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Hindi

Hindi (Devanāgarī: हिन्दी or हिंदी, Hindī), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: मानक हिन्दी Mānak Hindī),[9] is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been described as a standardised and Sanskritised register[10] of the Hindustani language, which itself is based primarily on the Khariboli dialect of Delhi and neighbouring areas of North India.[11][12][13] Hindi, written in the Devanagari script, is one of the two official languages of the Government of India, along with English.[14] It is an official language in nine states and three union territories and an additional official language in three other states.[15][16][17][18] Hindi is also one of the 22 scheduled languages of the Republic of India.[19]

Hindi
Modern Standard Hindi
हिन्दीHindī
The word "Hindi" in Devanagari script
Pronunciation[ˈɦɪndiː]
Native toIndia
RegionNorthern, Eastern, Western, and Central India (Hindi Belt)
Native speakers
L1 speakers: 322 million speakers of Hindi and various related languages reported their language as 'Hindi' (2011 census)[1]
L2 speakers: 270 million (2016)[2]
Early forms
Dialects
Signed Hindi
Official status
Official language in
India
Recognised minority
language in
Regulated byCentral Hindi Directorate[8]
Language codes
ISO 639-1hi
ISO 639-2hin
ISO 639-3hin
hin-hin
Glottologhind1269
Linguasphere59-AAF-qf
Distribution of L1 self-reported speakers of Hindi in India per the 2011 Census.

Hindi is the lingua franca of the Hindi Belt. It is also spoken, to a lesser extent, in other parts of India (usually in a simplified or pidginised variety such as Bazaar Hindustani or Haflong Hindi).[15][20] Outside India, several other languages are recognised officially as "Hindi" but do not refer to the Standard Hindi language described here and instead descend from other dialects, such as Awadhi and Bhojpuri. Such languages include Fiji Hindi, which has an official status in Fiji,[21] and Caribbean Hindustani, which is spoken in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, and Suriname.[22][23][24][25] Apart from the script and formal vocabulary, standard Hindi is mutually intelligible with standard Urdu, another recognised register of Hindustani as both share a common colloquial base.[26]

Hindi is the fourth most-spoken first language in the world, after Mandarin, Spanish and English.[27] If counted together with Urdu, it is the third most-spoken language in the world, after Mandarin and English.[28][29]

Etymology

The term Hindī originally was used to refer to inhabitants of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It was borrowed from Classical Persian هندی Hindī (Iranian Persian pronunciation: Hendi), meaning "of or belonging to Hind (India)" (hence, "Indian").[30]

Another name Hindavī (हिन्दवी) or Hinduī (हिन्दुई) (from Persian: هندوی "of or belonging to the Hindu/Indian people") was often used in the past, for example by Amir Khusrow in his poetry.[31][32]

The terms "Hindi" and "Hindu" trace back to Old Persian which derived these names from the Sanskrit name Sindhu (सिन्धु), referring to the river Indus. The Greek cognates of the same terms are "Indus" (for the river) and "India" (for the land of the river).[33][34]

History

Middle Indo-Aryan to Hindi

Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi is a direct descendant of an early form of Vedic Sanskrit, through Shauraseni Prakrit and Śauraseni Apabhraṃśa (from Sanskrit apabhraṃśa "corrupt"), which emerged in the 7th century CE.[35]

The sound changes that characterised the transition from Middle Indo-Aryan to Hindi are:[36]

  • Compensatory lengthening of vowels preceding geminate consonants, sometimes with spontaneous nasalisation: Skt. hasta "hand" > Pkt. hattha > hāth
  • Loss of all word-final vowels: rātri "night" > rattī > rāt
  • Formation of nasalised long vowels from nasal consonants (-VNC- > -V̄̃C-): bandha "bond" > bā̃dh
  • Loss of unaccented or unstressed short vowels (reflected in schwa deletion): susthira "firm" > sutthira > suthrā
  • Collapsing of adjacent vowels (including separated by a hiatus: apara "other" > avara > aur
  • Final -m to -ṽ: grāma "village" > gāma > gāṽ
  • Intervocalic -ḍ- to -ṛ- or -l-: taḍāga "pond" > talāv, naḍa "reed" > nal.
  • v > b: vivāha "marriage" > byāh

Hindustani

During the period of Delhi Sultanate, which covered most of today's north India, eastern Pakistan, southern Nepal and Bangladesh[37] and which resulted in the contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures, the Sanskrit and Prakrit base of Old Hindi became enriched with loanwords from Persian, evolving into the present form of Hindustani.[38][39][40][41][42][43] The Hindustani vernacular became an expression of Indian national unity during the Indian Independence movement,[44][45] and continues to be spoken as the common language of the people of the northern Indian subcontinent,[46] which is reflected in the Hindustani vocabulary of Bollywood films and songs.[47][48]

Dialects

Before the standardisation of Hindi on the Delhi dialect, various dialects and languages of the Hindi belt attained prominence through literary standardisation, such as Avadhi and Braj Bhasha. Early Hindi literature came about in the 12th and 13th centuries CE. This body of work included the early epics such as renditions of the Dhola Maru in the Marwari of Marwar,[49] the Prithviraj Raso in the Braj Bhasha of Braj, and the works of Amir Khusrow in the dialect of Delhi.[50][51]

Modern Standard Hindi is based on the Delhi dialect,[35] the vernacular of Delhi and the surrounding region, which came to replace earlier prestige dialects such as Awadhi and Braj. Urdu – considered another form of Hindustani – acquired linguistic prestige in the latter part of the Mughal period (1800s), and underwent significant Persian influence. Modern Hindi and its literary tradition evolved towards the end of the 18th century.[52]John Gilchrist was principally known for his study of the Hindustani language, which was adopted as the lingua franca of northern India (including what is now present-day Pakistan) by British colonists and indigenous people. He compiled and authored An English-Hindustani Dictionary, A Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language, The Oriental Linguist, and many more. His lexicon of Hindustani was published in the Perso-Arabic script, Nāgarī script, and in Roman transliteration. He is also known for his role in the foundation of University College London and for endowing the Gilchrist Educational Trust. In the late 19th century, a movement to further develop Hindi as a standardised form of Hindustani separate from Urdu took form.[53] In 1881, Bihar accepted Hindi as its sole official language, replacing Urdu, and thus became the first state of India to adopt Hindi.[54] However, in 2014, Urdu was accorded second official language status in the state. [55]

Independent India

After independence, the government of India instituted the following conventions:[original research?]

  • standardisation of grammar: In 1954, the Government of India set up a committee to prepare a grammar of Hindi; The committee's report was released in 1958 as A Basic Grammar of Modern Hindi.
  • standardisation of the orthography, using the Devanagari script, by the Central Hindi Directorate of the Ministry of Education and Culture to bring about uniformity in writing, to improve the shape of some Devanagari characters, and introducing diacritics to express sounds from other languages.

On 14 September 1949, the Constituent Assembly of India adopted Hindi written in the Devanagari script as the official language of the Republic of India replacing Urdu's previous usage in British India.[56][57][58] To this end, several stalwarts rallied and lobbied pan-India in favour of Hindi, most notably Beohar Rajendra Simha along with Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, Kaka Kalelkar, Maithili Sharan Gupt and Seth Govind Das who even debated in Parliament on this issue. As such, on the 50th birthday of Beohar Rajendra Simha on 14 September 1949, the efforts came to fruition following the adoption of Hindi as the official language.[59] Now, it is celebrated as Hindi Day.[60]

Official status

India

Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with the official language of the Indian Commonwealth. Under Article 343, the official languages of the Union have been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English:

(1) The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals.[22]
(2) Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement: Provided that the President may, during the said period, by order authorise the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union.[61]

Article 351 of the Indian constitution states:

It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule, and by drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages.

It was envisioned that Hindi would become the sole working language of the Union Government by 1965 (per directives in Article 344 (2) and Article 351),[62] with state governments being free to function in the language of their own choice. However, widespread resistance to the imposition of Hindi on non-native speakers, especially in South India (such as those in Tamil Nadu) led to the passage of the Official Languages Act of 1963, which provided for the continued use of English indefinitely for all official purposes, although the constitutional directive for the Union Government to encourage the spread of Hindi was retained and has strongly influenced its policies.[63]

Article 344 (2b) stipulates that the official language commission shall be constituted every ten years to recommend steps for progressive use of Hindi language and imposing restrictions on the use of the English language by the union government. In practice, the official language commissions are constantly endeavouring to promote Hindi but not imposing restrictions on English in official use by the union government.

At the state level, Hindi is the official language of the following Indian states: Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Mizoram, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand.[64] Hindi is an official language of Gujarat, along with Gujarati. [65] It acts as an additional official language of West Bengal in blocks and sub-divisions with more than 10% of the population speaking Hindi.[66][67][68] Each may also designate a "co-official language"; in Uttar Pradesh, for instance, depending on the political formation in power, this language is generally Urdu. Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of official language in the following Union Territories: Delhi, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.

