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Muslim world

January 18, 2023

The terms Muslim world and Islamic world commonly refer to the Islamic community, which is also known as the Ummah. This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs and laws of Islam[1] or to societies in which Islam is practiced.[2][3] In a modern geopolitical sense, these terms refer to countries in which Islam is widespread, although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion.[4][3] The term Muslim-majority countries is an alternative often used for the latter sense.[5]

World Muslim population by percentage (Pew Research Center, 2014)

The history of the Muslim world spans about 1,400 years and includes a variety of socio-political developments, as well as advances in the arts, science, medicine, philosophy, law, economics and technology, particularly during the Islamic Golden Age. All Muslims look for guidance to the Quran and believe in the prophetic mission of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, but disagreements on other matters have led to the appearance of different religious schools of thought and sects within Islam.[6] In the modern era, most of the Muslim world came under European colonial domination. The nation states that emerged in the post-colonial era have adopted a variety of political and economic models, and they have been affected by secular and as well as religious trends.[7]

As of 2013, the combined GDP (nominal) of 49 Muslim majority countries was US$5.7 trillion.[8] As of 2016, they contributed 8% of the world's total.[9] In 2020 Economy of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation which consists of 57 member states had combined GDP US$22 trillion or US$ 28 trillion with 5 OIC observer states which is equal about 22% world GDP. As of 2015, 1.8 billion or about 24.1% of the world population are Muslims.[10] By the percentage of the total population in a region considering themselves Muslim, 91% in the Middle East-North Africa (MENA),[11] 89% in Central Asia,[12] 40% in Southeast Asia,[13] 31% in South Asia,[14][15] 30% in Sub-Saharan Africa,[16] 25% in Asia–Oceania,[17] around 6% in Europe,[18] and 1% in the Americas.[19][20][21][22]

Most Muslims are of one of two denominations: Sunni Islam (87-90%)[23] and Shia (10-13%).[24] However, other denominations exist in pockets, such as Ibadi (primarily in Oman). About 13% of Muslims live in Indonesia, the largest Muslim-majority country;[25] 31% of Muslims live in South Asia,[26] the largest population of Muslims in the world;[27] 20% in the Middle East–North Africa,[28] where it is the dominant religion;[29] and 15% in Sub-Saharan Africa and West Africa, incl. Nigeria.[30] Muslims are the overwhelming majority in Central Asia,[31] the majority in the Caucasus,[32][33] and widespread in Southeast Asia.[34] India has the largest Muslim population outside Muslim-majority countries.[35] Pakistan, Bangladesh, Iran and Egypt are home to second, fourth, sixth and seventh largest Muslim populations. Sizeable Muslim communities are also found in the Americas, Russia, China, and Europe.[36][37][38] Islam is the fastest-growing major religion in the world.[39][40][41] China has the second largest Muslim population outside Muslim-majority countries while Russia has the third largest Muslim population. Nigeria has the largest Muslim population in Africa while Indonesia has the largest Muslim population in Asia.

Terminology

The term has been documented as early as 1912 to encompass the influence of perceived pan-Islamic propaganda. The Times described Pan-Islamism as a movement with power, importance, and cohesion born in Paris, where Turks, Arabs and Persians congregated. The correspondent's focus was on India: it would take too long to consider the progress made in various parts of the Muslim world. The article considered the position of the Amir, the effect of the Tripoli Campaign[disambiguation needed], Anglo-Russian action in Persia, and "Afghan Ambitions".[42]

In a modern geopolitical sense, the terms 'Muslim world' and 'Islamic world' refer to countries in which Islam is widespread, although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion.[43][3] Some scholars and commentators have criticised the term 'Muslim/Islamic world' and its derivative terms 'Muslim/Islamic country' as "simplistic" and "binary", since no state has a religiously homogeneous population (e.g. Egypt's citizens are c. 10% Christians), and in absolute numbers, there are sometimes fewer Muslims living in countries in which they make up the majority than in countries in which they form a minority.[44][45][46] Hence, the term 'Muslim-majority countries' is often preferred in literature.[5]

