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Wikipedia

Filipinos

January 14, 2023

This article is about the people of the Philippines. For the demographics, see Demographics of the Philippines. For other uses, see Filipino (disambiguation).

Filipinos (Tagalog: Mga Pilipino)[50] are the people who are citizens of or native to the Philippines. The majority of Filipinos today come from various Austronesian ethnolinguistic groups, all typically speaking either Filipino, English, and/or other Philippine languages. Currently, there are more than 185 ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines; each with its own language, identity, culture, and history.

Filipinos
Mga Pilipino
Total population
c. 108 million[1]
(c. 11–12 million in Filipino diaspora)[2][3]
Regions with significant populations
 Philippines c. 100 million
figures below are for various years
 United States3,416,840[4]
 Saudi Arabia938,490[5]
 Canada837,130[6]
 United Arab Emirates679,819[7]
 Japan325,000[8]
 Malaysia245,000[9]
 Qatar236,000[10]
 Australia232,386[11]
 United Kingdom200,000 (2017)[12]
 Singapore175,000[13]
 Italy167,859[14]
 Taiwan147,000 (2021)[15]
 Hong Kong130,810[16]
 Spain115,362[17]
 Germany65,000[18]
 South Korea63,464[19]
 France50,000 (2013)[20]
 New Zealand40,347[21]
 Bahrain40,000[22]
 Israel31,000[23]
 Brazil29,578[24]
 Netherlands25,365 (2021)[25]
 Papua New Guinea25,000[26]
 Thailand17,574[27]
 Macau14,544[28]
 Sweden13,000[29]
 Ireland12,791[30]
 Austria12,474[31]
 Norway12,262[32]
 China12,254[33]
 Switzerland10,000[34]
 Kazakhstan7,000[35]
 Palau7,000[36]
 Greece6,500[37]
 Finland5,665[38]
 Turkey5,500[39]
 Russia5,000[40]
 Indonesia4,800[41]
 Nigeria4,500[42]
 Cayman Islands4,119[43]
 Belgium3,067-12,224[44][45]
 Morocco3,000[46]
 Iceland2,900[47]
 India2,114[48]
Languages
Filipino/Tagalog and Philippine languages
Minority
English
Religion
Predominantly Roman Catholicism[49]
Minority others are:
Related ethnic groups
Austronesian peoples, Native Indonesian

Names

See also: Name of the Philippines

The name Filipino, as a demonym, was derived from the term Las Islas Filipinas ("the Philippine Islands"),[51] the name given to the archipelago in 1543 by the Spanish explorer and Dominican priest Ruy López de Villalobos, in honor of Philip II of Spain (Spanish: Felipe II).[52] During the Spanish colonial period, natives of the Philippine islands were usually known by the generic terms chino ("Chino") [53][54] or indigenta ("indigents").[55] However, during the early Spanish colonial period the term Filipinos or Philipinos was sometimes used by Spanish writers to distinguish the indio chino natives of the Philippine archipelago from the indios of the Spanish colonies in the Americas, which were free people and legally barred from being used as slaves, unlike Filipinos. [56][57] [52] The term Indio Filipino appears as a term of self-identification beginning in the 18th century.[52]

In 1955, Agnes Newton Keith wrote that a 19th century edict prohibited the use of the word "Filipino" to refer to indios. This reflected popular belief, although no such edict has been found.[52] The idea that the term Filipino was not used to refer to indios until the 19th century has also been mentioned by historians such as Salah Jubair[58] and Renato Constantino.[59] However, in a 1994 publication the historian William Henry Scott identified instances in Spanish writing where "Filipino" did refer to "indio" natives.[60] Instances of such usage include the Relación de las Islas Filipinas (1604) of Pedro Chirino, in which he wrote chapters entitled "Of the civilities, terms of courtesy, and good breeding among the Filipinos" (Chapter XVI), "Of the Letters of the Filipinos" (Chapter XVII), "Concerning the false heathen religion, idolatries, and superstitions of the Filipinos" (Chapter XXI), "Of marriages, dowries, and divorces among the Filipinos" (Chapter XXX),[61] while also using the term "Filipino" to refer unequivocally to the non-Spaniard natives of the archipelago like in the following sentence:

The first and last concern of the Filipinos in cases of sickness was, as we have stated, to offer some sacrifice to their anitos or diwatas, which were their gods.[62]

— Pedro Chirino, Relación de las Islas Filipinas

In the Crónicas (1738) of Juan Francisco de San Antonio, the author devoted a chapter to "The Letters, languages and politeness of the Philippinos", while Francisco Antolín argued in 1789 that "the ancient wealth of the Philippinos is much like that which the Igorots have at present".[52] These examples prompted the historian William Henry Scott to conclude that during the Spanish colonial period:

[...]the people of the Philippines were called Filipinos when they were practicing their own culture—or, to put it another way, before they became indios.[52]

— William Henry Scott, Barangay- Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society

While the Philippine-born Spaniards during the 19th century began to be called españoles filipinos, logically contracted to just Filipino, to distinguish them from the Spaniards born in Spain, they themselves resented the term, preferring to identify themselves as "hijo/s del país" ("sons of the country").[52]

In the latter half of the 19th century, illustrados, an educated class of mestizos (both Spanish mestizos and Sangley Chinese mestizos, especially Chinese mestizos) and indios arose whose writings are credited with building Philippine nationalism. These writings are also credited with transforming the term Filipino to one which refers to everyone born in the Philippines,[63][64] especially during the Philippine Revolution and American Colonial Era and the term shifting from a geographic designation to a national one as a citizenship nationality by law.[63][59] Historian Ambeth Ocampo has suggested that the first documented use of the word Filipino to refer to Indios was the Spanish-language poem A la juventud filipina, published in 1879 by José Rizal.[65] Writer and publisher Nick Joaquin has asserted that Luis Rodríguez Varela was the first to describe himself as Filipino in print.[66] Apolinario Mabini (1896) used the term Filipino to refer to all inhabitants of the Philippines. Father Jose Burgos earlier called all natives of the archipelago as Filipinos.[67] In Wenceslao Retaña's Diccionario de filipinismos, he defined Filipinos as follows,[68]

todos los nacidos en Filipinas sin distincion de origen ni de raza.
All those born in the Philippines without distinction of origin or race.

— Wenceslao E. Retaña, Diccionario De Filipinismos: Con La Revisión De Lo Que Al Respecto Lleva Publicado La Real Academia Española

American authorities during the American Colonial Era also started to colloquially use the term Filipino to refer to the native inhabitants of the archipelago,[69] but despite this, it became the official term for all citizens of the sovereign independent Republic of the Philippines, including non-native inhabitants of the country as per the Philippine Nationality Law.[52] However, the term has been rejected as an identification in some instances by minorities who did not come under Spanish control, such as the Igorot and Muslim Moros.[52][59]

The lack of the letter "F" in the 1940-1987 standardized Tagalog alphabet (Abakada) caused the letter "P" to be substituted for "F", though the alphabets and/or writing scripts of some non-Tagalog ethnic groups included the letter "F". Upon official adoption of the modern, 28-letter Filipino alphabet in 1987, the term Filipino was preferred over Pilipino.[citation needed] Locally, some still use "Pilipino" to refer to the people and "Filipino" to refer to the language, but in international use "Filipino" is the usual form for both.

A number of Filipinos refer to themselves colloquially as "Pinoy" (feminine: "Pinay"), which is a slang word formed by taking the last four letters of "Filipino" and adding the diminutive suffix "-y".

In 2020, the neologism Filipinx appeared; a demonym applied only to those of Filipino heritage in the diaspora and specifically referring to and coined by Filipino-Americans[citation needed] imitating Latinx, itself a recently coined gender-inclusive alternative to Latino or Latina. An online dictionary made an entry of the term, applying it to all Filipinos within the Philippines or in the diaspora.[70] In actual practice, however, the term is unknown among and not applied to Filipinos living in the Philippines, and Filipino itself is already treated as gender-neutral. The dictionary entry resulted in confusion, backlash and ridicule from Filipinos residing in the Philippines who never identified themselves with the foreign term.[71][72]

Native Filipinos were also called Manilamen (or Manila men) or Tagalas by English-speaking regions during the colonial era. They were mostly sailors and pearl-divers and established communities in various ports around the world.[73][74] One of the notable settlements of Manilamen is the community of Saint Malo, Louisiana, founded at around 1763 to 1765 by escaped slaves and deserters from the Spanish Navy.[75][76][77][78] There were also significant numbers of Manilamen in Northern Australia and the Torres Strait Islands in the late 1800s who were employed in the pearl hunting industries.[79][80]

In Latin America (especially in the Mexican states of Guerrero and Colima), Filipino immigrants arriving to New Spain during the 16th and 17th centuries via the Manila galleons were called chino, which led to the confusion of early Filipino immigrants with that of the much later Chinese immigrants to Mexico from the 1880s to the 1940s. A genetic study in 2018 has also revealed that around one-third of the population of Guerrero have 10% Filipino ancestry.[81][82]

History

Main article: History of the Philippines

Prehistory

Main article: Prehistory of the Philippines
See also: Negrito and Austronesian peoples
 
 
 
Left to right: [1] Five teeth attributed to Homo luzonensis. ; [2] CCH1, a third metatarsal bone (MT3) discovered on May 5, 2007 in Callao Cave, belonging to Homo luzonensis, a species of archaic human. ; [3] Callao Cave .

The oldest archaic human remains in the Philippines are the "Callao Man" specimens discovered in 2007 in the Callao Cave in Northern Luzon. They were dated in 2010 through uranium-series dating to the Late Pleistocene, c. 67,000 years old. The remains were initially identified as modern human, but after the discovery of more specimens in 2019, they have been reclassified as being members of a new species - Homo luzonensis.[83][84]

The oldest indisputable modern human (Homo sapiens) remains in the Philippines are the "Tabon Man" fossils discovered in the Tabon Caves in the 1960s by Robert B. Fox, an anthropologist from the National Museum. These were dated to the Paleolithic, at around 26,000 to 24,000 years ago. The Tabon Cave complex also indicates that the caves were inhabited by humans continuously from at least 47,000 ± 11,000 years ago to around 9,000 years ago.[85][86] The caves were also later used as a burial site by unrelated Neolithic and Metal Age cultures in the area.[87]

 
Migration of the sea-faring Austronesian peoples and their languages.
 
The Negritos are descendants of one of the earliest groups of modern humans to reach the Philippines

The Tabon Cave remains (along with the Niah Cave remains of Borneo and the Tam Pa Ling remains of Laos) are part of the "First Sundaland People", the earliest branch of anatomically modern humans to reach Island Southeast Asia via the Sundaland land bridge. They entered the Philippines from Borneo via Palawan at around 50,000 to 40,000 years ago. Their descendants are collectively known as the Negrito people, although they are highly genetically divergent from each other. Philippine Negritos show a high degree of Denisovan Admixture, similar to Papuans and Indigenous Australians, in contrast to Malaysian and Andamanese Negritos (the Orang Asli). This indicates that Philippine Negritos, Papuans, and Indigenous Australians share a common ancestor that admixed with Denisovans at around 44,000 years ago.[88] Negritos comprise around 0.03% of the total Philippine population today, they include ethnic groups like the Aeta (including the Agta, Arta, Dumagat, etc.) of Luzon, the Ati of Western Visayas, the Batak of Palawan, and the Mamanwa of Mindanao. Today they comprise just 0.03% of the total Philippine population.[89]

After the Negritos, were two early Paleolithic migrations from East Asian (basal Austric, an ethnic group which includes Austroasiatics) people, they entered the Philippines at around 15,000 and 12,000 years ago, respectively. Like the Negritos, they entered the Philippines via the Sundaland land bridge in the last ice age. They retain partial genetic signals among the Manobo people and the Sama-Bajau people of Mindanao.[90]

The last wave of prehistoric migrations to reach the Philippines was the Austronesian expansion which started in the Neolithic at around 4,500 to 3,500 years ago, when a branch of Austronesians from Taiwan (the ancestral Malayo-Polynesian-speakers) migrated to the Batanes Islands and Luzon. They spread quickly throughout the rest of the islands of the Philippines and became the dominant ethnolinguistic group. They admixed with the earlier settlers, resulting in the modern Filipinos - which though predominantly genetically Austronesian still show varying genetic admixture with Negritos (and vice versa for Negrito ethnic groups which show significant Austronesian admixture).[91][92] Austronesians possessed advanced sailing technologies and colonized the Philippines via sea-borne migration, in contrast to earlier groups.[93][94]

 
Maritime Jade Road, connecting the Philippines to its neighbors

Austronesians from the Philippines also later settled Guam and the other islands of Maritime Southeast Asia, and parts of Mainland Southeast Asia. From there, they colonized the rest of Austronesia, which in modern times include Micronesia, coastal New Guinea, Island Melanesia, Polynesia, and Madagascar, in addition to Maritime Southeast Asia and Taiwan.[94][95]

The connections between the various Austronesian peoples have also been known since the colonial era due to shared material culture and linguistic similarities of various peoples of the islands of the Indo-Pacific, leading to the designation of Austronesians as the "Malay race" (or the "Brown race") during the age of scientific racism by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach.[96][97][98] Due to the colonial American education system in the early 20th century, the term "Malay race" is still used incorrectly in the Philippines to refer to the Austronesian peoples, leading to confusion with the non-indigenous Melayu people.[99][100][101][102]

Archaic epoch (to 1565)

Since at least the 3rd century, various ethnic groups established several communities. These were formed by the assimilation of various native Philippine kingdoms.[89] South Asian and East Asian people together with the people of the Indonesian archipelago and the Malay Peninsula, traded with Filipinos and introduced Hinduism and Buddhism to the native tribes of the Philippines. Most of these people stayed in the Philippines where they were slowly absorbed into local societies.

Many of the barangay (tribal municipalities) were, to a varying extent, under the de jure jurisprudence of one of several neighboring empires, among them the Malay Srivijaya, Javanese Majapahit, Brunei, Malacca, Tamil Chola, Champa and Khmer empires, although de facto had established their own independent system of rule. Trading links with Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Cambodia, Malay Peninsula, Indochina, China, Japan, India and Arabia. A thalassocracy had thus emerged based on international trade.

Even scattered barangays, through the development of inter-island and international trade, became more culturally homogeneous by the 4th century. Hindu-Buddhist culture and religion flourished among the noblemen in this era.

In the period between the 7th to the beginning of the 15th centuries, numerous prosperous centers of trade had emerged, including the Kingdom of Namayan which flourished alongside Manila Bay,[103][104] Cebu, Iloilo,[105] Butuan, the Kingdom of Sanfotsi situated in Pangasinan, the Kingdom of Luzon now known as Pampanga which specialized in trade with most of what is now known as Southeast Asia and with China, Japan and the Kingdom of Ryukyu in Okinawa.

From the 9th century onwards, a large number of Arab traders from the Middle East settled in the Malay Archipelago and intermarried with the local Malay, Bruneian, Malaysian, Indonesian and Luzon and Visayas indigenous populations.[106]

In the years leading up to 1000 AD, there were already several maritime societies existing in the islands but there was no unifying political state encompassing the entire Philippine archipelago. Instead, the region was dotted by numerous semi-autonomous barangays (settlements ranging is size from villages to city-states) under the sovereignty of competing thalassocracies ruled by datus, rajahs or sultans[107] or by upland agricultural societies ruled by "petty plutocrats". States such as the Wangdoms of Ma-i and Pangasinan, Kingdom of Maynila, Namayan, the Kingdom of Tondo, the Kedatuans of Madja-as and Dapitan, the Rajahnates of Butuan and Cebu and the sultanates of Maguindanao, Lanao and Sulu existed alongside the highland societies of the Ifugao and Mangyan.[108][109][110][111] Some of these regions were part of the Malayan empires of Srivijaya, Majapahit and Brunei.[112][113][114]

Historic caste systems

Datu – The Tagalog maginoo, the Kapampangan ginu and the Visayan tumao were the nobility social class among various cultures of the pre-colonial Philippines. Among the Visayans, the tumao were further distinguished from the immediate royal families or a ruling class.

Timawa – The timawa class were free commoners of Luzon and the Visayas who could own their own land and who did not have to pay a regular tribute to a maginoo, though they would, from time to time, be obliged to work on a datu's land and help in community projects and events. They were free to change their allegiance to another datu if they married into another community or if they decided to move.

Maharlika – Members of the Tagalog warrior class known as maharlika had the same rights and responsibilities as the timawa, but in times of war they were bound to serve their datu in battle. They had to arm themselves at their own expense, but they did get to keep the loot they took. Although they were partly related to the nobility, the maharlikas were technically less free than the timawas because they could not leave a datu's service without first hosting a large public feast and paying the datu between 6 and 18 pesos in gold – a large sum in those days.