Although there is no specification of a national language in the constitution, it is a widely held belief that Hindi is the national language of India. This is often a source of friction and contentious debate.[69][70][71] In 2010, the Gujarat High Court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such.[72][73] In 2021, in a Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act case involving Gangam Sudhir Kumar Reddy, the Bombay High Court claimed Hindi is the national language while refusing Reddy bail, after he argued against his statutory rights being read in Hindi, despite being a native Telugu speaker. Reddy has filed a Special Leave Petition before the Supreme Court, challenging the Bombay High Court’s observation, and contended that it failed to appreciate that Hindi is not the national language in India.[74][75] [76] In 2021, Indian food delivery company Zomato landed in controversy when a customer care executive told an app user from Tamil Nadu, “For your kind information Hindi is our national language.” Zomato responded by firing the employee, after which she was reprimanded and shortly reinstated.[77][78]

In 2018, The Supreme Court has stayed a judgment of Madhya Pradesh High Court that held that the Hindi version of enactment will prevail if there is a variation in its Hindi version and English version. The prominence thus attached to English over Hindi in the judgement underlines the social significance of English over Hindi. [79]

Fiji

Outside Asia, the Awadhi language (an Eastern Hindi dialect) with influence from Bhojpuri, Bihari languages, Fijian and English is spoken in Fiji.[80][81] It is an official language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji,[82] where it referred to it as "Hindustani", however in the 2013 Constitution of Fiji, it is simply called "Fiji Hindi" as the official language.[83] It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji.[80]

Nepal

Hindi is spoken as a first language by about 77,569 people in Nepal according to the 2011 Nepal census, and further by 1,225,950 people as a second language.[84] A Hindi proponent, Indian-born Paramananda Jha, was elected vice-president of Nepal. He took his oath of office in Hindi in July 2008. This created protests in the streets for 5 days; students burnt his effigies; there was general strike in 22 districts. Nepal Supreme Court ruled in 2009 that his oath in Hindi was invalid and he was kept "inactive" as vice-president. An "angry" Jha said, “I cannot be compelled to take the oath now in Nepali. I might rather take it in English.”[85]

South Africa

Hindi is a protected language in South Africa. According to the Constitution of South Africa, the Pan South African Language Board must promote and ensure respect for Hindi along with other languages.[6] According to a doctoral dissertation by Rajend Mesthrie in 1985, although Hindi and other Indian languages have existed in South Africa for the last 125 years, there are no academic studies of any of them - of their use in South Africa, their evolution and current decline.[86]

United Arab Emirates

Hindi is adopted as the third official court language in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi.[c][87] As a result of this status, the Indian workforce in UAE can file their complaints to the labour courts in the country in their own mother-tongue.[88]

Geographical distribution

 
Distribution of L1 speakers of the Hindi family of languages (as defined by the Government of India; includes Rajasthani, Western Pahari, Eastern Hindi, among others) in India.
  0%
  100%

Hindi is the lingua franca of northern India (which contains the Hindi Belt), as well as an official language of the Government of India, along with English.[61]

In Northeast India a pidgin known as Haflong Hindi has developed as a lingua franca for the people living in Haflong, Assam who speak other languages natively.[89] In Arunachal Pradesh, Hindi emerged as a lingua franca among locals who speak over 50 dialects natively.[90]

Hindi is quite easy to understand for many Pakistanis, who speak Urdu, which, like Hindi, is a standard register of the Hindustani language; additionally, Indian media are widely viewed in Pakistan.[91]

A sizeable population in Afghanistan, especially in Kabul, can also speak and understand Hindi-Urdu due to the popularity and influence of Bollywood films, songs and actors in the region.[92][93]

Hindi is also spoken by a large population of Madheshis (people having roots in north-India but having migrated to Nepal over hundreds of years) of Nepal. Apart from this, Hindi is spoken by the large Indian diaspora which hails from, or has its origin from the "Hindi Belt" of India. A substantially large North Indian diaspora lives in countries like the United States of America, the United Kingdom, the United Arab Emirates, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, South Africa, Fiji and Mauritius, where it is natively spoken at home and among their own Hindustani-speaking communities. Outside India, Hindi speakers are 8 million in Nepal; 863,077 in United States of America;[94][95] 450,170 in Mauritius; 380,000 in Fiji;[80] 250,292 in South Africa; 150,000 in Suriname;[96] 100,000 in Uganda; 45,800 in United Kingdom;[97] 20,000 in New Zealand; 20,000 in Germany; 26,000 in Trinidad and Tobago;[96] 3,000 in Singapore.

Comparison with Modern Standard Urdu

Linguistically, Hindi and Urdu are two registers of the same language and are mutually intelligible.[98] Both Hindi & Urdu share a core vocabulary of native Prakrit and Sanskrit-derived words.[26][99][100] However, Hindi is written in the Devanagari script and contains more Sanskrit-derived words than Urdu, whereas Urdu is written in the Perso-Arabic script and uses more Arabic and Persian loanwords compared to Hindi.[101] Because of this, as well as the fact that the two registers share an identical grammar,[13][26][99] a consensus of linguists consider them to be two standardised forms of the same language, Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu.[98][13][26][12] Hindi is the most commonly used official language in India. Urdu is the national language and lingua franca of Pakistan and is one of 22 official languages of India, also having official status in Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, Telangana[102] and Bihar.[103]

Script

Hindi is written in the Devanagari script, an abugida. Devanagari consists of 11 vowels and 33 consonants and is written from left to right. Unlike Sanskrit, Devanagari is not entirely phonetic for Hindi, especially failing to mark schwa deletion in spoken Standard Hindi.[104]

Romanization

The Government of India uses Hunterian transliteration as its official system of writing Hindi in the Latin script. Various other systems also exist, such as IAST, ITRANS and ISO 15919.

Romanized Hindi, also called Hinglish, is the dominant form of Hindi online. In an analysis of YouTube comments, Palakodety et al., identified that 52% of comments were in Romanized Hindi, 46% in English, and 1% in Devanagari Hindi.[5]

Phonology

Vocabulary

Traditionally, Hindi words are divided into five principal categories according to their etymology:

  • Tatsam (तत्सम "same as that") words: These are words which are spelled the same in Hindi as in Sanskrit (except for the absence of final case inflections).[105] They include words inherited from Sanskrit via Prakrit which have survived without modification (e.g. Hindi नाम nām / Sanskrit नाम nāma, "name"; Hindi कर्म karm / Sanskrit कर्म karma, "deed, action; karma"),[106] as well as forms borrowed directly from Sanskrit in more modern times (e.g. प्रार्थना prārthanā, "prayer").[107] Pronunciation, however, conforms to Hindi norms and may differ from that of classical Sanskrit. Amongst nouns, the tatsam word could be the Sanskrit non-inflected word-stem, or it could be the nominative singular form in the Sanskrit nominal declension.
  • Ardhatatsam (अर्धतत्सम "semi-tatsama") words: Such words are typically earlier loanwords from Sanskrit which have undergone sound changes subsequent to being borrowed. (e.g. Hindi सूरज sūraj from Sanskrit सूर्य sūrya)
  • Tadbhav (तद्भव "born of that") words: These are native Hindi words derived from Sanskrit after undergoing phonological rules (e.g. Sanskrit कर्म karma, "deed" becomes Sauraseni Prakrit कम्म kamma, and eventually Hindi काम kām, "work") and are spelled differently from Sanskrit.[105]
  • Deshaj (देशज) words: These are words that were not borrowings but do not derive from attested Indo-Aryan words either. Belonging to this category are onomatopoetic words or ones borrowed from local non-Indo-Aryan languages.
  • Videshī (विदेशी "foreign") words: These include all loanwords from non-indigenous languages. The most frequent source languages in this category are Persian, Arabic, English and Portuguese. Examples are क़िला qila "fort" from Persian, कमेटी kameṭī from English committee and साबुन sābun "soap" from Arabic.

Hindi also makes extensive use of loan translation (calqueing) and occasionally phono-semantic matching of English.[108]

Prakrit

Hindi has naturally inherited a large portion of its vocabulary from Shauraseni Prakrit, in the form of tadbhava words. This process usually involves compensatory lengthening of vowels preceding consonant clusters in Prakrit, e.g. Sanskrit tīkṣṇa > Prakrit tikkha > Hindi tīkhā.

Sanskrit

Much of Modern Standard Hindi's vocabulary is borrowed from Sanskrit as tatsam borrowings, especially in technical and academic fields. The formal Hindi standard, from which much of the Persian, Arabic and English vocabulary has been replaced by neologisms compounding tatsam words, is called Śuddh Hindi (pure Hindi), and is viewed as a more prestigious dialect over other more colloquial forms of Hindi.

