied to the practices of cultural resistance of an indigenous ethnic group 300 whose linguistic repertoire had to be introduced in school to preserve a Sardinian personality and regain a dignity perceived to have been lost in the process 301 Another famed poet from the island Salvatore Bore Poddighe fell into a severe depression and took his own life a few years after his masterwork Sa Mundana Cummedia 302 had been seized by Cagliari s police commissioner 303 When the use of Sardinian in school was banned in 1934 as part of a nation wide educational plan against the alloglot dialects the then Sardinian speaking children were confronted with another means of communication that was supposed to be their own from then onwards 304 On a whole this period saw the most aggressive cultural assimilation effort by the central government 305 which led to an even further sociolinguistic degradation of Sardinian 306 While the interior managed to at least partially resist this intrusion at first everywhere else the regime had succeeded in thoroughly supplanting the local cultural models with new ones hitherto foreign to the community and compress the former into a pure matter of folklore marking a severance from the island s heritage that engendered according to Guido Melis an identity crisis with worrying social repercussions as well as a rift that could no longer be healed through the generations 307 This period is identified by Manlio Brigaglia as the second mass nationalization of the Sardinians which was characterized by a policy deliberately aiming at Italianisation by means of in his words a declared war against the usage of the Sardinian language by fascism and the Catholic Church alike 281 In 1945 following the restoration of political freedoms the Sardinian Action Party called for autonomy as a federal state within the new Italy that had emerged from the Resistance 277 it was in the context of the second post war period that as consensus for autonomy kept growing the party began to distinguish itself by policies based on Sardinia s linguistic and cultural specificity 277 Present situation EditSee also Italian Republic and Sardinian autonomy and Language shift nbsp A bilingual sign in Villasor s town hall After World War II awareness around the Sardinian language and the danger of its slipping away did not seem to concern the Sardinian elites and entered the political spaces later than in other European peripheries marked by the presence of local ethno linguistic minorities 308 Sardinian was in fact dismissed by the middle class 306 as both the Sardinian language and culture were still being held responsible for the island s underdevelopment 273 The Sardinian ruling class drawn to the Italian modernisation stance on how to steer the islanders to social development believed in fact that the Sardinians had been held back by their own traditional practices vis a vis the mainlanders and that in order to catch up with the latter social and cultural progress could only be brought about through the rejection of said practices 309 310 As the language bore an increasing amount of stigmatisation and came to be perceived as an undesirable identity marker the Sardinians were consequently encouraged to part with it by way of linguistic and cultural assimilation 311 At the time of drafting of the statute in 1948 the national legislator in Rome eventually decided to specify the Sardinian specialty as a criterion for political autonomy uniquely on the grounds of local socio economic issues further considerations were discarded which were centred on the ascertainment of a distinct cultural historical and geographical identity although they had been hitherto the primary local justifications arguing for home rule 312 313 314 315 316 317 as they were looked down upon as a potential prelude to more autonomist or even more radical separatist claims 318 this view would be exemplified by a report of the Italian Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry into Banditry which warned against a looming threat posed by isolationist tendencies injurious to the development of Sardinian society and recently manifesting themselves in the proposal to regard Sardinian as the language of an ethnic minority 319 Eventually the special statute of 1948 settled instead to concentrate on the arrangement of state funded plans baptised with the Italian name of piani di rinascita for the heavy industrial development of the island 320 Therefore far from generating a Statute grounded on the acknowledgment of a particular cultural identity like for example in the Aosta Valley and South Tyrol what ended up resulting in Sardinia was in the words of Mariarosa Cardia an outcome solely based on economic considerations because there was not either the will or the ability to devise a strong and culturally motivated autonomy a Sardinian specificity that was not defined in terms of social backwardness and economic deprivation 321 Emilio Lussu who admitted that he had only voted in favour of the final draft to prevent the Statute from being rejected altogether by a single vote even in such a reduced form was the only member at the session of 30 December 1946 to call in vain for the mandatory teaching of the Sardinian language arguing that it was a millenary heritage that must be preserved 322 In the meantime the emphasis on Italian continued 2 with historical sites and ordinary objects being henceforth popularised in Italian for mass consumption e g the various kinds of traditional pecorino cheese zippole instead of tzipulas carta da musica instead of carasau formaggelle instead of pardulas casadinas etc 323 The Ministry of Public Education once requested that the teachers willing to teach Sardinian be put under surveillance 324 325 326 The rejection of the indigenous language and culture along with a rigid model of Italian language education 327 which induced a denigration of Sardinian through corporal punishment and shaming 328 329 has led to poor schooling for the Sardinians 330 331 332 Roberto Bolognesi stated that in his school years in Sardinia he had witnessed both physical and psychological abuse against monolingual Sardinian speaking children The psychological violence consisted usually in calling the children donkeys and in inviting the whole class to join the mockery 333 Early school leaving and high school failure rates in Sardinia prompted a debate in the early Nineties on the efficaciousness of strictly monolingual education with proposals for a focus on a comparative approach 334 Claims for an autonomous solution to the Sardinian economic social and cultural problems which the 1948 Statute proved unable to resolve 273 335 came to the fore once again in the Sixties with campaigns often expressed in the form of political demands by Sardinian nationalists 336 337 to give Sardinian equal status with Italian as a means to promote cultural identity 338 Antonio Simon Mossa had drawn from his past experiences across the world including the newly independent country of Algeria 339 that Sardinians were one of the many ethnic and national minorities facing the danger of cultural assimilation 340 339 and his fervor reverberated across the Sardinian society pushing even some non nationalist groups to take an interest in matters relating to minorities 341 Although a law was passed as early as 1955 for the establishment of five professorships of Sardinian linguistics 342 one of the first demands for bilingualism was in fact formulated in a resolution adopted by the University of Cagliari in 1971 calling upon the national and regional authorities to recognize the Sardinians as an ethnic and linguistic minority and Sardinian as the islanders co official language 343 344 345 note 14 At a time when the Italian modernisation plans in Sardinia were in full swing the Italian government was apprehensive about this deliberation by the University of Cagliari as providing the timber for further ethnic unrest in the state s peripheries 346 Sergio Salvi s description of the Sardinians as a forbidden nation in Italy further contributed to the linguistic question gaining more notoriety at the national level 347 A first legal draft concerning Sardinian as a language to be legally put on an equal position with Italian was developed by the Sardinian Action Party in 1975 348 349 Critical acclaim in Sardinian cultural circles followed the patriotic poem No sias isciau note 15 Don t be a slave by Raimondo Remundu Piras some months before his death in 1977 urging bilingual education to reverse the ongoing trend of cultural De Sardization 296 Indeed during the late 70s reports were released that Sardinian was on course of being abandoned in favour of Italian in the towns and among the younger generation 350 By then a significant shift to Italian had been noted in rural Sardinia not only in the Campidanese plain but even in some inner areas that had been previously considered Sardinian speaking bastions 351 manifesting a parallel shift of the values upon which the ethnic and cultural identity of the Sardinians was traditionally grounded 352 note 16 From then onwards the use of Sardinian would continue to recede because of the strongly negative view the Sardinian community developed toward it assuming a self belittling attitude which has been described as the emergence of a minority complex fairly typical of linguistic minorities 353 However by the Eighties the language had become a point of ethnic pride 354 it also became a tool through which long held grievances towards the central government s failure at delivering better economic and social conditions could be channeled 355 A contradicting tendency has been noted by observing that while Sardinian is held in a much more positive light than before its actual use has notably decreased and keeps doing so 356 A law by popular initiative for Sardinian Italian bilingualism garnered considerable success as it kept gathering thousands of signatures but was promptly blocked by the Italian Communist Party and thus never implemented 357 358 The same Italian Communist Party would later propose however another bill of its own initiative for the protection of the language and culture of the Sardinian people in 1980 359 In the end following tensions and claims of the Sardinian nationalist movement for concrete cultural and political autonomy including the recognition of the Sardinians as an ethnic and linguistic minority three separate bills were eventually presented to the Regional Council in the Eighties 66 In 1981 the Regional Council debated and voted for the introduction of bilingualism in Sardinia for the first time 349 360 As pressure by a resolution of the Council of Europe continued to bear on Italian policy makers for the protection of minorities a Commission was appointed in 1982 to investigate the issue 361 the following year a bill was presented to the Italian Parliament but without success One of the first laws approved by the Sardinian legislator with respect to the protection and promotion of the Sardinian language and culture was soon rejected by the Constitutional Court in 1994 which deemed it exorbitant in a multitude of ways with regard to the supplementary and implementing powers enjoyed by the Region in matters of education 362 363 it was not until 1997 that Sardinian was finally recognized by the regional law n 26 of 15 October 1997 Promotion and enhancement of the culture and language of Sardinia without there being any recourse from the Italian central government 5 this law too however would prove to be more focused on the traditions and history of the Sardinian people than their language in itself 342 A survey conducted by MAKNO in 1984 showed that three quarters of the Sardinians had a positive attitude towards bilingual education 22 of the interviewees especially in the Province of Nuoro and Oristano wanted Sardinian to be compulsory in Sardinian schools while 54 7 would prefer to see teaching in Sardinian as optional and official bilingualism like in the Aosta Valley and South Tyrol 62 7 of the population were in favour 25 9 said no and 11 4 were unsure 364 Such consensus remains relatively stable to this day 365 another survey conducted in 2008 reported that more than half of the interviewees 57 3 were in favour of the introduction of Sardinian into schools alongside Italian 366 More research carried out in 2010 confirmed warm reception among the students parents to introducing Sardinian at school even though skepticism circulated around having it taught as the vehicular language of education 367 nbsp Bilingual No smoking sign in Sardinian and ItalianIn the 1990s there had been a resurgence of Sardinian language music ranging from the more traditional genres cantu a tenore cantu a chiterra gosos etc to rock Kenze Neke Askra Tzoku Tazenda etc and even hip hop and rap Dr Drer e CRC Posse Quilo Sa Razza Malam Su Akru Menhir Stranos Elementos Malos Cantores Randagiu Sardu Futta etc and with artists who used the language as a means to promote the island and address its long standing issues and the new challenges 368 369 370 371 372 A few films like Su Re Bellas Mariposas Treulababbu Sonetaula etc have also been dubbed in Sardinian 373 and some others were provided with subtitles in the language 374 The first scientific work in Sardinian Sa chistione mundiali de s Energhia delving into the question of modern energy supplies was written by Paolo Giuseppe Mura Physics Professor at the University of Cagliari in 1995 375 Eventually sustained activism made possible the ratification by Italy of the European Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities in 1998 361 which would be followed in 1999 by the formal recognition of twelve minority languages Sardinian Albanian Catalan German Greek Slovenian Croatian French Franco Provencal Friulian Ladin and Occitan through the framework law no 482 4 in keeping with the spirit of Art 6 of the Italian Constitution The Republic safeguards linguistic minorities by means of appropriate measures 376 While the first section of said law states that Italian is the official language of the Republic a number of provisions are included to normalize the use of such languages and let them become part of the national fabric 377 However Italy along with France and Malta 378 has never ratified the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages 379 Nevertheless the law proved to be a positive step towards the legalization of Sardinian as it put at least an end to the ban on the language which had been in effect since the Italian Unification 380 and was deemed as a starting point albeit timid to pursue a more decentralized school curriculum for the island 381 Still some national school books education has never fallen under the region s remits and is managed by the state at the central level have not stopped to squeeze the language into the Italian acceptation of dialetto Italian dialect in spite of its actual recognition by the state 382 Sardinian is yet to be taught at school with the exception of a few experimental occasions Mauro Maxia noticed a lack of interest on the part of school managers some request for Sardinian language classes notwithstanding 383 Furthermore its use has not ceased to be disincentivized as antiquated or even indicative of a lack of education 384 385 leading many locals to associate it with negative feelings of shame backwardness and provincialism 386 387 Similar issues of identity have been observed in regard to the community s attitude toward what they positively perceive to be part of modernity generally associated with the Italian cultural sphere as opposed to the Sardinian one whose aspects have long been stigmatized as primitive and barbarous by the political and social institutions that ruled the island 388 389 Roberto Bolognesi believes that the enduring stigmatisation of Sardinian as the language of the socially and culturally disadvantaged classes leads to the nurturing of a vicious circle that further promotes the language s regression reinforcing its negative judgement among those who perceive themselves as most competitive a perverse mechanism that has condemned and still condemns Sardinian speakers to social marginalisation systematically excluding them from those linguistic and cultural interactions in which the prestigious registers and high style of language are developed first and foremost in schools 390 nbsp Bilingual Italian Sardinian road sign in SiniscolaA number of other factors like a considerable immigration flow from mainland Italy the interior rural exodus to urban areas where