Alipin – Commonly described as "servant" or "slave". However, this is inaccurate. The concept of the alipin relied on a complex system of obligation and repayment through labor in ancient Philippine society, rather than on the actual purchase of a person as in Western and Islamic slavery. Members of the alipin class who owned their own houses were more accurately equivalent to medieval European serfs and commoners.

By the 15th century, Arab and Indian missionaries and traders from Malaysia and Indonesia brought Islam to the Philippines, where it both replaced and was practiced together with indigenous religions. Before that, indigenous tribes of the Philippines practiced a mixture of Animism, Hinduism and Buddhism. Native villages, called barangays were populated by locals called Timawa (Middle Class/freemen) and Alipin (servants and slaves). They were ruled by Rajahs, Datus and Sultans, a class called Maginoo (royals) and defended by the Maharlika (Lesser nobles, royal warriors and aristocrats).[89] These Royals and Nobles are descended from native Filipinos with varying degrees of Indo-Aryan and Dravidian, which is evident in today's DNA analysis among South East Asian Royals. This tradition continued among the Spanish and Portuguese traders who also intermarried with the local populations.[115]

Hispanic settlement and rule (1521–1898)

 
Economic Life in Spanish Colonial Philippines, with Native and Sangley Chinese traders
 
Depiction of Filipino celebration

The Philippines was settled by the Spanish. The arrival of Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan (Portuguese: Fernão de Magalhães) in 1521 began a period of European colonization. During the period of Spanish colonialism, the Philippines was part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, which was governed and administered from Mexico City. Early Spanish settlers were mostly explorers, soldiers, government officials and religious missionaries born in Spain and Mexico. Most Spaniards who settled were of Basque ancestry,[116] but there were also settlers of Andalusian, Catalan, and Moorish descent.[117] The Peninsulares (governors born in Spain), mostly of Castilian ancestry, settled in the islands to govern their territory. Most settlers married the daughters of rajahs, datus and sultans to reinforce the colonization of the islands. The Ginoo and Maharlika castes (royals and nobles) in the Philippines prior to the arrival of the Spanish formed the privileged Principalía (nobility) during the early Spanish period.

 
The Selden Map, connecting Quanzhou to Manila
 
The Urdaneta Tornaviaje Route of the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade, connecting the Philippines to the Americas
 
Global Trade Routes of the Spanish and Portuguese Empire

The arrival of the Spaniards to the Philippines, especially through the commencement of the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade that connected the Philippines through Manila to Acapulco in Mexico, attracted new waves of immigrants from China, as Manila was already previously connected to the Maritime Silk Road and Maritime Jade Road, as shown in the Selden Map, from Quanzhou and/or Zhangzhou in Southern Fujian to Manila, maritime trade flourished during the Spanish period, especially as Manila was connected to the ports of Southern Fujian, such as Yuegang (the old port of Haicheng in Zhangzhou, Fujian).[118][119] The Spanish recruited thousands of Chinese migrant workers from "Chinchew" (Quanzhou), "Chiõ Chiu" (Zhangzhou), "Canton" (Guangzhou), and Macau called sangleys (from Hokkien Chinese: 生理; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Sng-lí; lit. 'business') to build the colonial infrastructure in the islands. Many Chinese immigrants converted to Christianity, intermarried with the locals, and adopted Hispanized names and customs and became assimilated, although the children of unions between Filipinos and Chinese that became assimilated continued to be designated in official records as mestizos de sangley. The Chinese mestizos were largely confined to the Binondo area until the 19th century. However, they eventually spread all over the islands and became traders, landowners and moneylenders. Today, their descendants still comprise a significant part of the Philippine population especially its bourgeois,[120] who during the late Spanish Colonial Era in the late 19th century, produced a major part of the ilustrado intelligentsia of the late Spanish Colonial Philippines, that were very influential with the creation of Filipino nationalism and the sparking of the Philippine Revolution as part of the foundation of the First Philippine Republic and subsequent sovereign independent Philippines.[121][122] Today, the bulk of the families in the list of the political families in the Philippines have such family background. Meanwhile, the colonial-era Sangley's pure ethnic Chinese descendants of which, replenished by later migrants in the 20th century, that preserved at least some of their Chinese culture, integrated together with mainstream Filipino culture, are now in the form of the modern Chinese Filipino community, who currently play a leading role in the Philippine business sector and contribute a significant share of the Philippine economy today,[123][124][125][126][127] where most in the current list of the Philippines' richest each year comprise Taipan billionaires of Chinese Filipino background, mostly of Hokkien descent, where most still trace their roots back to mostly Jinjiang or Nan'an within Quanzhou or sometimes Xiamen (Amoy) or Zhangzhou, all within Southern Fujian, the Philippines' historical trade partner with Mainland China.

In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of Japanese traders also migrated to the Philippines and assimilated into the local population.[128][failed verification] Many were assimilated throughout the centuries, especially through the tumultuous period of World War II. Today, there is a small growing Nikkei community of Japanese Filipinos in Davao with roots to the old Little Japan in Mintal or Calinan in Davao City during the American colonial period, where many had roots starting out in Abaca plantations or from workers of the Benguet Road (Kennon Road) to Baguio.

British forces occupied Manila between 1762 and 1764 as a part of the Seven Years' War. However, the only part of the Philippines which the British held was the Spanish colonial capital of Manila and the principal naval port of Cavite, both of which are located on Manila Bay. The war was ended by the Treaty of Paris (1763). At the end of the war the treaty signatories were not aware that Manila had been taken by the British and was being administered as a British colony. Consequently, no specific provision was made for the Philippines. Instead they fell under the general provision that all other lands not otherwise provided for be returned to the Spanish Empire.[129] Many Indian Sepoy troops and their British captains mutinied and were left in Manila and some parts of the Ilocos and Cagayan. The Indian Filipinos in Manila settled at Cainta, Rizal and the ones in the north settled in Isabela. Most were assimilated into the local population. Even before the British invasion, there were already also a large but unknown number of Indian Filipinos as majority of the slaves imported into the archipelago were from Bengal or Southern India,[130] adding Dravidian speaking South Indians and Indo-European speaking Bangladeshis into the ethnic mix.

 
Leaders of the reform movement in Spain: left to right: José Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar and Mariano Ponce (c. 1890)

A total of 110 Manila-Acapulco galleons set sail between 1565 and 1815, during the Philippines trade with Mexico. Until 1593, three or more ships would set sail annually from each port bringing with them the riches of the archipelago to Spain. European criollos, mestizos and Portuguese, French and Mexican descent from the Americas, mostly from Latin America came in contact with the Filipinos. Japanese, Indian and Cambodian Christians who fled from religious persecutions and killing fields also settled in the Philippines during the 17th until the 19th centuries. The Mexicans especially were a major source of military migration to the Philippines and during the Spanish period they were referred to as guachinangos[131][132] and they readily intermarried and mixed with native Filipinos. Bernal, the author of the book "Mexico en Filipinas" contends, that they were middlemen, the guachinangos in contrast to the Spanish and criollos, known as Castila, that had positions in power and were isolated, the guachinangos in the meantime, had interacted with the natives of the Philippines, while in contrast, the exchanges between Castila and native were negligent. Following Bernal, these two groups—native Filipinos and the Castila—had been two “mutually unfamiliar castes” that had “no real contact.” Between them, he clarifies however, were the Chinese traders and the guachinangos (Mexicans).[131]

With the inauguration of the Suez Canal in 1867, Spain opened the Philippines for international trade. European investors such as British, Dutch, German, Portuguese, Russian, Italian and French were among those who settled in the islands as business increased. More Spaniards and Chinese arrived during the next century. Many of these migrants intermarried with local mestizos and assimilated with the indigenous population.

 
Mestizos de Español (Spanish Mestizos), by Jean Mallat de Bassilan, c. 1846

In the 1860s to 1890s, in the urban areas of the Philippines, especially at Manila, according to burial statistics, as much as 3.3% of the population were pure European Spaniards and the pure Chinese were as high as 9.9%. The Spanish Filipino and Chinese Filipino Mestizo populations also fluctuated. Eventually, many families belonging to the non-native categories from centuries ago beyond the late 19th century diminished because their descendants intermarried enough and were assimilated into and chose to self-identify as Filipinos while forgetting their ancestor's roots[133] since during the Philippine Revolution to modern times, the term "Filipino" was expanded to include everyone born in the Philippines coming from any race, as per the Philippine Nationality Law.[134][135] That would explain the abrupt drop of otherwise high Chinese, Spanish and mestizo, percentages across the country by the time of the first American census in 1903.[136] By the 20th century, the remaining ethnic Spaniards and ethnic Chinese, replenished by further Chinese migrants in the 20th century, now later came to compose the modern Spanish Filipino community and Chinese Filipino community respectively, where families of such background contribute a significant share of the Philippine economy today,[123][124][3][126][127] where most in the current list of the Philippines' richest each year comprise billionaires of either Chinese Filipino background or the old elite families of Spanish Filipino background.

Late modern

 
Filipina women in Filipiniana dress, (Manila, 1899).

After the defeat of Spain during the Spanish–American War in 1898, Filipino general, Emilio Aguinaldo declared independence on June 12 while General Wesley Merritt became the first American governor of the Philippines. On December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris formally ended the war, with Spain ceding the Philippines and other colonies to the United States in exchange for $20 million.[137]

 
A native Filipina with Chinese, American / European and Japanese settlers in the Philippines, 1900

[138] The Philippine–American War resulted in the deaths of at least 200,000 Filipino civilians.[139] Some estimates for total civilian dead reach up to 1,000,000.[140][141] After the Philippine–American War, the United States civil governance was established in 1901, with William Howard Taft as the first American Governor-General.[142] A number of Americans settled in the islands and thousands of interracial marriages between Americans and Filipinos have taken place since then. Owing to the strategic location of the Philippines, as many as 21 bases and 100,000 military personnel were stationed there since the United States first colonized the islands in 1898. These bases were decommissioned in 1992 after the end of the Cold War, but left behind thousands of Amerasian children.[143] The country gained independence from the United States in 1946. The Pearl S. Buck International Foundation estimates there are 52,000 Amerasians scattered throughout the Philippines. However, according to the center of Amerasian Research, there might be as many as 250,000 Amerasians scattered across the cities of Clark, Angeles City, Manila, and Olongapo.[144] In addition, numerous Filipino men enlisted in the US Navy and made careers in it, often settling with their families in the United States. Some of their second- or third-generation families returned to the country.

Following its independence, the Philippines has seen both small and large-scale immigration into the country, mostly involving American, European, Chinese and Japanese peoples. After World War II, South Asians continued to migrate into the islands, most of which assimilated and avoided the local social stigma instilled by the early Spaniards against them by keeping a low profile and/or by trying to pass as Spanish mestizos. This was also true for the Arab and Chinese immigrants, many of whom are also post WWII arrivals. More recent migrations into the country by Koreans, Persians, Brazilians and other Southeast Asians have contributed to the enrichment of the country's ethnic landscape, language and culture. Centuries of migration, diaspora, assimilation and cultural diversity made most Filipinos accepting of interracial marriage and multiculturalism.

Philippine nationality law is currently based upon the principle of jus sanguinis and, therefore, descent from a parent who is a citizen of the Republic of the Philippines is the primary method of acquiring national citizenship. Birth in the Philippines to foreign parents does not in itself confer Philippine citizenship, although RA9139, the Administrative Naturalization Law of 2000, does provide a path for administrative naturalization of certain aliens born in the Philippines. Since many of the above historical groups came to the Philippines before its establishment as an independent state, many have also gained citizenship before the founding of either the First Philippines Republic or Third Republic of the Philippines. For example, many Cold-War-era Chinese migrants who had relatives in the Philippines attain Filipino citizenship for their children through marriage with Chinese Filipino families that trace back to either the late Spanish Colonial Era or American Colonial Era. Likewise, many other modern expatriates from various countries, such as the US, often come to the Philippines to marry with a Filipino citizen, ensuring their future children attain Filipino citizenship and their Filipino spouses ensure property ownership.

Social classifications

During the Spanish colonial period, Spaniards from Spain and Hispanic America mainly referred to Spaniards born in the Philippines (Spanish Filipinos) in Spanish: "Filipino/s" (m) or "Filipina/s" (f)[145][146][147][148][149][excessive citations] in relation to those born in Hispanic America called in Spanish: "Americano/s" (m) / "Americana/s" (f) or "Criollo/s", whereas the Spaniards born in the Philippines themselves called the Spaniards from Spain as "Peninsular/es" with themselves also referred to as "Insular/es".[149][150] Meanwhile, the colonial caste system hierarchy and taxation system during the Spanish Colonial Times dictated that those of mixed descent were known as "Mestizo/s" (m) / "Mestiza/s" (f), specifically those of mixed Spanish and native Filipino descent were known as "Mestizo/s de Español" (Spanish Mestizos), whereas those of mixed Chinese and native Filipino descent were known as "Mestizo/s de Sangley" (Chinese Mestizos) and the mix of all of the above or a mix of Spanish and Chinese were known as "Tornatrás". Meanwhile, the ethnic Chinese migrants (Chinese Filipinos) were historically referred to as "Sangley/es" (from Hokkien Chinese: 生理; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Sng-lí; lit. 'business'), while the natives of the Philippine islands were usually known by the generic term "Indio/s"[149] (lit. "Indian, native of the East Indies").

Filipinos of mixed ethnic origins are still referred today as mestizos. However, in common popular parlance, mestizos usually refer to Filipinos mixed with Spanish or any other European ancestry. Filipinos mixed with any other foreign ethnicities are named depending on the non-Filipino part. Historically though, it was the Mestizo de Sangley (Chinese Mestizo) that numbered the most among mestizos,[151] though the Mestizos de Español (Spanish Mestizos) carried more social prestige due to the colonial caste system hierarchy that usually elevated Spanish blood and Christianized natives to the peak, while most descendants of the Mestizo de Sangley (Chinese Mestizo), despite assuming many of the important roles in the economic, social and political life of the nation, would readily assimilate into the fabric of Philippine society or sometimes falsely claim Spanish descent due to this situation.

Term Definition
Peninsulares Person of pure Spanish descent, born in Spain ("from the Iberian Peninsula").
Americano Person of Criollo (either pure or majority Spanish descent), Castizo (3/4 Spanish, 1/4 Native American) or Mestizo (1/2 Spanish, 1/2 Native American) descent, born in Spanish America ("from the Americas").
Filipino / Insulares Person of pure Spanish descent, born in the Philippines ("from the Philippine Islands").
Mestizo de Español Person of mixed Spanish and native Austronesian descent.
Tornatrás Person of mixed Spanish and Chinese descent; or mixed Spanish, Chinese and native Austronesian descent.
Mestizo de Sangley Person of mixed Chinese with native Austronesian and Japanese descent.
Mestizo de Bombay Person of mixed Indian and native Austronesian descent.
Indio (Christianized) Person of pure native Austronesian descent, who was Christianized, usually under the Spanish missionaries of the Catholic Church.
Sangley / Chino (Christianized) Person of pure Chinese descent, who was Christianized, usually by the Spanish missionaries of the Catholic Church.
Indio (Unchristianized) Person of pure native Austronesian descent, who was not Christianized.
Sangley / Chino (Unchristianized) Person of pure Chinese descent, who was not Christianized.
Negrito Person of pure indigenous pre-Austronesian descent, such as the Aeta, Ati, Batak, Mamanwa, etc.
Moro Person of pure native Austronesian descent who were Islamized.
 
Marcelo Azcárraga Palmero, the only Spanish prime minister of mestizo (Filipino) descent

People classified as 'blancos' (whites) were the insulares or "Filipinos" (a person born in the Philippines of pure Spanish descent), peninsulares (a person born in Spain of pure Spanish descent), Español mestizos (a person born in the Philippines of mixed Austronesian and Spanish ancestry) and tornatrás (a person born in the Philippines of mixed Austronesian, Chinese and Spanish ancestry). Manila was racially segregated, with blancos living in the walled city of Intramuros, un-Christianized sangleys in Parían, Christianized sangleys and mestizos de sangley in Binondo and the rest of the 7,000 islands for the indios, with the exception of Cebu and several other Spanish posts. Only mestizos de sangley were allowed to enter Intramuros to work for whites (including mestizos de español) as servants and various occupations needed for the colony. Indio were native Austronesians, but as a legal classification, Indio were those who embraced Roman Catholicism and Austronesians who lived in proximity to the Spanish colonies.[citation needed]

 
Manuel L. Quezon was the Philippine President during the Commonwealth era.

People who lived outside Manila, Cebu and the major Spanish posts were classified as such: 'Naturales' were Catholic Austronesians of the lowland and coastal towns. The un-Catholic Negritos and Austronesians who lived in the towns were classified as 'salvajes' (savages) or 'infieles' (the unfaithful). 'Remontados' (Spanish for 'situated in the mountains') and 'tulisanes' (bandits) were indigenous Austronesians and Negritos who refused to live in towns and took to the hills, all of whom were considered to live outside the social order as Catholicism was a driving force in Spanish colonials everyday life, as well as determining social class in the colony. People of pure Spanish descent living in the Philippines who were born in Spanish America were classified as 'americanos'. Mestizos and africanos born in Spanish America living in the Philippines kept their legal classification as such and usually came as indentured servants to the 'americanos'. The Philippine-born children of 'americanos' were classified as 'Ins'. The Philippine-born children of mestizos and Africanos from Spanish America were classified based on patrilineal descent.