Excessive use of tatsam words sometimes creates problems for native speakers. They may have Sanskrit consonant clusters which do not exist in native Hindi, causing difficulties in pronunciation.[109]

As a part of the process of Sanskritization, new words are coined using Sanskrit components to be used as replacements for supposedly foreign vocabulary. Usually these neologisms are calques of English words already adopted into spoken Hindi. Some terms such as dūrbhāṣ "telephone", literally "far-speech" and dūrdarśan "television", literally "far-sight" have even gained some currency in formal Hindi in the place of the English borrowings (ṭeli)fon and ṭīvī.[110]

Persian

Hindi also features significant Persian influence, standardised from spoken Hindustani.[101][111][page needed] Early borrowings, beginning in the mid-12th century, were specific to Islam (e.g. Muhammad, islām) and so Persian was simply an intermediary for Arabic. Later, under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire, Persian became the primary administrative language in the Hindi heartland. Persian borrowings reached a heyday in the 17th century, pervading all aspects of life. Even grammatical constructs, namely the izafat, were assimilated into Hindi.[112]

Post-Partition the Indian government advocated for a policy of Sanskritization leading to a marginalisation of the Persian element in Hindi. However, many Persian words (e.g. muśkil "difficult", bas "enough", havā "air", x(a)yāl "thought", kitab "Book", khud "Self") have remained entrenched in Modern Standard Hindi, and a larger amount are still used in Urdu poetry written in the Devanagari script.

Arabic

Arabic also shows influence in Hindi, often via Persian but sometimes directly.[113]

Sample list of loaned Arabic words used in Hindi
Serial No. Arabic Word Hindi word (Devanagri Script)
1 waqt (وقت) वक़्त
2 qamees (قميص) क़मीस
3 book (کتاب) किताब
4 destiny (नसीब) नसीब
5 chair (کرسی) कुर्सी
6 calculation (حساب) हिसाब
7 law (قانون) क़ानून
8 news (خبر) ख़बर
9 world (دنیا) दुनिया[114]

Media

Literature

Hindi literature is broadly divided into four prominent forms or styles, being Bhakti (devotional – Kabir, Raskhan); Śṛṇgār (beauty – Keshav, Bihari); Vīgāthā (epic); and Ādhunik (modern).

Medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence of Bhakti movement and the composition of long, epic poems. It was primarily written in other varieties of Hindi, particularly Avadhi and Braj Bhasha, but to a degree also in Delhavi, the basis for Modern Standard Hindi. During the British Raj, Hindustani became the prestige dialect.

Chandrakanta, written by Devaki Nandan Khatri in 1888, is considered the first authentic work of prose in modern Hindi.[115] The person who brought realism in Hindi prose literature was Munshi Premchand, who is considered as the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement. Literary, or Sāhityik, Hindi was popularised by the writings of Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Bhartendu Harishchandra and others. The rising numbers of newspapers and magazines made Hindustani popular with educated people.[citation needed]

The Dvivedī Yug ("Age of Dwivedi") in Hindi literature lasted from 1900 to 1918. It is named after Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, who played a major role in establishing Modern Standard Hindi in poetry and broadening the acceptable subjects of Hindi poetry from the traditional ones of religion and romantic love.

In the 20th century, Hindi literature saw a romantic upsurge. This is known as Chāyāvād (shadow-ism) and the literary figures belonging to this school are known as Chāyāvādī. Jaishankar Prasad, Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala', Mahadevi Varma and Sumitranandan Pant, are the four major Chāyāvādī poets.

Uttar Ādhunik is the post-modernist period of Hindi literature, marked by a questioning of early trends that copied the West as well as the excessive ornamentation of the Chāyāvādī movement, and by a return to simple language and natural themes.

Internet

Hindi literature, music, and film have all been disseminated via the internet. In 2015, Google reported a 94% increase in Hindi-content consumption year-on-year, adding that 21% of users in India prefer content in Hindi.[116] Many Hindi newspapers also offer digital editions.

Sample text

The following is a sample text in High Hindi, of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (by the United Nations):

Hindi in Devanagari Script
अनुच्छेद 1(एक): सभी मनुष्य जन्म से मर्यादा और अधिकारों में स्वतंत्र और समान होते हैं। वे तर्क और विवेक से संपन्न हैं तथा उन्हें भ्रातृत्व की भावना से परस्पर के प्रति कार्य करना चाहिए।
Transliteration (ISO)
Anucchēd 1 (ēk): Sabhī manuṣya janma sē maryādā aur adhikārō̃ mē̃ svatantra aur samān hōtē haĩ. Vē tark aur vivēk sē sampanna haĩ tathā unhē̃ bhrātr̥tva kī bhāvanā sē paraspar kē pratī kārya karnā cāhiē.
Transcription (IPA)
[ənʊtːʃʰeːd eːk | səbʰiː mənʊʂjə dʒənmə seː məɾjaːd̪aː ɔːɾ əd̪ʰɪkaːɾõː mẽː sʋət̪ənt̪ɾə ɔːɾ səmaːn hoːteː hɛ̃ː‖ ʋeː t̪əɾk ɔːɾ ʋɪʋeːk seː səmpənːə hɛ̃ː t̪ətʰaː ʊnʰẽː bʰɾaːtɾɪt̪ʋə kiː bʰaːʋənaː seː pəɾəspəɾ keː pɾət̪iː kaːɾjə kəɾnaː tʃaːhɪeː‖]
Gloss (word-to-word)
Article 1 (one) All humans birth from dignity and rights in independent and equal are. They logic and conscience from endowed are and they fraternity in the spirit of each other towards work should.
Translation (grammatical)
Article 1 All humans are born independent and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with logic and conscience and they should work towards each other in the spirit of fraternity.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ (protected language)
  2. ^ (third official court language)
  3. ^ (third official court language)

References

  1. ^ "Scheduled Languages in descending order of speaker's strength - 2011" (PDF). Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India. 29 June 2018.
  2. ^ Hindi at Ethnologue (21st ed., 2018)  
  3. ^ a b Hindustani (2005). Keith Brown (ed.). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2 ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 0-08-044299-4.
  4. ^ Gangopadhyay, Avik (2020). Glimpses of Indian Languages. Evincepub publishing. p. 43. ISBN 9789390197828.
  5. ^ a b Palakodety, Shriphani; KhudaBukhsh, Ashiqur R.; Jayachandran, Guha (2021), "Low Resource Machine Translation", Low Resource Social Media Text Mining, Singapore: Springer Singapore, pp. 7–9, doi:10.1007/978-981-16-5625-5_5, ISBN 978-981-16-5624-8, S2CID 244313560, retrieved 24 September 2022
  6. ^ a b "Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 - Chapter 1: Founding Provisions". www.gov.za. Retrieved 6 December 2014.
  7. ^ "Abu Dhabi includes Hindi as third official court language". The Hindu. 10 February 2019 – via www.thehindu.com.
  8. ^ . Archived from the original on 4 May 2012. Retrieved 18 February 2014.
  9. ^ Singh, Rajendra, and Rama Kant Agnihotri. Hindi morphology: A word-based description. Vol. 9. Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1997.
  10. ^ . Archived from the original on 2 April 2012. Retrieved 21 March 2012.
  11. ^ . North Carolina State University. Archived from the original on 15 August 2009. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
  12. ^ a b Basu, Manisha (2017). The Rhetoric of Hindutva. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-14987-8. Urdu, like Hindi, was a standardized register of the Hindustani language deriving from the Delhi dialect and emerged in the eighteenth century under the rule of the late Mughals.
  13. ^ a b c Peter-Dass, Rakesh (2019). Hindi Christian Literature in Contemporary India. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-00-070224-8. Two forms of the same language, Nagarai Hindi and Persianized Hindi (Urdu) had identical grammar, shared common words and roots, and employed different scripts.
  14. ^ "Constitutional Provisions: Official Language Related Part-17 of The Constitution Of India". Department of Official Language, Government of India. from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
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Bibliography

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  • Grierson, G. A. Linguistic Survey of India Vol I-XI, Calcutta, 1928, ISBN 81-85395-27-6 (searchable database).
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Dictionaries

  • McGregor, R.S. (1993), Oxford Hindi–English Dictionary (2004 ed.), Oxford University Press, USA.
  • Hardev Bahri (1989), Learners' Hindi-English dictionary, Delhi: Rajapala
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Further reading

  • Bangha, Imre (2018). "Hindi". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE. Brill Online. ISSN 1873-9830.
  • Bhatia, Tej K. A History of the Hindi Grammatical Tradition. Leiden, Netherlands & New York, NY: E.J. Brill, 1987. ISBN 90-04-07924-6

