<i lang="es">Voseo

Not to be confused with vosotros, the second person plural familiar form for Spanish conjugations.

In Spanish grammar, voseo (Spanish pronunciation: [boˈse.o]) is the use of vos as a second-person singular pronoun, along with its associated verbal forms, in certain regions where the language is spoken. In those regions it replaces tuteo, i.e. the use of the pronoun tú and its verbal forms. Voseo can also be found in the context of using verb conjugations for vos with tú as the subject pronoun (verbal voseo),^[1] as in the case of Chilean Spanish, where this form coexists with the ordinary form of voseo.^{[citation needed]}

In all regions with voseo, the corresponding unstressed object pronoun is te and the corresponding possessive is tu / tuyo.^[2]

Vos is used extensively as the second-person singular in Rioplatense Spanish (Argentina and Uruguay), Eastern Bolivia, Paraguayan Spanish, and Central American Spanish (El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, southern parts of Chiapas and some parts of Oaxaca in Mexico). Vos had been traditionally used even in formal writing in Argentina, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Paraguay, the Philippines and Uruguay. In the dialect of Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay (known as 'Rioplatense Spanish'), vos is also the standard form of use, even in mainstream media. In Argentina, particularly since the last years of the 20th century, it is very common to see billboards and other advertising media using voseo.^[3][4]

Vos is present in other countries as a regionalism, for instance in the Maracucho Spanish of Zulia State, Venezuela (see Venezuelan Spanish), in the Azuero peninsula of Panama, in various departments in Colombia,^[5] and in parts of Ecuador (Sierra down to Esmeraldas). In Peru, voseo is present in some Andean regions and Cajamarca, but the younger generations have ceased to use it. It is also present in Ladino (spoken by Sephardic Jews throughout Israel, Turkey, the Balkans, Morocco, Latin America and the United States), where it replaces usted. In the United States, Salvadoran Americans are by far the largest voseo users followed by other Central Americans, including Guatemalans, Hondurans, Nicaraguans, and Costa Ricans.^{[citation needed]}

Voseo is seldom taught to students of Spanish as a second language, and its precise usage varies across different regions.^[6] Nevertheless, in recent years it has become more accepted across the Spanish-speaking world as a valid part of regional dialects.

History

Originally a second-person plural, Vos came to be used as a more polite second-person singular pronoun to be used among one's familiar friends. The following extract from a late-18th century textbook is illustrative of usage at the time:

We seldom make use in Spanish of the second Person Singular or Plural, but when through a great familiarity among friends, or speaking to God, or a wife and husband to themselves, or a father and mother to their children, or to servants.

Examples.

O Dios, sois vos mi Padre verdadéro, O God, thou art my true Father; Tú eres un buen amígo, Thou art a good friend.

— Raymundo del Pueyo, A New Spanish Grammar, or the Elements of the Spanish Language^[7]

The standard formal way to address a person one was not on familiar terms with was to address such a person as vuestra merced ("your grace", originally abbreviated as v.m.) in the singular and vuestras mercedes in the plural. Because of the literal meaning of these forms, they were accompanied by the corresponding third-person verb forms. Other formal forms of address included vuestra excelencia ("your excellence", contracted phonetically to ussencia) and vuestra señoría ("your lordship/ladyship", contracted to ussía). Today, both vos and tú are considered to be informal pronouns, with vos being somewhat synonymous with tú in regions where both are used. This was the situation when the Spanish language was brought to the Río de la Plata area (around Buenos Aires and Montevideo) and to Chile.

In time, vos lost currency in Spain but survived in a number of areas in Spanish-speaking America: Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia (east), Uruguay, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and some smaller areas; it is not found, or found only in internally remote areas (such as Chiapas) in the countries historically best connected with Spain: Mexico, Panama, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Colombia, Perú, and Equatorial Guinea. Vuestra merced evolved into usted vuestra merced > usarced > usted; in fact, usted is still abbreviated as either Vd or Ud). Note that the term vosotros is a combined form of vos otros (meaning literally "ye/you others"), while the term nosotros comes from nos otros ("we/us others").