Sardinian is spoken by a much lower percentage of the population note 17 and the use of Italian as a prerequisite for jobs and social advancement actually hinder any policy set up to promote the language 34 391 392 Therefore following the model proposed by a UNESCO panel of experts in 2003 Sardinian is classified by UNESCO as a definitely endangered language children no longer learn the language as mother tongue in the home 393 on the way to become severely endangered the language is used mostly by the grandparental generation and up Language use is far from stable 66 following the Expanded GIDS Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale model Sardinian would position between 7 Shifting the child bearing generation knows the language well enough to use it among themselves but none are transmitting it to their children 394 and 8a Moribund the only remaining active speakers of the language are members of the grandparent generation 394 While an estimated 68 percent of the islanders had in fact a good oral command of Sardinian language ability among the children has plummeted to less than 13 percent 34 30 31 395 some linguists like Mauro Maxia cite the low number of Sardinian speaking children with the notable case of a number of villages where Sardinian has ceased to be spoken altogether since 1993 as indicative of language decline calling Sardinia a case of linguistic suicide 383 396 The depth of the Sardophone networks increasing assimilation into Italian is illustrated by the latest ISTAT data published in 2017 which confirm Italian as the language that has largely taken root as the means of socialization within Sardinian families 52 1 relegating the practice of code switching to 31 5 and the actual use of languages other than Italian to only 15 6 outside the social circle of family and friends the numbers define Italian as by far the most prevalent language 87 2 as opposed to the usage of Sardinian and other languages which has dropped to 2 8 397 Today most people who use Sardinian as part of day to day life reside mainly in the sparsely populated areas in the countryside like the mountainous region of Barbagia 398 399 A bill proposed by the cabinet of the former Italian Prime Minister Mario Monti would have further lowered the protection level of Sardinian 400 distinguishing between the so called national minorities speaking languages protected by international agreements German Slovenian French and the linguistic minorities whose language is not spoken in any state other than Italy all the other ethno linguistic groups including Sardinian This bill which was eventually implemented 401 but later deemed unconstitutional by the Court 402 triggered a reaction on the island 403 404 405 406 Students expressed an interest in taking all or part of their exit examinations in Sardinian 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 In response to a 2013 Italian initiative to remove bilingual signs on the island a group of Sardinians began a virtual campaign on Google Maps to replace Italian place names with the original Sardinian names After about one month Google changed the place names back to Italian 418 419 420 nbsp Church of the Pater Noster Jerusalem Israel Lord s Prayer plaque in SardinianAfter a signature campaign 421 it has been made possible to change the language setting on Facebook from any language to Sardinian 422 423 424 425 It is also possible to switch to Sardinian even in Telegram 426 427 and a number of other programs like F Droid Diaspora OsmAnd Notepad QGIS Swiftkey Stellarium 428 Skype 429 VLC media player for Android and iOS Linux Mint Debian Edition 2 Betsy Firefox 430 431 etc The DuckDuckGo search engine is available in Sardinian as well In 2016 the first automatic translation software from Italian to Sardinian was developed 432 In 2015 all the political parties in the Sardinian regional council reached an agreement concerning a series of amendments to the old 1997 law to be able to introduce the optional teaching of the language in Sardinia s schools 433 434 435 The Unified Text on the Discipline of the Regional linguistic policy 6 was eventually approved on 27 June 2018 with the aim of setting in motion a path towards bilingual administration contributions to bilingual mass media publishing IT schools and websites it also allowed for the foundation of a Sardinian board Consulta de su Sardu with thirty experts that would propose a linguistic standard based on the main historical varieties and would also have advisory duties towards the Regional body 436 437 However said law has yet to be followed up by the respective implementing decrees the lack of which prevents it from being legally applicable 438 439 440 Some Sardinian language activists and activist groups have also contested the law itself considering it a political attack on Sardinian made to try to negate its uniformity and to relegate it to folklore and also noted how its text contains a few parts that could bring the Italian government to challenge it 441 442 443 In 2021 the Prosecutor of Oristano opened a Sardinian linguistic desk both to support citizens and to provide advice and translations to magistrates and the police It has been the first time in Italy in which such a service has been offered to a minority language 444 445 Although there is still not an option to teach Sardinian on the island itself let alone in Italy some language courses are instead sometimes available in Germany Universities of Stuttgart Munich Tubingen Mannheim 446 etc Spain University of Girona 447 Iceland 448 and Czech Republic Brno university 449 450 Shigeaki Sugeta also taught Sardinian to his students of Romance languages at the Waseda University in Tokyo Japan 451 452 453 and would even release a Sardinian Japanese dictionary out of it 454 455 nbsp The Sardinian speaking community among the other minority language groups officially recognized by Italy 456 457 At present the Sardinian speaking community is the least protected one in Italy despite being the largest minority language group officially recognized by the state 67 27 In fact the language which is receding in all domains of use is still not given access to any field of public life 34 458 such as education Italian Sardinian bilingualism is still frowned upon 383 409 459 460 while the local public universities play little if any role whatsoever in supporting the language 461 462 463 politics with the exception of some nationalist groups 464 justice administrative authorities and public services media 465 466 467 468 469 and cultural 470 ecclesiastical 471 472 economic and social activities as well as facilities 473 In a case presented to the European Commission by the then MEP Renato Soru in 2017 in which he complained of national negligence with regard to the state s own legislation in comparison to other linguistic minorities the Commission s response pointed out to the Honourable Member that matters of language policy pursued by individual member states do not fall within its competences 474 According to a 2017 report on the digital language diversity in Europe Sardinian appears to be particularly vital on social media as part of many people s everyday life for private use but such vitality does not still translate into a strong and wide availability of Internet media for the language 475 In 2017 a 60 hour Sardinian language course was introduced for the first time in Sardinia and Italy at the University of Cagliari although such a course had been already available in other universities abroad 476 In 2015 the Council of Europe commented on the status of national minorities in Italy noting the approach of the Italian government towards them with the exception of the German French and Slovenian languages where Italy has applied full bilingualism due to international agreements despite the formal recognition from the Italian state Italy does not in fact collect any information on the ethnic and linguistic composition of the population apart from South Tyrol 477 There is also virtually no print and broadcasting media exposure in politically or numerically weaker minorites like Sardinian Moreover the resources allocated to cultural projects like bilingual education which lacks a consistent approach and offers no guarantee of continuity throughout the years 478 are largely insufficient to meet even the most basic expectations 479 480 481 482 483 nbsp Bilingual road signs in Pula A solution to the Sardinian question being unlikely to be found anytime soon 66 the language has become highly endangered 461 even though the endogamy rate among group members seems to be very high 34 less than 15 per cent of the Sardinian children use the language to communicate with each other 484 it appears that the late recognition of Sardinian as a minority language on the part of the state as well as the gradual but pervasive Italianisation promoted by the latter s education system the administration system and the media followed by the intergenerational language replacement made it so that the vitality of Sardinian has been heavily compromised 349 The 1995 Euromosaic project which conducted a research study on the current situation of the ethno linguitic minorities across Europe under the auspices of the European Commission concludes their report on Sardinian as follows This would appear to be yet another minority language group under threat The agencies of production and reproduction are not serving the role they did a generation ago The education system plays no role whatsoever in supporting the language and its production and reproduction The language has no prestige and is used in work only as a natural as opposed to a systematic process It seems to be a language relegated to a highly localised function of interaction between friends and relatives Its institutional base is extremely weak and declining Yet there is concern among its speakers who have an emotive link to the language and its relationship to Sardinian identity Sardinian language use survey Euromosaic report 34 As Matteo Valdes explains the island s population sees day after day the decline of their original languages They are complicit in this decline passing on to their children the language of prestige and power but at the same time they feel that the loss of local languages is also a loss of themselves of their history of their own specific identity or distinctiveness 485 With cultural assimilation having already occurred 486 487 most of the younger generation of islanders although they do understand some basic Sardinian is now in fact Italian monolingual and monocultural as they are not able to speak Sardinian anymore but simply regional Italian known amongst Italian linguists as italiano regionale sardo or IrS 488 66 489 490 which in its lowest diastratic forms 491 is oftentimes derisively 492 nicknamed italianu porcheddinu literally swinish Italian by native Sardinian speakers Roberto Bolognesi argues that in the face of the persistent denial and rejection of the Sardinian language it is as if the latter had taken revenge on its original community of speakers and continues to do so by polluting the hegemonic linguistic system recalling Gramsci s prophetic warning uttered at the dawn of the previous century 32 In fact compared to a now prevalent regional Italian that according to Bolognesi is in fact a hybrid language that has arisen from the contact between two different linguistic systems 493 the little Sardinian which is used by young people often constitutes an ungrammatical jargon filled with obscenities and constructions belonging to Italian 32 in other words the population would therefore only master two crippled languages due lingue zoppe whose manifestations do not arise from a recognisable norm nor do they constitute a clear source of linguistic security 32 Bolognesi believes therefore that the Sardinians utter rejection of their original linguistic identity has not entailed the hoped for and automatic homologation to a more socially prestigious identity but the acquisition of a second class identity neither truly Sardinian nor truly Italian no longer self centred but rather peripheral with respect to the sources of linguistic and cultural norms which still remain beyond their reach on the other side of the Tyrrhenian Sea 493 By contrast Eduardo Blasco Ferrer has been noted how the Sardinian speaking community engages only in code switching and usually takes care in refraining from code mixing between the two different languages 494 Negative attitudes among native speakers have been observed towards second language learners for speaking poor Sardinian an attitude considered to be ethnically grounded on the interaction of in group and out group dynamics 495 In conclusion the Sardinian language while still being described as viable in 2003 496 continues to be adversely affected by pervasive and all encompassing Italianisation through language shift and is thus nowadays moribund albeit its replacement continues at a slower pace than before thanks to the commitment of those who in various contexts promote its revaluation in a process that has been defined by some scholars as linguistic re Sardization 497 Still arrangements for bilingualism exist only on paper 498 and factors such as the intergenerational transmission which remain essential in the reproduction of the ethnolinguistic group are severely compromised because of Italianisation 499 many young speakers who have been raised in Italian rather than Sardinian have a command of their ethnic language which does not extend beyond a few stereotyped formulas 500 Phonology Edit nbsp Vowel changes from Latin to early Sardinian Main article Sardinian phonology Sardinian Consonants Labial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Post alv Palatal VelarPlosive voiceless p t t s t ʃ kvoiced b d d z ɖ d ʒ ɡFricative voiceless f 8 s ʃ voiced v ʒ Nasal m n ɲ Vibrant rApproximant w l j Variable presence depending on dialect Mainly in Nuorese Sardinian Vowels Front Central BackClose i uClose mid e o Open mid ɛ ɔOpen a Only in Campidanese Grammar EditSome distinctive features typical of Sardinian include Nouns Edit The plural marker is s from the Latin accusative plural as in Western Romance languages like French Occitan Catalan Spanish Portuguese and Galician sardu sardus Sardinian pudda puddas hen margiane margianes fox In Italo Dalmatian languages like Italian or Eastern Romance languages like Romanian the plural ends with i e or a However Sardinian may also change the final vowel The definite article derives from the Latin ipse su sa plural sos sas Logudorese and is Campidanese At present such articles are only common in Balearic Catalan and were once used in Gascon as well whilst all the other Romance languages make use of forms derived from ille Verbs Edit Main article Sardinian conjugation Sardinian verbs are divided into three main classes each distinguished by a different infinitive ending are ere or ire The conjugations of regular verbs in the standard language are as follows 12 Infinitive cantare timere finireParticiple Present cantende timende finendePast cantadu timidu finiduIndicative Present cantocantascantatcantamuscantadescantant timotimestimettimimustimidestiment finofinisfinitfinimusfinidesfinentImperfect cantaiacantaiascantaiatcantaiamuscantaiaiscantaiant timiatimiastimiattimiamustimiaistimiant finiafiniasfiniatfiniamusfiniaisfiniantSubjunctive Present cantecantescantetcantemuscanteiscantent timatimastimattimamustimaistimant finafinasfinatfinamusfinaisfinantImperfect cantarecantarescantaretcantaremuscantareiscantarent timeretimerestimerettimeremustimereistimerent finirefiniresfiniretfiniremusfinireisfinirentImperative cantacantade timetimide finifinaisSyntax Edit Distinctive syntax features include A common occurrence of a left dislocated construction cussa cantone apo cantadu That song I have sung that is I ve sung that song In yes no questions fronting of a constituent especially a predicative element is required though it is not specifically a question formation process Cumprendiu m as Understood me you have that is Have you understood me Mandicatu at Eaten he she has that is Has he she eaten Fattu l at Done he she has that is He She s done it etc Interrogative phrases might be constructed like echo questions with the interrogative marker remaining in underlying position Sunt lompios cando They arrived when that is when did they arrive Juanne at pigadu olias cun chie John has picked olives with whom etc Impersonal sentence constructions are commonly used to replace the passive voice which is limited