External links

hindi, this, article, about, modern, standard, other, uses, disambiguation, confused, with, hindus, sindhi, devanāgarī, hindī, more, precisely, modern, standard, devanagari, नक, mānak, hindī, indo, aryan, language, spoken, chiefly, belt, region, encompassing, . This article is about Modern Standard Hindi For other uses see Hindi disambiguation Not to be confused with Hindus or Sindhi Hindi Devanagari ह न द or ह द Hindi or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi Devanagari म नक ह न द Manak Hindi 9 is an Indo Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern central eastern and western India Hindi has been described as a standardised and Sanskritised register 10 of the Hindustani language which itself is based primarily on the Khariboli dialect of Delhi and neighbouring areas of North India 11 12 13 Hindi written in the Devanagari script is one of the two official languages of the Government of India along with English 14 It is an official language in nine states and three union territories and an additional official language in three other states 15 16 17 18 Hindi is also one of the 22 scheduled languages of the Republic of India 19 HindiModern Standard Hindiह न द HindiThe word Hindi in Devanagari scriptPronunciation ˈɦɪndiː Native toIndiaRegionNorthern Eastern Western and Central India Hindi Belt Native speakersL1 speakers 322 million speakers of Hindi and various related languages reported their language as Hindi 2011 census 1 L2 speakers 270 million 2016 2 Language familyIndo European Indo IranianIndo AryanCentralWestern Hindi 3 Hindustani 3 HindiEarly formsShauraseni Prakrit Sauraseni Apabhraṃsa Old Hindi Hindustani KauraviDialectsSee Hindi languagesWriting systemDevanagari official Kaithi historical Mahajani historical Laṇḍa historical 4 Latin Hinglish unofficial 5 Devanagari BrailleSigned formsSigned HindiOfficial statusOfficial language inIndiaRecognised minoritylanguage inSouth Africa a 6 United Arab Emirates b 7 Regulated byCentral Hindi Directorate 8 Language codesISO 639 1 span class plainlinks hi span ISO 639 2 span class plainlinks hin span ISO 639 3 a href https iso639 3 sil org code hin class extiw title iso639 3 hin hin a Linguist Listhin hinGlottologhind1269Linguasphere59 AAF qfDistribution of L1 self reported speakers of Hindi in India per the 2011 Census Part of a series onConstitutionally recognised languages of IndiaCategory22 Official Languages of the Indian RepublicAssamese Bengali Bodo Dogri Gujarati Hindi Kannada Kashmiri Konkani Maithili Malayalam Marathi Meitei Manipuri Nepali Odia Punjabi Sanskrit Santali Sindhi Tamil Telugu UrduRelatedEighth Schedule to the Constitution of India Official Languages Commission List of languages by number of native speakers in India Asia portal India portal Language portal Politics portalHindi is the lingua franca of the Hindi Belt It is also spoken to a lesser extent in other parts of India usually in a simplified or pidginised variety such as Bazaar Hindustani or Haflong Hindi 15 20 Outside India several other languages are recognised officially as Hindi but do not refer to the Standard Hindi language described here and instead descend from other dialects such as Awadhi and Bhojpuri Such languages include Fiji Hindi which has an official status in Fiji 21 and Caribbean Hindustani which is spoken in Trinidad and Tobago Guyana and Suriname 22 23 24 25 Apart from the script and formal vocabulary standard Hindi is mutually intelligible with standard Urdu another recognised register of Hindustani as both share a common colloquial base 26 Hindi is the fourth most spoken first language in the world after Mandarin Spanish and English 27 If counted together with Urdu it is the third most spoken language in the world after Mandarin and English 28 29 Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Middle Indo Aryan to Hindi 2 2 Hindustani 2 3 Dialects 2 4 Independent India 3 Official status 3 1 India 3 2 Fiji 3 3 Nepal 3 4 South Africa 3 5 United Arab Emirates 4 Geographical distribution 5 Comparison with Modern Standard Urdu 6 Script 6 1 Romanization 7 Phonology 8 Vocabulary 8 1 Prakrit 8 2 Sanskrit 8 3 Persian 8 4 Arabic 9 Media 9 1 Literature 9 2 Internet 10 Sample text 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 13 1 Bibliography 13 2 Dictionaries 13 3 Further reading 14 External linksEtymologyThe term Hindi originally was used to refer to inhabitants of the Indo Gangetic Plain It was borrowed from Classical Persian هندی Hindi Iranian Persian pronunciation Hendi meaning of or belonging to Hind India hence Indian 30 Another name Hindavi ह न दव or Hindui ह न द ई from Persian هندوی of or belonging to the Hindu Indian people was often used in the past for example by Amir Khusrow in his poetry 31 32 The terms Hindi and Hindu trace back to Old Persian which derived these names from the Sanskrit name Sindhu स न ध referring to the river Indus The Greek cognates of the same terms are Indus for the river and India for the land of the river 33 34 HistoryFurther information History of Hindustani Middle Indo Aryan to Hindi Like other Indo Aryan languages Hindi is a direct descendant of an early form of Vedic Sanskrit through Shauraseni Prakrit and Sauraseni Apabhraṃsa from Sanskrit apabhraṃsa corrupt which emerged in the 7th century CE 35 The sound changes that characterised the transition from Middle Indo Aryan to Hindi are 36 Compensatory lengthening of vowels preceding geminate consonants sometimes with spontaneous nasalisation Skt hasta hand gt Pkt hattha gt hath Loss of all word final vowels ratri night gt ratti gt rat Formation of nasalised long vowels from nasal consonants VNC gt V C bandha bond gt ba dh Loss of unaccented or unstressed short vowels reflected in schwa deletion susthira firm gt sutthira gt suthra Collapsing of adjacent vowels including separated by a hiatus apara other gt avara gt aur Final m to ṽ grama village gt gama gt gaṽ Intervocalic ḍ to ṛ or l taḍaga pond gt talav naḍa reed gt nal v gt b vivaha marriage gt byahHindustani During the period of Delhi Sultanate which covered most of today s north India eastern Pakistan southern Nepal and Bangladesh 37 and which resulted in the contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures the Sanskrit and Prakrit base of Old Hindi became enriched with loanwords from Persian evolving into the present form of Hindustani 38 39 40 41 42 43 The Hindustani vernacular became an expression of Indian national unity during the Indian Independence movement 44 45 and continues to be spoken as the common language of the people of the northern Indian subcontinent 46 which is reflected in the Hindustani vocabulary of Bollywood films and songs 47 48 Dialects Before the standardisation of Hindi on the Delhi dialect various dialects and languages of the Hindi belt attained prominence through literary standardisation such as Avadhi and Braj Bhasha Early Hindi literature came about in the 12th and 13th centuries CE This body of work included the early epics such as renditions of the Dhola Maru in the Marwari of Marwar 49 the Prithviraj Raso in the Braj Bhasha of Braj and the works of Amir Khusrow in the dialect of Delhi 50 51 Modern Standard Hindi is based on the Delhi dialect 35 the vernacular of Delhi and the surrounding region which came to replace earlier prestige dialects such as Awadhi and Braj Urdu considered another form of Hindustani acquired linguistic prestige in the latter part of the Mughal period 1800s and underwent significant Persian influence Modern Hindi and its literary tradition evolved towards the end of the 18th century 52 John Gilchrist was principally known for his study of the Hindustani language which was adopted as the lingua franca of northern India including what is now present day Pakistan by British colonists and indigenous people He compiled and authored An English Hindustani Dictionary A Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language The Oriental Linguist and many more His lexicon of Hindustani was published in the Perso Arabic script Nagari script and in Roman transliteration He is also known for his role in the foundation of University College London and for endowing the Gilchrist Educational Trust In the late 19th century a movement to further develop Hindi as a standardised form of Hindustani separate from Urdu took form 53 In 1881 Bihar accepted Hindi as its sole official language replacing Urdu and thus became the first state of India to adopt Hindi 54 However in 2014 Urdu was accorded second official language status in the state 55 Independent India After independence the government of India instituted the following conventions original research standardisation of grammar In 1954 the Government of India set up a committee to prepare a grammar of Hindi The committee s report was released in 1958 as A Basic Grammar of Modern Hindi standardisation of the orthography using the Devanagari script by the Central Hindi Directorate of the Ministry of Education and Culture to bring about uniformity in writing to improve the shape of some Devanagari characters and introducing diacritics to express sounds from other languages On 14 September 1949 the Constituent Assembly of India adopted Hindi written in the Devanagari script as the official language of the Republic of India replacing Urdu s previous usage in British India 56 57 58 To this end several stalwarts rallied and lobbied pan India in favour of Hindi most notably Beohar Rajendra Simha along with Hazari Prasad Dwivedi Kaka Kalelkar Maithili Sharan Gupt and Seth Govind Das who even debated in Parliament on this issue As such on the 50th birthday of Beohar Rajendra Simha on 14 September 1949 the efforts came to fruition following the adoption of Hindi as the official language 59 Now it is celebrated as Hindi Day 60 Official statusIndia Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with the official language of the Indian Commonwealth Under Article 343 the official languages of the Union have been prescribed which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English 1 The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals 22 2 Notwithstanding anything in clause 1 for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement Provided that the President may during the said period by