Culture

Classical culture

Main article: Islamic Golden Age

The term "Islamic Golden Age" has been attributed to a period in history during which science, economic development and cultural works in most of the Muslim-dominated world flourished.[47][48] The age is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (786–809) with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where scholars from various parts of the world sought to translate and gather all the known world's knowledge into Arabic,[49][50] and to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due to Mongol invasions and the Siege of Baghdad in 1258.[51] The Abbasids were influenced by the Quranic injunctions and hadiths, such as "the ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr," that stressed the value of knowledge. The major Islamic capital cities of Baghdad, Cairo, and Córdoba became the main intellectual centers for science, philosophy, medicine, and education.[52] During this period, the Muslim world was a collection of cultures; they drew together and advanced the knowledge gained from the ancient Greek, Roman, Persian, Chinese, Indian, Egyptian, and Phoenician civilizations.[53]

Ceramics

Further information: Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world
 
A Seljuq, shatranj (chess) set, glazed fritware, 12th century.

Between the 8th and 18th centuries, the use of ceramic glaze was prevalent in Islamic art, usually assuming the form of elaborate pottery.[54] Tin-opacified glazing was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in Basra, dating to around the 8th century. Another contribution was the development of fritware, originating from 9th-century Iraq.[55] Other centers for innovative ceramic pottery in the Old world included Fustat (from 975 to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600) and Tabriz (from 1470 to 1550).[56]

Literature

Main article: Islamic literature
Further information: Islamic poetry

The best known work of fiction from the Islamic world is One Thousand and One Nights (In Persian: hezār-o-yek šab > Arabic: ʔalf-layl-at-wa-l’-layla= One thousand Night and (one) Night) or *Arabian Nights, a name invented by early Western translators, which is a compilation of folk tales from Sanskrit, Persian, and later Arabian fables. The original concept is derived from a pre-Islamic Persian prototype Hezār Afsān (Thousand Fables) that relied on particular Indian elements.[58] It reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.[59] All Arabian fantasy tales tend to be called Arabian Nights stories when translated into English, regardless of whether they appear in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights or not.[59] This work has been very influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland.[60] Imitations were written, especially in France.[61] Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad the Sailor and Ali Baba.[citation needed]

A famous[citation needed] example of Arabic poetry and Persian poetry on romance (love) is Layla and Majnun, dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. It is a tragic story of undying love. Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, the national epic of Greater Iran, is a mythical and heroic retelling of Persian history. Amir Arsalan was also a popular mythical Persian story, which has influenced some modern works of fantasy fiction, such as The Heroic Legend of Arslan.[citation needed]

Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and Ibn al-Nafis were pioneers of the philosophical novel. Ibn Tufail wrote the first Arabic novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus) as a response to Al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers, and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a novel Theologus Autodidactus as a response to Ibn Tufail's Philosophus Autodidactus. Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy in Philosophus Autodidactus and Kamil in Theologus Autodidactus) who were autodidactic feral children living in seclusion on a desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story in Philosophus Autodidactus, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in Theologus Autodidactus, developing into the earliest known coming of age plot and eventually becoming the first example of a science fiction novel.[62][63]

Theologus Autodidactus,[64][65] written by the Arabian polymath Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288), is the first example of a science fiction novel.[66] It deals with various science fiction elements such as spontaneous generation, futurology, the end of the world and doomsday, resurrection, and the afterlife. Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using the scientific knowledge of biology, astronomy, cosmology and geology known in his time. Ibn al-Nafis' fiction explained Islamic religious teachings via science and Islamic philosophy.[67]

A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail's work, Philosophus Autodidactus, first appeared in 1671, prepared by Edward Pococke the Younger, followed by an English translation by Simon Ockley in 1708, as well as German and Dutch translations. These translations might have later inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe, regarded as the first novel in English.[68][69][70][71] Philosophus Autodidactus, continuing the thoughts of philosophers such as Aristotle from earlier ages, inspired Robert Boyle to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, The Aspiring Naturalist.[72]

Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy,[73] derived features of and episodes about Bolgia[74] from Arabic works on Islamic eschatology:[75][76] the Hadith and the Kitab al-Miraj (translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before[77] as Liber scalae Machometi[78]) concerning the ascension to Heaven of Muhammad,[79] and the spiritual writings of Ibn Arabi.[80] The Moors also had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peele and William Shakespeare. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's The Battle of Alcazar and Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, Titus Andronicus and Othello, which featured a Moorish Othello as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish delegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England at the beginning of the 17th century.[81]

Philosophy

Main article: Contemporary Islamic philosophy
Further information: Logic in Islamic philosophy and Kalam

One of the common definitions for "Islamic philosophy" is "the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture."[82] Islamic philosophy, in this definition is neither necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor is exclusively produced by Muslims.[82] The Persian scholar Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980–1037) had more than 450 books attributed to him. His writings were concerned with various subjects, most notably philosophy and medicine. His medical textbook The Canon of Medicine was used as the standard text in European universities for centuries. He also wrote The Book of Healing, an influential scientific and philosophical encyclopedia.[citation needed]

One of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West was Averroes (Ibn Rushd), founder of the Averroism school of philosophy, whose works and commentaries affected the rise of secular thought in Europe.[83] He also developed the concept of "existence precedes essence".[84]

Another figure from the Islamic Golden Age, Avicenna, also founded his own Avicennism school of philosophy, which was influential in both Islamic and Christian lands.[85] He was also a critic of Aristotelian logic and founder of Avicennian logic, developed the concepts of empiricism and tabula rasa, and distinguished between essence and existence.[citation needed]

Yet another influential philosopher who had an influence on modern philosophy was Ibn Tufail. His philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdha, translated into Latin as Philosophus Autodidactus in 1671, developed the themes of empiricism, tabula rasa, nature versus nurture,[86] condition of possibility, materialism,[87] and Molyneux's problem.[88] European scholars and writers influenced by this novel include John Locke,[89] Gottfried Leibniz,[71] Melchisédech Thévenot, John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens,[90] George Keith, Robert Barclay, the Quakers,[91] and Samuel Hartlib.[72]

Islamic philosophers continued making advances in philosophy through to the 17th century, when Mulla Sadra founded his school of Transcendent theosophy and developed the concept of existentialism.[92]

Other influential Muslim philosophers include al-Jahiz, a pioneer in evolutionary thought; Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), a pioneer of phenomenology and the philosophy of science and a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy and Aristotle's concept of place (topos); Al-Biruni, a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy; Ibn Tufail and Ibn al-Nafis, pioneers of the philosophical novel; Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi, founder of Illuminationist philosophy; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer of inductive logic; and Ibn Khaldun, a pioneer in the philosophy of history.[93]

Sciences

Main article: Timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world
See also: Physics in the medieval Islamic world, Psychology in medieval Islam, Mathematics in medieval Islam, Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world, and Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world

Sciences

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    An illustration from al-Biruni's astronomical works, explains the different phases of the moon.

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    The Elephant Clock was one of the most famous inventions of Al-Jazari.

Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on experiment than the Greeks.[citation needed] This led to an early scientific method being developed in the Muslim world, where progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from circa 1000, in his Book of Optics. The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Jim Al-Khalili stated in 2009 that Ibn al-Haytham is 'often referred to as the "world's first true scientist".'[94] al-Khwarzimi's invented the log base systems that are being used today, he also contributed theorems in trigonometry as well as limits.[95] Recent studies show that it is very likely that the Medieval Muslim artists were aware of advanced decagonal quasicrystal geometry (discovered half a millennium later in the 1970s and 1980s in the West) and used it in intricate decorative tilework in the architecture.[96]

Muslim physicians contributed to the field of medicine, including the subjects of anatomy and physiology: such as in the 15th-century Persian work by Mansur ibn Muhammad ibn al-Faqih Ilyas entitled Tashrih al-badan (Anatomy of the body) which contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems; or in the work of the Egyptian physician Ibn al-Nafis, who proposed the theory of pulmonary circulation. Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine remained an authoritative medical textbook in Europe until the 18th century. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (also known as Abulcasis) contributed to the discipline of medical surgery with his Kitab al-Tasrif ("Book of Concessions"), a medical encyclopedia which was later translated to Latin and used in European and Muslim medical schools for centuries. Other medical advancements came in the fields of pharmacology and pharmacy.[97]