to the formal register A Juanni ddu ant mortu rather than Juanni est istadu mortu The use of non de noun non de abba abbardente est not of water brandy it is that is It is not water but brandy non de frades parent inimigos Not of brothers they seem enemies that is Far from being brothers they are like enemies The use of ca from quia or chi as subordinate conjunctions Ja nau ti l apo ca est issa sa mere Already told I have you that is she the boss that is I ve already told you that it s her the boss Existential uses of aer ai to have and esser essi to be B at prus de chentu persones inoghe There is over a hundred people in here Nci funt is pratus in mesa There are the plates on the table Ite What adjective chi Ite bellu chi ses What beautiful that you are that is How beautiful you are Nominal syntagmas without having a head Cussu ditzionariu de gregu est prus mannu de su de Efis That Greek dictionary is bigger than Efisio s Cudda machina est prus manna de sa de Juanne That car is bigger than John s Extraposition of the lexical head Imprestami su tou de ditzionariu Please lend me your dictionary Ancu subjunctive as a way to express a malevolent wish on someone Ancu ti falet unu lampu May you be struck by lightning Prepositional accusative Apo bidu a Maria I ve seen Mary Insertion of the affirmative particle ja giai Ja m apo corcau I did go to bed Use of the same particle to express antiphrastic formulas Jai ses totu istudiatu tue You re so well educated that is You are so ignorant and full of yourself Reflexive use of intransitive verbs Tziu Pascale si nch est mortu note 18 eris sero Uncle Pascal passed away yesterday Mi nch apo dormiu pro una parica de oras I ve slept for a couple of hours Use of aer in reflexive sentences Si at fertu a s anca traballende He She injured himself herself while working Combination of the perfective and progressive verb aspect Est istadu traballende totu sa die He She has been working all day Continuous and progressive aspect of the verb which is meant to indicate an effective situation rather than typical or habitual Non ti so cumprendende I don t understand you Relative lack of adverbs with the exception of some localized words like the Nuorese mescamente especially as well as some recent loanwords from Italian all the Sardinian dialects have a number of ways with which to express the meaning conferred to the adverbs by the other Romance languages e g Luchia currit prus a lestru acoitendi de Maria Lucy runs faster than Mary The expression of the deontic modality through a periphrastic form characterized by the verb to want in auxiliary position a feature also common to Southern Corsican Sicilian Moroccan Arabic and Moroccan Berber in addition to some non standard varieties of English 501 e g Su dinare bolet cheret torradu money has to be paid back The condaghes seem to demonstrate that unlike other Romance languages Old Sardinian may have had verb initial word order with optional topicalization into the beginning of the sentence 502 While verb initial word order is also attested in other old Romance languages such as Old Venetian Old French Old Neapolitan Old Spanish Old Sicilian and others it has been argued that Old Sardinian was alone in licensing verb initial word order V1 as the generalized word order while the others had V1 only as a marked alternative 503 Vocabulary comparison with other Romance languages Edit English Late Latin Sardinian Corsican Sicilian Italian Spanish Catalan French Portuguese Romaniankey clavem crae i chjave chjavi chiavi chiave llave clau cle chave cheienight noctem note i notte notti notti notte noche nit nuit noite noaptesing cantare cantare ai canta cantari cantare cantar cantar chanter cantar cantagoat capram cabra craba capra crapa capra cabra cabra chevre cabra caprălanguage linguam limba lingua lingua linga liṅgua lingua lengua llengua langue lingua limbăplaza plateam pratza piazza chiazza piazza plaza placa place praca piațăbridge pontem ponte i ponte ponti punti ponte puente pont pont ponte pod puntechurch ecclesiam cresia eccresia ghjesgia cresia chiesa chiesa iglesia esglesia eglise igreja bisericăhospital hospitalem ispidale spidali spedale uspidali spitali ospedale hospital hospital hopital hospital spitalcheese caseum fōrmaticum casu casgiu tumazzu cacio formaggio queso formatge fromage queijo branză cașVarieties EditSee also Logudorese dialect and Campidanese dialect nbsp The word for peace in all the varieties of Sardinian Historically the Sardinians have always been a small numbered population scattered across isolated cantons sharing demographic patterns similar to the neighbouring Corsica as a result Sardinian developed a broad spectrum of dialects over the time Starting from Francesco Cetti s description in the 18th century 504 505 506 507 Sardinian has been presented as a pluricentric language being traditionally subdivided into two standardized varieties spoken by roughly half of the entire community the dialects spoken in North Central Sardinia centered on the orthography known as Logudorese su sardu logudoresu and the dialects spoken in South Central Sardinia centered on another orthography called Campidanese su sardu campidanesu 508 All the Sardinian dialects differ primarily in phonetics which does not considerably hamper intelligibility 509 510 511 512 the view of there being a dialectal boundary rigidly separating the two varieties of High Sardinian has been in fact subjected to more recent research which shows a fluid dialect continuum from the northern to the southern ends of the island 513 514 515 516 The dualist perception of the Sardinian dialects rather than pointing to an actual isogloss is in fact the result of a psychological adherence to the way Sardinia was administratively subvidided into a Caput Logudori Cabu de Susu and a Caput Calaris Cabu de Jossu by the Spanish 517 The dialects centered on the Logudorese Sardinian model are generally considered more conservative with the Nuorese dialect of Sardinian su sardu nugoresu being deemed the most conservative of all They have all retained the classical Latin pronunciation of the stop velars kena versus cena supper 518 the front middle vowels compare Campidanese iotacism probably from Byzantine Greek 519 and assimilation of close mid vowels cane versus cani dog and gattos versus gattus cats Labio velars become plain labials limba versus lingua language and abba versus acua water 520 I is prosthesized before consonant clusters beginning in s iscala versus Campidanese Sardinian scala stairway and iscola versus scola school An east west strip of villages in central Sardinia mainly in the central part of the Province of Oristano and central part of the Province of Nuoro speaks a transitional group of dialects su sardu de mesania Examples include is limbas the languages and is abbas the waters The dialects centered on the Campidanese model spreading from Cagliari once the metropolis of the Roman province show relatively more influences from Carthage Rome Constantinople and Late Latin Examples include is fruminis the rivers and is domus the houses Some dialects of Sardinian from the extreme ends of the aforementioned continuum have been estimated in another research to have 88 of matches in 110 item wordlist similarly to the 85 88 number of matches between Provencal Occitan and some Catalan dialects 521 which by some standards is usually even though arbitrarily considered characteristic for two different albeit very closely related languages 522 ISO 639 counts four Sardinian languages Campidanese Gallurese Logudorese and Sassarese each with its own language code Non Sardinian language varieties spoken in Sardinia nbsp Corso Sardinian orange and yellow with regard to Sardinian proper green Sardinian is the indigenous and historical language of most Sardinian communities However Sardinian is not spoken as the native and primary language in a significant number of other ones roughly amounting to 20 of the Sardinian population 67 511 Sassari the second largest city on Sardinia and the main center of the northern half of the island is amongst the latter The aforementioned Gallurese and Sassarese despite being often colloquially considered part of Sardinian are two Corso Sardinian transitional languages they are spoken in the northernmost part of Sardinia 523 524 although some Sardinian is also understood by the majority of people living therein 73 6 in Gallura and 67 8 in the Sassarese speaking subregion Francesco Cetti responsible for the dialectal partition of the Sardinian language in his early dissertation went on to deem these Corso Sardinian varieties spoken in the island foreign i e not indigenous to Sardinia and therefore not national i e non Sardinian in that he averred they would be an Italian dialect much more Tuscan in fact than the vast majority of Italy s dialects themselves 525 There are also two language islands the Catalan Algherese speaking community from the inner city of Alghero northwest Sardinia and the Ligurian speaking towns of Carloforte in San Pietro Island and Calasetta in Sant Antioco island south west Sardinia 523 526 Sample of text Edit English Logudorese Sardinian Campidanese Sardinian LSC Sardinian Written Standard Latin ItalianOur Father who art in heaven hallowed be thy name thy kingdom come thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven Give us this day our daily bread and forgive us our debts as we forgive our debtors And lead us not into temptation but deliver us from evil Babbu nostru chi ses in chelu Santificadu siat su nomine tou Benzat a nois su rennu tou Siat fata sa boluntade tua comente in chelu gai in terra Dona nos oe su pane nostru de donzi die Et perdona nos sos peccados nostros Comente nois perdonamus a sos depidores nostros Et no nos lesses ruer in tentatzione Et libera nos dae male Babbu nostu chi ses in celu Santificau siat su nomini tuu Bengiat a nosus su regnu tuu Siat fata sa boluntadi tua comenti in celu aici in terra Donasi oi su pani nostu de dogna dii Et perdonasi is peccaus nostus Comenti nosus perdonaus a is depidoris nostus Et no si lessis arrui in tentatzioni Et liberasi de mali Babbu nostru chi ses in chelu Santificadu siat su nomine tuo Bengiat a nois su rennu tuo Siat fata sa voluntade tua comente in chelu gasi in terra Dona nos oe su pane nostru de onnia die E perdona nos is pecados nostros Comente nois perdonamus a is depidores nostros E no nos lasses arruere in tentatzione E libera nos de male Pater noster qui es in caelis sanctificetur nomen tuum adveniat regnum tuum fiat voluntas tua sicut in caelo et in terra Panem nostrum quotidianum da nobis hodie et dimitte nobis debita nostra sicut et nos dimittimus debitoribus nostris et ne nos inducas in tentationem sed libera nos a malo Padre Nostro che sei nei cieli Sia santificato il tuo nome Venga il tuo regno Sia fatta la tua volonta Come in cielo cosi in terra Dacci oggi il nostro pane quotidiano E rimetti a noi i nostri debiti Come noi li rimettiamo ai nostri debitori E non ci indurre in tentazione Ma liberaci dal male Standardization EditSee also Limba Sarda Comuna Until 2001 there was not a unifying orthographic standard available for all the dialects of Sardinian neither in the literary nor in the oral domain one designed for the latter does not exist to this day After the Middle Ages where a certain orthographic uniformity can be observed the only steps to provide the language with a single standard called illustrious Sardinian were undertaken by such writers as Hieronimu Araolla Ioan Mattheu Garipa and Matteo Madau who had based their works on the model of medieval Sardinian 527 528 However attempts to formalise and spread this orthography would be hindered by the Iberian and later Savoyard authorities 529 The dialectally fragmented nature of the language is such that it is popularly contended that Sardinian is divided into two or more groups which have provided themselves with a series of traditional orthographies already albeit with many changes over the time While this belief is not grounded on linguistic considerations it is however motivated by political and social reasons 506 509 513 514 515 516 507 In addition to the orthographies commonly referred to as Logudorese and Campidanese the Nuorese orthography the Arborense one and even those restricted to individual towns were also developed sometimes finding common ground with some general rules such as those required by the Ozieri Award 530 It is often the case however that speakers who are not commonly taught the Sardinian language and are thus literate only in Italian for lack of a bilingual education transcribe their local spelling following rules pertaining to the latter rather than the former 531 However some attempts have been made to introduce a single orthographic form for administrative purposes over the recent decades said form does not aim to refer to morphology and syntax which is already fairly homogeneous 532 but concerns itself primarily with spelling To allow for an effective implementation of the provisions on the language as per the regional law no 26 1997 and the national law no 482 1999 the Sardinian Autonomous Region arranged for a commission of experts to elaborate a standard capable of overcoming the hurdle posed by the dialectal differences and thereby providing a unified writing system A first proposal the LSU Limba Sarda Unificada published on 28 February 2001 was tabled which identified a model language of reference based on the analysis of local varieties of Sardinian and on the selection of the most representative and compatible models so as to guarantee the necessary characteristics of certainty coherence univocity and supra local diffusion The people appointed for the task were Eduardo Blasco Ferrer Roberto Bolognesi Diego Salvatore Corraine Ignazio Delogu Antonietta Dettori Giulio Paulis Massimo Pittau Tonino Rubattu Leonardo Sole Heinz Jurgen Wolf and Matteo Porru acting as the Committee s secretary This study although scientifically valid has never been adopted at an institutional level critics argued that it was an artificial system imposed on Sardinian speakers 533 Nevertheless the LSU would act as a springboard for a subsequent drafting proposal this time drawn by a new Committee composed of Giulio Angioni Roberto Bolognesi Manlio Brigaglia Michel Contini Diego Corraine Giovanni Lupinu Anna Oppo Giulio Paulis Maria Teresa Pinna Catte and Mario Puddu The new project continued to be worked on going by the name of LSC Limba Sarda Comuna The new experimental standard proposal published in 2006 was characterised by taking the mesania transitional varieties as reference 534 and welcoming elements of the spoken language so as to be perceived as a more natural mediation it also ensured that the common orthography would be provided with the characteristics of over dialectality and supra municipality while being open to integrating the phonetic peculiarities of the local variants 535 Despite this there was some criticism for this norm as well both by those who proposed amendments to improve it 536 537 and by those who preferred to insist with the idea of dividing Sardinian into two macro variants with their own separate orthographies 538 The Sardinian Regional Government with the resolution of the Regional Council n 16 14 of 18 April 2006 Limba Sarda Comuna Adoption of the reference standards of an experimental nature for the written language output of the Regional Administration has experimentally adopted the LSC as the official orthography for the acts and documents issued by the Region of Sardinia even if as per Article 8 of the national Law no 482 99 only the text written in Italian has legal value giving citizens the right to write to the Public Administration in their own variety and establishing the regional language desk Ufitziu de sa Limba Sarda The resolution does not aim to impose the guide and further notes that it is open to integrations and that all solutions are of equal linguistic value In the following years the Region has abided by the LSC standard in the translation of many documents and resolutions and in many other areas In addition the LSC standard has been adopted on a voluntary basis by many other institutions schools and media often in a complementary manner with orthographic norms closer to the local spelling Regarding these uses a percentage estimate was made considering only the projects financed or co financed by the Region for the diffusion of the Sardinian language in the municipal and supra municipal language offices for the teaching in schools and the media from 2007 to 2013 539 