order authorise the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union 61 Article 351 of the Indian constitution states It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius the forms style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule and by drawing wherever necessary or desirable for its vocabulary primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages It was envisioned that Hindi would become the sole working language of the Union Government by 1965 per directives in Article 344 2 and Article 351 62 with state governments being free to function in the language of their own choice However widespread resistance to the imposition of Hindi on non native speakers especially in South India such as those in Tamil Nadu led to the passage of the Official Languages Act of 1963 which provided for the continued use of English indefinitely for all official purposes although the constitutional directive for the Union Government to encourage the spread of Hindi was retained and has strongly influenced its policies 63 Article 344 2b stipulates that the official language commission shall be constituted every ten years to recommend steps for progressive use of Hindi language and imposing restrictions on the use of the English language by the union government In practice the official language commissions are constantly endeavouring to promote Hindi but not imposing restrictions on English in official use by the union government At the state level Hindi is the official language of the following Indian states Bihar Chhattisgarh Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jharkhand Madhya Pradesh Mizoram Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand 64 Hindi is an official language of Gujarat along with Gujarati 65 It acts as an additional official language of West Bengal in blocks and sub divisions with more than 10 of the population speaking Hindi 66 67 68 Each may also designate a co official language in Uttar Pradesh for instance depending on the political formation in power this language is generally Urdu Similarly Hindi is accorded the status of official language in the following Union Territories Delhi Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu Although there is no specification of a national language in the constitution it is a widely held belief that Hindi is the national language of India This is often a source of friction and contentious debate 69 70 71 In 2010 the Gujarat High Court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such 72 73 In 2021 in a Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances NDPS Act case involving Gangam Sudhir Kumar Reddy the Bombay High Court claimed Hindi is the national language while refusing Reddy bail after he argued against his statutory rights being read in Hindi despite being a native Telugu speaker Reddy has filed a Special Leave Petition before the Supreme Court challenging the Bombay High Court s observation and contended that it failed to appreciate that Hindi is not the national language in India 74 75 76 In 2021 Indian food delivery company Zomato landed in controversy when a customer care executive told an app user from Tamil Nadu For your kind information Hindi is our national language Zomato responded by firing the employee after which she was reprimanded and shortly reinstated 77 78 In 2018 The Supreme Court has stayed a judgment of Madhya Pradesh High Court that held that the Hindi version of enactment will prevail if there is a variation in its Hindi version and English version The prominence thus attached to English over Hindi in the judgement underlines the social significance of English over Hindi 79 Fiji Outside Asia the Awadhi language an Eastern Hindi dialect with influence from Bhojpuri Bihari languages Fijian and English is spoken in Fiji 80 81 It is an official language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji 82 where it referred to it as Hindustani however in the 2013 Constitution of Fiji it is simply called Fiji Hindi as the official language 83 It is spoken by 380 000 people in Fiji 80 Nepal Hindi is spoken as a first language by about 77 569 people in Nepal according to the 2011 Nepal census and further by 1 225 950 people as a second language 84 A Hindi proponent Indian born Paramananda Jha was elected vice president of Nepal He took his oath of office in Hindi in July 2008 This created protests in the streets for 5 days students burnt his effigies there was general strike in 22 districts Nepal Supreme Court ruled in 2009 that his oath in Hindi was invalid and he was kept inactive as vice president An angry Jha said I cannot be compelled to take the oath now in Nepali I might rather take it in English 85 South Africa Hindi is a protected language in South Africa According to the Constitution of South Africa the Pan South African Language Board must promote and ensure respect for Hindi along with other languages 6 According to a doctoral dissertation by Rajend Mesthrie in 1985 although Hindi and other Indian languages have existed in South Africa for the last 125 years there are no academic studies of any of them of their use in South Africa their evolution and current decline 86 United Arab Emirates Hindi is adopted as the third official court language in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi c 87 As a result of this status the Indian workforce in UAE can file their complaints to the labour courts in the country in their own mother tongue 88 Geographical distribution Distribution of L1 speakers of the Hindi family of languages as defined by the Government of India includes Rajasthani Western Pahari Eastern Hindi among others in India 0 100 Hindi is the lingua franca of northern India which contains the Hindi Belt as well as an official language of the Government of India along with English 61 In Northeast India a pidgin known as Haflong Hindi has developed as a lingua franca for the people living in Haflong Assam who speak other languages natively 89 In Arunachal Pradesh Hindi emerged as a lingua franca among locals who speak over 50 dialects natively 90 Hindi is quite easy to understand for many Pakistanis who speak Urdu which like Hindi is a standard register of the Hindustani language additionally Indian media are widely viewed in Pakistan 91 A sizeable population in Afghanistan especially in Kabul can also speak and understand Hindi Urdu due to the popularity and influence of Bollywood films songs and actors in the region 92 93 Hindi is also spoken by a large population of Madheshis people having roots in north India but having migrated to Nepal over hundreds of years of Nepal Apart from this Hindi is spoken by the large Indian diaspora which hails from or has its origin from the Hindi Belt of India A substantially large North Indian diaspora lives in countries like the United States of America the United Kingdom the United Arab Emirates Trinidad and Tobago Guyana Suriname South Africa Fiji and Mauritius where it is natively spoken at home and among their own Hindustani speaking communities Outside India Hindi speakers are 8 million in Nepal 863 077 in United States of America 94 95 450 170 in Mauritius 380 000 in Fiji 80 250 292 in South Africa 150 000 in Suriname 96 100 000 in Uganda 45 800 in United Kingdom 97 20 000 in New Zealand 20 000 in Germany 26 000 in Trinidad and Tobago 96 3 000 in Singapore Comparison with Modern Standard UrduMain articles Hindi Urdu controversy Hindustani phonology and Hindustani grammar Linguistically Hindi and Urdu are two registers of the same language and are mutually intelligible 98 Both Hindi amp Urdu share a core vocabulary of native Prakrit and Sanskrit derived words 26 99 100 However Hindi is written in the Devanagari script and contains more Sanskrit derived words than Urdu whereas Urdu is written in the Perso Arabic script and uses more Arabic and Persian loanwords compared to Hindi 101 Because of this as well as the fact that the two registers share an identical grammar 13 26 99 a consensus of linguists consider them to be two standardised forms of the same language Hindustani or Hindi Urdu 98 13 26 12 Hindi is the most commonly used official language in India Urdu is the national language and lingua franca of Pakistan and is one of 22 official languages of India also having official status in Uttar Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Delhi Telangana 102 and Bihar 103 ScriptMain article Devanagari Hindi is written in the Devanagari script an abugida Devanagari consists of 11 vowels and 33 consonants and is written from left to right Unlike Sanskrit Devanagari is not entirely phonetic for Hindi especially failing to mark schwa deletion in spoken Standard Hindi 104 Romanization Main article Devanagari transliteration The Government of India uses Hunterian transliteration as its official system of writing Hindi in the Latin script Various other systems also exist such as IAST ITRANS and ISO 15919 Romanized Hindi also called Hinglish is the dominant form of Hindi online In an analysis of YouTube comments Palakodety et al identified that 52 of comments were in Romanized Hindi 46 in English and 1 in Devanagari Hindi 5 PhonologyMain article Hindustani phonologyVocabularyFurther information Hindustani etymology and List of Sanskrit and Persian roots in Hindi Traditionally Hindi words are divided into five principal categories according to their etymology Tatsam तत सम same as that words These are words which are spelled the same in Hindi as in Sanskrit except for the absence of final case inflections 105 They include words inherited from Sanskrit via Prakrit which have survived without modification e g Hindi न म nam Sanskrit न म nama name Hindi कर म karm Sanskrit कर म karma deed action karma 106 as well as forms borrowed directly from Sanskrit in more modern times e g प र र थन prarthana prayer 107 Pronunciation however conforms to Hindi norms and may differ from that of classical Sanskrit Amongst nouns the tatsam word could be the Sanskrit non inflected word stem or it could be the nominative singular form in the Sanskrit nominal declension Ardhatatsam अर धतत सम semi tatsama words Such words are typically earlier loanwords from Sanskrit which have undergone sound changes subsequent to being borrowed e g Hindi स रज suraj from Sanskrit स