 
A mestiza de sangley woman in a photograph by Francisco Van Camp, c. 1875

The term negrito was coined by the Spaniards based on their appearance. The word 'negrito' would be misinterpreted and used by future European scholars as an ethnoracial term in and of itself. Both Christianized negritos who lived in the colony and un-Christianized negritos who lived in tribes outside the colony were classified as 'negritos'. Christianized negritos who lived in Manila were not allowed to enter Intramuros and lived in areas designated for indios.

A person of mixed Negrito and Austronesian ancestry were classified based on patrilineal descent; the father's ancestry determined a child's legal classification. If the father was 'negrito' and the mother was 'India' (Austronesian), the child was classified as 'negrito'. If the father was 'indio' and the mother was 'negrita', the child was classified as 'indio'. Persons of Negrito descent were viewed as being outside the social order as they usually lived in tribes outside the colony and resisted conversion to Christianity.

This legal system of racial classification based on patrilineal descent had no parallel anywhere in the Spanish-ruled colonies in the Americas. In general, a son born of a sangley male and an indio or mestizo de sangley female was classified as mestizo de sangley; all subsequent male descendants were mestizos de sangley regardless of whether they married an India or a mestiza de sangley. A daughter born in such a manner, however, acquired the legal classification of her husband, i.e., she became an India if she married an indio but remained a mestiza de sangley if she married a mestizo de sangley or a sangley. In this way, a chino mestizo male descendant of a paternal sangley ancestor never lost his legal status as a mestizo de sangley no matter how little percentage of Chinese blood he had in his veins or how many generations had passed since his first Chinese ancestor; he was thus a mestizo de sangley in perpetuity.

However, a 'mestiza de sangley' who married a blanco ('Filipino', 'mestizo de español', 'peninsular' or 'americano') kept her status as 'mestiza de sangley'. But her children were classified as tornatrás. An 'India' who married a blanco also kept her status as India, but her children were classified as mestizo de español. A mestiza de español who married another blanco would keep her status as mestiza, but her status will never change from mestiza de español if she married a mestizo de español, Filipino or peninsular. In contrast, a mestizo (de sangley or español) man's status stayed the same regardless of whom he married. If a mestizo (de sangley or español) married a filipina (woman of pure Spanish descent), she would lose her status as a 'filipina' and would acquire the legal status of her husband and become a mestiza de español or sangley. If a 'filipina' married an 'indio', her legal status would change to 'India', despite being of pure Spanish descent.

The social stratification system based on class that continues to this day in the country had its beginnings in the Spanish colonial area with a discriminating caste system.[152]

The Spanish colonizers reserved the term Filipino to refer to Spaniards born in the Philippines. The use of the term was later extended to include Spanish and Chinese mestizos or those born of mixed Chinese-indio or Spanish-indio descent. Late in the 19th century, José Rizal popularized the use of the term Filipino to refer to all those born in the Philippines, including the Indios.[153] When ordered to sign the notification of his death sentence, which described him as a Chinese mestizo, Rizal refused. He went to his death saying that he was indio puro.[154][153]

After the Philippines' independence from Spain in 1898 and the word Filipino 'officially' expanded to include the entire population of the Philippines regardless of racial ancestry, as per the Philippine Nationality Law and as described by Wenceslao Retaña's Diccionario de filipinismos, where he defined Filipinos as follows,[68]

todos los nacidos en Filipinas sin distincion de origen ni de raza.
All those born in the Philippines without distinction of origin or race.

— Wenceslao E. Retaña, Diccionario De Filipinismos: Con La Revisión De Lo Que Al Respecto Lleva Publicado La Real Academia Española

Origins and genetic studies

See also: Models of migration to the Philippines, Demographics of the Philippines, and Ethnic groups in the Philippines
 
Migration of the Austronesian peoples and their languages.[155]

The aboriginal settlers of the Philippines were primarily Negrito groups. Negritos today comprise a small minority of the nation's overall population, and received significant geneflow from Austronesian groups, as well as an even earlier "Basal-East Asian" group, while the modern Austronesian-speaking majority population does not, or only marginally show evidence for admixture, and cluster closely with other East/Southeast Asian people.[156][157]

The majority population of Filipinos are Austronesians, a linguistic and genetic group whose historical ties lay in maritime Southeast Asia and southern East Asia, but through ancient migrations can be found as indigenous peoples stretching as far east as the Pacific islands and as far west as Madagascar off the coast of Africa.[158][159] The current predominant theory on Austronesian expansion holds that Austronesians settled the Philippine islands through successive southward and eastward seaborne migrations from the Neolithic Austronesian populations of Taiwan.[160]

Other hypotheses have also been put forward based on linguistic, archeological, and genetic studies. These include an origin from mainland South China (linking them to the Liangzhu culture and the Tapengkeng culture, later displaced or assimilated by the expansion of speakers of Sino-Tibetan languages);[161][162] an in situ origin from the Sundaland continental shelf prior to the sea level rise at the end of the last glacial period (c. 10,000 BC);[163][164] or a combination of the two (the Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network hypothesis) which advocates cultural diffusion rather than a series of linear migrations.[165]

Generalized Anthropology Study

A research paper, which claims to be a useful aid to biological anthropology, published in the Journal of Forensic Anthropology, collating contemporary Anthropological cranial data showed that the percentage of Filipino bodies who were sampled from the University of the Philippines, that were curated to be representative of Filipinos, that is phenotypically classified as Asian (East, South and Southeast Asian) is 72.7%, Hispanic (Spanish-Amerindian Mestizo, Latin American, or Spanish-Malay Mestizo) is at 12.7%, Indigenous American (Native American) at 7.3%, African at 4.5%, and European at 2.7%.[166]

Genetics

Main article: Genetic studies on Filipinos

The results of a massive DNA study conducted by the National Geographic's, "The Genographic Project", based on genetic testings of 80,000 Filipino people by the National Geographic in 2008–2009, found that the average Filipino's genes are around 53% Southeast Asia and Oceania, 36% East Asian, 5% Southern European, 3% South Asian and 2% Native American.[167] While other studies show that the majority of Filipinos have no admixture and are only Asian in origin.[168]

Dental morphology

Dental morphology provides clues to prehistoric migration patterns of the Philippines, with Sinodont dental patterns occurring in East Asia, Central Asia, North Asia, and the Americas. Sundadont patterns occur in Southeast Asia as well as the bulk of Oceania.[169] Filipinos exhibit Sundadonty,[169][170] and are regarded as having a more generalised dental morphology and having a longer ancestry than its offspring, Sinodonty.

Historic reports

Published in 1849, The Catalogo Alfabetico de Apellidos contains 141 pages of surnames with both Spanish and Hispanicized indigenous roots.

Authored by Spanish Governor-General Narciso Claveria y Zaldua and Domingo Abella, the catalog was created in response to the Decree of November 21, 1849, which gave every Filipino a surname from the book. The decree in the Philippines was created to fulfill a Spanish colonial decree that sought to address colonial subjects who did not have a last name. This explains why most Filipinos share the same surnames as many Hispanics today, without having Spanish ancestry.

Current immigration

Main article: Immigration to the Philippines

Recent studies during 2015, record around 220,000 to 600,000 American citizens living in the country.[171] There are also 250,000 Amerasians across Angeles City, Manila, Clark and Olongapo.[172]

Languages

Main articles: Languages of the Philippines and Philippine languages
 
The indigenous (native) Philippine languages spoken around the country that have the largest number of speakers in a particular region with Tagalog being the largest. Note that on regions marked with black diamonds, the language with the most speakers denotes a minority of the population.

Austronesian languages have been spoken in the Philippines for thousands of years. According to a 2014 study by Mark Donohue of the Australian National University and Tim Denham of Monash University, there is no linguistic evidence for an orderly north-to-south dispersal of the Austronesian languages from Taiwan through the Philippines and into Island Southeast Asia (ISEA).[163] Many adopted words from Sanskrit and Tamil were incorporated during the strong wave of Indian (Hindu-Buddhist) cultural influence starting from the 5th century BC, in common with its Southeast Asian neighbors. Chinese languages were also commonly spoken among the traders of the archipelago. However, with the advent of Islam, Arabic and Persian soon came to supplant Sanskrit and Tamil as holy languages. Starting in the second half of the 16th century, Spanish was the official language of the country for the more than three centuries that the islands were governed through Mexico City on behalf of the Spanish Empire. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Spanish was the preferred language among Ilustrados and educated Filipinos in general. Significant disagreements exist, however, on the extent Spanish use beyond that. It has been argued that the Philippines were less hispanized than Canaries and America, with Spanish only being adopted by the ruling class involved in civil and judicial administration and culture. Spanish was the language of only approximately ten percent of the Philippine population when Spanish rule ended in 1898.[173] As a lingua franca or creole language of Filipinos, major languages of the country like Chavacano, Cebuano, Tagalog, Kapampangan, Pangasinan, Bikol, Hiligaynon, Waray-Waray, and Ilocano assimilated many different words and expressions from Castilian Spanish.

Chavacano is the only Spanish-based creole language in Asia. Its vocabulary is 90 percent Spanish, and the remaining 10 percent is a mixture of predominantly Portuguese, Hiligaynon, and some English. Chavacano is considered by the Instituto Cervantes to be a Spanish-based language.[174][failed verification]

In sharp contrast, another view is that the ratio of the population which spoke Spanish as their mother tongue in the last decade of Spanish rule was 10% or 14%.[175] An additional 60% is said to have spoken Spanish as a second language until World War II, but this is also disputed as to whether this percentage spoke "kitchen Spanish", which was used as marketplace lingua compared to those who were actual fluent Spanish speakers.[175]

In 1863 a Spanish decree introduced universal education, creating free public schooling in Spanish, yet it was never implemented, even before the advent of American annexation.[176] It was also the language of the Philippine Revolution, and the 1899 Malolos Constitution proclaimed it as the "official language" of the First Philippine Republic, albeit a temporary official language. Spanish continued to be the predominant lingua franca used in the islands by the elite class before and during the American colonial regime. Following the American occupation of the Philippines and the imposition of English, the overall use of Spanish declined gradually, especially after the 1940s.

According to Ethnologue, there are about 180 languages spoken in the Philippines.[177] The 1987 Constitution of the Philippines imposed the Filipino language.[178][179] as the national language and designates it, along with English, as one of the official languages. Regional languages are designated as auxiliary official languages. The constitution also provides that Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis.[180]

Other Philippine languages in the country with at least 1,000,000 native and indigenous speakers include Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon, Waray, Central Bikol, Kapampangan, Pangasinan, Chavacano (Spanish-based creole), Albay Bikol, Maranao, Maguindanao, Kinaray-a, Tausug, Surigaonon, Masbateño, Aklanon and Ibanag. The 28-letter modern Filipino alphabet, adopted in 1987, is the official writing system. In addition, each ethnicity's language has their own writing scripts and set of alphabets, many of which are no longer used.[181]

Religion

Main article: Religion in the Philippines
 
Devotees flock to the Basilica Minore del Santo Niño during the novena Masses.

According to National Statistics Office (NSO) as of 2010, over 92% of the population were Christians, with 80.6% professing Roman Catholicism.[182] The latter was introduced by the Spanish beginning in 1521, and during their 300-year colonization of the islands, they managed to convert a vast majority of Filipinos, resulting in the Philippines becoming the largest Catholic country in Asia. There are also large groups of Protestant denominations, which either grew or were founded following the disestablishment of the Catholic Church during the American Colonial period. The Iglesia ni Cristo is currently the single largest church whose headquarters is in the Philippines, followed by United Church of Christ in the Philippines. The Iglesia Filipina Independiente (also known as the Aglipayan Church) was an earlier development, and is a national church directly resulting from the 1898 Philippine Revolution. Other Christian groups such as the Victory Church,[183] Jesus Miracle Crusade, Mormonism, Orthodoxy, and the Jehovah's Witnesses have a visible presence in the country.

The second largest religion in the country is Islam, estimated in 2014 to account for 5% to 8% of the population.[184] Islam in the Philippines is mostly concentrated in southwestern Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago which, though part of the Philippines, are very close to the neighboring Islamic countries of Malaysia and Indonesia. The Muslims call themselves Moros, a Spanish word that refers to the Moors (albeit the two groups have little cultural connection other than Islam).

Historically, ancient Filipinos held animist religions that were influenced by Hinduism and Buddhism, which were brought by traders from neighbouring Asian states. These indigenous Philippine folk religions continue to be present among the populace, with some communities, such as the Aeta, Igorot, and Lumad, having some strong adherents and some who mix beliefs originating from the indigenous religions with beliefs from Christianity or Islam.[185][186]

As of 2013, religious groups together constituting less than five percent of the population included Sikhism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Seventh-day Adventists, United Church of Christ, United Methodists, the Episcopal Church in the Philippines, Assemblies of God, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), and Philippine (Southern) Baptists; and the following domestically established churches: Iglesia ni Cristo (Church of Christ), Philippine Independent Church (Aglipayan), Members Church of God International, and The Kingdom of Jesus Christ, the Name Above Every Name. In addition, there are Lumad, who are indigenous peoples of various animistic and syncretic religions.[187]

Diaspora

Main article: Overseas Filipinos
Further information: Filipinos in the New York metropolitan area and Filipinos in Hawaii

There are currently more than 10 million Filipinos who live overseas. Filipinos form a minority ethnic group in the Americas, Europe, Oceania,[188][189] the Middle East, and other regions of the world.

There are an estimated four million Americans of Filipino ancestry in the United States, and more than 300,000 American citizens in the Philippines.[190] According to the U.S. Census Bureau, immigrants from the Philippines made up the second largest group after Mexico that sought family reunification.[191]

Filipinos make up over a third of the entire population of the Northern Marianas Islands, an American territory in the North Pacific Ocean, and a large proportion of the populations of Guam, Palau, the British Indian Ocean Territory, and Sabah.[189][failed verification]

See also

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  175. ^ a b Gómez Rivera, Guillermo (2005). "Estadisticas: El idioma español en Filipinas". Retrieved May 2, 2010. "Los censos norteamericanos de 1903 y 1905, dicen de soslayo que los Hispano-hablantes de este archipiélago nunca han rebasado, en su número, a más del diez por ciento (10%) de la población durante la última década de los mil ochocientos (1800s). Esto quiere decir que 900,000 Filipinos, el diez porciento de los dados nueve millones citados por el Fray Manuel Arellano Remondo, tenían al idioma español como su primera y única lengua." (Emphasis added.) The same author writes: "Por otro lado, unos recientes estudios por el Dr. Rafael Rodríguez Ponga señalan, sin embargo, que los Filipinos de habla española, al liquidarse la presencia peninsular en este archipiélago, llegaban al catorce (14%) por ciento de la población de la década 1891–1900. Es decir, el 14% de una población de nueve millones (9,000,000), que serían un millón (1,260,000) y dos cientos sesenta mil de Filipinos que eran primordialmente de habla hispana. (Vea Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos, enero de 2003)". (La persecución del uso oficial del idioma español en Filipinas. Retrieved July 8, 2010.)
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Publications

  • Peter Bellwood (July 1991). "The Austronesian Dispersal and the Origin of Languages". Scientific American. 265 (1): 88–93. Bibcode:1991SciAm.265a..88B. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0791-88.
  • Bellwood, Peter; Fox, James; Tryon, Darrell (1995). The Austronesians: Historical and comparative perspectives. Department of Anthropology, Australian National University. ISBN 978-0-7315-2132-6.
  • Peter Bellwood (1998). "Taiwan and the Prehistory of the Austronesians-speaking Peoples". Review of Archaeology. 18: 39–48.
  • Peter Bellwood; Alicia Sánchez-Mazas (June 2005). "Human Migrations in Continental East Asia and Taiwan: Genetic, Linguistic, and Archaeological Evidence". Current Anthropology. 46 (3): 480–485. doi:10.1086/430018. S2CID 145495386.
  • David Blundell. "Austronesian Disperal". Newsletter of Chinese Ethnology. 35: 1–26.
  • Robert Blust (1985). "The Austronesian Homeland: A Linguistic Perspective". Asian Perspectives. 20: 46–67.
  • Peter Fuller (2002). "Asia Pacific Research". Reading the Full Picture. Canberra, Australia: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies. Retrieved July 28, 2005.
  • "Homepage of linguist Dr. Lawrence Reid". Retrieved July 28, 2005.
  • Malcolm Ross & Andrew Pawley (1993). "Austronesian historical linguistics and culture history". Annual Review of Anthropology. 22: 425–459. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.22.100193.002233.
  • Frederic H. Sawyer (1900). The Inhabitants of the Philippines. Library of Alexandria. ISBN 978-1-4655-1185-0.
  • Scott, William Henry (1984). Prehispanic Source Materials for the study of Philippine History. New Day Publishers. ISBN 978-971-10-0227-5. Retrieved August 5, 2008. ISBN 978-971-10-0226-8.
  • John Edward Terrell (December 2004). "Introduction: 'Austronesia' and the great Austronesian migration". World Archaeology. 36 (4): 586–591. doi:10.1080/0043824042000303764. S2CID 162244203.
  • Zaide, Sonia M. (1999) [1994]. The Philippines: A Unique Nation. All-Nations Publishing. ISBN 978-971-642-071-5.
  • Jocano, F. Landa (2001). Filipino Prehistory: Rediscovering Precolonial Heritage. Quezon City: Punlad Research House, Inc. ISBN 978-971-622-006-3.