In astronomy, Muḥammad ibn Jābir al-Ḥarrānī al-Battānī improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis.[citation needed] The corrections made to the geocentric model by al-Battani, Averroes, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mu'ayyad al-Din al-'Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir were later incorporated into the Copernican heliocentric model.[citation needed] Heliocentric theories were also discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Al-Biruni, Al-Sijzi, Qotb al-Din Shirazi, and Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī.[citation needed] The astrolabe, though originally developed by the Greeks, was perfected by Islamic astronomers and engineers, and was subsequently brought to Europe.[citation needed]

Some most famous scientists from the medieval Islamic world include Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Farabi, Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Biruni, Avicenna, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, and Ibn Khaldun.[citation needed]

Technology

 
The Spinning wheel is believed to have been invented in the medieval era (of what is now the Greater Middle East), it is considered to be an important device that contributed greatly to the advancement of the Industrial Revolution. (scene from Al-Maqamat, painted by al-Wasiti 1237)
Main articles: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world and Arab Agricultural Revolution

In technology, the Muslim world adopted papermaking from China.[98] The knowledge of gunpowder was also transmitted from China via predominantly Islamic countries,[99] where formulas for pure potassium nitrate[100][101] were developed.

Advances were made in irrigation and farming, using new technology such as the windmill. Crops such as almonds and citrus fruit were brought to Europe through al-Andalus, and sugar cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans. Arab merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean until the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century. Hormuz was an important center for this trade. There was also a dense network of trade routes in the Mediterranean, along which Muslim-majority countries traded with each other and with European powers such as Venice, Genoa and Catalonia. The Silk Road crossing Central Asia passed through Islamic states between China and Europe. The emergence of major economic empires with technological resources after the conquests of Timur (Tamerlane) and the resurgence of the Timurid Renaissance include the Mali Empire and the India's Bengal Sultanate in particular, a major global trading nation in the world, described by the Europeans to be the "richest country to trade with".[102]

Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made a number of innovative industrial uses of hydropower, and early industrial uses of tidal power and wind power,[103] fossil fuels such as petroleum, and early large factory complexes (tiraz in Arabic).[104] The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial mills were being employed in the Islamic world, including early fulling mills, gristmills, paper mills, hullers, sawmills, ship mills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, tide mills and windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.[98] Muslim engineers also invented crankshafts and water turbines, employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.[105] Such advances made it possible for industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe had an influence on the Industrial Revolution, particularly from the proto-industrialised Mughal Bengal and Tipu Sultan's Kingdom, through the conquests of the East India Company.[106]

History

Main articles: History of Islam and Timeline of Islamic history
 
The Tabula Rogeriana, drawn by Al-Idrisi of Sicily in 1154, one of the most advanced ancient world maps. Al-Idrisi also wrote about the diverse Muslim communities found in various lands. Note: the map is here shown upside-down from the original to match current North/Up, South/Down map design

The history of the Islamic faith as a religion and social institution begins with its inception around 610 CE, when the Islamic prophet Muhammad, a native of Mecca, is believed by Muslims to have received the first revelation of the Quran, and began to preach his message.[107] In 622 CE, facing opposition in Mecca, he and his followers migrated to Yathrib (now Medina), where he was invited to establish a new constitution for the city under his leadership.[107] This migration, called the Hijra, marks the first year of the Islamic calendar. By the time of his death, Muhammad had become the political and spiritual leader of Medina, Mecca, the surrounding region, and numerous other tribes in the Arabian Peninsula.[107]