र य surya Tadbhav तद भव born of that words These are native Hindi words derived from Sanskrit after undergoing phonological rules e g Sanskrit कर म karma deed becomes Sauraseni Prakrit कम म kamma and eventually Hindi क म kam work and are spelled differently from Sanskrit 105 Deshaj द शज words These are words that were not borrowings but do not derive from attested Indo Aryan words either Belonging to this category are onomatopoetic words or ones borrowed from local non Indo Aryan languages Videshi व द श foreign words These include all loanwords from non indigenous languages The most frequent source languages in this category are Persian Arabic English and Portuguese Examples are क ल qila fort from Persian कम ट kameṭi from English committee and स ब न sabun soap from Arabic Hindi also makes extensive use of loan translation calqueing and occasionally phono semantic matching of English 108 Prakrit Hindi has naturally inherited a large portion of its vocabulary from Shauraseni Prakrit in the form of tadbhava words This process usually involves compensatory lengthening of vowels preceding consonant clusters in Prakrit e g Sanskrit tikṣṇa gt Prakrit tikkha gt Hindi tikha Sanskrit Much of Modern Standard Hindi s vocabulary is borrowed from Sanskrit as tatsam borrowings especially in technical and academic fields The formal Hindi standard from which much of the Persian Arabic and English vocabulary has been replaced by neologisms compounding tatsam words is called Suddh Hindi pure Hindi and is viewed as a more prestigious dialect over other more colloquial forms of Hindi Excessive use of tatsam words sometimes creates problems for native speakers They may have Sanskrit consonant clusters which do not exist in native Hindi causing difficulties in pronunciation 109 As a part of the process of Sanskritization new words are coined using Sanskrit components to be used as replacements for supposedly foreign vocabulary Usually these neologisms are calques of English words already adopted into spoken Hindi Some terms such as durbhaṣ telephone literally far speech and durdarsan television literally far sight have even gained some currency in formal Hindi in the place of the English borrowings ṭeli fon and ṭivi 110 Persian Hindi also features significant Persian influence standardised from spoken Hindustani 101 111 page needed Early borrowings beginning in the mid 12th century were specific to Islam e g Muhammad islam and so Persian was simply an intermediary for Arabic Later under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire Persian became the primary administrative language in the Hindi heartland Persian borrowings reached a heyday in the 17th century pervading all aspects of life Even grammatical constructs namely the izafat were assimilated into Hindi 112 Post Partition the Indian government advocated for a policy of Sanskritization leading to a marginalisation of the Persian element in Hindi However many Persian words e g muskil difficult bas enough hava air x a yal thought kitab Book khud Self have remained entrenched in Modern Standard Hindi and a larger amount are still used in Urdu poetry written in the Devanagari script Arabic Arabic also shows influence in Hindi often via Persian but sometimes directly 113 Sample list of loaned Arabic words used in Hindi Serial No Arabic Word Hindi word Devanagri Script 1 waqt وقت वक त2 qamees قميص क म स3 book کتاب क त ब4 destiny नस ब नस ब5 chair کرسی क र स 6 calculation حساب ह स ब7 law قانون क न न8 news خبر ख बर9 world دنیا द न य 114 MediaLiterature Main article Hindi literature Hindi literature is broadly divided into four prominent forms or styles being Bhakti devotional Kabir Raskhan Sṛṇgar beauty Keshav Bihari Vigatha epic and Adhunik modern Medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence of Bhakti movement and the composition of long epic poems It was primarily written in other varieties of Hindi particularly Avadhi and Braj Bhasha but to a degree also in Delhavi the basis for Modern Standard Hindi During the British Raj Hindustani became the prestige dialect Chandrakanta written by Devaki Nandan Khatri in 1888 is considered the first authentic work of prose in modern Hindi 115 The person who brought realism in Hindi prose literature was Munshi Premchand who is considered as the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement Literary or Sahityik Hindi was popularised by the writings of Swami Dayananda Saraswati Bhartendu Harishchandra and others The rising numbers of newspapers and magazines made Hindustani popular with educated people citation needed The Dvivedi Yug Age of Dwivedi in Hindi literature lasted from 1900 to 1918 It is named after Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi who played a major role in establishing Modern Standard Hindi in poetry and broadening the acceptable subjects of Hindi poetry from the traditional ones of religion and romantic love In the 20th century Hindi literature saw a romantic upsurge This is known as Chayavad shadow ism and the literary figures belonging to this school are known as Chayavadi Jaishankar Prasad Suryakant Tripathi Nirala Mahadevi Varma and Sumitranandan Pant are the four major Chayavadi poets Uttar Adhunik is the post modernist period of Hindi literature marked by a questioning of early trends that copied the West as well as the excessive ornamentation of the Chayavadi movement and by a return to simple language and natural themes Internet Hindi literature music and film have all been disseminated via the internet In 2015 Google reported a 94 increase in Hindi content consumption year on year adding that 21 of users in India prefer content in Hindi 116 Many Hindi newspapers also offer digital editions Sample textSee also Urdu Sample text The following is a sample text in High Hindi of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the United Nations Hindi in Devanagari Script अन च छ द 1 एक सभ मन ष य जन म स मर य द और अध क र म स वत त र और सम न ह त ह व तर क और व व क स स पन न ह तथ उन ह भ र त त व क भ वन स परस पर क प रत क र य करन च ह ए Transliteration ISO dd Anucched 1 ek Sabhi manuṣya janma se maryada aur adhikarō me svatantra aur saman hōte haĩ Ve tark aur vivek se sampanna haĩ tatha unhe bhratr tva ki bhavana se paraspar ke prati karya karna cahie Transcription IPA enʊtːʃʰeːd eːk sebʰiː menʊʂje dʒenme seː meɾjaːd aː ɔːɾ ed ʰɪkaːɾoː mẽː sʋet ent ɾe ɔːɾ semaːn hoːteː hɛ ː ʋeː t eɾk ɔːɾ ʋɪʋeːk seː sempenːe hɛ ː t etʰaː ʊnʰẽː bʰɾaːtɾɪt ʋe kiː bʰaːʋenaː seː peɾespeɾ keː pɾet iː kaːɾje keɾnaː tʃaːhɪeː Gloss word to word Article 1 one All humans birth from dignity and rights in independent and equal are They logic and conscience from endowed are and they fraternity in the spirit of each other towards work should Translation grammatical Article 1 All humans are born independent and equal in dignity and rights They are endowed with logic and conscience and they should work towards each other in the spirit of fraternity See alsoHindi Belt Bengali Language Movement Manbhum Hindi Divas the official day to celebrate Hindi as a language Languages of India Languages with official status in India Indian states by most spoken scheduled languages List of English words of Hindi or Urdu origin List of Hindi channels in Europe by type List of languages by number of native speakers in India List of Sanskrit and Persian roots in Hindi World Hindi SecretariatPortals India Languages Writing LinguisticsNotes protected language third official court language third official court language References Scheduled Languages in descending order of speaker s strength 2011 PDF Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India 29 June 2018 Hindi at Ethnologue 21st ed 2018 a b Hindustani 2005 Keith Brown ed Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics 2 ed Elsevier ISBN 0 08 044299 4 Gangopadhyay Avik 2020 Glimpses of Indian Languages Evincepub publishing p 43 ISBN 9789390197828 a b Palakodety Shriphani KhudaBukhsh Ashiqur R Jayachandran Guha 2021 Low Resource Machine Translation Low Resource Social Media Text Mining Singapore Springer Singapore pp 7 9 doi 10 1007 978 981 16 5625 5 5 ISBN 978 981 16 5624 8 S2CID 244313560 retrieved 24 September 2022 a b Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996 Chapter 1 Founding Provisions www gov za Retrieved 6 December 2014 Abu Dhabi includes Hindi as third official court language The Hindu 10 February 2019 via www thehindu com Central Hindi Directorate Introduction Archived from the original on 4 May 2012 Retrieved 18 February 2014 Singh Rajendra and Rama Kant Agnihotri Hindi morphology A word based description Vol 9 Motilal Banarsidass Publ 1997 Constitution of India Archived from the original on 2 April 2012 Retrieved 21 March 2012 About Hindi Urdu North Carolina State University Archived from the original on 15 August 2009 Retrieved 9 August 2009 a b Basu Manisha 2017 The Rhetoric of Hindutva Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 107 14987 8 Urdu like Hindi was a standardized register of the Hindustani language deriving from the Delhi dialect and emerged in the eighteenth century under the rule of the late Mughals a b c Peter Dass Rakesh 2019 Hindi Christian Literature in Contemporary India Routledge ISBN 978 1 00 070224 8 Two forms of the same language Nagarai Hindi and Persianized Hindi Urdu had identical grammar shared common words and roots and employed different scripts Constitutional Provisions Official Language Related Part 17 of The Constitution Of India Department of Official Language Government of India Archived from the original on 13 January 2017 Retrieved 15 February 2017 a b How languages intersect in India Hindustan Times 22 November 2018 How many Indians can you talk to www hindustantimes com Retrieved 22 December 2019 Hindi and the North South divide 9 October 2018 Pillalamarri Akhilesh India s Evolving Linguistic Landscape thediplomat com Retrieved 22 December 2019 PART A Languages specified in the Eighth Schedule Scheduled Languages Archived from the original on 29 October 2013 How many Indians can you talk to www hindustantimes com Hindi Diwas 2018 Hindi travelled to these five countries from India 14 September 2018 a b Sequence of events with reference to official language of the Union Archived from the original on 2 August 2011 र पब ल क