The monitoring by the Sardinian Language and Culture Service of the Department of Public Education was published on the website of the Sardinian Autonomous Region in April 2014 Regarding the school projects financed in 2013 for example it appears that there was a clear preference in schools for the use of the LSC orthographic standard together with a local spelling 51 compared to the exclusive use of the LSC 11 or the exclusive use of a local spelling 33 539 On the other hand regarding the editorial projects in Sardinian language in the regional media financed by the Region in 2012 we find a greater presence of the LSC which could derive from a reward of 2 points in the formation of the rankings to take funding a reward that was not present in the notice for schools According to those data it appears that 35 of textual production in media projects was in LSC 35 in LSC and in local spellings and 25 in local spellings only 539 The local language offices co financed by the Regional Government in 2012 used LSC in 50 of their writing LSC together with local spelling for 9 and local spellings for 41 539 A recent research on the use of the LSC orthography in schools carried out in the municipality of Orosei showed that the students of the local middle school had no problem using that standard despite the fact that the Sardinian they spoke was partly different No pupil rejected it or considered it artificial a thing that proved its validity as a didactic tool The results were first presented in 2016 and published in an article in 2021 540 541 Surnames given names and toponyms EditMain article Sardinian surnames From the Sardinian language stem both the historical Sardinian given names which the natives used to confer on each other until contemporary times as well as most of the traditional surnames still common on the island Sardinian place names have a very ancient history and in some cases have originated a significant debate about their origins 542 See also Edit nbsp Languages portal nbsp Italy portalHelp IPA Sardinian Paleo Sardinian language Southern Romance Traditional writing forms of Sardinian Logudorese Campidanese Non Sardinian languages spoken on Sardinia Sassarese Gallurese Algherese Tabarchino Sardinian surnamesReferences EditNotes Edit Pope Symmachus 498 514 C E a Sardinian by birth described himself as ex paganitate veniens coming from a pagan land Gregory the Great 590 614 C E reproached the people of Barbagia for still worshipping stone and wooden idols Wagner 1951 73 Fallacissimum genus esse Phoenicum omnia monumenta vetustatis atque omnes historiae nobis prodiderunt ab his orti Poeni multis Carthaginiensium rebellionibus multis violatis fractisque foederibus nihil se degenerasse docuerunt A Poenis admixto Afrorum genere Sardi non deducti in Sardiniam atque ibi constituti sed amandati et repudiati coloni Neque ego cum de vitiis gentis loquor neminem excipio sed a me est de universo genere dicendum in quo fortasse aliqui suis moribus et humanitate stirpis ipsius et gentis vitia vicerunt magnam quidem esse partem sine fide sine societate et coniunctione nominis nostri res ipsa declarat quae est enim praeter Sardiniam provincia quae nullam habeat amicam populo Romano ac liberam civitatem Africa ipsa parens illa Sardiniae quae plurima et acerbissima cum maioribus nostris bella gessit Cicero Pro Scauro Retrieved 28 November 2015 All the monuments of the ancients and all histories have handed down to us the tradition that the nation of the Phoenicians is the most treacherous of all nations The Poeni who are descended from them have proved by many rebellions of the Carthaginians and very many broken and violated treaties that they have in no respect degenerated from them The Sardinians who are sprung from the Poeni with an admixture of African blood were not led into Sardinia as colonists and established there but are rather a tribe who were draughted off and put there to get rid of them Nor indeed when I speak of the vices of the nation do I except no one But I am forced to speak generally of the entire race in which perhaps some individuals by their own civilized habits and natural humanity have got the better of the vices of their family and nation That the greater part of the nation is destitute of faith destitute of any community and connection with our name the facts themselves plainly show For what province is there besides Sardinia which has not one city in it on friendly terms with the Roman people not one free city Africa itself is the parent of Sardinia which has waged many most bitter wars against our ancestors Translation by C D Yonge B A London Henry G Bohn York Street Covent Garden 1856 Perseus Digital Library As Ludovico Antonio Muratori noted Potissimum vero ad usurpandum in scriptis Italicum idioma gentem nostram fuisse adductam puto finitimarum exemplo Provincialium Corsorum atque Sardorum In reality I believe that our people Italians have been induced to employ the Italian language for writing by following the example of our neighbours the Provencals the Corsicans and the Sardinians and Sardorum quoque et Corsorum exemplum memoravi Vulgari sua Lingua utentium utpote qui Italis preivisse in hoc eodem studio videntur Moreover I made reference to the example of the Sardinians and the Corsicans who used their own vulgar language as being those who preceded the Italians in such regard Antonio Ludovico Antonio 1739 Antiquitates Italicae Moedii Evi Mediolani t 2 col 1049 Incipit to Lettera al Maestro in Ines Loi Corvetto 1993 La Sardegna e la Corsica Torino UTET Hieronimu Araolla 1915 Max Leopold Wagner ed Die Rimas Spirituales Von Girolamo Araolla Nach Dem Einzigen Erhaltenen Exemplar Der Universitatsbibliothek in Cagliari Princeton University p 76 Semper happisi desiggiu Illustrissimu Segnore de magnificare amp arrichire sa limba nostra Sarda dessa matessi manera qui sa naturale insoro tottu sas naciones dessu mundu hant magnificadu amp arrichidu comente est de vider per isos curiosos de cuddas Jacinto Arnal de Bolea 1636 El Forastero Antonio Galcerin editor Cagliari ofreciendonos a la vista la insigne ciudad de Caller corte que me dixeron era de aquel reino La hermosura de las damas el buen gusto de su alino lo prendido y bien saconado de lo curioso dandole vida con mil donaires la grandeza en los titulos el lucimientos en los cavalleros el concurso grande de la nobleza y el agasajo para un forastero no os los podra zifrar mi conocimiento Basta para su alavanza el deciros que alcuna vez con olvido en mi peregrinacio y con descuido en mis disdichas discurria por los templos no estrano y por las calles no atajado me hallava con evidencias grandes que era aquel sitio el alma de Madrid que con tanta urbanidad y cortesia se exercitavan en sus nobles correspondencias Juan Francisco Carmona Cagliari 1610 1670 Alabanca de San George obispu suelense Citizen in Spanish You shepherd What frightens you Have you never seen some people gathering Shepherd in Sardinian Are you asking me if I m married Citizen in Spanish You re not getting a grasp of what I say do you Oh what an idiot shepherd Shepherd in Sardinian I m actually thirsty and tired Citizen in Spanish I d better speak in Sardinian so that we understand each other better in Sardinian Tell me shepherd where are you from Shepherd I m from Suelli my lord I ve been ordered to bring my lord a present Citizen Ah now you understand what I said don t you Ciudadano Que tiens pastor de que te espantas que nunca has visto pueblo congregado Pastor E ite mi nais si seu coiadu Ciudadano Que no me entiendes o que pastor bozal aqui me vino Pastor A fidi tengu sidi e istau fadiau Ciudadano Mejor sera que en sardo tambien able pues algo dello se y nos oigamos Nada mi su pastori de undi seis Pastor De Suedi mi Sennori e m anti cumandadu portari unu presenti a monsignori Ciudadano Jmoi ja mi jntendeis su que apu nadu In this Roman Court having come into possession of a book in Italian a new edition I have translated it into Sardinian to give news of it to the devotees of my homeland who are eager to know these legends I have translated them into Sardinian rather than into another language out of love for the people who did not need an interpreter to enunciate them and also because of the fact that the Sardinian language is noble by virtue of its participation in Latinity since no language spoken is as close to classical Latin as Sardinian Since if the Italian language is much appreciated and if among all the vernacular languages is in first place for having much followed in the footsteps of Latin no less should the Sardinian language be appreciated considering that it is not only a relative of Latin but is largely straightforward Latin And even if this were not so it is sufficient reason to write in Sardinian to see that all nations write and print books in their natural language boasting of having history and moral subjects written in the vernacular so that all may benefit from them And since the Sardinian Latin language is as clear and intelligible when written and pronounced as it should be if not even more so than the vulgar ones since the Italians and Spaniards and all those who practice Latin in general understand it Original text Sendemi vennidu a manos in custa Corte Romana vnu Libru in limba Italiana nouamente istampadu lu voltao in limba Sarda pro dare noticia de cuddas assos deuotos dessa patria mia disijosos de tales legendas Las apo voltadas in sardu menjus qui non in atera limba pro amore de su vulgu qui non tenjan bisonju de interprete pro bi las decrarare amp tambene pro esser sa limba sarda tantu bona quanta participat de sa latina qui nexuna de quantas limbas si platican est tantu parente assa latina formale quantu sa sarda Pro su quale si sa limba Italiana si preciat tantu de bona amp tenet su primu logu inter totas sas limbas vulgares pro esser meda imitadore dessa Latina non si diat preciare minus sa limba Sarda pusti non solu est parente dessa Latina pero ancora sa majore parte est latina vera Et quando cussu non esseret est suficiente motiuu pro iscrier in Sardu vider qui totas sas nationes iscriven amp istampan libros in sas proprias limbas naturales in soro preciandosi de tenner istoria amp materias morales iscritas in limba vulgare pro qui totus si potan de cuddas aprofetare Et pusti sa limba latina Sarda est clara amp intelligibile iscrita amp pronunciada comente conuenit tantu amp plus qui non quale si querjat dessas vulgares pusti sos Italianos amp Ispagnolos amp totu cuddos qui tenen platica de latinu la intenden medianamente Garipa Ioan Matheu Legendariu de santas virgines et martires de Iesu Crhistu 1627 Per Lodouicu Grignanu Roma King Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia Royal Note 23 July 1760 Dovendosi per tali insegnamenti scuole inferiori adoperare fra le lingue piu colte quella che e meno lontana dal materno dialetto ed a un tempo la piu corrispondente alle pubbliche convenienze si e determinato di usare nelle scuole predette l italiana siccome quella appunto che non essendo piu diversa dalla sarda di quello fosse la castigliana poiche anzi la maggior parte dei sardi piu colti gia la possiede resta altresi la piu opportuna per maggiormente agevolare il commercio ed aumentare gli scambievoli comodi ed i Piemontesi che verranno nel Regno non avranno a studiare una nuova lingua per meglio abituarsi al servizio pubblico e dei sardi i quali in tal modo potranno essere impiegati anche nel continente In Spano s dedication to Charles Albert s wife out of devotion to the new rulers there are several passages in which the author sings the praises of the Savoyards and their cultural policies pursued in Sardinia such as It was destiny that the sweet Italian tongue although born on the pleasant banks of the Arno would one day also become rich heritage of the Tirso s inhabitants p 5 and formulating a vow of loyalty to the new dynasty of regents that followed the Spanish ones Sardinia owes so much to the most August HOUSE OF SAVOY which once the Hispanic domination had ceased so wisely promoted the development of science and also commanded during the middle of the last century that Tuscan be made the language of the Dicasteries and public education p 6 The Preface entitled Al giovanetto alunno states the intention already common to Porru to publish a work dedicated to the teaching of Italian through the differences and similarities provided by another language more familiar to the Sardinian subjects Una innovazione in materia di incivilimento della Sardegna e d istruzione pubblica che sotto vari aspetti sarebbe importantissima si e quella di proibire severamente in ogni atto pubblico civile non meno che nelle funzioni ecclesiastiche tranne le prediche l uso dei dialetti sardi prescrivendo l esclusivo impiego della lingua italiana Attualmente in sardo si gettano i cosi detti pregoni o bandi in sardo si cantano gl inni dei Santi Goccius alcuni dei quali privi di dignita E necessario inoltre scemare l uso del dialetto sardo sic ed introdurre quello della lingua italiana anche per altri non men forti motivi ossia per incivilire alquanto quella nazione si affinche vi siano piu universalmente comprese le istruzioni e gli ordini del Governo si finalmente per togliere una delle maggiori divisioni che sono fra la Sardegna e i Regi stati di terraferma Carlo Baudi di Vesme 1848 Considerazioni politiche ed economiche sulla Sardegna Dalla Stamperia Reale pp 49 51 Andrea Manca dell Arca an agronomist from Sassari a city which like most of Northern Sardinia had been historically more exposed via Corsica to the Italian culture than the rest of the island had so illustrated how Italian was still perceived by the locals Italian is as familiar to me as Latin French or other foreign languages which one only partially learns through grammar study and the books without fully mastering them E tanto nativa per me la lingua italiana come la latina francese o altre forestiere che solo s imparano in parte colla grammatica uso e frequente lezione de libri ma non si possiede appieno Ricordi di Santu Lussurgiu di Francesco Maria Porcu in Santu Lussurgiu dalle Origini alla Grande Guerra Grafiche editoriali Solinas Nuoro 2005 The introduction of Italian as a foreign language to the Sardinian villages is exemplified in a passage from the contemporary Francesco Frantziscu Masala s Sa limba est s istoria de su mundu Condaghe de Biddafraigada The language is the world s history Biddafraigada s Condaghe Condaghes p 4 A sos tempos de sa pitzinnia in bidda totus chistionaiamus in limba sarda In domos nostras no si faeddaiat atera limba E deo in sa limba nadia comintzei a connoscher totu sas cosas de su mundu A sos ses annos intrei in prima elementare e su mastru de iscola proibeit a mie e a sos fedales mios de faeddare in s unica limba chi connoschiamus depiamus chistionare in limba italiana la lingua della Patria nos nareit seriu seriu su mastru de iscola Gai totus sos pitzinnos de idda intraian in iscola abbistos e allirgos e nde bessian tontos e cari tristos When I was a little kid growing up in the village we all used to speak in the Sardinian language We did not speak any other language in our homes And I began to know all the things of the world in the native language At the age of six I went to first grade and the school teacher forbade me as well as my peers to speak in the only language we knew from that moment on we only had to speak in Italian the language of the Fatherland he told us seriously Thus the children of our village would come to school bright and happy and walk out of school empty headed and with a gloomy look on our faces Casula s reply to Anchisi arguing in favour of Sardinian as the only means through which the island s cultural reawakening could be pursued was never published in the newspaper L Unione Sarda whose editorial staff properly censored it in accordance with the regime s directives The newspaper then justified itself in the following way in a personal letter addressed to Casula on 12 September Your article could not be published because part of it clearly exalts the region too much This is absolutely forbidden by the current provisions of the Head of Government s press office which specifically state In no way and for no reason does the region exist We are very sorry However we would ask you to redo the article by simply talking about your poetry in dialect sic without touching on this dangerous subject Francesco Casula Sa chistione de sa limba in Montanaru e oe PDF p 66 Istanza del Prof A Sanna sulla pronuncia della Facolta di Lettere in relazione alla difesa del patrimonio