External links

  •   Media related to People of the Philippines at Wikimedia Commons

January 14, 2023
filipinos, this, article, about, people, philippines, demographics, demographics, philippines, other, uses, filipino, disambiguation, tagalog, pilipino, people, citizens, native, philippines, majority, today, come, from, various, austronesian, ethnolinguistic,. This article is about the people of the Philippines For the demographics see Demographics of the Philippines For other uses see Filipino disambiguation Filipinos Tagalog Mga Pilipino 50 are the people who are citizens of or native to the Philippines The majority of Filipinos today come from various Austronesian ethnolinguistic groups all typically speaking either Filipino English and or other Philippine languages Currently there are more than 185 ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines each with its own language identity culture and history FilipinosMga PilipinoFlag of the PhilippinesTotal populationc 108 million 1 c 11 12 million in Filipino diaspora 2 3 Regions with significant populations Philippines c 100 millionfigures below are for various years United States3 416 840 4 Saudi Arabia938 490 5 Canada837 130 6 United Arab Emirates679 819 7 Japan325 000 8 Malaysia245 000 9 Qatar236 000 10 Australia232 386 11 United Kingdom200 000 2017 12 Singapore175 000 13 Italy167 859 14 Taiwan147 000 2021 15 Hong Kong130 810 16 Spain115 362 17 Germany65 000 18 South Korea63 464 19 France50 000 2013 20 New Zealand40 347 21 Bahrain40 000 22 Israel31 000 23 Brazil29 578 24 Netherlands25 365 2021 25 Papua New Guinea25 000 26 Thailand17 574 27 Macau14 544 28 Sweden13 000 29 Ireland12 791 30 Austria12 474 31 Norway12 262 32 China12 254 33 Switzerland10 000 34 Kazakhstan7 000 35 Palau7 000 36 Greece6 500 37 Finland5 665 38 Turkey5 500 39 Russia5 000 40 Indonesia4 800 41 Nigeria4 500 42 Cayman Islands4 119 43 Belgium3 067 12 224 44 45 Morocco3 000 46 Iceland2 900 47 India2 114 48 LanguagesFilipino Tagalog and Philippine languagesMinorityEnglishReligionPredominantly Roman Catholicism 49 Minority others are ProtestantismIslamMga Saksi ni JehovaIglesia ni CristoMembers Church of God InternationalIndigenous Philippine folk religionsAtheismRelated ethnic groupsAustronesian peoples Native Indonesian Contents 1 Names 2 History 2 1 Prehistory 2 2 Archaic epoch to 1565 2 2 1 Historic caste systems 2 3 Hispanic settlement and rule 1521 1898 2 4 Late modern 2 5 Social classifications 3 Origins and genetic studies 3 1 Generalized Anthropology Study 3 2 Genetics 3 3 Dental morphology 3 4 Historic reports 3 5 Current immigration 4 Languages 5 Religion 6 Diaspora 7 See also 8 References 9 Publications 10 External linksNames EditSee also Name of the Philippines The name Filipino as a demonym was derived from the term Las Islas Filipinas the Philippine Islands 51 the name given to the archipelago in 1543 by the Spanish explorer and Dominican priest Ruy Lopez de Villalobos in honor of Philip II of Spain Spanish Felipe II 52 During the Spanish colonial period natives of the Philippine islands were usually known by the generic terms chino Chino 53 54 or indigenta indigents 55 However during the early Spanish colonial period the term Filipinos or Philipinos was sometimes used by Spanish writers to distinguish the indio chino natives of the Philippine archipelago from the indios of the Spanish colonies in the Americas which were free people and legally barred from being used as slaves unlike Filipinos 56 57 52 The term Indio Filipino appears as a term of self identification beginning in the 18th century 52 In 1955 Agnes Newton Keith wrote that a 19th century edict prohibited the use of the word Filipino to refer to indios This reflected popular belief although no such edict has been found 52 The idea that the term Filipino was not used to refer to indios until the 19th century has also been mentioned by historians such as Salah Jubair 58 and Renato Constantino 59 However in a 1994 publication the historian William Henry Scott identified instances in Spanish writing where Filipino did refer to indio natives 60 Instances of such usage include the Relacion de las Islas Filipinas 1604 of Pedro Chirino in which he wrote chapters entitled Of the civilities terms of courtesy and good breeding among the Filipinos Chapter XVI Of the Letters of the Filipinos Chapter XVII Concerning the false heathen religion idolatries and superstitions of the Filipinos Chapter XXI Of marriages dowries and divorces among the Filipinos Chapter XXX 61 while also using the term Filipino to refer unequivocally to the non Spaniard natives of the archipelago like in the following sentence The first and last concern of the Filipinos in cases of sickness was as we have stated to offer some sacrifice to their anitos or diwatas which were their gods 62 Pedro Chirino Relacion de las Islas Filipinas In the Cronicas 1738 of Juan Francisco de San Antonio the author devoted a chapter to The Letters languages and politeness of the Philippinos while Francisco Antolin argued in 1789 that the ancient wealth of the Philippinos is much like that which the Igorots have at present 52 These examples prompted the historian William Henry Scott to conclude that during the Spanish colonial period the people of the Philippines were called Filipinos when they were practicing their own culture or to put it another way before they became indios 52 William Henry Scott Barangay Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society While the Philippine born Spaniards during the 19th century began to be called espanoles filipinos logically contracted to just Filipino to distinguish them from the Spaniards born in Spain they themselves resented the term preferring to identify themselves as hijo s del pais sons of the country 52 In the latter half of the 19th century illustrados an educated class of mestizos both Spanish mestizos and Sangley Chinese mestizos especially Chinese mestizos and indios arose whose writings are credited with building Philippine nationalism These writings are also credited with transforming the term Filipino to one which refers to everyone born in the Philippines 63 64 especially during the Philippine Revolution and American Colonial Era and the term shifting from a geographic designation to a national one as a citizenship nationality by law 63 59 Historian Ambeth Ocampo has suggested that the first documented use of the word Filipino to refer to Indios was the Spanish language poem A la juventud filipina published in 1879 by Jose Rizal 65 Writer and publisher Nick Joaquin has asserted that Luis Rodriguez Varela was the first to describe himself as Filipino in print 66 Apolinario Mabini 1896 used the term Filipino to refer to all inhabitants of the Philippines Father Jose Burgos earlier called all natives of the archipelago as Filipinos 67 In Wenceslao Retana s Diccionario de filipinismos he defined Filipinos as follows 68 todos los nacidos en Filipinas sin distincion de origen ni de raza All those born in the Philippines without distinction of origin or race Wenceslao E Retana Diccionario De Filipinismos Con La Revision De Lo Que Al Respecto Lleva Publicado La Real Academia Espanola American authorities during the American Colonial Era also started to colloquially use the term Filipino to refer to the native inhabitants of the archipelago 69 but despite this it became the official term for all citizens of the sovereign independent Republic of the Philippines including non native inhabitants of the country as per the Philippine Nationality Law 52 However the term has been rejected as an identification in some instances by minorities who did not come under Spanish control such as the Igorot and Muslim Moros 52 59 The lack of the letter F in the 1940 1987 standardized Tagalog alphabet Abakada caused the letter P to be substituted for F though the alphabets and or writing scripts of some non Tagalog ethnic groups included the letter F Upon official adoption of the modern 28 letter Filipino alphabet in 1987 the term Filipino was preferred over Pilipino citation needed Locally some still use Pilipino to refer to the people and Filipino to refer to the language but in international use Filipino is the usual form for both A number of Filipinos refer to themselves colloquially as Pinoy feminine Pinay which is a slang word formed by taking the last four letters of Filipino and adding the diminutive suffix y In 2020 the neologism Filipinx appeared a demonym applied only to those of Filipino heritage in the diaspora and specifically referring to and coined by Filipino Americans citation needed imitating Latinx itself a recently coined gender inclusive alternative to Latino or Latina An online dictionary made an entry of the term applying it to all Filipinos within the Philippines or in the diaspora 70 In actual practice however the term is unknown among and not applied to Filipinos living in the Philippines and Filipino itself is already treated as gender neutral The dictionary entry resulted in confusion backlash and ridicule from Filipinos residing in the Philippines who never identified themselves with the foreign term 71 72 Native Filipinos were also called Manilamen or Manila men or Tagalas by English speaking regions during the colonial era They were mostly sailors and pearl divers and established communities in various ports around the world 73 74 One of the notable settlements of Manilamen is the community of Saint Malo Louisiana founded at around 1763 to 1765 by escaped slaves and deserters from the Spanish Navy 75 76 77 78 There were also significant numbers of Manilamen in Northern Australia and the Torres Strait Islands in the late 1800s who were employed in the pearl hunting industries 79 80 In Latin America especially in the Mexican states of Guerrero and Colima Filipino immigrants arriving to New Spain during the 16th and 17th centuries via the Manila galleons were called chino which led to the confusion of early Filipino immigrants with that of the much later Chinese immigrants to Mexico from the 1880s to the 1940s A genetic study in 2018 has also revealed that around one third of the population of Guerrero have 10 Filipino ancestry 81 82 History EditMain article History of the Philippines Prehistory Edit Main article Prehistory of the Philippines See also Negrito and Austronesian peoples Left to right 1 Five teeth attributed to Homo luzonensis 2 CCH1 a third metatarsal bone MT3 discovered on May 5 2007 in Callao Cave belonging to Homo luzonensis a species of archaic human 3 Callao Cave The oldest archaic human remains in the Philippines are the Callao Man specimens discovered in 2007 in the Callao Cave in Northern Luzon They were dated in 2010 through uranium series dating to the Late Pleistocene c 67 000 years old The remains were initially identified as modern human but after the discovery of more specimens in 2019 they have been reclassified as being members of a new species Homo luzonensis 83 84 The oldest indisputable modern human Homo sapiens remains in the Philippines are the Tabon Man fossils discovered in the Tabon Caves in the 1960s by Robert B Fox an anthropologist from the National Museum These were dated to the Paleolithic at around 26 000 to 24 000 years ago The Tabon Cave complex also indicates that the caves were inhabited by humans continuously from at least 47 000 11 000 years ago to around 9 000 years ago 85 86 The caves were also later used as a burial site by unrelated Neolithic and Metal Age cultures in the area 87 Migration of the sea faring Austronesian peoples and their languages The Negritos are descendants of one of the earliest groups of modern humans to reach the Philippines The Tabon Cave remains along with the Niah Cave remains of Borneo and the Tam Pa Ling remains of Laos are part of the First Sundaland People the earliest branch of anatomically modern humans to reach Island Southeast Asia via the Sundaland land bridge They entered the Philippines from Borneo via Palawan at around 50 000 to 40 000 years ago Their descendants are collectively known as the Negrito people although they are highly genetically divergent from each other Philippine Negritos show a high degree of Denisovan Admixture similar to Papuans and Indigenous Australians in contrast to Malaysian and Andamanese Negritos the Orang Asli This indicates that Philippine Negritos Papuans and Indigenous Australians share a common ancestor that admixed with Denisovans at around 44 000 years ago 88 Negritos comprise around 0 03 of the total Philippine population today they include ethnic groups like the Aeta including the Agta Arta Dumagat etc of Luzon the Ati of Western Visayas the Batak of Palawan and the Mamanwa of Mindanao Today they comprise just 0 03 of the total Philippine population 89 After the Negritos were two early Paleolithic migrations from East Asian basal Austric an ethnic group which includes Austroasiatics people they entered the Philippines at around 15 000 and 12 000 years ago respectively Like the Negritos they entered the Philippines via the Sundaland land bridge in the last ice age They retain partial genetic signals among the Manobo people and the Sama Bajau people of Mindanao 90 The last wave of prehistoric migrations to reach the Philippines was the Austronesian expansion which started in the Neolithic at around 4 500 to 3 500 years ago when a branch of Austronesians from Taiwan the ancestral Malayo Polynesian speakers migrated to the Batanes Islands and Luzon They spread quickly throughout the rest of the islands of the Philippines and became the dominant ethnolinguistic group They admixed with the earlier settlers resulting in the modern Filipinos which though predominantly genetically Austronesian still show varying genetic admixture with Negritos and vice versa for Negrito ethnic groups which show significant Austronesian admixture 91 92 Austronesians possessed advanced sailing technologies and colonized the Philippines via sea borne migration in contrast to earlier groups 93 94 Maritime Jade Road connecting the Philippines to its neighborsAustronesians from the Philippines also later settled Guam and the other islands of Maritime Southeast Asia and parts of Mainland Southeast Asia From there they colonized the rest of Austronesia which in modern times include Micronesia coastal New Guinea Island Melanesia Polynesia and Madagascar in addition to Maritime Southeast Asia and Taiwan 94 95 The connections between the various Austronesian peoples have also been known since the colonial era due to shared material culture and linguistic similarities of various peoples of the islands of the Indo Pacific leading to the designation of Austronesians as the Malay race or the Brown race during the age of scientific racism by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach 96 97 98 Due to the colonial American education system in the early 20th century the term Malay race is still used incorrectly in the Philippines to refer to the Austronesian peoples leading to confusion with the non indigenous Melayu people 99 100 101 102 Archaic epoch to 1565 Edit Since at least the 3rd century various ethnic groups established several communities These were formed by the assimilation of various native Philippine kingdoms 89 South Asian and East Asian people together with the people of the Indonesian archipelago and the Malay Peninsula traded with Filipinos and introduced Hinduism and Buddhism to the native tribes of the Philippines Most of these people stayed in the Philippines where they were slowly absorbed into local societies Many of the barangay tribal municipalities were to a varying extent under the de jure jurisprudence of one of several neighboring empires among them the Malay Srivijaya Javanese Majapahit Brunei Malacca Tamil Chola Champa and Khmer empires although de facto had established their own independent system of rule Trading links with Sumatra Borneo Java Cambodia Malay Peninsula Indochina China Japan India and Arabia A thalassocracy had thus emerged based on international trade Even scattered barangays through the development of inter island and international trade became more culturally homogeneous by the 4th century Hindu Buddhist culture and religion flourished among the noblemen in this era In the period between the 7th to the beginning of the 15th centuries numerous prosperous centers of trade had emerged including the Kingdom of Namayan which flourished alongside Manila Bay 103 104 Cebu Iloilo 105 Butuan the Kingdom of Sanfotsi situated in Pangasinan the Kingdom of Luzon now known as Pampanga which specialized in trade with most of what is now known as Southeast Asia and with China Japan and the Kingdom of Ryukyu in Okinawa From the 9th century onwards a large number of Arab traders from the Middle East settled in the Malay Archipelago and intermarried with the local Malay Bruneian Malaysian Indonesian and Luzon and Visayas indigenous populations 106 In the years leading up to 1000 AD there were already several maritime societies existing in the islands but there was no unifying political state encompassing the entire Philippine archipelago Instead the region was dotted by numerous semi autonomous barangays settlements ranging is size from villages to city states under the sovereignty of competing thalassocracies ruled by datus rajahs or sultans 107 or by upland agricultural societies ruled by petty plutocrats States such as the Wangdoms of Ma i and Pangasinan Kingdom of Maynila Namayan the Kingdom of Tondo the Kedatuans of Madja as and Dapitan the Rajahnates of Butuan and Cebu and the sultanates of Maguindanao Lanao and Sulu existed alongside the highland societies of the Ifugao and Mangyan 108 109 110 111 Some of these regions were part of the Malayan empires of Srivijaya Majapahit and Brunei 112 113 114 Tagalog maharlika c 1590 Boxer Codex Tagalog maginoo c 1590 Boxer Codex Visayan kadatuan c 1590 Boxer Codex Native commoner women likely Muslims in Manila at the time c 1590 Boxer Codex Visayan timawa c 1590 Boxer Codex Visayan pintados tattooed c 1590 Boxer Codex Visayan uripon slaves c 1590 Boxer Codex Binukot from Visayas c 1590 Boxer CodexHistoric caste systems Edit Datu The Tagalog maginoo the Kapampangan ginu and the Visayan tumao were the nobility social class among various cultures of the pre colonial Philippines Among the Visayans the tumao were further distinguished from the immediate royal families or a ruling class Timawa The timawa class were free commoners of Luzon and the Visayas who could own their own land and who did not have to pay a regular tribute to a maginoo though they would from time to time be obliged to work on a datu s land and help in