After Muhammad died in 632, his successors (the Caliphs) continued to lead the Muslim community based on his teachings and guidelines of the Quran. The majority of Muslims consider the first four successors to be 'rightly guided' or Rashidun.[citation needed] The conquests of the Rashidun Caliphate helped to spread Islam beyond the Arabian Peninsula, stretching from northwest India, across Central Asia, the Near East, North Africa, southern Italy, and the Iberian Peninsula, to the Pyrenees. The Arab Muslims were unable to conquer the entire Christian Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor during the Arab–Byzantine wars, however. The succeeding Umayyad Caliphate attempted two failed sieges of Constantinople in 674–678 and 717–718. Meanwhile, the Muslim community tore itself apart into the rivalling Sunni and Shia sects since the killing of caliph Uthman in 656, resulting in a succession crisis that has never been resolved.[108] The following First, Second and Third Fitnas and finally the Abbasid Revolution (746–750) also definitively destroyed the political unity of the Muslims, who have been inhabiting multiple states ever since.[109] Ghaznavids' rule was succeeded by the Ghurid Empire of Muhammad of Ghor and Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad, whose reigns under the leadership of Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji extended until the Bengal, where Indian Islamic missionaries achieved their greatest success in terms of dawah and number of converts to Islam.[110][111][page needed] Qutb-ud-din Aybak conquered Delhi in 1206 and began the reign of the Delhi Sultanate,[112] a successive series of dynasties that synthesized Indian civilization with the wider commercial and cultural networks of Africa and Eurasia, greatly increased demographic and economic growth in India and deterred Mongol incursion into the prosperous Indo-Gangetic Plain and enthroned one of the few female Muslim rulers, Razia Sultana.[citation needed] Notable major empires dominated by Muslims, such as those of the Abbasids, Fatimids, Almoravids, Gao Empire, Seljukids, largest contiguous Songhai Empire (15th-16th centuries) of Sahel,West Africa, southern North Africa and western Central Africa which dominated the centers of Islamic knowledge of Timbuktu, Djenne, Oualata and Gao, Ajuran, Adal and Warsangali in Somalia, Mughals in the Indian subcontinent (India, Bangladesh, Pakistan e.t.c), Safavids in Persia and Ottomans in Anatolia, Massina Empire, Sokoto Caliphate of northern Nigeria, Toucouleur Empire, were among the influential and distinguished powers in the world.[citation needed] 19th-century colonialism and 20th-century decolonisation have resulted in several independent Muslim-majority states around the world, with vastly differing attitudes towards and political influences granted to, or restricted for, Islam from country to country.[citation needed] These have revolved around the question of Islam's compatibility with other ideological concepts such as secularism, nationalism (especially Arab nationalism and Pan-Arabism, as opposed to Pan-Islamism), socialism (see also Arab socialism and socialism in Iran), democracy (see Islamic democracy), republicanism (see also Islamic republic), liberalism and progressivism, feminism, capitalism and more.[citation needed]

Mongol invasions

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    The city of Baghdad being besieged during the Mongolian invasions.

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    Mongol armies capture of the Alamut, Persian miniature.

Gunpowder empires

Main article: Gunpowder empires

Scholars often use the term Age of the Islamic Gunpowders to describe period the Safavid, Ottoman and Mughal states. Each of these three empires had considerable military exploits using the newly developed firearms, especially cannon and small arms, to create their empires.[113] They existed primarily between the fourteenth and the late seventeenth centuries.[114] During the 17th–18th centuries, when the Indian subcontinent was ruled by Mughal Empire's sixth ruler Muhammad Auranzgeb through sharia and Islamic economics,[115][116] India became the world's largest economy, valued 25% of world GDP.[117]

Great Divergence

Main article: Great Divergence

"Why do the Christian nations, which were so weak in the past compared with Muslim nations begin to dominate so many lands in modern times and even defeat the once victorious Ottoman armies?"..."Because they have laws and rules invented by reason."

Ibrahim Muteferrika, Rational basis for the Politics of Nations (1731)[119]

The Great Divergence was the reason why European colonial powers militarily defeated preexisting Oriental powers like the Mughal Empire, starting from the wealthy Bengal Subah, Tipu Sultan's Kingdom of Mysore, the Ottoman Empire and many smaller states in the pre-modern Greater Middle East, and initiated a period known as 'colonialism'.[119]

Colonialism

Main articles: Colonial empire and Colonialism
 
Map of colonial powers throughout the world in the year 1914 (note colonial powers in the pre-modern Muslim world).