etnico linguistico sardo Il prof Antonio Sanna fa a questo proposito una dichiarazione Gli indifferenti problemi della scuola sempre affrontati in Sardegna in torma empirica appaiono oggi assai particolari e non risolvibili in un generico quadro nazionale il tatto stesso che la scuola sia diventata scuola di massa comporta il rifiuto di una didattica inadeguata in quanto basata sull apprendimento concettuale attraverso una lingua per molti aspetti estranea al tessuto culturale sardo Poiche esiste un popolo sardo con una propria lingua dai caratteri diversi e distinti dall italiano ne discende che la lingua ufficiale dello Stato risulta in effetti una lingua straniera per di piu insegnata con metodi didatticamente errati che non tengono in alcun conto la lingua materna dei Sardi e cio con grave pregiudizio per un efficace trasmissione della cultura sarda considerata come sub cultura Va dunque respinto il tentativo di considerare come unica soluzione valida per questi problemi una forzata e artificiale forma di acculturazione dall esterno la quale ha dimostrato e continua a dimostrare tutti suoi gravi limiti in quanto incapace di risolvere i problemi dell isola E percio necessario promuovere dall interno i valori autentici della cultura isolana primo fra tutti quello dell autonomia e provocare un salto di qualita senza un acculturazione di tipo colonialistico e il superamento cosciente del dislivello di cultura Lilliu La Facolta di Lettere e Filosofia dell Universita di Cagliari coerentemente con queste premesse con l istituzione di una Scuola Superiore di Studi Sardi e pertanto invitata ad assumere l iniziativa di proporre alle autorita politiche della Regione Autonoma e dello Stato il riconoscimento della condizione di minoranza etnico linguistica per la Sardegna e della lingua sarda come lingua lt lt nazionale gt gt della minoranza E di conseguenza opportuno che si predispongano tutti i provvedimenti a livello scolastico per la difesa e conservazione dei valori tradizionali della lingua e della cultura sarda e in questo contesto di tutti i dialetti e le tradizioni culturali presenti in Sardegna ci si intende riferire al Gallurese al Sassarese all Algherese e al Ligure Carlofortino In ogni caso tali provvedimenti dovranno comprendere necessariamente ai livelli minimi dell istruzione la partenza dell insegnamento del sardo e dei vari dialetti parlati in Sardegna l insegnamento nella scuola dell obbligo riservato ai Sardi o coloro che dimostrino un adeguata conoscenza del sardo o tutti quegli altri provvedimenti atti a garantire la conservazione dei valori tradizionali della cultura sarda E bene osservare come nel quadro della diffusa tendenza a livello internazionale per la difesa delle lingue delle minoranze minacciate provvedimenti simili a quelli proposti sono presi in Svizzera per la minoranza ladina fin dal 1938 48000 persone in Inghilterra per il Galles in Italia per le minoranze valdostana slovena e ultimamente ladina 15000 persone oltre che per quella tedesca a proposito di queste ultime e specificamente in relazione al nuovo ordinamento scolastico alto atesino Il presidente del Consiglio on Colombo nel raccomandare ala Camera le modifiche da apportare allo Statuto della Regione Trentino Alto Adige il cosiddetto pacchetto lt lt modifiche che non escono dal concetto di autonomia indicato dalla Costituzione gt gt ha ritenuto di dover sottolineare l opportunita che i giovani siano istruiti nella propria lingua materna da insegnanti appartenenti allo stesso gruppo linguistico egli inoltre aggiungeva che solo eliminando ogni motivo di rivendicazione si crea il necessario presupposto per consentire alla scuola di svolgere la sua funzione fondamentale in un clima propizio per la migliore formazione degli allievi Queste chiare parole del presidente del Consiglio ci consentono di credere che non si voglia compiere una discriminazione nei confronti della minoranza sarda ma anche per essa valga il principio enunciato dall opportunita dell insegnamento della lingua materna ad opera di insegnanti appartenenti allo stesso gruppo linguistico onde consentire alla scuola di svolgere anche in Sardegna la sua funzione fondamentale in un clima propizio alla migliore formazione per gli allievi Si chiarisce che tutto cio non e sciovinismo ne rinuncia a una cultura irrinunciabile ma una civile e motivata iniziativa per realizzare in Sardegna una vera scuola una vera rinascita in un rapporto di competizione culturale con lo stato che arricchisce la Nazione Lilliu Il Consiglio unanime approva le istanze proposte dal prof Sanna e invita le competenti autorita politiche a promuovere tutte le iniziative necessarie sul piano sia scolastico che politico economico a sviluppare coerentemente tali principi nel contempo acquisendo dati atti a mettere in luce il suesposto stato Cagliari 19 Febbraio 1971 Priamo Farris 2016 Problemas e aficantzias de sa pianificatzioni linguistica in Sardigna Limba Istoria Sotziedadi Problemi e prospettive della pianificazione linguistica in Sardegna Lingua Storia Societa Youcanprint O sardu si ses sardu e si ses bonu Semper sa limba tua apas presente No sias che isciau ubbidiente Faeddende sa limba e su padronu Sa nassione chi peldet su donu De sa limba iscumparit lentamente Massimu si che l essit dae mente In iscritura che in arrejonu Sa limba e babbos e de jajos nostros No l usades pius nemmancu in domo Prite pobera e ruza la creides Si a iscola no che la jughides Po la difunder menzus dae como Sezis dissardizende a fizos bostros Oh Sardinian If you are Sardinian and a good Sardinian as well you should always keep your language etched in your mind do not be like a submissive slave speaking your master s language The nation that loses the gift of its own language is fated to slowly fade out of existence especially when it does not come to its mind anymore to write and speak Not even at home is the language of our ancestors used anymore for you consider it wretched and uncout If you do not bring it to be taught in school so as to better spread its use from now on you are going to be stripping the Sardinian identity out of your children In Piras Raimondo No sias isciau Gavino Pau in an article published on La Nuova Sardegna 18 aprile 1978 Una lingua defunta da studiare a scuola A defunct language to be studied in school claimed that per tutti l italiano era un altra lingua nella quale traducevamo i nostri pensieri che irrefrenabili sgorgavano in sardo and went on to conclude that for the Sardinian language abbiamo vissuto per essa abbiamo sofferto per essa viviamo e vivremo Il giorno che essa morra moriremo anche noi come sardi cit in Giovanni Melis Onnis 2014 Fueddariu sardu campidanesu italianu PDF Domus de Janas p Presentazione Similar dynamics led the Irish language to be primarily spoken only in certain areas known as Gaeltacht Edwards J Language society and identity Oxford 1985 As opposed to the transitive use of morrer morri a which means to kill instead E g Pascale at mortu a tziu Bachis Pascal has killed uncle Bachisio Citations Edit Alkire Ti Rosen Carol 2010 Romance languages a Historical Introduction New York Cambridge University Press p 3 a b c d Lubello Sergio 2016 Manuale Di Linguistica Italiana Manuals of Romance linguistics De Gruyter p 499 AA VV 2016 Calendario Atlante De Agostini 2017 Novara Istituto Geografico De Agostini p 230 a b c Norme in materia di tutela delle minoranze linguistiche storiche parlamento it Italian Parliament a b c Legge Regionale 15 ottobre 1997 n 26 Regione autonoma della Sardegna Regione Autonoma de Sardigna Archived from the original on 26 February 2021 Retrieved 15 June 2018 a b Legge Regionale 3 Luglio 2018 n 22 Regione autonoma della Sardegna Regione Autonoma de Sardigna Massimo Pittau 2005 Grammatica del sardo illustre Sassari Carlo Delfino Editore Francesco Corda 1994 Grammatica moderna del sardo logudorese con una proposta ortografica elementi di metrica e un glossario Cagliari Edizioni della Torre Antonio Lepori 1979 Prontuario di grammatica sarda variante campidanese Cagliari Litografia C U E C Arregulas po ortografia fonetica morfologia e fueddariu de sa norma campidanesa de sa lingua sarda PDF Quartu S Elena Alfa Editrice 2009 Bartolomeo Porcheddu 2012 Grammatica de sa limba sarda comuna Ossi LogoSardigna a b Limba Sarda Comuna Normas linguisticas de referentzia a caratere isperimentale pro sa limba sarda iscrita de s Amministratzione regionale PDF Regione Autonoma della Sardegna Carlo Tagliavini 1982 Le origini delle lingue neolatine Bologna Patron p 122 Henriette Walter 1994 L Aventure des langues en Occident Paris Robert Laffont p 158 Romance languages Encyclopedia Britannica if the Romance languages are compared with Latin it is seen that by most measures Sardinian and Italian are least differentiated Antonio Mele Edoardo Murgia 2015 Termini prelatini della lingua sarda tuttora vivi nell uso Olzai Ilienses Mereu D 2020 Cagliari Sardinian Journal of the International Phonetic Association 50 3 389 405 doi 10 1017 S0025100318000385 The Oxford guide to the Romance languages Oxford Oxford University Press 2016 p 272 Il piu caratteristico degli idiomi neolatini di gran lunga piu caratteristico del ladino o del franco provenzale The most characteristic of the Neo Latin languages by far more characteristic than Ladin or Franco Provencal Matteo Bartoli 1903 Un po di sardo in Archeografo triestino vol I serie III Trieste a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link a b Da G I Ascoli in poi tutti i linguisti sono concordi nell assegnare al sardo un posto particolare fra gl idiomi neolatini per i vari caratteri che lo distinguono non solo dai dialetti italiani ma anche dalle altre lingue della famiglia romanza e che appaiono tanto nella fonetica quanto nella morfologia e nel lessico From G I Ascoli onwards all linguists agree in giving Sardinian a special place among the neo Latin languages because of the various characteristics that distinguish it not only from the Italian dialects but also from the other languages of the Romance family and that appear as much in its phonetics as in its morphology and lexicon Almagia Roberto Cortesi Fabrizio Salfi Mario Sera Gioacchino Taramelli Antonio Momigliano Arnaldo Ciasca Raffaele Bottiglioni Gino Garzia Raffa Gabriel Gavino Brunelli Enrico Vardabasso Silvio 1936 Sardegna in Enciclopedia Italiana Treccani Parlari Il Sardo ha una sua speciale fisionomia ed individualita che lo rende in certo qual modo il piu caratteristico degli idiomi neolatini e questa speciale individualita del Sardo come lingua di tipo arcaico e con una fisionomia inconfondibile traspare gia fin dai piu antichi testi Carlo Tagliavini 1982 Le origini delle lingue neolatine Bologna Patron p 388 Lai Rosangela 2018 Language Planning and Language Policy in Sardinia Language Problems amp Language Planning 42 1 70 88 ISSN 0272 2690 E ISSN 1569 9889 DOI https doi org 10 1075 lplp 00012 lai pp 70 71 With some 1 6 million speakers Sardinia is the largest minority language in Italy Sardinians form an ethnic minority since they show a strong awareness of being an indigenous group with a language and a culture of their own Although Sardinian appears to be recessive in use it is still spoken and understood by a majority of the population on the island Kurt Braunmuller Gisella Ferraresi 2003 Aspects of multilingualism in European language history Amsterdam Philadelphia University of Hamburg John Benjamins Publishing Company p 238 Nel 1948 la Sardegna diventa anche per le sue peculiarita linguistiche Regione Autonoma a statuto speciale Tuttavia a livello politico ufficiale non cambia molto per la minoranza linguistica sarda che con circa 1 2 milioni di parlanti e la piu numerosa tra tutte le comunita alloglotte esistenti sul territorio italiano Wolftraud De Concini 2003 Gli altri d Italia minoranze linguistiche allo specchio Pergine Valsugana Comune p 196 a b Sebbene in continua diminuzione i sardi costituiscono tuttora la piu grossa minoranza linguistica dello stato italiano con ca 1 000 000 di parlanti stimati erano 1 269 000 secondo le stime basate sul censimento del 2001 Sergio Lubello 2016 Manuale Di Linguistica Italiana Manuals of Romance linguistics De Gruyter p 499 Lingue di Minoranza e Scuola Sardo Archived from the original on 16 October 2018 Retrieved 16 July 2016 a b Inchiesta ISTAT 2000 pp 105 107 PDF What Languages are Spoken in Italy WorldAtlas 29 July 2019 Durk Gorter Heiko F Marten Luk Van Mensel Minority Languages in the Linguistic Landscape Palgrave Macmillan p 112 a b La Nuova Sardegna 04 11 10 Per salvare i segni dell identita di Paolo Coretti a b Corongiu Giuseppe 2010 La politica linguistica per la lingua sarda in Maccani Lucia Viola Marco Il valore delle minoranze La leva ordinamentale per la promozione delle comunita di lingua minoritaria Trento Provincia Autonoma di Trento p 122 a b c d Roberto Bolognesi 2000 Un programma sperimentale di educazione linguistica in Sardegna PDF p 126 Roberto Bolognesi 2000 Un programma sperimentale di educazione linguistica in Sardegna PDF p 120 a b c d e f Sardinian language use survey 1995 Euromosaic To access the data click on List by languages Sardinian then scroll to Sardinian language use survey Atlas of the World s Languages in Danger UNESCO Lai Rosangela 2018 Language Planning and Language Policy in Sardinia Language Problems amp Language Planning 42 1 70 88 ISSN 0272 2690 E ISSN 1569 9889 DOI https doi org 10 1075 lplp 00012 lai p 73 Martin Harris Nigel Vincent 2003 The Romance languages London New York p 21 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link If present trends continue it is possible that within a few generations the regional variety of Italian will supplant Sardinian as the popular idiom and that linguists of the future will be obliged to refer to Sardinian only as a substratal influence which has shaped a regional dialect of Italian rather than as a living language descended directly from Latin Martin Harris Nigel Vincent 2003 The Romance languages London New York p 349 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link il sardo continua ad agire anche nelle menti dei sardi che il sardo non lo conoscono ne lo parlano che non l hanno mai appreso e imparato il sardo agisce se non altro nelle strutture linguistiche d ogni livello dell italiano regionale di Sardegna che e il codice usato dai piu agisce nella fonetica nella sintassi e in ampi settori del lessico Virdis Maurizio 2003 La lingua sarda oggi bilinguismo problemi di identita culturale e realta scolastica cit in Convegno dalla lingua materna al plurilinguismo Gorizia 6 Maurizio Virdis 2012 Prospettive identitarie in Sardegna in Contarini Silvia Marras Margherita Pias Giuliana L identita sarda del XXI secolo tra globale locale e postcoloniale Nuoro Il Maestrale p 34 Sorge ora la questione se il sardo si deve considerare come un dialetto o come una lingua E evidente che esso e politicamente uno dei tanti dialetti dell Italia come lo e anche p es il serbo croato o l albanese parlato in vari paesi della Calabria e della Sicilia Ma dal punto di vista linguistico la questione assume un altro aspetto Non si puo dire che il sardo abbia una stretta parentela con alcun dialetto dell italiano continentale e un parlare romanzo arcaico e con proprie spiccate caratteristiche che si rivelano in un vocabolario molto originale e in una morfologia e sintassi assai differenti da quelle dei dialetti italiani Wagner 1951 90 91 He was writing in 1951 several decades before Sardinian or Italy s eleven other minority languages would be officially recognized by the Parliament with the passing of Law 482 in 1999 Sardinian is an insular language par excellence it is at once the most archaic and the most individual among the Romance group Rebecca Posner John N Green 1982 Language and Philology in Romance The Hague Paris New York Mouton Publishers p 171 Corsale Andrea Sistu Giovanni 2019 Sardegna geografie di un isola Milano Franco Angeli p 187 The Oxford guide to the Romance languages Oxford Oxford University Press 2016 p 270 Pei Mario 1949 A New Methodology for Romance Classification WORD 5 2 135 146 doi 10 1080 00437956 1949 11659494 Il fondo della lingua sarda di oggi e il latino La Sardegna e il solo paese del mondo in cui la lingua dei Romani si sia conservata come lingua viva Questa circostanza ha molto facilitato le mie ricerche nell isola perche almeno la meta dei pastori e dei contadini non conoscono l italiano Maurice Le Lannou 1941 1979 Manlio Brigaglia ed Pastori e contadini in Sardegna Cagliari Edizioni della Torre p 279 Prima di tutto la neonata lingua sarda ingloba