community projects and events They were free to change their allegiance to another datu if they married into another community or if they decided to move Maharlika Members of the Tagalog warrior class known as maharlika had the same rights and responsibilities as the timawa but in times of war they were bound to serve their datu in battle They had to arm themselves at their own expense but they did get to keep the loot they took Although they were partly related to the nobility the maharlikas were technically less free than the timawas because they could not leave a datu s service without first hosting a large public feast and paying the datu between 6 and 18 pesos in gold a large sum in those days Alipin Commonly described as servant or slave However this is inaccurate The concept of the alipin relied on a complex system of obligation and repayment through labor in ancient Philippine society rather than on the actual purchase of a person as in Western and Islamic slavery Members of the alipin class who owned their own houses were more accurately equivalent to medieval European serfs and commoners By the 15th century Arab and Indian missionaries and traders from Malaysia and Indonesia brought Islam to the Philippines where it both replaced and was practiced together with indigenous religions Before that indigenous tribes of the Philippines practiced a mixture of Animism Hinduism and Buddhism Native villages called barangays were populated by locals called Timawa Middle Class freemen and Alipin servants and slaves They were ruled by Rajahs Datus and Sultans a class called Maginoo royals and defended by the Maharlika Lesser nobles royal warriors and aristocrats 89 These Royals and Nobles are descended from native Filipinos with varying degrees of Indo Aryan and Dravidian which is evident in today s DNA analysis among South East Asian Royals This tradition continued among the Spanish and Portuguese traders who also intermarried with the local populations 115 Hispanic settlement and rule 1521 1898 Edit Tipos del Pais works by Justiniano Asuncion Economic Life in Spanish Colonial Philippines with Native and Sangley Chinese traders Depiction of Filipino celebrationThe Philippines was settled by the Spanish The arrival of Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan Portuguese Fernao de Magalhaes in 1521 began a period of European colonization During the period of Spanish colonialism the Philippines was part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain which was governed and administered from Mexico City Early Spanish settlers were mostly explorers soldiers government officials and religious missionaries born in Spain and Mexico Most Spaniards who settled were of Basque ancestry 116 but there were also settlers of Andalusian Catalan and Moorish descent 117 The Peninsulares governors born in Spain mostly of Castilian ancestry settled in the islands to govern their territory Most settlers married the daughters of rajahs datus and sultans to reinforce the colonization of the islands The Ginoo and Maharlika castes royals and nobles in the Philippines prior to the arrival of the Spanish formed the privileged Principalia nobility during the early Spanish period Sangley Chinese Merchant amp Native Filipina of Manila by Jose Honorato Lozano The Selden Map connecting Quanzhou to Manila The Urdaneta Tornaviaje Route of the Manila Acapulco Galleon Trade connecting the Philippines to the Americas Global Trade Routes of the Spanish and Portuguese Empire The arrival of the Spaniards to the Philippines especially through the commencement of the Manila Acapulco Galleon Trade that connected the Philippines through Manila to Acapulco in Mexico attracted new waves of immigrants from China as Manila was already previously connected to the Maritime Silk Road and Maritime Jade Road as shown in the Selden Map from Quanzhou and or Zhangzhou in Southern Fujian to Manila maritime trade flourished during the Spanish period especially as Manila was connected to the ports of Southern Fujian such as Yuegang the old port of Haicheng in Zhangzhou Fujian 118 119 The Spanish recruited thousands of Chinese migrant workers from Chinchew Quanzhou Chio Chiu Zhangzhou Canton Guangzhou and Macau called sangleys from Hokkien Chinese 生理 Pe h ōe ji Sng li lit business to build the colonial infrastructure in the islands Many Chinese immigrants converted to Christianity intermarried with the locals and adopted Hispanized names and customs and became assimilated although the children of unions between Filipinos and Chinese that became assimilated continued to be designated in official records as mestizos de sangley The Chinese mestizos were largely confined to the Binondo area until the 19th century However they eventually spread all over the islands and became traders landowners and moneylenders Today their descendants still comprise a significant part of the Philippine population especially its bourgeois 120 who during the late Spanish Colonial Era in the late 19th century produced a major part of the ilustrado intelligentsia of the late Spanish Colonial Philippines that were very influential with the creation of Filipino nationalism and the sparking of the Philippine Revolution as part of the foundation of the First Philippine Republic and subsequent sovereign independent Philippines 121 122 Today the bulk of the families in the list of the political families in the Philippines have such family background Meanwhile the colonial era Sangley s pure ethnic Chinese descendants of which replenished by later migrants in the 20th century that preserved at least some of their Chinese culture integrated together with mainstream Filipino culture are now in the form of the modern Chinese Filipino community who currently play a leading role in the Philippine business sector and contribute a significant share of the Philippine economy today 123 124 125 126 127 where most in the current list of the Philippines richest each year comprise Taipan billionaires of Chinese Filipino background mostly of Hokkien descent where most still trace their roots back to mostly Jinjiang or Nan an within Quanzhou or sometimes Xiamen Amoy or Zhangzhou all within Southern Fujian the Philippines historical trade partner with Mainland China In the 16th and 17th centuries thousands of Japanese traders also migrated to the Philippines and assimilated into the local population 128 failed verification Many were assimilated throughout the centuries especially through the tumultuous period of World War II Today there is a small growing Nikkei community of Japanese Filipinos in Davao with roots to the old Little Japan in Mintal or Calinan in Davao City during the American colonial period where many had roots starting out in Abaca plantations or from workers of the Benguet Road Kennon Road to Baguio British forces occupied Manila between 1762 and 1764 as a part of the Seven Years War However the only part of the Philippines which the British held was the Spanish colonial capital of Manila and the principal naval port of Cavite both of which are located on Manila Bay The war was ended by the Treaty of Paris 1763 At the end of the war the treaty signatories were not aware that Manila had been taken by the British and was being administered as a British colony Consequently no specific provision was made for the Philippines Instead they fell under the general provision that all other lands not otherwise provided for be returned to the Spanish Empire 129 Many Indian Sepoy troops and their British captains mutinied and were left in Manila and some parts of the Ilocos and Cagayan The Indian Filipinos in Manila settled at Cainta Rizal and the ones in the north settled in Isabela Most were assimilated into the local population Even before the British invasion there were already also a large but unknown number of Indian Filipinos as majority of the slaves imported into the archipelago were from Bengal or Southern India 130 adding Dravidian speaking South Indians and Indo European speaking Bangladeshis into the ethnic mix Leaders of the reform movement in Spain left to right Jose Rizal Marcelo H del Pilar and Mariano Ponce c 1890 Mestizos Sangley y Chino Sangley Chinese and or Chinese Mestizos c 1841 Tipos del Pais watercolor by Justiniano Asuncion A total of 110 Manila Acapulco galleons set sail between 1565 and 1815 during the Philippines trade with Mexico Until 1593 three or more ships would set sail annually from each port bringing with them the riches of the archipelago to Spain European criollos mestizos and Portuguese French and Mexican descent from the Americas mostly from Latin America came in contact with the Filipinos Japanese Indian and Cambodian Christians who fled from religious persecutions and killing fields also settled in the Philippines during the 17th until the 19th centuries The Mexicans especially were a major source of military migration to the Philippines and during the Spanish period they were referred to as guachinangos 131 132 and they readily intermarried and mixed with native Filipinos Bernal the author of the book Mexico en Filipinas contends that they were middlemen the guachinangos in contrast to the Spanish and criollos known as Castila that had positions in power and were isolated the guachinangos in the meantime had interacted with the natives of the Philippines while in contrast the exchanges between Castila and native were negligent Following Bernal these two groups native Filipinos and the Castila had been two mutually unfamiliar castes that had no real contact Between them he clarifies however were the Chinese traders and the guachinangos Mexicans 131 With the inauguration of the Suez Canal in 1867 Spain opened the Philippines for international trade European investors such as British Dutch German Portuguese Russian Italian and French were among those who settled in the islands as business increased More Spaniards and Chinese arrived during the next century Many of these migrants intermarried with local mestizos and assimilated with the indigenous population Mestizos de Espanol Spanish Mestizos by Jean Mallat de Bassilan c 1846 In the 1860s to 1890s in the urban areas of the Philippines especially at Manila according to burial statistics as much as 3 3 of the population were pure European Spaniards and the pure Chinese were as high as 9 9 The Spanish Filipino and Chinese Filipino Mestizo populations also fluctuated Eventually many families belonging to the non native categories from centuries ago beyond the late 19th century diminished because their descendants intermarried enough and were assimilated into and chose to self identify as Filipinos while forgetting their ancestor s roots 133 since during the Philippine Revolution to modern times the term Filipino was expanded to include everyone born in the Philippines coming from any race as per the Philippine Nationality Law 134 135 That would explain the abrupt drop of otherwise high Chinese Spanish and mestizo percentages across the country by the time of the first American census in 1903 136 By the 20th century the remaining ethnic Spaniards and ethnic Chinese replenished by further Chinese migrants in the 20th century now later came to compose the modern Spanish Filipino community and Chinese Filipino community respectively where families of such background contribute a significant share of the Philippine economy today 123 124 3 126 127 where most in the current list of the Philippines richest each year comprise billionaires of either Chinese Filipino background or the old elite families of Spanish Filipino background Late modern Edit Filipina women in Filipiniana dress Manila 1899 After the defeat of Spain during the Spanish American War in 1898 Filipino general Emilio Aguinaldo declared independence on June 12 while General Wesley Merritt became the first American governor of the Philippines On December 10 1898 the Treaty of Paris formally ended the war with Spain ceding the Philippines and other colonies to the United States in exchange for 20 million 137 A native Filipina with Chinese American European and Japanese settlers in the Philippines 1900 138 The Philippine American War resulted in the deaths of at least 200 000 Filipino civilians 139 Some estimates for total civilian dead reach up to 1 000 000 140 141 After the Philippine American War the United States civil governance was established in 1901 with William Howard Taft as the first American Governor General 142 A number of Americans settled in the islands and thousands of interracial marriages between Americans and Filipinos have taken place since then Owing to the strategic location of the Philippines as many as 21 bases and 100 000 military personnel were stationed there since the United States first colonized the islands in 1898 These bases were decommissioned in 1992 after the end of the Cold War but left behind thousands of Amerasian children 143 The country gained independence from the United States in 1946 The Pearl S Buck International Foundation estimates there are 52 000 Amerasians scattered throughout the Philippines However according to the center of Amerasian Research there might be as many as 250 000 Amerasians scattered across the cities of Clark Angeles City Manila and Olongapo 144 In addition numerous Filipino men enlisted in the US Navy and made careers in it often settling with their families in the United States Some of their second or third generation families returned to the country Following its independence the Philippines has seen both small and large scale immigration into the country mostly involving American European Chinese and Japanese peoples After World War II South Asians continued to migrate into the islands most of which assimilated and avoided the local social stigma instilled by the early Spaniards against them by keeping a low profile and or by trying to pass as Spanish mestizos This was also true for the Arab and Chinese immigrants many of whom are also post WWII arrivals More recent migrations into the country by Koreans Persians Brazilians and other Southeast Asians have contributed to the enrichment of the country s ethnic landscape language and culture Centuries of migration diaspora assimilation and cultural diversity made most Filipinos accepting of interracial marriage and multiculturalism Philippine nationality law is currently based upon the principle of jus sanguinis and therefore descent from a parent who is a citizen of the Republic of the Philippines is the primary method of acquiring national citizenship Birth in the Philippines to foreign parents does not in itself confer Philippine citizenship although RA9139 the Administrative Naturalization Law of 2000 does provide a path for administrative naturalization of certain aliens born in the Philippines Since many of the above historical groups came to the Philippines before its establishment as an independent state many have also gained citizenship before the founding of either the First Philippines Republic or Third Republic of the Philippines For example many Cold War era Chinese migrants who had relatives in the Philippines attain Filipino citizenship for their children through marriage with Chinese Filipino families that trace back to either the late Spanish Colonial Era or American Colonial Era Likewise many other modern expatriates from various countries such as the US often come to the Philippines to marry with a Filipino citizen ensuring their future children attain Filipino citizenship and their Filipino spouses ensure property ownership Social classifications Edit This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed July 2020 Learn how and when to remove this template message During the Spanish colonial period Spaniards from Spain and Hispanic America mainly referred to Spaniards born in the Philippines Spanish Filipinos in Spanish Filipino s m or Filipina s f 145 146 147 148 149 excessive citations in relation to those born in Hispanic America called in Spanish Americano s m Americana s f or Criollo s whereas the Spaniards born in the Philippines themselves called the Spaniards from Spain as Peninsular es with themselves also referred to as Insular es 149 150 Meanwhile the colonial caste system hierarchy and taxation system during the Spanish Colonial Times dictated that those of mixed descent were known as Mestizo s m Mestiza s f specifically those of mixed Spanish and native Filipino descent were known as Mestizo s de Espanol Spanish Mestizos whereas those of mixed Chinese and native Filipino descent were known as Mestizo s de Sangley Chinese Mestizos and the mix of all of the above or a mix of Spanish and Chinese were known as Tornatras Meanwhile the ethnic Chinese migrants Chinese Filipinos were historically referred to as Sangley es from Hokkien Chinese 生理 Pe h ōe ji Sng li lit business while the natives of the Philippine islands were usually known by the generic term Indio s 149 lit Indian native of the East Indies Filipinos of mixed ethnic origins are still referred today as mestizos However in common popular parlance mestizos usually refer to Filipinos mixed with Spanish or any other European ancestry Filipinos mixed with any other foreign ethnicities are named depending on the non Filipino part Historically though it was the Mestizo de Sangley Chinese Mestizo that numbered the most among mestizos 151 though the Mestizos de Espanol Spanish Mestizos carried more social prestige due to the colonial caste system hierarchy that usually elevated Spanish blood and Christianized natives to the peak while most descendants of the Mestizo de Sangley Chinese Mestizo despite assuming many of the important roles in the economic social and political life of the nation would readily assimilate into the fabric of Philippine society or sometimes falsely claim Spanish descent due to this situation Term DefinitionPeninsulares Person of pure Spanish descent born in Spain from the Iberian Peninsula Americano Person of Criollo either pure or majority Spanish descent Castizo 3 4 Spanish 1 4 Native American or Mestizo 1 2 Spanish 1 2 Native American descent born in Spanish America from the Americas Filipino Insulares Person of pure Spanish descent born in the Philippines from the Philippine Islands Mestizo de Espanol Person of mixed Spanish and native Austronesian descent Tornatras Person of mixed Spanish and Chinese descent or mixed Spanish Chinese and native Austronesian descent Mestizo de Sangley Person of mixed Chinese with native Austronesian and Japanese descent Mestizo de Bombay Person of mixed Indian and native Austronesian descent Indio Christianized Person of pure native Austronesian descent who was Christianized usually