In the first half of the 19th century the use of vos was as prevalent in Chile as it was in Argentina. The current limitation of the use of vos in Chile is attributed to a campaign to eradicate it by the Chilean education system. The campaign was initiated by Andrés Bello who considered the use of vos a manifestation of lack of education.^[8]

Usage

Vos in relation to other forms of tú

The independent disjunctive pronoun vos also replaces ti, from the tuteo set of forms. That is, vos is both nominative and the form to use after prepositions. Therefore, para vos ("for you") corresponds to the tuteo form para ti, etc.

The preposition-pronoun combination con vos ("with you") is used for the tuteo form contigo.
The direct and indirect object form te is used in both voseo and tuteo.^[2]

Nominative	Oblique				Reflexive
subject	direct object	indirect object	prepositional object	fused with con	direct/indirect object	prepositional object	fused with con
vos	te	te	vos	con vos	te	vos	con vos
usted	lo / la	le	usted	con usted	se	sí	consigo
tú	te	te	ti	contigo	te	ti	contigo
vosotros	os	os	vosotros	con vosotros	os	vosotros	con vosotros

The possessive pronouns of vos also coincide with tú <tu(s), tuyo(s), tuya(s)> rather than with vosotros <vuestro(s), vuestra(s)>.^[2]

Voseo in Chavacano

Chavacano, a Spanish-based creole, employs voseo. The Chavacano language below in comparison of other Chavacano dialects and level of formality with Voseo in both subject and possessive pronouns. Note the mixed and co-existing usages of vos, tú, usted, and vosotros.

	Zamboangueño	Caviteño	Bahra	Davaoeño (Castellano Abakay)
2nd person singular	vos/vo/evo/evos (common/informal) tú (familiar) usted (formal)	vo/bo (common) tu (familiar) usté (formal)	vo/bo (common/informal) usté (formal)	usted (formal) vos (informal)
2nd person plural	kamó (common) vosotros (familiar) ustedes (formal)	vusos busos	buhotro bujotro ustedi tedi	ustedes vosotros

	Zamboangueño	Davaoeño (Castellano Abakay)
2nd person singular	de vos (common) de tu (familiar) tuyo (familiar) de tuyo/di tuyo (familiar) de usted (formal)	de tu
2nd person plural	de iño/di inyo (common) de vosotros (familiar) de ustedes (formal)	(de) vos

Conjugation with vos

All modern voseo conjugations derive from Old Spanish second person plural -ades, -edes, -ides, and -odes (as in sodes, "you are").^[9] The 14th and 15th centuries saw an evolution of these conjugations, with -ades originally giving -áis, -edes giving -és (or -ís),^[9][10] -ides giving -ís,^[11] and -odes giving -óis.^[9] Soon analogous forms -ás and -éis appeared.^[9] Hence the variety of forms the contemporary American voseo adopts, some varieties featuring a generalized monophthong (most of them), some a generalized diphthong (e.g. Venezuela), and some combining monophthongs and diphthongs, depending on the conjugation (e.g. Chile). In the most general, monophthongized, conjugation paradigm, a difference between voseo forms and respective tuteo forms is visible exclusively in the present indicative, imperative and subjunctive, and, most of the time, in the preterite.^[10] Below is a comparison table of the conjugation of several verbs for tú and for vos, and next to them the one for vosotros, the informal second person plural currently used orally only in Spain; in oratory or legal language (highly formal forms of Spanish) it is used outside of Spain. Verb forms that agree with vos are stressed on the last syllable, causing the loss of the stem diphthong in those verbs, such as poder and venir, which are stem-changing.