un consistente numero di termini e di cadenze provenienti da una lingua originaria preromana che potremmo chiamare nuragica Salvatore Tola 2006 La Letteratura in Lingua sarda Testi autori vicende Cagliari CUEC p 9 Atti del VI i e Sesto Congresso internazionale di studi sardi 1962 p 5 Giovanni Lilliu 1988 La civilta dei Sardi Dal Paleolitico all eta dei nuraghi Nuova ERI p 269 Yakov Malkiel 1947 Romance Philology Vol 1 p 199 Max Leopold Wagner 1952 Il Nome Sardo del Mese di Giugno Lampadas e i Rapporti del Latino d Africa con quello della Sardegna Italica 29 3 151 157 doi 10 2307 477388 JSTOR 477388 Paolo Pompilio 1455 91 ubi pagani integra pene latinitate loquuntur et ubi uoces latinae franguntur tum in sonum tractusque transeunt sardinensis sermonis qui ut ipse noui etiam ex latino est where villagers speak an almost intact Latin and when Latin words are corrupted then they pass to the sound and habits of the Sardinian language which as I myself know also comes from Latin Quoted in Loporcaro Michele 2015 Vowel Length from Latin to Romance Oxford University Press p 48 Adams J N 2007 The Regional Diversification of Latin 200 BC AD 600 Cambridge University Press p 576 ISBN 978 1139468817 Wagner prospetta l ipotesi che la denominazione sarda identica a quella berbera sia una reminiscenza atavica di lontane tradizioni comuni e cosi commenta p 277 Parlando delle sopravvivenze celtiche dice il Bertoldi Come nell Irlanda odierna anche nella Gallia antica una maggiore cedevolezza della materia linguistica suoni e forme rispetto allo spirito che resiste piu tenace Questo vale forse anche per la Sardegna antichissime usanze superstizioni leggende si mantengono piu saldamente che non i fugaci fenomeni linguistici Max Leopold Wagner 1951 1997 La lingua sarda Nuoro Ilisso p 10 Sardinian is unintelligible to most Italians and gives an acoustic impression more similar to Spanish than Italian It is clearly and energetically articulated but has always been regarded as barbarous by the soft speaking Italians Sardinian language Encyclopedia Britannica Tullio De Mauro 1979 L Italia delle Italie Firenze Nuova Guaraldi Editrice p 89 minoranze linguistiche in Enciclopedia dell Italiano www treccani it Sardinian is a highly original conglomerate of dialects with respect to the Neo Latin varieties and thoroughly distinct from the Italo Romance typology and its separateness as a group of its own among the Romance languages is indisputable Toso Fiorenzo Lingue sotto il tetto d Italia Le minoranze alloglotte da Bolzano a Carloforte 8 Il sardo Martin Maiden John Charles Smith Adam Ledgeway 2013 The Cambridge History of the Romance Languages Vol II Cambridge University Press p 301 The Oxford guide to the Romance languages Oxford Oxford University Press 2016 p 65 Eduardo Blasco Ferrer 2010 Paleosardo Le radici linguistiche della Sardegna neolitica De Gruyter Mouton Juan Martin Elexpuru Agirre 2017 Euskararen aztarnak Sardinian Pamiela Argitaletxea a b c Massimo Pittau La lingua dei Sardi Nuragici e degli Etruschi Retrieved 28 November 2015 This is the case for example of the pre Roman prefixes ta tha ti thi tu which make their appearance in names relating to small animals e g tilicherta lizard tilipirche grasshopper etc but even to other words beyond that semantic field e g thalau bran tugru neck Max Leopold Wagner 1951 La lingua sarda p 251 Dopo pisani e genovesi si erano susseguiti aragonesi di lingua catalana spagnoli di lingua castigliana austriaci piemontesi ed infine italiani Nonostante questi impatti linguistici la limba sarda si mantiene relativamente intatta attraverso i secoli Fino al fascismo che vieto l uso del sardo non solo in chiesa ma anche in tutte le manifestazioni folkloristiche Wolftraud De Concini 2003 Gli altri d Italia minoranze linguistiche allo specchio Pergine Valsugana Comune pp 195 196 a b c d e Rindler Schjerve Rosita 1993 Sardinian Italian In Posner Rebecca Green John N eds Bilingualism and Linguistic Conflict in Romance Walter de Gruyter pp 271 294 ISBN 9783110117240 a b c d Minoranze linguistiche Sardo Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione Archived from the original on 16 October 2018 Retrieved 16 July 2016 Ugas Giovanni 2017 Shardana e Sardegna i popoli del mare gli alleati del Nordafrica e la fine dei grandi regni 15 12 secolo a C Edizioni della Torre Cagliari pp 398 408 Platonis dialogi scholia in Timaeum edit C F Hermann Lipsia 1877 25 B p 368 M Pittau La Lingua dei Sardi Nuragici e degli Etruschi Sassari 1981 p 57 Sallust Historiae II fr 4 Pausanias Ellados perihghsis X 17 Silius Italicus Punica XII 360 Gaius Julius Solinus Collectanea rerum memorabilium IV 1 Isidore of Seville XIV Etymologiae Thapsumque iacentem 39 Personaggi Sardo www aristeo org Serra Marcello 1978 Enciclopedia della Sardegna con un saggio introduttivo intitolato Alla scoperta dell isola Pisa Giardini editori e stampatori p 29 Origine e carattere dei Sardi Trask L The History of Basque Routledge 1997 ISBN 0 415 13116 2 Quel filo che lega i sardi con i baschi La Nuova Sardegna 22 December 2017 Wagner M L 1931 Uber die vorromischen Bestandteile des Sardischen p 227 Arnaiz Villena A Rodriguez de Cordoba S Vela F Pascual JC Cervero J Bootello A HLA antigens in a sample of the Spanish population common features among Spaniards Basques and Sardinians Hum Genet 1981 58 3 344 8 Il genetista conferma le origini comuni tra i sardi e i baschi La Nuova Sardegna 22 December 2017 Chiang Charleston W K Marcus Joseph H Sidore Carlo Biddanda Arjun Al Asadi Hussein Zoledziewska Magdalena Pitzalis Maristella Busonero Fabio Maschio Andrea Pistis Giorgio Steri Maristella Angius Andrea Lohmueller Kirk E Abecasis Goncalo R Schlessinger David Cucca Francesco Novembre John 14 October 2018 Genomic history of the Sardinian population Nature Genetics 50 10 1426 1434 doi 10 1038 s41588 018 0215 8 PMC 6168346 PMID 30224645 Attilio Mastino 2005 Storia della Sardegna antica Edizioni Il Maestrale p 307 ISBN 88 86109 98 9 Bereznay Andras 2011 Erdely tortenetenek atlasza Atlas of the History of Transylvania in Hungarian Mery Ratio p 63 ISBN 978 80 89286 45 4 Giovanni Ugas L alba dei Nuraghi 2005 p 241 Max Leopold Wagner 1951 1997 La lingua sarda Nuoro Ilisso pp 158 161 Giulio Paulis Sopravvivenze della lingua punica in Sardegna in L Africa romana Atti del VII Convegno di Studio Sassari 1989 Sassari Gallizzi 1990 599 639 Giulio Paulis L influsso linguistico fenicio punico in Sardegna Nuove acquisizioni e prospettive di ricerca in Circolazioni culturali nel Mediterraneo antico Atti della VI giornata camito semtica e indoeuropea I Convegno Internazionale di linguistica dell area mediterranea Sassari 24 27 aprile 1991 ed Paolo Filigheddu Cagliari Corda 1994 213 19 Giovanni Lilliu Sopravvivenze nuragiche in eta romana cit in L Africa romana VII Gallizzi Sassari 1990 p 443 Sardinia was under the control of Carthage from around 500BC It was conquered by Rome in 238 7 BC but was isolated and apparently despised by the Romans and Romanization was not rapid James Noel Adams 9 January 2003 Bilingualism and the Latin Language Cambridge University Press p 209 ISBN 9780521817714 E viceversa gli scrittori romani giudicavano la Sardegna una terra malsana dove dominava la pestilentia la malaria abitata da popoli di origine africana ribelli e resistenti impegnati in latrocinia ed in azioni di pirateria che si spingevano fino al litorale etrusco un luogo terribile scarsamente urbanizzato destinato a diventare nei secoli la terra d esilio per i condannati ad metalla Attilio Mastino 2009 Storia della Sardegna antica 2 ed Il Maestrale pp 15 16 Ignazio Putzu La posizione linguistica del sardo nel contesto mediterraneo in Neues aus der Bremer Linguistikwerkstatt aktuelle Themen und Projekte ed Cornelia Stroh Bochum Universitatsverlag Dr N Brockmeyer 2012 183 Ferruccio Barreca 1988 La civilta fenicio punica in Sardegna Sassari Carlo Delfino Editore The last to use that idiom the inhabitants of Barbagia renounced it in the seventh century together with paganism in favor of Latin still an archaic substratum in the Sardinian language Proceedings VII Congress Boulder Denver Colorado 14 August 19 September 1965 International Association for Quaternary Research Indiana University Press p 28 Cicerone in particolare odiava i Sardi per il loro colorito terreo per la loro lingua incomprensibile per l antiestetica mastruca per le loro origini africane e per l estesa condizione servile per l assenza di citta alleate dei Romani per il rapporto privilegiato dei Sardi con l antica Cartagine e per la resistenza contro il dominio di Roma Attilio Mastino 2009 Storia della Sardegna antica 2 ed Il Maestrale p 16 Wolf H J 1998 Toponomastica barbaricina p 20 Papiros publisher Nuoro Archivio glottologico italiano Vol 53 54 1968 p 209 Cf Max Leopold Wagner 1960 1964 D E S Dizionario etimologico sardo Heidelberg a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Casula Francesco Cesare 1994 La Storia di Sardegna Sassari it Carlo Delfino Editore ISBN 978 88 7138 084 1 p 110 Koryakov Y B 2001 Atlas of Romance languages Moscow a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Zhang Huiying 2015 From Latin to the Romance languages A normal evolution to what extent PDF Quarterly Journal of Chinese Studies 3 4 105 111 Archived from the original PDF on 19 January 2018 Retrieved 1 February 2019 Although it is an established historical fact that Roman dominion over Sardinia lasted until the fifth century it has been argued on purely linguistic grounds that linguistic contact with Rome ceased much earlier than this possibly as early as the first century BC Martin Harris Nigel Vincent 2000 The Romance languages London and New York Routledge p 315 Michele Loporcaro 2009 Profilo linguistico dei dialetti italiani Editori Laterza p 170 For a list of widely used words in Sardinian that were already considered quite archaic by the time of Marcus Terentius Varro see Eduardo Blasco Ferrer Peter Koch Daniela Marzo 2017 Manuale di linguistica sarda Manuals of Romance linguistics De Gruyter Mouton pp 89 90 Cum utroque sermone nostro sis paratus Svetonio De vita Caesarum Divus Claudius 42 Le ultime provengono per lo piu come quelle metriche della Grotta della Vipera nel sobborgo cagliaritano di Sant Avendrace da tombe di continentali immigrati Oltre a cio il numero delle iscrizioni latine in Sardegna non e molto elevato e il loro contenuto e spesso frammentario e per di piu quasi due terzi di esse provengono da Cagliari e dal suo distretto Max Leopold Wagner 1951 1997 La lingua sarda Nuoro Ilisso p 75 Max Leopold Wagner 1951 1997 La lingua sarda Nuoro Ilisso pp 75 76 Dopo la dominazione vandalica durata ottanta anni la Sardegna ritornava di nuovo all impero questa volta a quello d Oriente Anche sotto i Bizantini la Sardegna rimase alle dipendenze dell esarcato africano ma l amministrazione civile fu separata da quella militare alla prima fu preposto un praeses alla seconda un dux tutti e due erano alle dipendenze del praefectus praetorii e del magister militum africani Max Leopold Wagner 1951 1997 La lingua sarda Nuoro Ilisso p 64 a b c Luigi Pinelli 1977 Gli Arabi e la Sardegna le invasioni arabe in Sardegna dal 704 al 1016 Cagliari Edizioni della Torre p 16 Francesco Cesare Casula 1978 Breve storia della scrittura in Sardegna La documentaria nell epoca aragonese Editrice Democratica Sarda p 46 48 M Wescher e M Blancard Charte sarde de l abbaye de Saint Victor de Marseille ecrite en caracteres grecs in Bibliotheque de l Ecole des chartes 35 1874 pp 255 265 Alessandro Soddu Paola Crasta Giovanni Strinna Un inedita carta sardo greca del XII secolo nell Archivio Capitolare di Pisa PDF a b Giulio Paulis Lingua e cultura nella Sardegna Bizantina Sassari 1983 Luigi Pinelli 1977 Gli Arabi e la Sardegna le invasioni arabe in Sardegna dal 704 al 1016 Cagliari Edizioni della Torre p 30 Max Leopold Wagner 1951 1997 La lingua sarda Nuoro Ilisso p 65 Marc Bloch 2016 V modes of feeling and thought Feudal Society The Growth of Ties of Dependence Vol 1 Christiebooks La lingua sarda acquisi dignita di lingua nazionale gia dall ultimo scorcio del secolo XI quando grazie a favorevoli circostanze storico politiche e sociali sfuggi alla limitazione dell uso orale per giungere alla forma scritta trasformandosi in volgare sardo Cecilia Tasca a cura di 2003 Manoscritti e lingua sarda La memoria storica p 15 Moreover the Sardinians are the first Romance speaking people of all who made the language of the common folk the official language of the State the Government Puddu Mario 2002 Istoria de sa limba sarda Ed Domus de Janas Selargius p 14 Gian Giacomo Ortu La Sardegna dei Giudici p 264 Il Maestrale 2005 Maurizio Virdis Le prime manifestazioni della scrittura nel cagliaritano in Judicalia Atti del Seminario di Studi Cagliari 14 dicembre 2003 a cura di B Fois Cagliari Cuec 2004 pp 45 54 Un caso unico e a parte nel dominio romanzo e costituito dalla Sardegna in cui i documenti giuridici incominciano ad essere redatti interamente in volgare gia alla fine dell XI secolo e si fanno piu frequenti nei secoli successivi L eccezionalita della situazione sarda nel panorama romanzo consiste come si diceva nel fatto che tali testi sono stati scritti sin dall inizio interamente in volgare Diversamente da quanto succede a questa altezza cronologica e anche dopo in Francia in Provenza in Italia e nella Penisola iberica il documento sardo esclude del tutto la compresenza di volgare e latino il sardo era usato prevalentemente in documenti a circolazione interna il latino in documenti che concernevano il rapporto con il continente Lorenzo Renzi Alvise Andreose 2009 Manuale di linguistica e filologia romanza Il Mulino pp 256 257 Livio Petrucci Il problema delle Origini e i piu antichi testi italiani in Storia della lingua italiana Vol 3 Torino Einaudi p 58 Francesco Cesare Casula 1974 Sulle origini delle cancellerie giudicali sarde in Studi di paleografia e diplomatica Padova CEDAM p 44 Francesco Cesare Casula 1974 Sulle origini delle cancellerie giudicali sarde in Studi di paleografia e diplomatica Padova CEDAM p 88 Raimondo Carta Raspi 1937 Condaghe di S Maria di Bonarcado Cagliari Edizioni della Fondazione Il nuraghe a b Salvatore Tola 2006 La Letteratura in Lingua sarda Testi autori vicende Cagliari CUEC p 11 Max Leopold Wagner 1951 1997 La lingua sarda Nuoro Ilisso p 180 a b Salvatore Tola 2006 La Letteratura in Lingua sarda Testi autori vicende Cagliari CUEC p 17 Ma prescindendo dalle divergenze stilistiche e da altri particolari minori si puo dire che la lingua dei documenti antichi e assai omogenea e che ad ogni modo l originaria unita della lingua sarda vi si intravede facilmente Max Leopold Wagner 1951 1997 La lingua sarda Nuoro Ilisso p 84 Carlo Tagliavini 1964 Le origini delle lingue neolatine Bologna Patron p 450 Sergio Salvi 1975 Le lingue tagliate storia delle minoranze linguistiche in Italia Rizzoli pp 176 177 Eduardo Blasco Ferrer 1984 Storia linguistica della Sardegna Walter de Gruyter p 133 ISBN 978 3 11 132911 6 Francesco Bruni 1996 Storia della lingua italiana Dall Umbria alle Isole Vol 2 Torino Utet p 582 ISBN 88 11 20472 0 La Carta de Logu www sandalyon eu Carta de Logu original text Retrieved 28 November 2015 Barisone II of Arborea G Seche L incoronazione di Barisone Re di Sardegna in due fonti contemporanee gli Annales genovesi e gli Annales pisani Rivista dell Istituto di storia dell Europa mediterranea Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche n 4 2010 Casula Francesco Cesare 2017 La scrittura in Sardegna dal nuragico ad oggi Carlo Delfino Editore p 91 Sardos etiam qui non Latii sunt sed Latiis associandi videntur eiciamus quoniam soli sine proprio vulgari esse videntur gramaticam tanquam simie homines imitantes nam domus nova et dominus meus locuntur Dantis Alagherii De Vulgari Eloquentia Lib I XI 7 The Latin Library As for the Sardinians who are not Italian but may be associated with Italians for our purposes out they must go because they alone seem to lack a vernacular of their own instead imitating gramatica as apes do humans for they say domus nova my house and dominus meus my master Dante Online Le Opere www danteonline it Dante for instance said that Sardinians were like monkeys imitating men Sardinian language Encyclopedia Britannica Eliminiamo anche i Sardi che non sono Italiani ma sembrano accomunabili agli Italiani perche essi soli appaiono privi di un volgare loro proprio e imitano la gramatica come le scimmie imitano gli uomini dicono infatti domus nova e dominus meus De Vulgari Eloquentia Paraphrase and notes by Sergio Cecchin Opere minori di Dante