ऑफ फ ज क स व ध न Constitution of the Republic of Fiji the Hindi version Archived from the original on 1 November 2013 Caribbean Languages and Caribbean Linguistics PDF University of the West Indies Press Archived from the original PDF on 20 December 2016 Retrieved 16 July 2016 Richard K Barz 8 May 2007 The cultural significance of Hindi in Mauritius South Asia Journal of South Asian Studies 3 1 13 doi 10 1080 00856408008722995 a b c d Gube Jan Gao Fang 2019 Education Ethnicity and Equity in the Multilingual Asian Context Springer Publishing ISBN 978 981 13 3125 1 The national language of India and Pakistan Standard Urdu is mutually intelligible with Standard Hindi because both languages share the same Indic base and are all but indistinguishable in phonology and grammar Lust et al 2000 Mikael Parkvall Varldens 100 storsta sprak 2007 The World s 100 Largest Languages in 2007 in Nationalencyklopedin Asterisks mark the 2010 estimates Archived 11 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine for the top dozen languages Gambhir Vijay 1995 The Teaching and Acquisition of South Asian Languages University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 978 0 8122 3328 5 The position of Hindi Urdu among the languages of the world is anomalous The number of its proficient speakers over three hundred million places it in third of fourth place after Mandarin English and perhaps Spanish Hindustani Columbia University Press Archived from the original on 29 July 2017 via encyclopedia com Steingass Francis Joseph 1892 A comprehensive Persian English dictionary London Routledge amp K Paul p 1514 Archived from the original on 21 June 2020 Retrieved 13 February 2018 Khan Rajak Indo Persian Literature and Amir Khusro University of Delhi Retrieved 17 February 2018 permanent dead link Losensky Paul E 15 July 2013 In the Bazaar of Love The Selected Poetry of Amir Khusrau Penguin UK ISBN 9788184755220 via Google Books Mihir Bose 18 April 2006 The Magic of Indian Cricket Cricket and Society in India Routledge pp 1 3 ISBN 978 1 134 24924 4 India Online Etymology Dictionary a b Brief History of Hindi Central Hindi Directorate Archived from the original on 6 March 2014 Retrieved 21 March 2012 Masica pp 187 211 Chapman Graham Religious vs regional determinism India Pakistan and Bangladesh as inheritors of empire Shared space Divided space Essays on conflict and territorial organization 1990 106 134 Women of the Indian Sub Continent Makings of a Culture Rekhta Foundation Google Arts amp Culture Retrieved 25 February 2020 The Ganga Jamuni tehzeeb is one such instance of the composite culture that marks various regions of the country Prevalent in the North particularly in the central plains it is born of the union between the Hindu and Muslim cultures Most of the temples were lined along the Ganges and the Khanqah Sufi school of thought were situated along the Yamuna river also called Jamuna Thus it came to be known as the Ganga Jamuni tehzeeb with the word tehzeeb meaning culture More than communal harmony its most beautiful by product was Hindustani which later gave us the Hindi and Urdu languages Matthews David John Shackle C Husain Shahanara 1985 Urdu literature Urdu Markaz Third World Foundation for Social and Economic Studies ISBN 978 0 907962 30 4 But with the establishment of Muslim rule in Delhi it was the Old Hindi of this area which came to form the major partner with Persian This variety of Hindi is called Khari Boli the upright speech Dhulipala Venkat 2000 The Politics of Secularism Medieval Indian Historiography and the Sufis University of Wisconsin Madison p 27 Persian became the court language and many Persian words crept into popular usage The composite culture of northern India known as the Ganga Jamuni tehzeeb was a product of the interaction between Hindu society and Islam Indian Journal of Social Work Volume 4 Tata Institute of Social Sciences 1943 p 264 more words of Sanskrit origin but 75 of the vocabulary is common It is also admitted that while this language is known as Hindustani Muslims call it Urdu and the Hindus call it Hindi Urdu is a national language evolved through years of Hindu and Muslim cultural contact and as stated by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru is essentially an Indian language and has no place outside Mody Sujata Sudhakar 2008 Literature Language and Nation Formation The Story of a Modern Hindi Journal 1900 1920 University of California Berkeley p 7 Hindustani Rekhta and Urdu as later names of the old Hindi a k a Hindavi Kesavan B S 1997 History Of Printing And Publishing In India National Book Trust India p 31 ISBN 978 81 237 2120 0 It might be useful to recall here that Old Hindi or Hindavi which was a naturally Persian mixed language in the largest measure has played this role before as we have seen for five or six centuries Hans Henrich Hock 1991 Principles of Historical Linguistics Walter de Gruyter p 475 ISBN 978 3 11 012962 5 During the time of British rule Hindi in its religiously neutral Hindustani variety increasingly came to be the symbol of national unity over against the English of the foreign oppressor And Hindustani was learned widely throughout India even in Bengal and the Dravidian south Independence had been accompanied by the division of former British India into two countries Pakistan and India The former had been established as a Muslim state and had made Urdu the Muslim variety of Hindi Urdu or Hindustani its national language Masica Colin P 1993 The Indo Aryan Languages Cambridge University Press pp 430 Appendix I ISBN 978 0 521 29944 2 Hindustani term referring to common colloquial base of HINDI and URDU and to its function as lingua franca over much of India much in vogue during Independence movement as expression of national unity after Partition in 1947 and subsequent linguistic polarization it fell into disfavor census of 1951 registered an enormous decline 86 98 per cent in no of persons declaring it their mother tongue the majority of HINDI speakers and many URDU speakers had done so in previous censuses trend continued in subsequent censuses only 11 053 returned it in 1971 mostly from S India see Khubchandani 1983 90 1 Ashmore Harry S 1961 Encyclopaedia Britannica a new survey of universal knowledge Volume 11 Encyclopaedia Britannica p 579 The everyday speech of well over 50 000 000 persons of all communities in the north of India and in West Pakistan is the expression of a common language Hindustani Tunstall Jeremy 2008 The media were American U S mass media in decline Oxford University Press p 160 ISBN 978 0 19 518146 3 The Hindi film industry used the most popular street level version of Hindi namely Hindustani which included a lot of Urdu and Persian words Hiro Dilip 2015 The Longest August The Unflinching Rivalry Between India and Pakistan PublicAffairs p 398 ISBN 978 1 56858 503 1 Spoken Hindi is akin to spoken Urdu and that language is often called Hindustani Bollywood s screenplays are written in Hindustani Turek Aleksandra Is the Dhola Maru ra duha only a poetic elaboration Culture Polity and Economy Shapiro 2003 p 280 Rekhta Poetry in Mixed Language The Emergence of Khari Boli Literature in North India PDF Columbia University Archived from the original PDF on 28 March 2016 Retrieved 23 April 2018 Evolution of Hindi From boli dialect to rashtrabhasha rajbhasha National Official Language Archived from the original on 30 August 2006 Retrieved 9 October 2006 Paul R Brass 2005 Language Religion and Politics in North India iUniverse Incorporated ISBN 9780595343942 Parthasarathy Kumar p 120 Ahmed Farzand Decision to make Urdu second official language in Bihar provokes furore from Maithil Brahmins India Today Retrieved 17 December 2022 Clyne Michael 24 May 2012 Pluricentric Languages Differing Norms in Different Nations Walter de Gruyter ISBN 9783110888140 Choudhry Sujit Khosla Madhav Mehta Pratap Bhanu 12 May 2016 The Oxford Handbook of the Indian Constitution Oxford University Press ISBN 9780191058615 Grewal J S 8 October 1998 The Sikhs of the Punjab Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521637640 ह न द द वस व श ष इनक प रय स स म ल थ ह न द क र जभ ष क दर ज 8 September 2015 Archived from the original on 11 September 2017 Hindi Diwas celebration How it all began The Indian Express 14 September 2016 Archived from the original on 8 February 2017 Retrieved 7 February 2017 a b The Constitution of India PDF Archived from the original PDF on 9 September 2014 Rajbhasha PDF in Hindi and English india gov in Archived from the original PDF on 31 January 2012 THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGES ACT 1963 AS AMENDED 1967 Act No 19 of 1963 Department of Official Language Archived from the original on 16 December 2016 Retrieved 9 June 2016 Report of the Commissioner for linguistic minorities 50th report July 2012 to June 2013 PDF Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities Ministry of Minority Affairs Government of India Archived from the original PDF on 8 July 2016 Retrieved 26 December 2014 Benedikter Thomas 2009 Language Policy and Linguistic Minorities in India An Appraisal of the Linguistic Rights of Minorities in India LIT Verlag Munster p 89 ISBN 978 3 643 10231 7 Archived from the original on 25 April 2016 Retrieved 13 June 2018 Roy Anirban 27 May 2011 West Bengal to have six more languages for official use India Today Retrieved 10 January 2020 Roy Anirban 28 February 2018 Kamtapuri Rajbanshi make it to list of official languages in India Today Archived from the original on 30 March 2018 Retrieved 16 March 2019 Sen Sumant 4 June 2019 Hindi the first choice of people in only 12 States The Hindu Choudhury Sushmita Sharma Rajesh 15 September 2021 70 years on India is still fighting over a national language The Times of India Retrieved 19 March 2022 Swaddle The 12 June 2021 Hindi Isn t India s National Language Why Does the Myth Continue The Swaddle Retrieved 19 March 2022 Why Hindi isn t the national language Firstpost 31 May 2019 Retrieved 19 March 2022 Khan Saeed 25 January 2010 There s no national language in India Gujarat High Court The Times of India Ahmedabad The Times Group Archived from the original on 18 March 2014 Retrieved 5 May 2014 Hindi not a national language Court The Hindu Ahmedabad Press Trust of India 