Verb	Tú 2. Sg.	Vos General	Tú / Vos Chile^1	Vos Southeastern Cuba, Northeastern Colombia^1^, 2, Venezuela^3 and Panama^4	Vosotros 2. Pl. in Spain	Vosotros - בֿוֹזוֹטרוֹז general 2.Pl And Vos - בֿוֹז formal 2.Sg Ladino	Ustedes 2. Pl	Meaning
ser	eres	sos	erís/ sois	sois		sox סוֹש /soʃ/	son	you are
comer	comes	comés	comís	coméis		comex קוֹמֵיש /koˈmeʃ/	comen	you eat
poder	puedes	podés	podís	podéis		podex פּוֹדֵיש /poˈdeʃ/	pueden	you can / may
hablar	hablas	hablás	hablái	habláis		favlax פֿאבֿלאשׁ /faˈvlaʃ/	hablan	you speak
recordar	recuerdas	recordás	recordái	recordáis		recordax רֵיקוֹרדאשׁ /rekorˈdaʃ/	recuerdan	you remember
vivir	vives	vivís				vivix בִּיבִֿיש /biˈviʃ/	viven	you live
venir	vienes	venís				venix בֵּינִיש /beˈniʃ/	vienen	you come
^1 Because of the general aspiration of syllable-final [s], the -s of this ending is usually heard as [h] or not pronounced. ^2 In Colombia, the rest of the country that uses vos follows the General Conjugation. ^3 In the state of Zulia ^4 in Azuero

General conjugation is the one that is most widely accepted and used in various countries such as Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, parts of Bolivia, Ecuador, and Colombia, as well as Central American countries.^[2]

Some Uruguayan speakers combine the pronoun tú with the vos conjugation (for example, tú sabés).^[2] Conversely, speakers in some other places where both tú and vos are used combine vos with the tú conjugation (for example, vos sabes).^[2] This is a frequent occurrence in the Argentine province of Santiago del Estero.

The verb forms employed with vos are also different in Chilean Spanish: Chileans use -ái and soi 'you are' instead of -áis or -ás and sois or sos. Chileans never pronounce these conjugations with a final -s. The forms erís for 'you are', and habís and hai for 'you have' are also found in Chilean Spanish.^[12]

In the case of the ending -ís (such as in comís, podís, vivís, erís, venís), the final -s is pronounced like any other final /s/ in Chilean Spanish. It is most often pronounced as an aspiration similar to the 'h' sound in English. It can also be pronounced as a fricative [s], or be dropped completely. Its variable pronunciation is a phonological rather than a morphological phenomenon.^[12]

Venezuelan Maracucho Spanish is notable in that they preserve the diphthongized plural verb forms in all tenses, as still used with vosotros in Spain.^[2] Chilean Spanish also notably uses the diphthong -ái.

In Ladino, the -áis, -éis, -ís, & -ois endings are pronounced /aʃ/, /eʃ/, /iʃ/, & /oʃ/.

In Chile, it is much more usual to use tú + vos verb conjugation (tú sabís). The use of pronominal vos (vos sabís) is reserved for very informal situations and may even be considered vulgar in some cases.^[2]

Present indicative

1. General conjugation: the final -r of the infinitive is replaced by -s; in writing, an acute accent is added to the last vowel (i.e. the one preceding the final -s) to indicate stress position.
2. Chilean:
   1. the -ar ending of the infinitive is replaced by -ái
   2. both -er and -ir are replaced by -ís, which sounds more like -íh.
3. Venezuelan (Zulian): practically the same ending as modern Spanish vosotros, yet with the final -s being aspirated so that: -áis, -éis, -ís sound like -áih, -éih, -íh (phonetically resembling Chilean).