under the Spanish missionaries of the Catholic Church Sangley Chino Christianized Person of pure Chinese descent who was Christianized usually by the Spanish missionaries of the Catholic Church Indio Unchristianized Person of pure native Austronesian descent who was not Christianized Sangley Chino Unchristianized Person of pure Chinese descent who was not Christianized Negrito Person of pure indigenous pre Austronesian descent such as the Aeta Ati Batak Mamanwa etc Moro Person of pure native Austronesian descent who were Islamized Marcelo Azcarraga Palmero the only Spanish prime minister of mestizo Filipino descent People classified as blancos whites were the insulares or Filipinos a person born in the Philippines of pure Spanish descent peninsulares a person born in Spain of pure Spanish descent Espanol mestizos a person born in the Philippines of mixed Austronesian and Spanish ancestry and tornatras a person born in the Philippines of mixed Austronesian Chinese and Spanish ancestry Manila was racially segregated with blancos living in the walled city of Intramuros un Christianized sangleys in Parian Christianized sangleys and mestizos de sangley in Binondo and the rest of the 7 000 islands for the indios with the exception of Cebu and several other Spanish posts Only mestizos de sangley were allowed to enter Intramuros to work for whites including mestizos de espanol as servants and various occupations needed for the colony Indio were native Austronesians but as a legal classification Indio were those who embraced Roman Catholicism and Austronesians who lived in proximity to the Spanish colonies citation needed Manuel L Quezon was the Philippine President during the Commonwealth era People who lived outside Manila Cebu and the major Spanish posts were classified as such Naturales were Catholic Austronesians of the lowland and coastal towns The un Catholic Negritos and Austronesians who lived in the towns were classified as salvajes savages or infieles the unfaithful Remontados Spanish for situated in the mountains and tulisanes bandits were indigenous Austronesians and Negritos who refused to live in towns and took to the hills all of whom were considered to live outside the social order as Catholicism was a driving force in Spanish colonials everyday life as well as determining social class in the colony People of pure Spanish descent living in the Philippines who were born in Spanish America were classified as americanos Mestizos and africanos born in Spanish America living in the Philippines kept their legal classification as such and usually came as indentured servants to the americanos The Philippine born children of americanos were classified as Ins The Philippine born children of mestizos and Africanos from Spanish America were classified based on patrilineal descent A mestiza de sangley woman in a photograph by Francisco Van Camp c 1875 The term negrito was coined by the Spaniards based on their appearance The word negrito would be misinterpreted and used by future European scholars as an ethnoracial term in and of itself Both Christianized negritos who lived in the colony and un Christianized negritos who lived in tribes outside the colony were classified as negritos Christianized negritos who lived in Manila were not allowed to enter Intramuros and lived in areas designated for indios A person of mixed Negrito and Austronesian ancestry were classified based on patrilineal descent the father s ancestry determined a child s legal classification If the father was negrito and the mother was India Austronesian the child was classified as negrito If the father was indio and the mother was negrita the child was classified as indio Persons of Negrito descent were viewed as being outside the social order as they usually lived in tribes outside the colony and resisted conversion to Christianity This legal system of racial classification based on patrilineal descent had no parallel anywhere in the Spanish ruled colonies in the Americas In general a son born of a sangley male and an indio or mestizo de sangley female was classified as mestizo de sangley all subsequent male descendants were mestizos de sangley regardless of whether they married an India or a mestiza de sangley A daughter born in such a manner however acquired the legal classification of her husband i e she became an India if she married an indio but remained a mestiza de sangley if she married a mestizo de sangley or a sangley In this way a chino mestizo male descendant of a paternal sangley ancestor never lost his legal status as a mestizo de sangley no matter how little percentage of Chinese blood he had in his veins or how many generations had passed since his first Chinese ancestor he was thus a mestizo de sangley in perpetuity However a mestiza de sangley who married a blanco Filipino mestizo de espanol peninsular or americano kept her status as mestiza de sangley But her children were classified as tornatras An India who married a blanco also kept her status as India but her children were classified as mestizo de espanol A mestiza de espanol who married another blanco would keep her status as mestiza but her status will never change from mestiza de espanol if she married a mestizo de espanol Filipino or peninsular In contrast a mestizo de sangley or espanol man s status stayed the same regardless of whom he married If a mestizo de sangley or espanol married a filipina woman of pure Spanish descent she would lose her status as a filipina and would acquire the legal status of her husband and become a mestiza de espanol or sangley If a filipina married an indio her legal status would change to India despite being of pure Spanish descent The social stratification system based on class that continues to this day in the country had its beginnings in the Spanish colonial area with a discriminating caste system 152 The Spanish colonizers reserved the term Filipino to refer to Spaniards born in the Philippines The use of the term was later extended to include Spanish and Chinese mestizos or those born of mixed Chinese indio or Spanish indio descent Late in the 19th century Jose Rizal popularized the use of the term Filipino to refer to all those born in the Philippines including the Indios 153 When ordered to sign the notification of his death sentence which described him as a Chinese mestizo Rizal refused He went to his death saying that he was indio puro 154 153 After the Philippines independence from Spain in 1898 and the word Filipino officially expanded to include the entire population of the Philippines regardless of racial ancestry as per the Philippine Nationality Law and as described by Wenceslao Retana s Diccionario de filipinismos where he defined Filipinos as follows 68 todos los nacidos en Filipinas sin distincion de origen ni de raza All those born in the Philippines without distinction of origin or race Wenceslao E Retana Diccionario De Filipinismos Con La Revision De Lo Que Al Respecto Lleva Publicado La Real Academia Espanola Native Filipinos as illustrated in the Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas 1734 A Spaniard and Criollo talking while Indios are cockfight with Aetas in the background detail from Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas Mestizo de luto A Native Filipino Mestizo by Jose Honorato Lozano Native riding a horse by Jose Honorato Lozano Cuadrillero by Jose Honorato Lozano A Gobernadorcillo mostly of Indio descent Painting by Jose Honorato Lozano Sangley Pancit vendor by Jose Honorato Lozano Damian Domingo A mestizo de Sangley soldier and artist Filipino couple in Tampuhan by Juan Luna Typical costume of a Principalia family of the late 19th century Exhibit in the Villa Escudero Museum San Pablo Laguna Philippines Filipino members of Knights of ColumbusOrigins and genetic studies EditSee also Models of migration to the Philippines Demographics of the Philippines and Ethnic groups in the Philippines Migration of the Austronesian peoples and their languages 155 The aboriginal settlers of the Philippines were primarily Negrito groups Negritos today comprise a small minority of the nation s overall population and received significant geneflow from Austronesian groups as well as an even earlier Basal East Asian group while the modern Austronesian speaking majority population does not or only marginally show evidence for admixture and cluster closely with other East Southeast Asian people 156 157 The majority population of Filipinos are Austronesians a linguistic and genetic group whose historical ties lay in maritime Southeast Asia and southern East Asia but through ancient migrations can be found as indigenous peoples stretching as far east as the Pacific islands and as far west as Madagascar off the coast of Africa 158 159 The current predominant theory on Austronesian expansion holds that Austronesians settled the Philippine islands through successive southward and eastward seaborne migrations from the Neolithic Austronesian populations of Taiwan 160 Other hypotheses have also been put forward based on linguistic archeological and genetic studies These include an origin from mainland South China linking them to the Liangzhu culture and the Tapengkeng culture later displaced or assimilated by the expansion of speakers of Sino Tibetan languages 161 162 an in situ origin from the Sundaland continental shelf prior to the sea level rise at the end of the last glacial period c 10 000 BC 163 164 or a combination of the two the Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network hypothesis which advocates cultural diffusion rather than a series of linear migrations 165 Generalized Anthropology Study Edit A research paper which claims to be a useful aid to biological anthropology published in the Journal of Forensic Anthropology collating contemporary Anthropological cranial data showed that the percentage of Filipino bodies who were sampled from the University of the Philippines that were curated to be representative of Filipinos that is phenotypically classified as Asian East South and Southeast Asian is 72 7 Hispanic Spanish Amerindian Mestizo Latin American or Spanish Malay Mestizo is at 12 7 Indigenous American Native American at 7 3 African at 4 5 and European at 2 7 166 Genetics Edit Main article Genetic studies on Filipinos The results of a massive DNA study conducted by the National Geographic s The Genographic Project based on genetic testings of 80 000 Filipino people by the National Geographic in 2008 2009 found that the average Filipino s genes are around 53 Southeast Asia and Oceania 36 East Asian 5 Southern European 3 South Asian and 2 Native American 167 While other studies show that the majority of Filipinos have no admixture and are only Asian in origin 168 Dental morphology Edit Dental morphology provides clues to prehistoric migration patterns of the Philippines with Sinodont dental patterns occurring in East Asia Central Asia North Asia and the Americas Sundadont patterns occur in Southeast Asia as well as the bulk of Oceania 169 Filipinos exhibit Sundadonty 169 170 and are regarded as having a more generalised dental morphology and having a longer ancestry than its offspring Sinodonty Historic reports Edit Published in 1849 The Catalogo Alfabetico de Apellidos contains 141 pages of surnames with both Spanish and Hispanicized indigenous roots Authored by Spanish Governor General Narciso Claveria y Zaldua and Domingo Abella the catalog was created in response to the Decree of November 21 1849 which gave every Filipino a surname from the book The decree in the Philippines was created to fulfill a Spanish colonial decree that sought to address colonial subjects who did not have a last name This explains why most Filipinos share the same surnames as many Hispanics today without having Spanish ancestry Current immigration Edit Main article Immigration to the Philippines Recent studies during 2015 record around 220 000 to 600 000 American citizens living in the country 171 There are also 250 000 Amerasians across Angeles City Manila Clark and Olongapo 172 Languages EditMain articles Languages of the Philippines and Philippine languages The indigenous native Philippine languages spoken around the country that have the largest number of speakers in a particular region with Tagalog being the largest Note that on regions marked with black diamonds the language with the most speakers denotes a minority of the population Austronesian languages have been spoken in the Philippines for thousands of years According to a 2014 study by Mark Donohue of the Australian National University and Tim Denham of Monash University there is no linguistic evidence for an orderly north to south dispersal of the Austronesian languages from Taiwan through the Philippines and into Island Southeast Asia ISEA 163 Many adopted words from Sanskrit and Tamil were incorporated during the strong wave of Indian Hindu Buddhist cultural influence starting from the 5th century BC in common with its Southeast Asian neighbors Chinese languages were also commonly spoken among the traders of the archipelago However with the advent of Islam Arabic and Persian soon came to supplant Sanskrit and Tamil as holy languages Starting in the second half of the 16th century Spanish was the official language of the country for the more than three centuries that the islands were governed through Mexico City on behalf of the Spanish Empire In the 19th and early 20th centuries Spanish was the preferred language among Ilustrados and educated Filipinos in general Significant disagreements exist however on the extent Spanish use beyond that It has been argued that the Philippines were less hispanized than Canaries and America with Spanish only being adopted by the ruling class involved in civil and judicial administration and culture Spanish was the language of only approximately ten percent of the Philippine population when Spanish rule ended in 1898 173 As a lingua franca or creole language of Filipinos major languages of the country like Chavacano Cebuano Tagalog Kapampangan Pangasinan Bikol Hiligaynon Waray Waray and Ilocano assimilated many different words and expressions from Castilian Spanish Chavacano is the only Spanish based creole language in Asia Its vocabulary is 90 percent Spanish and the remaining 10 percent is a mixture of predominantly Portuguese Hiligaynon and some English Chavacano is considered by the Instituto Cervantes to be a Spanish based language 174 failed verification In sharp contrast another view is that the ratio of the population which spoke Spanish as their mother tongue in the last decade of Spanish rule was 10 or 14 175 An additional 60 is said to have spoken Spanish as a second language until World War II but this is also disputed as to whether this percentage spoke kitchen Spanish which was used as marketplace lingua compared to those who were actual fluent Spanish speakers 175 In 1863 a Spanish decree introduced universal education creating free public schooling in Spanish yet it was never implemented even before the advent of American annexation 176 It was also the language of the Philippine Revolution and the 1899 Malolos Constitution proclaimed it as the official language of the First Philippine Republic albeit a temporary official language Spanish continued to be the predominant lingua franca used in the islands by the elite class before and during the American colonial regime Following the American occupation of the Philippines and the imposition of English the overall use of Spanish declined gradually especially after the 1940s According to Ethnologue there are about 180 languages spoken in the Philippines 177 The 1987 Constitution of the Philippines imposed the Filipino language 178 179 as the national language and designates it along with English as one of the official languages Regional languages are designated as auxiliary official languages The constitution also provides that Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis 180 Other Philippine languages in the country with at least 1 000 000 native and indigenous speakers include Cebuano Ilocano Hiligaynon Waray Central Bikol Kapampangan Pangasinan Chavacano Spanish based creole Albay Bikol Maranao Maguindanao Kinaray a Tausug Surigaonon Masbateno Aklanon and Ibanag The 28 letter modern Filipino alphabet adopted in 1987 is the official writing system In addition each ethnicity s language has their own writing scripts and set of alphabets many of which are no longer used 181 Religion EditMain article Religion in the Philippines Devotees flock to the Basilica Minore del Santo Nino during the novena Masses According to National Statistics Office NSO as of 2010 over 92 of the population were Christians with 80 6 professing Roman Catholicism 182 The latter was introduced by the Spanish beginning in 1521 and during their 300 year colonization of the islands they managed to convert a vast majority of Filipinos resulting in the Philippines becoming the largest Catholic country in Asia There are also large groups of Protestant denominations which either grew or were founded following the disestablishment of the Catholic Church during the American Colonial period The Iglesia ni Cristo is currently the single largest church whose headquarters is in the Philippines followed by United Church of Christ in the Philippines The Iglesia Filipina Independiente also known as the Aglipayan Church was an earlier development and is a national church directly resulting from the 1898 Philippine Revolution Other Christian groups such as the Victory Church 183 Jesus Miracle Crusade Mormonism Orthodoxy and the Jehovah s Witnesses have a visible presence in the country The second largest religion in the country is Islam estimated in 2014 update to account for 5 to 8 of the population 184 Islam in the Philippines is mostly concentrated in southwestern Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago which though part of the Philippines are very close to the neighboring Islamic countries of Malaysia and Indonesia The Muslims call themselves Moros a Spanish word that refers to the Moors albeit the two groups have little cultural connection other than Islam Historically ancient Filipinos held animist religions that were influenced by Hinduism and Buddhism which were brought by traders from neighbouring Asian states These indigenous Philippine folk religions continue to be present among the populace with some communities such as the Aeta Igorot and Lumad having some strong adherents and some who mix beliefs originating from the indigenous religions with beliefs from Christianity or Islam 185 186 As of 2013 update religious groups together