25 January 2010 Archived from the original on 4 July 2014 Retrieved 23 December 2014 Hakim Sharmeen 19 February 2022 Bombay High Court Judge Calls Hindi National Language While Rejecting Bail Accused In Narcotics Case Files SLP In SC www livelaw in Retrieved 19 March 2022 Bombay HC calls Hindi national language while denying man bail he moves SC The News Minute 20 February 2022 Retrieved 19 March 2022 Hindi national language says HC as it rejects bail petition in NDPS case Hindustan Times 20 February 2022 Retrieved 19 March 2022 Mohan Saadhya 22 October 2021 Despite What Popular Belief May Suggest Hindi Is Not India s National Language TheQuint Retrieved 19 March 2022 Zomato Reinstates Executive Who Told Customer Hindi is Our National Language News18 19 October 2021 Retrieved 19 March 2022 kini Ashok If There Is A Variation In Hindi And English Version Of An Enactment Which Will Prevail SC To Examine Live Law Retrieved 17 December 2022 a b c Hindi Fiji Ethnologue Archived from the original on 11 February 2017 Retrieved 17 February 2017 Fiji Hindi alphabet pronunciation and language www omniglot com Archived from the original on 8 June 2017 Retrieved 22 June 2017 Section 4 of Fiji Constitution servat unibe ch Archived from the original on 9 June 2009 Retrieved 3 May 2009 Constitution of Fiji Official site of the Fijian Government Archived from the original on 11 October 2016 Retrieved 14 October 2016 Population Monograph of Nepal Vol 2 PDF Kathmandu Central Bureau of Statistics 2014 Retrieved 29 March 2020 Nalankilli Thanjai Hindi in Nepal An Analysis Tamiltribune com Retrieved 17 December 2022 Mesthrie Rajend A history of the Bhojpuri or Hindi language in South Africa University of Cape Town Retrieved 17 December 2022 Abu Dhabi includes Hindi as third official court language The Hindu 10 February 2019 via www thehindu com UAE introduces Hindi as third official language Business Standard Retrieved 17 December 2022 Kothari Ria ed 2011 Chutnefying English The Phenomenon of Hinglish Penguin Books India p 128 ISBN 9780143416395 Chandra Abhimanyu How Hindi became the language of choice in Arunachal Pradesh Scroll in Archived from the original on 11 December 2016 Gandapur Khalid Amir Khan 19 September 2012 Has Hindi become our national language The Express Tribune Archived from the original on 31 July 2019 Retrieved 24 January 2020 Hakala Walter N 2012 Languages as a Key to Understanding Afghanistan s Cultures PDF National Geographic Retrieved 13 March 2018 In the 1980s and 90s at least three million Afghans mostly Pashtun fled to Pakistan where a substantial number spent several years being exposed to Hindi and Urdu language media especially Bollywood films and songs and being educated in Urdu language schools both of which contributed to the decline of Dari even among urban Pashtuns Krishnamurthy Rajeshwari 28 June 2013 Kabul Diary Discovering the Indian connection Gateway House Indian Council on Global Relations Retrieved 13 March 2018 Most Afghans in Kabul understand and or speak Hindi thanks to the popularity of Indian cinema in the country Hindi most spoken Indian language in US Telugu speakers up 86 in 8 years India News Times of India The Times of India United States Languages Ethnologue Archived from the original on 11 February 2017 Retrieved 17 February 2017 a b Frawley p 481 United Kingdom Languages Ethnologue Archived from the original on 1 February 2017 Retrieved 17 February 2017 a b Hindi and Urdu are classified as literary registers of the same language Archived from the original on 2 June 2016 Retrieved 1 June 2016 a b Kuiper Kathleen 2010 The Culture of India Rosen Publishing ISBN 978 1 61530 149 2 Urdu is closely related to Hindi a language that originated and developed in the Indian subcontinent They share the same Indic base and are so similar in phonology and grammar that they appear to be one language Chatterji Suniti Kumar Siṃha Udaẏa Naraẏana Padikkal Shivarama 1997 Suniti Kumar Chatterji a centenary tribute Sahitya Akademi ISBN 978 81 260 0353 2 High Hindi written in Devanagari having identical grammar with Urdu employing the native Hindi or Hindustani Prakrit elements to the fullest but for words of high culture going to Sanskrit Hindustani proper that represents the basic Khari Boli with vocabulary holding a balance between Urdu and High Hindi a b Jain Danesh Cardona George 2007 The Indo Aryan Languages Routledge ISBN 978 1 135 79711 9 The primary sources of non IA loans into MSH are Arabic Persian Portuguese Turkic and English Conversational registers of Hindi Urdu not to mentioned formal registers of Urdu employ large numbers of Persian and Arabic loanwords although in Sanskritized registers many of these words are replaced by tatsama forms from Sanskrit The Persian and Arabic lexical elements in Hindi result from the effects of centuries of Islamic administrative rule over much of north India in the centuries before the establishment of British rule in India Although it is conventional to differentiate among Persian and Arabic loan elements into Hindi Urdu in practice it is often difficult to separate these strands from one another The Arabic and also Turkic lexemes borrowed into Hindi frequently were mediated through Persian as a result of which a thorough intertwining of Persian and Arabic elements took place as manifest by such phenomena as hybrid compounds and compound words Moreover although the dominant trajectory of lexical borrowing was from Arabic into Persian and thence into Hindi Urdu examples can be found of words that in origin are actually Persian loanwords into both Arabic and Hindi Urdu Javaid Arfa 23 June 2021 18 June 2021 List of Official Languages of Indian States and Union Territories jagranjosh com Ahmed Farzand Decision to make Urdu second official language in Bihar provokes furore from Maithil Brahmins India Today Retrieved 17 December 2022 Bhatia Tej K 1987 A History of the Hindi Grammatical Tradition Hindi Hindustani Grammar Grammarians History and Problems Brill ISBN 9789004079243 a b Masica p 65 Masica p 66 Masica p 67 Arnold David Robb Peter 2013 Institutions and Ideologies A SOAS South Asia Reader Routledge p 79 ISBN 9781136102349 Ohala Manjari 1983 Aspects of Hindi Phonology Motilal Banarsidass Publishers p 38 ISBN 9780895816702 Arnold David Robb Peter 2013 Institutions and Ideologies A SOAS South Asia Reader Routledge p 82 ISBN 9781136102349 Kachru Yamuna 2006 Hindi John Benjamins Publishing ISBN 9789027238122 Bhatia Tej K Ritchie William C 2006 The Handbook of Bilingualism John Wiley and Sons p 789 ISBN 9780631227359 D S 10 February 2011 Arabic and Hindi The Economist Archived from the original on 22 April 2016 Retrieved 13 April 2016 Khalife Leyal 9 Hindi words that sound just like Arabic Stepfeed com Retrieved 16 December 2022 Stop outraging over Marathi Hindi and English chauvinism is much worse in India Archived from the original on 19 September 2015 Hindi content consumption on internet growing at 94 Google The Economic Times 18 August 2015 Archived from the original on 15 February 2018 Retrieved 14 February 2018 Bibliography Bhatia Tej K 11 September 2002 Colloquial Hindi The Complete Course for Beginners Taylor amp Francis ISBN 978 1 134 83534 8 Retrieved 19 July 2014 Grierson G A Linguistic Survey of India Vol I XI Calcutta 1928 ISBN 81 85395 27 6 searchable database Koul Omkar N 2008 Modern Hindi grammar PDF Springfield VA Dunwoody Press ISBN 978 1 931546 06 5 Archived from the original PDF on 26 July 2014 Retrieved 19 July 2014 McGregor R S 1995 Outline of Hindi grammar With exercises 3 ed Oxford Clarendon Pr ISBN 978 0 19 870008 1 Retrieved 19 July 2014 Frawley William 2003 International Encyclopedia of Linguistics AAVE Esparanto Vol 1 Oxford University Press p 481 ISBN 978 0 195 13977 8 Parthasarathy R Kumar Swargesh 2012 Bihar Tourism Retrospect and Prospect Concept Publishing Company p 120 ISBN 978 8 180 69799 9 Masica Colin 1991 The Indo Aryan Languages Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 29944 2 Ohala Manjari 1999 Hindi In International Phonetic Association ed Handbook of the International Phonetic Association a Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet Cambridge University Press pp 100 103 ISBN 978 0 521 63751 0 Sadana Rashmi 2012 English Heart Hindi Heartland the Political Life of Literature in India University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 26957 6 Retrieved 19 July 2014 Shapiro Michael C 2001 Hindi In Garry Jane Rubino Carl eds An encyclopedia of the world s major languages past and present New England Publishing Associates pp 305 309 Shapiro Michael C 2003 Hindi In Cardona George Jain Dhanesh eds The Indo Aryan Languages Routledge pp 250 285 ISBN 978 0 415 77294 5 Snell Rupert Weightman Simon 1989 Teach Yourself Hindi 2003 ed McGraw Hill ISBN 978 0 07 142012 9 Taj Afroz 2002 A door into Hindi Retrieved 8 November 2005 Tiwari Bholanath 1966 2004 ह न द भ ष Hindi Bhasha Kitab Pustika Allahabad ISBN 81 225 0017 X Dictionaries McGregor R S 1993 Oxford Hindi English Dictionary 2004 ed Oxford University Press USA Hardev Bahri 1989 Learners Hindi English dictionary Delhi Rajapala Mahendra Caturvedi 1970 A practical Hindi English dictionary Delhi National Publishing House Academic Room Hindi Dictionary Mobile App developed in the Harvard Innovation Lab iOS Android and Blackberry John Thompson Platts 1884 A dictionary of Urdu classical Hindi and English reprint ed LONDON H Milford p 1259 retrieved 6 July 2011Further reading Bangha Imre 2018 Hindi In Fleet Kate Kramer Gudrun Matringe Denis Nawas John Rowson Everett eds Encyclopaedia of Islam THREE Brill Online ISSN 1873 9830 Bhatia Tej K A History of the Hindi Grammatical Tradition Leiden Netherlands amp New York NY E J Brill 1987 ISBN 90 04 07924 6External links Hindi edition of Wikipedia the free encyclopedia Look up Category Hindi language in Wiktionary the free dictionary Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for Hindi Hindi at Curlie The Union Official Language Official Unicode Chart for Devanagari PDF Hindi at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Phrasebook from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Hindi amp oldid 1131310463, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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