Alighieri vol II UTET Torino 1986 a b c Salvi Sergio Le lingue tagliate storia delle minoranze linguistiche in Italia Rizzoli 1975 p 195 In perceiving that the outlandish character of Sardinian speech lay in its approximation to Latin the poet philologist Dante had almost divined the truth concerning the origin of the Romance languages W D Elcock The Romance Languages London Faber amp Faber 1960 v 474 a b Marinella Lorinczi La casa del signore La lingua sarda nel De vulgari eloquentia PDF Domna tant vos ai preiada www trobar org Raimbaut de Vaqueiras 392 7 www rialto unina it Max Leopold Wagner La lingua sarda PDF Ilisso p 78 Archived from the original PDF on 26 January 2016 Retrieved 9 January 2016 Rebecca Posner John N Green 1982 Language and Philology in Romance Mouton Publishers p 178 Alberto Varvaro 2004 Identita linguistiche e letterarie nell Europa romanza Roma Salerno Editrice p 231 ISBN 8884024463 Le sarde une langue normale 27 October 2013 Retrieved 28 November 2015 Dittamondo III XII 56 ss Wa ahl Gazirat Sardaniya fi aṣl Rum Afariqa mutabarbirun mutawaḥḥisun min agnas ar Rum wa hum ahl nagida wa hazm la yufariqun as silaḥ Contu Giuseppe Sardinia in Arabic sources Archived from the original on 11 October 2017 Retrieved 24 June 2016 Annali della Facolta di Lingue e Letterature Straniere dell Universita di Sassari Vol 3 2003 pubbl 2005 pp 287 297 ISSN 1828 5384 Attilio Mastino 2005 Storia della Sardegna antica Edizioni Il Maestrale p 83 Translation provided by Michele Amari I sardi sono di schiatta Rum Afariqah latina d Africa berberizzanti Rifuggono dal consorzio di ogni altra nazione di Rum sono gente di proposito e valorosa che non lascia mai l arme Note to the passage by Mohamed Mustafa Bazama Questo passo nel testo arabo e un poco differente traduco qui testualmente gli abitanti della Sardegna in origine sono dei Rum Afariqah berberizzanti indomabili Sono una razza a se delle razze dei Rum Sono pronti al richiamo d aiuto combattenti decisivi e mai si separano dalle loro armi intende guerrieri nati Mohamed Mustafa Bazama 1988 Arabi e sardi nel Medioevo Cagliari Editrice democratica sarda pp 17 162 Another translation into Italian from the original passage in Arabic I sardi popolo di razza latina africana piuttosto barbaro che vive appartato dal consorzio delle altre genti latine sono intrepidi e risoluti essi non abbandonano mai le armi Al Idrisi traduzione e note di Umberto Rizzitano 2008 Il Libro di Ruggero Il diletto di chi e appassionato per le peregrinazioni attraverso il mondo Palermo Flaccovio Editore Luigi Pinelli 1977 Gli Arabi e la Sardegna le invasioni arabe in Sardegna dal 704 al 1016 Cagliari Edizioni della Torre p 30 42 Non vi e dubbio che vi erano rapporti piu stretti tra la latinita dell Africa settentrionale e quella della Sardegna Senza parlare della affinita della razza e degli elementi libici che possano ancora esistere in sardo non bisogna dimenticare che la Sardegna rimase durante vari secoli alle dipendenze dell esarcato africano Wagner M 1952 Il Nome Sardo del Mese di Giugno Lampadas e i Rapporti del Latino d Africa con quello della Sardegna Italica 29 3 p 152 doi 10 2307 477388 Archivio Cassinense Perg Caps XI n 11 e TOLA P Codice Diplomatico della Sardegna I Sassari 1984 p 153 Eduardo Blasco Ferrer 1984 Storia Linguistica Della Sardegna De Gruyter p 65 Antonietta Orunesu Valentino Pusceddu 1993 Cronaca medioevale sarda i sovrani di Torres Quartu S Elena Astra p 11 Francesco Cesare Casula states that those who did not speak or understand Sardinian for fear that they were Aragonese were killed reporting the case of two Sicilian jugglers who finding themselves in Bosa at the time were attacked because they were believed to be Iberian because of their incomprehensible language Francesco Cesare Casula 1978 Breve storia della scrittura in Sardegna La documentaria nell epoca aragonese Cagliari Editrice Democratica Sarda pp 56 57 Francesco Cesare Casula 24 November 2012 Le rivolte antiaragonesi nella Sardegna regnicola 5 Il Regno di Sardegna Logus ISBN 9788898062102 Francesco Cesare Casula 24 November 2012 Guerre fra l Arborea e l Aragona 2 Il Regno di Sardegna Logus ISBN 9788898062102 Casula Francesco Cesare 1982 Profilo storico della Sardegna catalano aragonese Cagliari Edizioni della Torre p 128 Maria Teresa Laneri 2003 Proto Arca Sardo De bello et interitu marchionis Oristanei Cagliari CUEC Max Leopold Wagner 1997 La lingua sarda Storia spirito e forma Nuoro Ilisso pp 68 69 Francesco Cesare Casula 1978 Breve storia della scrittura in Sardegna La documentaria nell epoca aragonese Cagliari Editrice Democratica Sarda p 29 Casula Francesco Cesare 1978 Breve storia della scrittura in Sardegna La documentaria nell epoca aragonese Cagliari Editrice Democratica Sarda p 28 Francesco Cesare Casula 24 November 2012 La Sardegna catalano aragonese 6 Il Regno di Sardegna Logus ISBN 9788898062102 a b Sardinians speak a peculiar language Sardinian and use it to write both in poetry and prose especially in Logudoro where it has been kept purer and more elegant and rich And since many Spaniards both Aragonese and Catalan and Italians immigrated to Sardinia and keep doing so to trade Spanish Catalan and Italian are also spoken so all these languages are spoken to a conversational level by a single people However those from Cagliari and Alghero usually speak their masters language Catalan whilst the other people retain the genuine language of the Sardinians Original text Sardi Loquuntur lingua propria sardoa tum ritmice tum soluta oratione praesertim in Capite Logudorii ubi purior copiosior et splendidior est Et quia Hispani plures Aragonenses et Cathalani et Itali migrarunt in eam et commerciorum caussa quotidie adventant loquuntur etiam lingua hispanica et cathalana et italica hisque omnibus linguis concionatur in uno eodemque populo Caralitani tamen et Algharenses utuntur suorum maiorum lingua cathalana alii vero genuinam retinent Sardorum linguam Ioannes Franciscus Fara 1835 De Chorographia Sardiniae Libri duo De Rebus Sardois Libri quatuor Torino Typographia regia p 51 Max Leopold Wagner 1997 La lingua sarda Storia spirito e forma Nuoro Ilisso p 185 Why is Catalan spoken in L Alguer Corpus Oral de l Algueres See J Dexart 1645 Capitula sive acta curiarum Regni Sardiniae Calari lib I tit 4 cap 1 Max Leopold Wagner 1951 La lingua sarda storia spirito e forma Bern Francke p 186 Eduardo Blasco Ferrer Peter Koch Daniela Marzo 2017 Manuale di linguistica sarda Manuals of Romance linguistics De Gruyter Mouton p 33 Carlo Maxia Studi Sardo Corsi Dialettologia e storia della lingua fra le due isole Ciurrata di la linga gadduresa Atti del II Convegno Internazionale di Studi PDF a b Antoni Cano 2002 Dino Manca ed Sa Vitta et sa Morte et Passione de sanctu Gavinu Prothu et Januariu PDF CUEC Turtas Raimondo 1981 La questione linguistica nei collegi gesuitici in Sardegna nella seconda meta del Cinquecento in Quaderni sardi di storia 2 p 57 87 at p 60 a b Sardegna Cultura Lingua sarda Letteratura Dalle origini al 700 www sardegnacultura it a b First attempts at national self assertion through language date back to the 16th century when G Araolla a speaker of Sassarese wrote a poem intended to enrich and honour the Sardinian language Rebecca Posner John N Green 1993 Bilingualism and Linguistic Conflict in Romance De Gruyter Mouton p 286 Intendendo esservi una naturalita della lingua propria delle diverse nazioni cosi come v e la lingua naturale della nazione sarda espressione quest ultima non usata ma ben sottintesa Ignazio Putzu Gabriella Mazzon 2013 Lingue letterature nazioni Centri e periferie tra Europa e Mediterraneo Franco Angeli Edizioni p 597 a b J Arce La literatura hispanica de Cerdena Revista de la Facultad de Filologia 1956 L Alguer castillo fuerte bien murado con frutales por tierra muy divinos y por la mar coral fino eltremado es ciudad de mas de mil vezinos Joaquin Arce 1960 Espana en Cerdena p 359 An example of it are the octaves found in Lo Frasso Antonio 1573 Los diez libros de fortuna d Amor Non podende sufrire su tormentu de su fogu ardente innamorosu Videndemi foras de sentimentu et sensa una hora de riposu pensende istare liberu e contentu m agato pius aflitu e congoixosu in essermi de te senora apartadu mudende ateru quelu ateru istadu Antonio de Lo Frasso 1573 1740 Los Cinco Ultimos Libros de Fortuna de Amor Vol 2 Londra Henrique Chapel pp 141 144 Conrad Gessner 1555 De differentiis linguarum tum veterum tum quae hodie apud diversas nationes in toto orbe terraru in usu sunt Sardorum lingua pp 66 67 Habuerunt quidem Sardi linguam propriam sed quum diversi populi immigraverint in eam atque ab exteris principibus eius imperium usurpatum fuerit nempe Latinis Pisanis Genuensibus Hispanis et Afris corrupta fuit multum lingua eorum relictis tamen plurimis vocabulis quae in nullo inveniuntur idiomate Hinc est quod Sardi in diversis locis tam diverse loquuntur iuxta quod tam varium habuerunt imperium etiamsi ipsi mutuo sese recte intelligant Sunt autem duae praecipuae in ea insula linguae una qua utuntur in civitatibus et altera qua extra civitates Oppidani loquuntur fere lingua Hispanica Tarraconensi seu Catalana quam didicerunt ab Hispanis qui plerumque magistratum in eisdem gerunt civitatibus alii vero genuinam retinent Sardorum Linguam Sigismondo Arquer Maria Teresa Laneri 2008 Sardiniae brevis historia et descriptio CUEC pp 30 31 a b c d e Jordi Carbonell i de Ballester 2018 5 2 Elements d historia de la llengua catalana Publicacions de la Universitat de Valencia a b Eduardo Blasco Ferrer Giorgia Ingrassia 2009 Storia della lingua sarda dal paleosardo alla musica rap evoluzione storico culturale letteraria linguistica Scelta di brani esemplari commentati e tradotti Cagliari Cuec p 92 Michelle Hobart 2017 A Companion to Sardinian History 500 1500 Leiden Boston Brill pp 111 112 Raimondo Turtas 2001 Studiare istruire governare La formazione dei letrados nella Sardegna spagnola EDES p 236 Vicenc Bacallar el sard botifler als origens de la Real Academia Espanola VilaWeb cat Rime diverse Cagliari 1595 Eduardo Blasco Ferrer Giorgia Ingrassia edited by Storia della lingua sarda dal paleosardo alla musica rap evoluzione storico culturale letteraria linguistica Scelta di brani esemplari commentati e tradotti 2009 Cuec Cagliari p 99 Olaya Vicente G 2019 La segunda vida de los tercios El Pais in Spanish retrieved 4 June 2019 Los tercios espanoles solo podian ser comandados por soldados que hablasen castellano catalan portugues o sardo Cualquier otro tenia vedado su ascenso por eso los italianos que chapurreaban espanol se hacian pasar por valencianos para intentar su promocion The Spanish tercios could only be commanded by soldiers who spoke Castilian Catalan Portuguese or Sardinian Everyone else had his promotion forbidden that s why the Italians who spoke Spanish badly tried to pass themselves off as Valencians to try to get promoted Totu sas naziones iscrient e imprentant sos libros in sas propias limbas nadias e duncas peri sa Sardigna sigomente est una natzione depet iscriere e imprentare sos libros in limba sarda Una limba sighit Garipa chi de seguru bisongiat de irrichimentos e de afinicamentos ma non est de contu prus pagu de sas ateras limbas neolatinas All the nations write and print books in their native languages and therefore Sardinia which is a nation should do so as well in Sardinian language A language follows Garipa which certainly needs a little enrichment and refinement but is no less important than the other Neolatin languages Casula Francesco Sa chistione de sa limba in Montanaru e oe non scrivono di Sardegna o in sardo per inserirsi in un sistema isolano ma per iscrivere la Sardegna e la sua lingua e con esse se stessi in un sistema europeo Elevare la Sardegna ad una dignita culturale pari a quella di altri paesi europei significava anche promuovere i sardi e in particolare i sardi colti che si sentivano privi di radici e di appartenenza nel sistema culturale continentale Paolo Maninchedda 2000 Nazionalismo cosmopolitismo e provincialismo nella tradizione letteraria della Sardegna secc XV XVIII in Revista de filologia Romanica 17 p 178 Cimitero antico Ploaghe s official website a b Manlio Brigaglia 1982 La Sardegna Vol 1 La geografia la storia l arte e la letteratura Cagliari Edizioni Della Torre p 65 I territori della casa di Savoia si allargano fino al Ticino importante e l annessione della Sardegna 1718 perche la vita amministrativa e culturale dell isola che prima si svolgeva in spagnolo si viene orientando seppur molto lentamente verso la lingua italiana Bruno Migliorini 1969 Breve storia della lingua italiana Firenze Sansoni p 214 See M Lepori 2003 Dalla Spagna ai Savoia Ceti e corona della Sardegna del Settecento Roma a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Eduardo Blasco Ferrer Peter Koch Daniela Marzo 2017 Manuale di linguistica sarda De Gruyter Mouton p 169 Joaquin Arce 1960 Espana en Cerdena Aportacion cultural y testimonios de su influjo Madrid Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas Instituto Jeronimo Zurita p 128 Joaquin Arce La literatura hispanica de Cerdena Archivum Revista de la Facultad de Filosofia y Letras PDF Vol 6 p 139 Eduardo Blasco Ferrer Peter Koch Daniela Marzo 2017 Manuale di linguistica sarda Manuals of Romance linguistics De Gruyter Mouton pp 168 169 Eduardo Blasco Ferrer Peter Koch Daniela Marzo 2017 Manuale di linguistica sarda De Gruyter Mouton p 201 Manlio Brigaglia 1982 La Sardegna Vol 1 La geografia la storia l arte e la letteratura Cagliari Edizioni Della Torre p 64 Amos Cardia 2006 S italianu in Sardinnia candu cumenti e poita d ant impostu 1720 1848 poderi e lingua in Sardinnia in edadi spanniola Ghilarza Iskra pp 86 87 Roberto Palmarocchi 1936 Sardegna sabauda Il regime di Vittorio Amedeo II Cagliari Tip Mercantile G Doglio p 95 Roberto Palmarocchi 1936 Sardegna sabauda Vol I Cagliari Tip Mercantile G Doglio p 87 Cardia Amos 2006 S italianu in Sardinnia candu cumenti e poita d ant impostu 1720 1848 poderi e lingua in Sardinnia in edadi spanniola Iskra Ghilarza p 86 Eduardo Blasco Ferrer Giorgia Ingrassia 2009 Storia della lingua sarda dal paleosardo alla musica rap evoluzione storico culturale letteraria linguistica Scelta di brani esemplari commentati e tradotti Cagliari Cuec p 110 Rossana Poddine Rattu Biografia dei vicere sabaudi del Regno di Sardegna 1720 1848 Cagliari Della Torre p 31 Luigi La Rocca 1905 La cessione del Regno di Sardegna alla Casa Sabauda Gli atti diplomatici e di possesso con documenti inediti in Miscellanea di Storia Italiana Terza Serie v 10 Torino Fratelli Bocca pp 180 188 Eduardo Blasco Ferrer Peter Koch Daniela Marzo 2017 Manuale di linguistica sarda Manuals of Romance linguistics De Gruyter Mouton p 210 On further information as to the role played by mixed marriages in general to spread Italian among the islanders see Ines Loi Corvetto L italiano regionale di Sardegna Bologna Zanichelli pp 21 25 Francesco Bruni L italiano nelle regioni Lingua nazionale e identita regionali Torino UTET p 913 La piu diffusa e storicamente precocissima consapevolezza nell isola circa lo statuto di lingua a se del sardo ragion per cui il rapporto tra il sardo e l italiano ha teso a porsi fin dall inizio nei termini di quello tra due lingue diverse benche con potere e prestigio evidentemente diversi a differenza di quanto normalmente avvenuto in altre regioni italiane dove tranne nel caso di altre minoranze storiche la percezione dei propri dialetti come lingue diverse dall italiano sembrerebbe essere un fatto relativamente piu recente e almeno apparentemente meno profondamente e drammaticamente avvertito Eduardo Blasco Ferrer Peter Koch Daniela Marzo 2017 Manuale di linguistica sarda Manuals of Romance linguistics De Gruyter Mouton p 209 La consapevolezza di alterita rispetto all italiano si spiega facilmente non solo per i quasi 400 anni di fila sotto il dominio ispanico che hanno agevolato nei sardi rispetto a quanto avvenuto in altre regioni italiane una prospettiva globalmente piu distaccata nei confronti della lingua italiana ma anche per il fatto tutt altro che banale che gia i catalani e i castigliani consideravano il sardo una lingua a se stante non solo rispetto alla propria ma anche rispetto all italiano Eduardo Blasco Ferrer Peter Koch Daniela Marzo 2017 Manuale di linguistica sarda Manuals of Romance linguistics De Gruyter Mouton p 210 Ma la percezione di alterita linguistica era condivisa e avvertita anche da qualsiasi italiano che avesse occasione di risiedere o passare nell Isola Eduardo Blasco Ferrer Peter Koch Daniela Marzo 2017 Manuale