VOSEO

Infinitive	Present Indicative
	General	Venezuelan^1	Chilean
oír	oís
venir	venís
decir	decís
dormir	dormís
sentir	sentís
escribir	escribís
concluir	concluís
ir	vas	vais	vai(s)
pensar	pensás	pensáis	pensái
contar	contás	contáis	contái
jugar	jugás	jugáis	jugái
errar	errás	erráis	errái
poder	podés	podéis	podí
querer	querés	queréis	querí
mover	movés	movéis	moví
saber	sabés	sabéis	sabí
ser	sos	sois	soi/erís
haber	has	habéis	habís/hai
^1 in Zulia; identical ending to modern vosotros

Unlike tú, which has many irregular forms, the only voseo verbs that are conjugated irregularly in the indicative present are ser, ir and haber. However, haber is seldom used in the indicative present, since there is a strong tendency to use preterite instead of present perfect.

Affirmative imperative

Vos also differs in its affirmative imperative conjugation from both tú and vosotros. Specifically, the vos imperative is formed by dropping the final -r from the infinitive, but keeping the stress on the last syllable.^[9] The only verb that is irregular in this regard is ir; its vos imperative is not usually used, with andá (the vos imperative of andar, which is denoted by *) being generally used instead; except for the Argentine province of Tucumán, where the imperative ite is used. For most regular verbs ending in -ir, the vos imperatives use the same conjugations as the yo form in the preterite; almost all verbs that are irregular in the preterite (which are denoted by ‡) retain the regular vos imperative forms.

Verb	Meaning	Tú	Vos	Vosotros (written)
ser	to be	sé	sé	sed
estar	to be	está / estate	está / estate	estad
ir	to go	ve	id / ite *(andá / andate)	id
hablar	to speak	habla	hablá	hablad
callar	to become silent	calla	callá	callad
soltar	to release/let go	suelta	soltá	soltad
comer	to eat	come	comé	comed
mover	to move	mueve	mové	moved
venir	to come	ven	vení ‡	venid
poner	to put	pon	poné	poned
salir	to leave	sal	salí	salid
tener	to have	ten	tené	tened
decir	to say	di	decí ‡	decid
pedir	to ask/order	pide	pedí	pedid

Again, the conjugation of tú has far more irregularities, whereas vos has only one irregular verb in the affirmative imperative.

In Chile, the general vos conjugation is not used in the affirmative imperative.

Subjunctive

In most places where voseo is used, it is applied also in the subjunctive. In the Río de la Plata region, both the tú-conjugation and the voseo conjugation are found, the tú-form being more common. In this variety, some studies have shown a pragmatic difference between the tú-form and the vos-form, such that the vos form carries information about the speaker's belief state, and can be stigmatized.^[13][14] For example, in Central America the subjunctive and negative command form is no mintás, and in Chile it is no mintái; however, in Río de la Plata both no mientas and no mintás are found. Real Academia Española models its voseo conjugation tables on the most frequent, unstigmatized Río de la Plata usage and therefore omits the subjunctive voseo.^[15]

Central America^1 Bolivia	Río de la Plata region	Chile	Venezuela (Zulia) Panama (Azuero)	meaning
No quiero que mintás.	No quiero que mientas.	No quiero que mintáis.	No quiero que mintáis.	I don't want you to lie.
No temás.	No temas.	No temái.	No temáis.	Do not fear.
Que durmás bien	Que duermas bien.	Que durmái bien.	Que durmáis bien.	Sleep well.
No te preocupés.	No te preocupes.	No te preocupís.	No te preocupéis.	Don't worry.
^1including areas in Colombia with voseo, e.g. the Paisa Region.

Verbal voseo and pronominal voseo

• "Verbal voseo" refers to the use of the verb conjugation of vos regardless of which pronoun is used.^[2]

Verbal voseo with a pronoun other than vos is widespread in Chile, in which case one would use the pronoun tú and the verb conjugation of vos at the same time. E.g.: tú venís, tú escribís, tú podís, tú sabís, tú vai, tú estái.

There are some partially rare cases of a similar sort of verbal voseo in Uruguay where one would say for example tú podés or tú sabés.