constituting less than five percent of the population included Sikhism Hinduism Buddhism Seventh day Adventists United Church of Christ United Methodists the Episcopal Church in the Philippines Assemblies of God The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints Mormons and Philippine Southern Baptists and the following domestically established churches Iglesia ni Cristo Church of Christ Philippine Independent Church Aglipayan Members Church of God International and The Kingdom of Jesus Christ the Name Above Every Name In addition there are Lumad who are indigenous peoples of various animistic and syncretic religions 187 Diaspora EditMain article Overseas Filipinos Further information Filipinos in the New York metropolitan area and Filipinos in Hawaii Spectators at the annual Philippine Independence Day Parade on Madison Avenue in Manhattan New York City There are currently more than 10 million Filipinos who live overseas Filipinos form a minority ethnic group in the Americas Europe Oceania 188 189 the Middle East and other regions of the world There are an estimated four million Americans of Filipino ancestry in the United States and more than 300 000 American citizens in the Philippines 190 According to the U S Census Bureau immigrants from the Philippines made up the second largest group after Mexico that sought family reunification 191 Filipinos make up over a third of the entire population of the Northern Marianas Islands an American territory in the North Pacific Ocean and a large proportion of the populations of Guam Palau the British Indian Ocean Territory and Sabah 189 failed verification See also Edit Philippines portalSpanish Filipino Chinese Filipino Filipino AmericansReferences Edit Urban Population in the Philippines Results of the 2015 Census of Population Release Date 21 March 2019 Philippine Statistics Authority Total population 100 573 715 in 2015 per detail in TABLE 1 Population Enumerated in Various Censuses by Region 1960 2015 Times Asia September 2 2019 Asia Times Duterte s golden age comes into clearer view Article Asia Times a b Remittances from Filipinos abroad reach 2 9 bln USD in August 2019 Xinhua English news cn www xinhuanet com Archived from the original on October 15 2019 Reported as Filipino alone or in any combination in The Asian Population 2010 PDF 2010 Census Briefs census gov Distribution on Filipinos Overseas Statistics Canada October 25 2017 Ethnic Origin both sexes age total Canada 2016 Census 25 Sample data Retrieved May 18 2018 Know Your Diaspora United Arab Emirates Positively Filipino Online Magazine for Filipinos in the Diaspora Retrieved December 21 2017 Aguilar Krissy April 1 2020 2 Filipinos in Japan may be COVID 19 positive says PH Embassy INQUIRER net No foreign workers layoffs in Malaysia INQUIRER net Philippine News for Filipinos February 9 2009 Archived from the original on February 9 2009 Retrieved December 21 2017 Davies Krish April 9 2019 Qatar Population and Expat Nationalities OnlineQatar 2016 Census QuickStats Australia www censusdata abs gov au Gostoli Ylenia Coronavirus Filipino front line workers pay ultimate price in UK www aljazeera com OFW Statistics Philippines Philippine Overseas Employment Administration February 8 2013 archived from the original on April 23 2014 retrieved April 28 2014 Demographic Balance and Resident Population by sex and citizenship on 31st December 2017 Istat it June 13 2018 Retrieved June 14 2018 2021 12Foreign Residents by Nationality ods in Chinese National Immigration Agency Ministry of the Interior Taiwan January 25 2021 Archived from the original on October 19 2022 Retrieved October 19 2022 資料截止日期 2021年11月30日 J95 K95 PHILIPPINES Male 58 229 Female 88 663 immigration gov tw list of statistics 2021 12Foreign Residents by Nationality Filipinos in Hong Kong Hong Kong Bureau of Statistics Retrieved June 30 2009 PGMA meets members of Filipino community in Spain Gov Ph Retrieved July 1 2006 dead link German ambassador helping Philippines from sidelines The Manila Times March 12 2008 Archived from the original on June 20 2009 Filipinos in South Korea Korean Culture and Information Service KOIS Retrieved July 21 2009 Les nouveaux Miserables the lives of Filipina workers in the playground of the rich theguardian com October 12 2020 Retrieved September 14 2021 cites data from Commission on Filipinos Overseas Stock estimate of overseans Filipinos As of December 2013 xlsx Ethnic group profiles Overview of RP Bahrain Relations Republic of The Philippines Embassy of The Philippines Manama Bahrain in English and Filipino July 19 2021 Retrieved July 25 2021 Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics Imigrantes internacionais registrados no Brasil www nepo unicamp br Retrieved August 20 2021 Population sex age generation and migration background 1 January Statline cbs nl September 17 2021 Retrieved February 21 2022 Amojelar Darwin G April 26 2013 Papua New Guinea thumbs down Philippine request for additional flights Archived April 27 2013 at the Wayback Machine InterAksyon com Retrieved July 28 2013 Vapattanawong Patama chawtangchatiinemuxngithyepnikhrbang Foreigners in Thailand PDF Institute for Population and Social Research Mahidol University in Thai Retrieved December 25 2017 Macau Population Census Census Bureau of Macau May 2012 Retrieved July 22 2016 pinoys sweden protest impending embassy closure ABS CBN com February 29 2012 CSO Emigration PDF Census Office Ireland Retrieved January 29 2013 Statistic Austria 8 Folkemengde etter norsk utenlandsk statsborgerskap og landbakgrunn 1 januar 2009 Statistisk sentralbyra Statistics Norway Archived from the original on May 15 2009 Retrieved February 3 2014 President Aquino to meet Filipino community in Beijing Ang Kalatas Australia August 30 2011 Archived from the original on May 25 2017 Retrieved April 6 2013 Backgrounder Overseas Filipinos in Switzerland Office of the Press Secretary 2007 Archived from the original on September 7 2008 Retrieved October 23 2009 Welcome to Embassy of Kazakhstan in Malaysia Website Archived November 11 2013 at the Wayback Machine Kazembassy org my Retrieved July 28 2013 Tan Lesley June 6 2006 A tale of two states Cebu Daily News Archived from the original on February 22 2013 Retrieved April 11 2008 Statistical Yearbook of Greece 2009 amp 2010 PDF Hellenic Statistical Authority Archived from the original PDF on December 13 2013 Retrieved September 9 2014 11rv Syntypera ja taustamaa sukupuolen mukaan kunnittain 1990 2018 No Filipino casualty in Turkey quake DFA GMA News August 3 2010 Manila and Moscow Inch Closer to Labour Agreement May 6 2012 Retrieved December 19 2009 Backgrounder The Filipinos in Indonesia Office of the Press Secretary 2001 Archived from the original on April 15 2008 Retrieved October 7 2008 People Filipino The Joshua Project https www eso ky UserFiles right page docums files uploads chapter 10 labour force and employment xlsx bare URL spreadsheet file Filipinos in Belgium Philippine Embassy in Belgium Retrieved January 10 2014 Stock Estimate of Overseas Filipinos PDF Commission on Filipinos Overseas December 2012 Retrieved January 10 2014 The Philippines To Sign Agreement with Morocco to Protect Filipino workers Morocco World News Filipinos in Iceland Iceland Review Online Archived from the original on December 3 2012 Retrieved March 25 2013 Filipinos in Finland Finnish Philippine Society co operates with the migrant organizations Archived from the original on May 1 2013 Retrieved March 25 2013 Table 1 10 Household Population by Religious Affiliation and by Sex 2010 PDF 2015 Philippine Statistical Yearbook 1 30 October 2015 ISSN 0118 1564 Retrieved August 15 2016 The 1987 Constitution of the Philippines Official Gazette Government of the Philippines Preamble We the sovereign Filipino people Filipino Online Etymology Dictionary Retrieved February 3 2014 a b c d e f g h i Scott William Henry 1994 Introduction Barangay sixteenth century Philippine culture and society Ateneo de Manila University Press pp 6 7 ISBN 978 971 550 135 4 OCLC 32930303 Seijas Tatiana Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico 2014 Cambridge University Press Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico Cambridge University Press Retrieved January 2 2023 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint url status link Cruz Elfren S July 29 2018 From indio to Filipino PhilStar Global Retrieved November 30 2020 Seijas Tatiana Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico 2014 Cambridge University Press Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico Cambridge University Press Retrieved January 2 2023 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint url status link Jubair Salah 1997 A nation under endless tyranny Islamic Research Academy p 10 OCLC 223003865 a b c Aguilar Filomeno V 2005 Tracing Origins Ilustrado Nationalism and the Racial Science of Migration Waves The Journal of Asian 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Tarver Ph D Emily Slape 2016 The Spanish Empire A Historical Encyclopedia 2 volumes A Historical Encyclopedia ABC CLIO pp 217 219 ISBN 978 1 61069 422 3 Ocampo Ambeth R 1995 Bonifacio s bolo Anvil Pub p 21 ISBN 978 971 27 0418 5 Luis H Francia 2013 3 From Indio to Filipino Emergence of a Nation 1863 1898 History of the Philippines From Indios Bravos to Filipinos ABRAMS ISBN 978 1 4683 1545 5 Rolando M Gripaldo 2001 Filipino Philosophy A Critical Bibliography 1774 1997 De la Salle University Press E book 16 note 1 a b Retana Wenceslao E 1921 Diccionario de filipinismos con la revision de lo que al respecto lleva publicado la Real academia espanola New York Wentworth Press Blair Emma Helen 1915 The Philippine Islands 1493 1898 Relating to China and the Chinese Vol 23 A H Clark Company pp 85 87 Filipinx Pinxy among new nonbinary words in online dictionary September 7 2020 Retrieved April 3 2021 Leave the Filipinx Kids Alone September 7 2020 Retrieved April 3 2021 Filipino or Filipinx September 15 2020 Retrieved April 3 2021 Welch Michael Patrick October 27 2014 NOLA Filipino History Stretches for Centuries New Orleans amp Me New Orleans WWNO Archived from the original on January 18 2021 Retrieved July 4 2019 Aguilar Filomeno V November 2012 Manilamen and seafaring engaging the maritime world beyond the Spanish realm Journal of Global History 7 3 364 388 doi 10 1017 S1740022812000241 Catholic Church United States Conference of Catholic Bishops December 2001 Asian and Pacific Presence Harmony in Faith United States Conference of Catholic Bishops p 8 ISBN 978 1 57455 449 6 Pang Valerie Ooka Cheng Li Rong Lilly 1999 Struggling to be heard the Unmet Needs of Asian Pacific American Children NetLibrary Inc p 287 ISBN 0 585 07571 9 OCLC 1053003694 Holt Thomas Cleveland Green Laurie B Wilson Charles Reagan October 21 2013 Pacific Worlds and the South The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture Race 24 120 ISBN 978 1469607245 Westbrook Laura Mabuhay Pilipino Long Life Filipino Culture in Southeast Louisiana Folklife in Louisiana Retrieved May 23 2020 Re imagining Australia Voices of Indigenous Australians of Filipino Descent Western Australian Museum Government of Western Australia Retrieved November 30 2020 Ruiz Wall Deborah Choo Christine 2016 Re imagining Australia Voices of Indigenous Australians of Filipino Descent Keeaira Press ISBN 9780992324155 Wade Lizzie April 12 2018 Latin America s lost histories revealed in modern DNA Science Retrieved November 4 2020 Seijas Tatiana 2014 Asian slaves in colonial Mexico from chinos to Indians New York NY Cambridge University Press ISBN 9781107477841 Detroit Florent Mijares Armand Salvador Corny Julien Daver Guillaume Zanolli Clement Dizon Eusebio Robles Emil Grun Rainer Piper Philip J April 2019 A new species of Homo from the Late Pleistocene of the Philippines PDF Nature 568 7751 181 186 Bibcode 2019Natur 568 181D doi 10 1038 s41586 019 1067 9 PMID 30971845 S2CID 106411053 Henderson Barney August 3 2010 Archaeologists unearth 67000 year old human bone in Philippines The Daily Telegraph UK Archived from the original on September 15 2012 Scott 1984 pp 14 15 The Tabon Cave Complex and all of Lipuun UNESCO World Heritage Convention Tentative Lists UNESCO Retrieved July 22 2022 Detroit Florent Corny Julien Dizon Eusebio Z Mijares Armand S June 2013 Small Size in the Philippine Human Fossil Record Is it Meaningful for a Better Understanding of the Evolutionary History of the Negritos Human Biology 85 1 3 45 66 doi 10 3378 027 085 0303 PMID 24297220 S2CID 24057857 Jinam Timothy A Phipps Maude E Aghakhanian Farhang Majumder Partha P Datar Francisco Stoneking Mark Sawai Hiromi Nishida Nao Tokunaga Katsushi Kawamura Shoji Omoto Keiichi Saitou Naruya August 2017 Discerning the Origins of the Negritos First Sundaland People Deep Divergence and Archaic Admixture Genome Biology and Evolution 9 8 2013 2022 doi 10 1093 gbe evx118 PMC 5597900 PMID 28854687 a b c Background note Philippines U S Department of State Diplomacy in Action Retrieved February 3 2014 Larena Maximilian Sanchez Quinto Federico Sjodin Per McKenna James Ebeo Carlo Reyes Rebecca Casel Ophelia Huang Jin Yuan Hagada Kim Pullupul Guilay Dennis Reyes Jennelyn Allian Fatima Pir Mori Virgilio Azarcon Lahaina Sue Manera Alma Terando Celito Jamero Lucio Sireg Gauden Manginsay Tremedal Renefe Labos Maria Shiela Vilar Richard Dian Latiph Acram Saway Rodelio Linsahay Marte Erwin Magbanua Pablito Morales Amor Java Ismael Reveche Rudy Barrios Becky Burton Erlinda Salon Jesus Christopher Kels Ma Junaliah Tuazon Albano Adrian Cruz Angeles Rose Beatrix Molanida Edison Granehall Lena Vicente Mario Edlund Hanna Loo Jun Hun Trejaut Jean Ho Simon Y W Reid Lawrence Malmstrom Helena Schlebusch Carina Lambeck Kurt Endicott Phillip Jakobsson Mattias March 30 2021 Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50 000 years Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118 13 e2026132118 Bibcode 2021PNAS 11826132L doi 10 1073 pnas 2026132118 PMC 8020671 PMID 33753512 Lipson Mark Loh Po Ru Patterson Nick Moorjani Priya Ko Ying Chin Stoneking Mark Berger Bonnie Reich David 2014 Reconstructing Austronesian population history in Island Southeast Asia PDF Nature Communications 5 1 4689 Bibcode 2014NatCo 5 4689L doi 10 1038 ncomms5689 PMC 4143916 PMID 25137359 Spriggs Matthew May 2011 Archaeology and the Austronesian expansion where are we now Antiquity 85 328 510 528 doi 10 1017 S0003598X00067910 S2CID 162491927 Mijares Armand Salvador B 2006 The Early Austronesian Migration To Luzon Perspectives From The Penablanca Cave Sites Bulletin of the Indo Pacific Prehistory Association 26 72 78 Archived from the original on July 7 2014 a b Peter Bellwood James J Fox Darrell Tryon eds 2006 The Austronesians Historical and Comparative Perspectives ANU E Press ISBN 9781920942854 Melton Terry Clifford Stephanie Martinson Jeremy Batzer Mark Stoneking Mark December 1998 Genetic Evidence for the Proto Austronesian Homeland in Asia mtDNA and Nuclear DNA Variation in Taiwanese Aboriginal Tribes The American Journal of Human Genetics 63 6 1807 1823 doi 10 1086 302131 PMC 1377653 PMID 9837834 Blust Robert A 2013 The Austronesian languages Asia Pacific Linguistics Australian National University hdl 1885 10191 ISBN 9781922185075 Bhopal Raj December 22 2007 The beautiful skull and Blumenbach s errors the birth of the scientific concept of race BMJ 335 7633 1308 1309 doi 10 1136 bmj 39413 463958 80 PMC 2151154 PMID 18156242 Ross M 1996 On the Origin of the Term Malayo Polynesian Oceanic Linguistics 35 1 143 145 doi 10 2307 3623036 JSTOR 3623036 Acabado Stephen Martin Marlon Lauer Adam J 2014 Rethinking history conserving heritage archaeology and community engagement in Ifugao Philippines PDF The SAA Archaeological Record 13 17 Lasco Gideon December 28 2017 Waves of migration Philippine Daily Inquirer Retrieved June 19 2019 Palatino Mong February 27 2013 Are Filipinos Malays The Diplomat Retrieved June 19 2019 Curaming Rommel 2011 The Filipino as Malay historicizing an identity In Mohamad Maznah Aljunied Syed Muhamad Khairudin eds Melayu Politics Poetics and Paradoxes of Race Singapore University Press pp 241 274 ISBN 9789971695552 About Pasay History Kingdom of Namayan Pasay City Government website City Government of Pasay Archived from the original on November 20 2007 Retrieved February 5 2008 Huerta Felix de 1865 Estado Geografico Topografico Estadistico Historico Religioso de la Santa y Apostolica Provincia de San Gregorio Magno Binondo Imprenta de M Sanchez y Compania Remains of ancient barangays in many parts of Iloilo testify to the antiquity and richness of these pre colonial settlements Pre Hispanic burial grounds are found in many towns of Iloilo These burial grounds contained antique porcelain burial jars and coffins made of hard wood where the dead were put to rest with abundance of gold crystal beads Chinese potteries and golden masks These Philippine national treasures are sheltered in Museo de Iloilo and in the collections of many Ilongo old families Early Spanish colonizers took note of the ancient civilizations in Iloilo and their organized social structure ruled by nobilities In the late 16th century Fray Gaspar de San Agustin in his chronicles about the ancient settlements in Panay says Tambien fundo convento el Padre Fray Martin de Rada en Araut que ahora se llama el convento de Dumangas con la advocacion de nuestro Padre San Agustin Esta fundado este pueblo casi a los fines del rio de Halaur que naciendo en unos altos montes en el centro de esta isla Panay Es el pueblo muy hermoso ameno y muy lleno de palmares de cocos Antiguamente era el emporio y corte de la mas lucida nobleza de toda aquella isla Gaspar de San Agustin O S A Conquistas de las Islas Filipinas 1565 1615 Manuel Merino O S A ed Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas Madrid 1975 pp 374 375 Arab and native intermarriage in Austronesian Asia ColorQ World Retrieved December 24 2008 Philippine History by Maria Christine N Halili Chapter 3 Precolonial Philippines Published by Rex Bookstore Manila Sampaloc St Year 2004 The Kingdom of Namayan and Maytime Fiesta in Sta Ana of new Manila Traveler On Foot self published l journal Volume 5 Archived October 10 2017 at the Wayback Machine of A study of the Eastern and Western Oceans Japanese 東西洋考 mentions that Luzon first sent tribute to Yongle Emperor in 1406 Akeanon Online Aton Guid Ra Aklan History Part 3 Confederation of Madyaas Akeanon com March 27 2008 Retrieved January 2 2010 Sultanate of Sulu The Unconquered Kingdom Archived from the original on December 1 2008 Munoz Paul Michel 2006 Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula Editions Didier Millet p 171 ISBN 9799814155679 Background Note Brunei Darussalam U S State Department tribal groups Mangyan Heritage Center Archived from the original on February 13 2008 Tarling Nicholas 1999 The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia Cambridge Cambridge University Press p 149 ISBN 978 0 521 66370 0 VIIeme Congres d Etudes Basques Eusko Ikaskuntzaren VII Kongresua VII Congreso de Estudios Vascos Donostia San Sebastian Eusko Ikaskuntza 2003 ISBN 84 8419 917 7 OCLC 60787017 Rodao Florentino The Spanish Community in the Philippines 1935 1939 Department of Area Studies the University of Tokyo Charles C Mann 2011 1493 Uncovering the New World Columbus Created Random House Digital pp 149 150 ISBN 978 0 307 59672 7 Brook Timothy 1998 The Confusions of Pleasure Commerce and Culture in Ming China Berkeley University of California Press p 205 ISBN 0 520 21091 3 Chirot Daniel Reid Anthony 1997 Essential Outsiders Chinese and Jews in the Modern Transformation of Southeast Asia and Central Europe University of Washington Press p 54 ISBN 9780295800264 Tan Antonio S 1986 The Chinese Mestizos and the Formation of the Filipino Nationality Archipel 32 141 162 doi 10 3406 arch 1986 2316 via Persee Chirot Daniel Reid Anthony 1997 Essential Outsiders Chinese and Jews in the Modern Transformation of Southeast Asia and Central Europe University of Washington Press p 50 ISBN 9780295800264 a b Chua Amy 2003 World On Fire Knopf Doubleday Publishing p 3 ISBN 978 0385721868 a b Chua Amy 2003 World On Fire Knopf Doubleday Publishing p 6 ISBN 978 0385721868 Gambe Annabelle 2000 Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia Palgrave Macmillan p 33 ISBN 978 0312234966 a b Folk Brian 2003 Ethnic Business Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia Routledge p 93 ISBN 978 1138811072 a b Chirot Daniel Reid Anthony October 2011 Essential Outsiders Chinese and Jews in the Modern Transformation of Southeast Asia and Central Europe ISBN 9780295800264 Retrieved May 6 2012 via Google Books Leupp Gary P 2003 Interracial Intimacy in Japan Continuum International Publishing Group pp 52 3 ISBN 978 0 8264 6074 5 Tracy Nicholas 1995 Manila Ransomed The British Assault on Manila in the Seven Years War University of Exeter Press p 109 ISBN 978 0 85989 426 5 ISBN 0 85989 426 6 ISBN 978 0 85989 426 5 Peasants Servants and Sojourners Itinerant Asians in Colonial New Spain 1571 1720 By Furlong Matthew J Slaves purchased by the indigenous elites Spanish and Hokkiens of the colony seemed drawn most often from South Asia particularly Bengal and South India and less so from other sources such as East Africa Brunei Makassar and Java Chapter 2 Rural Ethnic Diversity Page 164 Translated from Inmaculada Alva Rodriguez Vida municipal en Manila siglos xvi xvii Cordoba Universidad de Cordoba 1997 31 35 36 a b Intercolonial Intimacies Relinking Latin o America to the Philippines 1898 1964 Paula C Park Page 100 Garcia Maria Fernanda 1998 Forzados y reclutas los criollos novohispanos en Asia 1756 1808 Bolotin Archivo General de la Nacion 4 11 Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society Vol 22 No 2 June 1994 pp 82 Hedman Eva Lotta Sidel John 2005 Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century Colonial Legacies Post Colonial Trajectories Routledge p 71 ISBN 978 1 134 75421 2 Retrieved July 30 2020 Steinberg David Joel 2018 Chapter 3 A SINGULAR AND A PLURAL FOLK THE PHILIPPINES A Singular and a Plural Place Routledge p 47 doi 10 4324 9780429494383 ISBN 978 0 8133 3755 5 The cultural identity of the mestizos was challenged as they became increasingly aware that they were true members of neither the indio nor the Chinese community Increasingly powerful but adrift they linked with the Spanish mestizos who were also being challenged because after the Latin American revolutions broke the Spanish Empire many of the settlers from the New World Caucasian Creoles born in Mexico or Peru became suspect in the eyes of the Iberian Spanish The Spanish Empire had lost its universality TRACING THE DECLINE OF THE MESTIZO CATEGORIES IN PHILIPPINE LIFE IN THE LATE 19TH CENTURY By Daniel F Doeppers Article 3 of the treaty specifically associated the 20 million payment with the transfer of the Philippines American Conquest of the Philippines War and Consequences Benevolent Assimilation and the 1899 PhilAm War oovrag com Retrieved February 3 2014 Burdeos Ray L 2008 Filipinos in the U S Navy amp Coast Guard During the Vietnam War AuthorHouse p 14 ISBN 978 1 4343 6141 7 Tucker Spencer 2009 The Encyclopedia of the Spanish American and Philippine American Wars A Political Social and Military History ABC CLIO p 478 ISBN 9781851099511 Burdeos 2008 p 14 The Philippines A History of Resistance and Assimilation voices cla umn edu Archived from the original on February 8 2006 Retrieved February 3 2014 Women and children militarism and human rights International Women s Working Conference Off Our Backs Find Articles at BNET com Archived from the original on February 3 2009 200 000 250 000 or More Military Filipino Amerasians Alive Today in Republic of the Philippines according to USA RP Joint Research Paper Finding PDF Amerasian Research Network Ltd Press release November 5 2012 Retrieved July 11 2016 Kutschera P C Caputi Marie A October 2012 The Case for Categorization of Military Filipino Amerasians as Diaspora PDF 9TH International Conference On the Philippines Michigan State University E Lansing MI Retrieved July 11 2016 Nolasco Clarita T September 1970 The Creoles in Spanish Philippines Far Eastern University Journal 15 1 amp 2 Abella Domingo 1978 From Indio to Filipino And Some Historical Works Milagros Romualdez Abella p 30 Wickberg E March 1964 The Chinese Mestizo in Philippine History PDF Journal of Southeast Asian History 5 63 doi 10 1017 S0217781100002222 hdl 1808 1129 via KU ScholarWorks Perdon Renato December 31 2013 The origin of Filipino Munting Nayon a b c Agoncillo Teodoro A 1960 History of the Filipino people Quezon City R P GARCIA Publishing Co p 130 ISBN 971 1024 15 2 Pepito Dr Rodello Insulares Spanish born in Insular areas Course Hero Tan Antonio S 1986 The Chinese Mestizos and the Formation of the Filipino Nationality Archipel 32 142 doi 10 3406 arch 1986 2316 via Persee WHITE LYNN T III 2018 PHILIPPINE POLITICS possibilities and problems in a localist democracy ROUTLEDGE pp 18 19 ISBN 978 1 138 49233 2 OCLC 1013594469 a b Owen Norman G 2014 Routledge Handbook of Southeast Asian History Routledge p 275 ISBN 978 1 135 01878 8 Delmendo Sharon 2005 The Star entangled Banner One Hundred Years of America in the Philippines UP Press p 28 ISBN 978 971 542 484 4 Chambers Geoff 2013 Genetics and the Origins of the Polynesians Encyclopedia of Life Sciences 20 Volume Set eLS John Wiley amp Sons Inc doi 10 1002 9780470015902 a0020808 pub2 ISBN 978 0470016176 Larena Maximilian McKenna James Sanchez Quinto Federico Bernhardsson Carolina Ebeo Carlo Reyes Rebecca Casel Ophelia Huang Jin Yuan Hagada Kim Pullupul Guilay Dennis Reyes Jennelyn October 11 2021 Philippine Ayta possess the highest level of Denisovan ancestry in the world Current Biology 31 19 4219 4230 e10 doi 10 1016 j cub 2021 07 022 ISSN 0960 9822 PMC 8596304 PMID 34388371 Larena Maximilian Sanchez Quinto Federico Sjodin Per McKenna James Ebeo Carlo Reyes Rebecca Casel Ophelia Huang Jin Yuan Hagada Kim Pullupul Guilay Dennis Reyes Jennelyn March 30 2021 Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50 000 years Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 118 13 e2026132118 Bibcode 2021PNAS 11826132L doi 10 1073 pnas 2026132118 ISSN 0027 8424 PMC 8020671 PMID 33753512 Luigi Luca Cavalli Sforza Alberto Piazza Paolo Menozzi Joanna Mountain 1988 Reconstruction of human evolution Bringing together genetic archaeological and linguistic data Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 85 16 6002 6006 Bibcode 1988PNAS 85 6002C doi 10 1073 pnas 85 16 6002 PMC 281893 PMID 3166138 Capelli Cristian Wilson James F Richards Martin 2001 A Predominantly Indigenous Paternal Heritage for the Austronesian speaking Peoples of Insular Southeast Asia and Oceania PDF American Journal of Human Genetics 68 2 432 443 doi 10 1086 318205 PMC 1235276 PMID 11170891 Archived from the original PDF on February 14 2010 Retrieved June 24 2007 Stephen J Marshall Adele L H Whyte J Frances Hamilton Geoffrey K Chambers1 2005 Austronesian prehistory and Polynesian genetics A molecular view of human migration across the Pacific PDF New Zealand Science Review 62 3 75 80 ISSN 0028 8667 Archived from the original PDF on April 25 2012 Albert Min Shan Ko Chung Yu Chen Qiaomei Fu Frederick Delfin Mingkun Li Hung Lin Chiu Mark Stoneking Ying Chin Ko 2014 Early Austronesians Into and Out Of Taiwan American Journal of Human Genetics 94 3 426 436 doi 10 1016 j ajhg 2014 02 003 PMC 3951936 PMID 24607387 Chuan Kun Ho 2002 Rethinking the Origins of Taiwan Austronesians PDF Proceedings of the International Symposium of Anthropological Studies at Fudan University 17 19 Archived from the original PDF on February 18 2015 a b Mark Donohue Tim Denham 2010 Farming and Language in Island Southeast Asia Current Anthropology 51 2 223 256 doi 10 1086 650991 S2CID 4815693 New DNA evidence overturns population migration theory in Island Southeast Asia Phys org May 23 2008 Retrieved February 3 2014 Wilhelm G Solheim II 2002 The Pre Sa Huynh Kalanay Pottery of Taiwan and Southeast Asia Hukay 13 39 66 Go MC Jones AR Algee Hewitt B Dudzik B Hughes C 2019 Classification Trends among Contemporary Filipino Crania Using Fordisc 3 1 Human Biology University of Florida Press 2 4 1 11 doi 10 5744 fa 2019 1005 Retrieved September 13 2020 Page 1 ABSTRACT Filipinos represent a significant contemporary demographic group globally yet they are underrepresented in the forensic anthropological literature Given the complex population history of the Philippines it is important to ensure that traditional methods for assessing the biological profile are appropriate when applied to these peoples Here we analyze the classification trends of a modern Filipino sample n 110 when using the Fordisc 3 1 FD3 software We hypothesize that Filipinos represent an admixed population drawn largely from Asian and marginally from European parental gene pools such that FD3 will classify these individuals morphometrically into reference samples that reflect a range of European admixture in quantities from small to large Our results show the greatest classification into Asian reference groups 72 7 followed by Hispanic 12 7 Indigenous American 7 3 African 4 5 and European 2 7 groups included in FD3 This general pattern did not change between males and females Moreover replacing the raw craniometric values with their shape variables did not significantly alter the trends already observed These classification trends for Filipino crania provide useful information for casework interpretation in forensic laboratory practice Our findings can help biological anthropologists to better understand the evolutionary population historical and statistical reasons for FD3 generated classifications The results of our studyindicate that ancestry estimation in forensic anthropology would benefit from population focused research that gives consideration to histories of colonialism and periods of admixture Genographic Project Reference Populations Geno 2 0 Next Generation National Geographic April 13 2005 Archived from the original on May 22 2019 https www pnas org doi 10 1073 pnas 2026132118 a b Henke Winfried Tattersall Ian Hardt Thorolf 2007 Handbook of Paleoanthropology Vol I Principles Methods and Approaches Vol II Primate Evolution and Human Origins Vol III Phylogeny of Hominids Springer Science amp Business Media p 1903 ISBN 978 3 540 32474 4 George Richard Scott Christy G Turner 2000 The Anthropology of Modern Human Teeth Dental Morphology and Its Variation in Recent Human Populations Cambridge University Press pp 177 179 283 284 ISBN 978 0 521 78453 5 Cooper Matthew November 15 2013 Why the Philippines Is America s Forgotten Colony National Journal Retrieved January 28 2015 c At the same time person to person contacts are widespread Some 600 000 Americans live in the Philippines and there are 3 million Filipino Americans many of whom are devoting themselves to typhoon relief 200 000 250 000 or More Military Filipino Amerasians Alive Today in Republic of the Philippines according to USA RP Joint Research Paper Finding PDF Amerasian Research Network Ltd Press release November 5 2012 Retrieved July 11 2016 Kutschera P C Caputi Marie A October 2012 The Case for Categorization of Military Filipino Amerasians as Diaspora PDF 9th International Conference On the Philippines Michigan State University E Lansing MI Retrieved July 11 2016 Penny amp Penny 2002 pp 29 30harvnb error no target CITEREFPennyPenny2002 help El Torno Chabacano Instituto Cervantes Instituto Cervantes a b Gomez Rivera Guillermo 2005 Estadisticas El idioma espanol en Filipinas Retrieved May 2 2010 Los censos norteamericanos de 1903 y 1905 dicen de soslayo que los Hispano hablantes de este archipielago nunca han rebasado en su numero a mas del diez por ciento 10 de la poblacion durante la ultima decada de los mil ochocientos 1800s Esto quiere decir que 900 000 Filipinos el diez porciento de los dados nueve millones citados por el Fray Manuel Arellano Remondo tenian al idioma espanol como su primera y unica lengua Emphasis added The same author writes Por otro lado unos recientes estudios por el Dr Rafael Rodriguez Ponga senalan sin embargo que los Filipinos de habla espanola al liquidarse la presencia peninsular en este archipielago llegaban al catorce 14 por ciento de la poblacion de la decada 1891 1900 Es decir el 14 de una poblacion de nueve millones 9 000 000 que serian un millon 1 260 000 y dos cientos sesenta mil de Filipinos que eran primordialmente de habla hispana Vea Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos enero de 2003 La persecucion del uso oficial del idioma espanol en Filipinas Retrieved July 8 2010 Philippines EDUCATION Languages of the Philippines Ethnologue Thompson Roger M 2003 3 Nationalism and the rise of the hegemonic Imposition of Tagalog 1936 1973 Filipino English and Taglish John Benjamins Publishing Company pp 27 29 ISBN 978 90 272 4891 6 ISBN 90 272 4891 5 ISBN 978 90 272 4891 6 Andrew Gonzalez 1998 The Language Planning Situation in the Philippines PDF Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 19 5 6 487 488 doi 10 1080 01434639808666365 Archived from the original PDF on June 16 2007 Retrieved March 24 2007 Article XIV Section 6 The 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines Linda Trinh Vo Rick Bonus 2002 Contemporary Asian American communities intersections and divergences Temple University Press pp 96 100 ISBN 978 1 56639 938 8 Table 1 10 Household Population by Religious Affiliation and by Sex 2010 PDF 2015 Philippine Statistical Yearbook 1 30 October 2015 ISSN 0118 1564 Retrieved August 15 2016 Victory Outreach Victory Outreach Victory Outreach Victory Outreach Retrieved April 10 2016 Philippines 2013 Report on International Religious Freedom Report United States Department of State July 28 2014 SECTION I RELIGIOUS DEMOGRAPHY The 2000 survey states that Islam is the largest minority religion constituting approximately 5 percent of the population A 2012 estimate by the National Commission on Muslim Filipinos NCMF however states that there are 10 7 million Muslims which is approximately 11 percent of the total population Stephen K Hislop 1971 Anitism a survey of religious beliefs native to the Philippines PDF Asian Studies 9 2 144 156 McCoy A W 1982 Baylan Animist Religion and Philippine Peasant Ideology University of San Carlos Publications Philippines 2013 Report on International Religious Freedom U S Department of State July 28 2014 National Summary Tables Australian Bureau of Statistics June 6 2001 Retrieved June 6 2001 a b Population Composition Asian born Australians Australian Bureau of Statistics June 6 2001 Retrieved June 6 2001 Background Note Philippines Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs United States Department of State June 3 2011 Retrieved June 8 2011 Castles Stephen and Mark J Miller July 2009 Migration in the Asia Pacific Region Archived 27 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine Migration Information Source Migration Policy Institute Retrieved December 17 2009 Publications EditPeter Bellwood July 1991 The Austronesian Dispersal and the Origin of Languages Scientific American 265 1 88 93 Bibcode 1991SciAm 265a 88B doi 10 1038 scientificamerican0791 88 Bellwood Peter Fox James Tryon Darrell 1995 The Austronesians Historical and comparative perspectives Department of Anthropology Australian National University ISBN 978 0 7315 2132 6 Peter Bellwood 1998 Taiwan and the Prehistory of the Austronesians speaking Peoples Review of Archaeology 18 39 48 Peter Bellwood Alicia Sanchez Mazas June 2005 Human Migrations in Continental East Asia and Taiwan Genetic Linguistic and Archaeological Evidence Current Anthropology 46 3 480 485 doi 10 1086 430018 S2CID 145495386 David Blundell Austronesian Disperal Newsletter of Chinese Ethnology 35 1 26 Robert Blust 1985 The Austronesian Homeland A Linguistic Perspective Asian Perspectives 20 46 67 Peter Fuller 2002 Asia Pacific Research Reading the Full Picture Canberra Australia Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies Retrieved July 28 2005 Homepage of linguist Dr Lawrence Reid Retrieved July 28 2005 Malcolm Ross amp Andrew Pawley 1993 Austronesian historical linguistics and culture history Annual Review of Anthropology 22 425 459 doi 10 1146 annurev an 22 100193 002233 Frederic H Sawyer 1900 The Inhabitants of the Philippines Library of Alexandria ISBN 978 1 4655 1185 0 Scott William Henry 1984 Prehispanic Source Materials for the study of Philippine History New Day Publishers ISBN 978 971 10 0227 5 Retrieved August 5 2008 ISBN 978 971 10 0226 8 John Edward Terrell December 2004 Introduction Austronesia and the great Austronesian migration World Archaeology 36 4 586 591 doi 10 1080 0043824042000303764 S2CID 162244203 Zaide Sonia M 1999 1994 The Philippines A Unique Nation All Nations Publishing ISBN 978 971 642 071 5 Jocano F Landa 2001 Filipino Prehistory Rediscovering Precolonial Heritage Quezon City Punlad Research House Inc ISBN 978 971 622 006 3 External links Edit Media related to People of the Philippines at Wikimedia Commons Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Filipinos amp oldid 1132663756, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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