di linguistica sarda Manuals of Romance linguistics De Gruyter Mouton p 209 Lingue fuori dell Italiano e del Sardo nessuno ne impara e pochi uomini capiscono il francese piuttosto lo spagnuolo La lingua spagnuola s accosta molto anche alla Sarda e poi con altri paesi poco sono in relazione La popolazione della Sardegna pare dalli suoi costumi indole etc un misto di popoli di Spagna e del Levante conservano vari usi che hanno molta analogia con quelli dei Turchi e dei popoli del Levante e poi vi e mescolato molto dello Spagnuolo e diro cosi che pare una originaria popolazione del Levante civilizzata alla Spagnuola che poi coll andare del tempo divenne piu originale e formo la Nazione Sarda che ora distinguesi non solo dai popoli del Levante ma anche da quelli della Spagna Francesco D Austria Este 1993 First published 1812 Descrizione della Sardegna 1812 ed Giorgio Bardanzellu Cagliari Della Torre pp 43 64 Antonio Bresciani 1861 Dei costumi dell isola di Sardegna comparati cogli antichissimi popoli orientali PDF Napoli Giannini Francesco Giulio Bechi 1997 First published 1900 Caccia grossa Scene e figure del banditismo sardo Nuoro Ilisso p 43 Come data ufficiale per la estensione della lingua italiana in Sardegna viene comunemente citato il 1764 anno in cui fu emanata un apposita carta reale per le Universita ma questa in effetti fu preceduta nel 1760 da un piano regio per le scuole inferiori e seguita nel 1770 da un regio editto per la magistratura Occorse dunque un periodo di dieci anni per rendere ufficiale nell isola l adozione dell italiano la cui diffusione fu da principio assai lenta anche negli ambienti colti come attesta l uso frequente della lingua spagnola in atti e documenti pubblici fino ai primi decenni dell Ottocento Francesco Corda 1994 Grammatica moderna del sardo logudorese con una proposta ortografica elementi di metrica e un glossario Cagliari Edizioni della Torre pp 6 7 Bolognesi Roberto 1998 The Phonology of Campidanian Sardinian A Unitary Account of a Self Organizing Structure Holland Academic Graphics p 3 Amos Cardia 2006 S italianu in Sardinnia candu cumenti e poita d ant impostu 1720 1848 poderi e lingua in Sardinnia in edadi spanniola Ghilarza Iskra pp 88 91 Alessandro Mongili 2015 Topologie postcoloniali Innovazione e modernizzazione in Sardegna Cagliari p Premessa 18 Postcolonial Sardinia 65 Mondi post informatica ed esclusione 21 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link L attivita riformatrice si allargo anche ad altri campi scuole in lingua italiana per riallacciare la cultura isolana a quella del continente lotta contro il banditismo ripopolamento di terre e ville deserte con Liguri Piemontesi Corsi Roberto Almagia et al Sardegna Enciclopedia Italiana 1936 Treccani Storia L italianizzazione dell isola fu un obiettivo fondamentale della politica sabauda strumentale a un piu ampio progetto di assimilazione della Sardegna al Piemonte Amos Cardia 2006 S italianu in Sardinnia candu cumenti e poita d ant impostu 1720 1848 poderi e lingua in Sardinnia in edadi spanniola Ghilarza Iskra p 92 Ai funzionari sabaudi inseriti negli ingranaggi dell assolutismo burocratico ed educati al culto della regolarita e della precisione l isola appariva come qualcosa di estraneo e di bizzarro come un Paese in preda alla barbarie e all anarchia popolato di selvaggi tutt altro che buoni Era difficile che quei funzionari potessero considerare il diverso altrimenti che come puro negativo E infatti essi presero ad applicare alla Sardegna le stesse ricette applicate al Piemonte Luciano Guerci 2006 L Europa del Settecento permanenze e mutamenti UTET p 576 En aquest sentit la italianitzacio definitiva de l illa representava per a ell l objectiu mes urgent i va decidir de contribuir hi tot reformant les Universitats de Caller i de Sasser bandejant ne alhora els jesuites de la direccio per tal com mantenien encara una relacio massa estreta amb la cultura espanyola El ministre Bogino havia entes que nomes dins d una Universitat reformada podia crear se una nova generacio de joves que contribuissin a homogeneitzar de manera absoluta Sardenya amb el Piemont Joan Armangue i Herrero Represa i exercici de la consciencia linguistica a l Alguer ss XVIII XX Arxiu de Tradicions de l Alguer Cagliari I 1 a b c d Manlio Brigaglia 1982 La Sardegna Vol 1 La geografia la storia l arte e la letteratura Cagliari Edizioni Della Torre p 77 a b Roberto Bolognesi Wilbert Heeringa 2005 Sardegna fra tante lingue Condaghes p 25 a b c Sergio Salvi 1974 Le lingue tagliate Storia delle minoranze linguistiche in Italia Milano Rizzoli p 181 Martin Maiden John Charles Smith Adam Ledgeway 2013 The Cambridge History of the Romance Languages Vol 2 Cambridge University Press p 302 In Sardegna dopo il passaggio alla casa di Savoia lo spagnolo perde terreno ma lentissimamente solo nel 1764 l italiano diventa lingua ufficiale nei tribunali e nell insegnamento Bruno Migliorini 1957 La Rassegna della letteratura italiana Vol 61 Firenze Le Lettere p 398 Anche la sostituzione dell italiano allo spagnolo non avvenne istantaneamente quest ultimo resto lingua ufficiale nelle scuole e nei tribunali fino al 1764 anno in cui da Torino fu disposta una riforma delle universita di Cagliari e Sassari e si stabili che l insegnamento scolastico dovesse essere solamente in italiano Michele Loporcaro 2009 Profilo linguistico dei dialetti italiani Editori Laterza p 9 Amos Cardia 2006 S italianu in Sardinnia candu cumenti e poita d ant impostu 1720 1848 poderi e lingua in Sardinnia in edadi spanniola Ghilarza Iskra p 89 Rivista storica italiana Vol 104 Edizioni scientifiche italiane 1992 p 55 Clemente Caria 1981 Canto sacro popolare in Sardegna Oristano S Alvure p 45 Sardegna Cultura Lingua sarda Letteratura Dalle origini al 700 www sardegnacultura it sardi dialetti in Enciclopedia dell Italiano www treccani it Cinque linguaggi parlansi in Sardegna lo spagnuolo l italiano il sardo l algarese e l sassarese I primi due per ragione del passato e del presente dominio e delle passate e presenti scuole intendonsi e parlansi da tutte le pulite persone nelle citta e ancor ne villaggi Il sardo e comune a tutto il Regno e dividesi in due precipui dialetti sardo campidanese e sardo del capo di sopra L algarese e un dialetto del catalano perche colonia di catalani e Algheri e finalmente il sassarese che si parla in Sassari in Tempio e in Castel sardo e un dialetto del toscano reliquia del dominio de Pisani Lo spagnuolo va perdendo terreno a misura che prende piede l italiano il quale ha dispossessato il primo delle scuole e de tribunali Francesco Gemelli Luigi Valenti Gonzaga 1776 Rifiorimento della Sardegna proposto nel miglioramento di sua agricoltura Vol 2 Torino Giammichele Briolo Madau Matteo 1782 Saggio d un opera intitolata Il ripulimento della lingua sarda lavorato sopra la sua analogia colle due matrici lingue la greca e la latina Bernardo Titard Cagliari MADAO Matteo in Dizionario Biografico www treccani it Ichnussa la biblioteca digitale della poesia sarda www poesias it Un arxipelag invisible la relacio impossible de Sardenya i Corsega sota nacionalismes segles XVIII XX Marcel Farinelli Universitat Pompeu Fabra Institut Universitari d Historia Jaume Vicens i Vives p 285 a b Amos Cardia 2006 S italianu in Sardinnia candu cumenti e poita d ant impostu 1720 1848 poderi e lingua in Sardinnia in edadi spanniola Ghilarza Iskra pp 111 112 Febres la prima grammatica sul sardo A lezione di limba dal gesuita catalano Sardiniapost it 8 June 2019 Febres Andres 1786 Prima grammatica de tre dialetti sardi Cagliari the volume can be found in Cagliari s University Library Baille Collection ms 11 2 K n 18 Eduardo Blasco Ferrer Giorgia Ingrassia edited by Storia della lingua sarda dal paleosardo alla musica rap evoluzione storico culturale letteraria linguistica Scelta di brani esemplari commentati e tradotti 2009 Cuec Cagliari p 127 Sergio Salvi 1974 Le lingue tagliate Storia delle minoranze linguistiche in Italia Milano Rizzoli pp 182 183 Manlio Brigaglia 1982 La Sardegna Vol 1 La geografia la storia l arte e la letteratura Cagliari Edizioni Della Torre p 90 Manlio Brigaglia 1982 La Sardegna Vol 1 La geografia la storia l arte e la letteratura Cagliari Edizioni Della Torre p 90 a b Manlio Brigaglia 1982 La Sardegna Vol 1 La geografia la storia l arte e la letteratura Cagliari Edizioni Della Torre p 95 Maurizio Virdis Geostorica sarda Produzione letteraria nella e nelle lingue di Sardegna Literature 8 2 Rhesis UniCa p 21 Nel caso della Sardegna la scelta della patria italiana e avvenuta da parte delle elite legate al dominio sabaudo sin dal 1799 in modo esplicito piu che altro come strategia di un ceto che andava formandosi attraverso la fusione fra aristocrazia nobilta di funzione e borghesia in reazione al progetto antifeudale democratico e repubblicano della Sarda rivoluzione Mongili Alessandro Topologie postcoloniali Innovazione e modernizzazione in Sardegna Condaghes chpt 1 2 indicibile e il sardo Maurizio Virdis 2012 Prospettive identitarie in Sardegna in Contarini Silvia Marras Margherita Pias Giuliana L identita sarda del XXI secolo tra globale locale e postcoloniale Nuoro Il Maestrale pp 32 33 Saggio di grammatica sul dialetto sardo meridionale dedicato a sua altezza reale Maria Cristina di Bourbon infanta delle Sicilie duchessa del genevese Cagliari Reale stamperia 1811 Il Porru In generale considera la lingua un patrimonio che deve essere tutelato e migliorato con sollecitudine In definitiva per il Porru possiamo ipotizzare una probabilmente sincera volonta di salvaguardia della lingua sarda che pero dato il clima di severa censura e repressione creato dal dominio sabaudo dovette esprimersi tutta in funzione di un miglior apprendimento dell italiano Siamo nel 1811 ancora a breve distanza dalla stagione calda della rivolta antifeudale e repubblicana dentro il periodo delle congiure e della repressione Amos Cardia 2006 S italianu in Sardinnia candu cumenti e poita d ant impostu 1720 1848 poderi e lingua in Sardinnia in edadi spanniola Ghilarza Iskra pp 112 113 Johanne Ispanu 1840 Ortographia Sarda Nationale o siat Grammatica de sa limba logudoresa cumparada cum s italiana PDF Kalaris Reale Stamperia Archived from the original PDF on 26 June 2019 Retrieved 27 June 2019 Il presente lavoro pero restringesi propriamente al solo Logudorese ossia Centrale che questo forma la vera lingua nazionale la piu antica ed armoniosa e che soffri alterazioni meno delle altre Ispanu Johanne 1840 Ortographia sarda nationale o siat grammatica de sa limba logudoresa cumparada cum s italiana p 12 Nonetheless the two works by Spano are of extraordinary importance as they put on the table in Sardinia the question of the Sardinian language the language that should have been the unified and unifying one to be enforced on the island over its singular dialects the language of the Sardinian nation through which the island was keen to project itself onto the other European nations that already reached or were about to reach their political and cultural actualization in the 1800s including the Italian nation And just along the lines of what had been theorized and put into effect in favour of the Italian nation that was successfully completing the process of linguistic unification by elevating the Florentine dialect to the role of national language so in Sardinia the long desired Sardinian national language was given the name of illustrious Sardinian Original Ciononostante le due opere dello Spano sono di straordinaria importanza in quanto aprirono in Sardegna la discussione sul problema della lingua sarda quella che sarebbe dovuta essere la lingua unificata ed unificante che si sarebbe dovuta imporre in tutta l isola sulle particolarita dei singoli dialetti e suddialetti la lingua della nazione sarda con la quale la Sardegna intendeva inserirsi tra le altre nazioni europee quelle che nell Ottocento avevano gia raggiunto o stavano per raggiungere la loro attuazione politica e culturale compresa la nazione italiana E proprio sulla falsariga di quanto era stato teorizzato ed anche attuato a favore della nazione italiana che nell Ottocento stava per portare a termine il processo di unificazione linguistica elevando il dialetto fiorentino e toscano al ruolo di lingua nazionale chiamandolo italiano illustre anche in Sardegna l auspicata lingua nazionale sarda fu denominata sardo illustre Massimo Pittau 2005 Grammatica del sardo illustre con la messa cristiana in lingua sarda Sassari C Delfino pp 11 12 Introduction In una sua opera del 1848 egli mostra di considerare la situazione isolana come carica di pericoli e di minacce per il Piemonte e propone di procedere colpendo innanzitutto con decisione la lingua sarda proibendola cioe severamente in ogni atto pubblico civile non meno che nelle funzioni ecclesiastiche tranne le prediche Baudi di Vesme non si fa illusioni l antipiemontesismo non e mai venuto meno nonostante le proteste e le riaffermazioni di fratellanza con i popoli di terraferma si e vissuti anzi fino a quel momento aggiunge non in attesa di una completa unificazione della Sardegna al resto dello Stato ma addirittura di un rinnovamento del novantaquattro cioe della storica emozione popolare che aveva portato alla cacciata dei Piemontesi Ma rimossi gli ostacoli che sul piano politico istituzionale e soprattutto su quello etnico e linguistico differenziano la Sardegna dal Piemonte nulla potra piu impedire che l isola diventi un tutt uno con gli altri Stati del re e si italianizzi davvero Federico Francioni Storia dell idea di nazione sarda in Manlio Brigaglia 1982 La Sardegna La cultura popolare l economia l autonomia Vol 2 Cagliari Edizioni Della Torre pp 173 174 a b c d Carlo Baudi di Vesme 1848 Considerazioni politiche ed economiche sulla Sardegna Dalla Stamperia Reale p 306 Carlo Baudi di Vesme 1848 Considerazioni politiche ed economiche sulla Sardegna Dalla Stamperia Reale p 305 Carlo Baudi di Vesme 1848 Considerazioni politiche ed economiche sulla Sardegna Dalla Stamperia Reale p 313 Sebastiano Ghisu 2021 3 8 Filosofia de logu Milano Meltemi Salvatore Carboni 1881 Sos discursos sacros in limba sarda Bologna Imprenta Pontificia Mareggiani In Sergio Salvi 1974 Le lingue tagliate Storia delle minoranze linguistiche in Italia Milano Rizzoli pp 186 187 a b Sergio Salvi 1974 Le lingue tagliate Storia delle minoranze linguistiche in Italia Milano Rizzoli p 184 Des del seu carrec de capita general Carles Felix havia lluitat amb ma rigida contra les darreres actituds antipiemonteses que encara dificultaven l activitat del govern Ara promulgava el Codi felicia 1827 amb el qual totes les lleis sardes eren recollides i sovint modificades Pel que ara ens interessa cal assenyalar que el nou codi abolia la Carta de Logu la consuetud de la nacio sardesca vigent des de l any 1421 i allo que restava de l antic dret municipalista basat en el privilegi Joan Armangue i Herrero Represa i exercici de la consciencia linguistica a l Alguer ss XVIII XX Arxiu de Tradicions de l Alguer Cagliari I 1 Il trapiantamento in Sardegna senza riserve ed ostacoli della civilta e cultura continentale la formazione d una sola famiglia civile composta di Liguri Piemontesi Sardi e Savoiardi sotto un solo Padre meglio che Re il Grande Carlo Alberto Pietro Martini 1847 Sull unione civile della Sardegna colla Liguria col Piemonte e colla Savoia Cagliari Timon p 4 a b c Lingue sotto il tetto d Italia Le minoranze alloglotte da Bolzano a Carloforte 8 Il sardo Treccani il portale del sapere www treccani it la lingua della sarda nazione perse il valore di strumento di identificazione etnica di un popolo e della sua cultura da codificare e valorizzare per diventare uno dei tanti dialetti regionali subordinati alla lingua nazionale Dettori Antonietta 2001 Sardo e italiano tappe fondamentali di un complesso rapporto in Argiolas Mario Serra Roberto Limba lingua language lingue locali standardizzazione e identita in Sardegna nell era della globalizzazione Cagliari CUEC p 88 Spanu Gian Nicola Il primo inno d Italia e sardo PDF In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of Italy and the island became part of the unified Italian state Sardinia s distinct language and culture as well as its geographic isolation from the Italian mainland made it something of a forgotten province however Sardinia History People and Points of Interest Sardinia in a united Italy Britannica a b c d Fiorenzo Toso 2008 2 Le minoranze linguistiche in Italia Bologna Societa editrice Il Mulino ISBN a, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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