• 'Pronominal voseo' is the use of the pronoun vos regardless of verb conjugation.^[2]

Geographical distribution

 

Distribution of voseo:

  spoken + written

  primarily spoken

  spoken, alternating with tuteo

  absent

Countries where voseo is predominant

 

Voseo used on a billboard in Buenos Aires, Argentina. The sign reads ¿Querés cambiar? Vení a Claro ("Do you want to change? Come to Claro."). In tuteo, it would have been ¿Quieres cambiar? Ven a Claro.

 

Voseo used on a billboard in El Salvador: ¡Pedí aquí tu fría! ("Order your cold one here!"). The tuteo equivalent would have been ¡Pide aquí tu fría!

 

Voseo used on a signage inside a shopping mall in Tegucigalpa, Honduras: En City sí encontrás de todo para lucir como te gusta ("At City you find everything to look how you like"). The tuteo equivalent would have been En City sí encuentras de todo para lucir como te gusta

In South America:

1. Argentina — both pronominal and verbal voseo, the pronoun tú is virtually unused.^[2]
2. Paraguay — both pronominal and verbal voseo,^[2] the pronoun tú is virtually unused in most of the country, except in Concepción.
3. Uruguay — dual-usage of both pronominal and verbal voseo and a combination of the pronoun tú + verb conjugated in the vos form,^[2] except near the Brazilian border, where only pronominal and verbal tuteo is common.

In Central America:

1. Guatemala — both pronominal and verbal voseo throughout all social classes; the pronoun tú is often used alongside verb conjugations corresponding to vos.^[2]
2. Honduras — both pronominal and verbal voseo throughout all social classes; the pronoun tú is seldom used.^[2]
3. Nicaragua — both pronominal and verbal voseo throughout all social classes; the pronoun tú is seldom used.^[2]
4. Costa Rica — voseo has historically been used, back in the 2000s it was losing ground to ustedeo and tuteo, especially among younger speakers.^[16] Vos is now primarily used orally with friends and family in Cartago, Guanacaste province, the San José metropolitan area and near the Nicaraguan border and in advertising signage. Usted is the primary form in other areas and with strangers. Tuteo is rarely used, but when it is used in speech by a Costa Rican, it is commonly considered fake and effeminate.^[17]
5. El Salvador: a two-tiered system is used, that indicates the degree of respect or trust: usted, vos. Usted expresses distance and respect; vos corresponds to an intermediate level, expressing familiarity, but not deep trust but also the pronoun of maximum familiarity and solidarity, and also lack of respect.^[18][19] But sometimes parents even address their young children as usted.

Countries where it is extensive, but not predominant

In South America:

1. Bolivia: in the Lowlands of Eastern Bolivia—with mestizo, Criollo and German descendants majority—(Santa Cruz, Beni, Pando, Tarija and the Lowlands of La Paz) voseo is used universally; while in the Highlands of Western Bolivia—with indigenous peoples majority—(highlands of La Paz, Oruro, Potosí, Chuquisaca and Cochabamba) tú is predominant, but there is still a strong use of voseo, especially in verb forms.
2. Chile: verbal voseo is spreading north- and southwards from the center, whereas pronominal voseo is reserved only for very intimate situations or to offend someone. In addition, voseo in Chile is only used in informal situations; in every other situation, the normal tú or usted pronouns are used.

Countries where voseo occurs in some areas

In the following countries, voseo is used in certain areas:

• Colombia, in the departments:
  • in the west (Pacific Coast)
    • Chocó
    • Valle del Cauca
    • Cauca
    • Nariño
  • in the center, primarily Paisa Region (Departments of Antioquia, Risaralda, Quindío, and Caldas).
  • in the (North) East
    • Norte de Santander - Ocaña Region
    • La Guajira
    • Cesar
• Cuba in the eastern side of the country
• Ecuador in the Sierra, the center, and Esmeraldas
• Panama in the west along the border to Costa Rica
• Venezuela, in the northwest (primarily in Zulia State)
• Philippines, in Mindanao and Luzón
• Mexico, widely used in the countryside of the state of Chiapas,^[20] it is becoming rare in Yucatán, Tabasco and Quintana Roo. Mainly used by not-enrolled indigenous people.
• Peru, in some areas in both the Northern and Southern ends of the country.

Countries where vos is virtually absent from usage

In the following countries, the use of vos has disappeared completely and is not used at all.

• Spain
• Dominican Republic
• Puerto Rico
• Equatorial Guinea

Synchronic analysis of Chilean and River Plate verbal voseo

The traditional assumption that Chilean and River Plate voseo verb forms are derived from those corresponding to vosotros has been challenged as synchronically inadequate in a 2014 article,^[12] on the grounds that it requires at least six different rules, including three monophthongization processes that completely lack phonological motivation. Alternatively, the article argues that the Chilean and River Plate voseo verb forms are synchronically derived from underlying representations that coincide with those corresponding to the non-honorific second person singular tú. First, both Chilean and River Plate voseo has an accentuation rule which assigns stress to the syllable following the verb's root, or its infinitive in the case of the future and conditional conjugations. This alone derives all the River Plate voseo verb conjugations, in all tenses. Chilean verb forms also undergo rules of semi-vocalization, vowel raising, and aspiration. In semi-vocalization, /s/ becomes the semivowel /j/ when after /a, o/; thus, -ás becomes -ái, and sos becomes soi 'you are'. The vowel raising rule turns stressed /e/ into /i/, so bebés becomes bebís. Aspiration, a normal part of Chilean, and River Plate, Spanish phonology, means that syllable or word-final /s/ becomes pronounced like an [h].^[12]

The proposed theory requires the use of only one special rule in the case of Chilean voseo. This rule plus other rules that are independently justified in the language make it possible to synchronically derive all the Chilean and River Plate voseo verb forms in a straightforward manner. The article additionally solves the problem posed by the alternate verbal forms of Chilean voseo like the future indicative (e.g. bailaríh or bailarái 'you will dance'), the present indicative forms of haber (habíh and hai 'you have'), and the present indicative of ser (soi, eríh and eréi 'you are'), without resorting to any ad hoc rules. All these different verb forms would come from different underlying representations. The future forms bailarái and bailaríh come from underlying /bailaras/ and /bailares/, the latter related to the historical future form in -és which was documented in Chile in the 17th century. Habíh and hai come from /habes/ and /has/, while soi and eríh come from /sos/ and /eres/. The form erei also comes from /eres/, with an extension of semi-vocalization. The theoretical framework of the article is that of classic generative phonology.^[12]

Attitudes

In some countries, the pronoun vos is used with family and friends (T-form), like tú in other varieties of Spanish, and contrasts with the respectful usted (V-form used with third person) which is used with strangers, elderly, and people of higher socioeconomic status; appropriate usage varies by dialect. In Central America, vos can be used among those considered equals, while usted maintains its respectful usage. In Ladino, the pronoun usted is completely absent, so the use of vos with strangers and elders is the standard.

Voseo was long considered a backwards or uneducated usage by prescriptivist grammarians. Many Central American intellectuals, themselves from voseante nations, have condemned the usage of vos in the past.^[19] With the changing mentalities in the Hispanic world, and with the development of descriptive as opposed to prescriptive linguistics, it has become simply a local variant of Spanish. In some places it has become symbolically important and is pointed to with pride as a local defining characteristic.

See also

•  Latin America portal
•  Language portal

• Similar trends of personal pronouns in Portuguese
• Spanish dialects and varieties
• Spanish verbs
• T–V distinction#Romance languages

References

1. Miranda, Stewart (1999). The Spanish Language Today. Routledge. p. 125. ISBN 0-415-14258-X.
2. Real Academia Española. "voseo | Diccionario panhispánico de dudas". Diccionario panhispánico de dudas (in Spanish). Retrieved 2022-04-28.
3. Borrini, Alberto (24 February 1998). "Publicidad & Marketing. ¿Por qué usan el tuteo los avisos?". La Nación. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
4. Gassó, María José. "El voseo rioplatense en la clase de español" (PDF). Instituto Cervantes Belo Horizonte. pp. 11–12. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
5. degruyter.com; Ana María Díaz Collazos, Desarrollo sociolingüístico del voseo en Colombia.
6. Bruquetas, Francisco (2015). Advanced Spanish. Bruquetas Publishing. p. 146. ISBN 9780578104355.
7. Raymundo Del Pueyo A New Spanish Grammar, or the Elements of the Spanish Language (London: F. Wingrave, 1792) 159; The book is online at Google Books at: https://books.google.com/books?id=NekRAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0#PPP9,M1
8. Luizete Guimarães Barros. 1990. Lengua y nación en la Gramática de Bello. Anuario brasileño de estudios hispánicos.
9. (in Spanish) Lapesa Melgar, Rafael. 1970. "Las formas verbales de segunda persona y los orígenes del voseo", in: Carlos H. Magis (ed.), Actas del III Congreso de la Asociación Internacional de Hispanistas (México, D.F., 26-31 Aug 1968). México: Colegio de México, 519-531.
10. (in Spanish) García de Diego, Vicente. [1951] 1981. Gramática histórica española. (3rd edition; 1st edition 1951, 2nd edition 1961, 3rd edition 1970, 1st reprint 1981.) Madrid: Gredos, 227-229.
11. -ides did not produce -íes because -iés and íes were already in use as Imperfect forms, cf. García de Diego ([1951] 1981: 228) and Lapesa (1970: 526).
12. Baquero Velásquez, Julia M.; Westphal Montt, Germán F. (16 July 2014). "Un análisis sincrónico del voseo verbal chileno y rioplatense". Forma y Función (in Spanish). 27 (2): 11–40. doi:10.15446/fyf.v27n2.47558.
13. Johnson, Mary (2016). "Epistemicity in voseo and tuteo negative commands in Argentinian Spanish". Journal of Pragmatics. 97: 37–54. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2016.02.003.
14. Moyna, María Irene & Rivera-Mills, Susana (2016). Forms of Address in Spanish across the Americas. John Benjamins. pp. 127–148. ISBN 9789027258090.
15. See for example in Real Academia Española Dictionary, mentir or preocupar, where mentís and preocupás are present, but mintás and preocupés are missing.
16. Maria Irene Moyna, Susana Rivera-Mills (2016). Forms of Address in the Spanish of the Americas. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 243–263. ISBN 978-90-272-6700-9.
17. Solano Rojas, Yamileth (1995). "Las formas pronominales: Vos - tu - usted en Costa Rica, análisis de una muestra". Revista Pensamiento Actual. 1 (1): 42–57.
18. Martha D. Ortiz. "El voseo en El Salvador". Scholarworks.sjsu.edu.
19. John M. Lipski. "El español que se habla en El Salvador y su importancia para la dialectología hispanoamericana" (PDF) (in Spanish). The Pennsylvania State University. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
20. Davis, Jack Emory (1971). "The Spanish of Mexico: An Annotated Bibliography for 1940-69". Hispania. 54: 624–656. doi:10.2307/337708. ISSN 0018-2133. JSTOR 337708.

Sources

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• (in Spanish) El voseo at Spanish Wikibooks
• (in French) Le Voseo
• (in Spanish) Voseo Spanish Site dedicated to teaching Argentine Voseo usage
• (in Spanish) Carricaburo. Norma Beatriz (2003). El voseo en la historia y en la lengua de hoy - Las fórmulas de tratamiento en el español actual
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• (in Spanish) Toursinov, Antón (2005). Formas pronominales de tratamiento en el español actual de Guatemala