Beginning with the 15th century, colonialism by European powers profoundly affected Muslim-majority societies in Africa, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. Colonialism was often advanced by conflict with mercantile initiatives by colonial powers and caused tremendous social upheavals in Muslim-dominated societies.[120]

A number of Muslim-majority societies reacted to Western powers with zealotry and thus initiating the rise of Pan-Islamism; or affirmed more traditionalist and inclusive cultural ideals; and in rare cases adopted modernity that was ushered by the colonial powers.[121][120]

The only Muslim-majority regions not to be colonized by the Europeans were Saudi Arabia, Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan.[citation needed] Turkey was one of the first colonial powers of the world with the Ottoman empire ruling several states for over 6 centuries.

Postcolonial era

Further information: Decolonization

In the 20th century, the end of the European colonial domination has led to creation of a number of nation states with significant Muslim populations. These states drew on Islamic traditions to varying degree and in various ways in organizing their legal, educational and economic systems.[120] The Times first documented the term "Muslim world" in 1912 when describing Pan-Islamism as a movement with power importance and cohesion born in Paris where Turks, Arabs and Persians congregated. The article considered The position of the Amir; the effect of the Tripoli Campaign; Anglo-Russian action in Persia; and "Afghan Ambitions".[42]

A significant change in the Muslim world was the defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922), to which the Ottoman officer and Turkish revolutionary statesman Mustafa Kemal Atatürk had an instrumental role in ending and replacing it with the Republic of Turkey, a modern, secular democracy[122] (see Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate).[122] The secular values of Kemalist Turkey, which separated religion from the state with the abolition of the Caliphate in 1924,[122] have sometimes been seen as the result of Western influence.[citation needed]

In the 21st century, after the September 11 attacks (2001) coordinated by the Wahhabi Islamist[123] terrorist group[124] Al-Qaeda[124][125][126][127] against the United States, scholars considered the ramifications of seeking to understand Muslim experience through the framework of secular Enlightenment principles. Muhammad Atta, one of the 11 September hijackers, reportedly quoted from the Quran to allay his fears: "Fight them, and God will chastise them at your hands/And degrade them, and He will help you/Against them, and bring healing to the breasts of a people who believe", referring to the ummah, the community of Muslim believers, and invoking the imagery of the early warriors of Islam who lead the faithful from the darkness of jahiliyyah.[128]

By Sayyid Qutb's definition of Islam, the faith is "a complete divorce from jahiliyyah". He complained that American churches served as centers of community social life that were "very hard [to] distinguish from places of fun and amusement". For Qutb, Western society was the modern jahliliyyah. His understanding of the "Muslim world" and its "social order" was that, presented to the Western world as the result of practicing Islamic teachings, would impress "by the beauty and charm of true Islamic ideology". He argued that the values of the Enlightenment and its related precursor, the Scientific Revolution, "denies or suspends God's sovereignty on earth" and argued that strengthening "Islamic character" was needed "to abolish the negative influences of jahili life."[128]

Geography

 
Indonesia is currently the most populous Muslim-majority country.
Main article: Islam by country

According to a 2010 study and released January 2011,[129][130] Islam had 1.5 billion adherents, making up c. 22% of the world population.[131][132][133] Because the terms 'Muslim world' and 'Islamic world' are disputed, since no country is homogeneously Muslim, and there is no way to determine at what point a Muslim minority in a country is to be considered 'significant' enough, there is no consensus on how to define the Muslim world geographically.[44][45][5] The only rule of thumb for inclusion which has some support, is that countries need to have a Muslim population of more than 50%.[44][5] According to the Pew Research Center in 2015 there were 50 Muslim-majority countries.[134][135] Jones (2005) defines a "large minority" as being between 30% and 50%, which described nine countries in 2000, namely Bosnia and Herzegovina, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Kazakhstan, Nigeria, North Macedonia, and Tanzania.[5]

Islam is the second largest religion in numerous other countries, including: Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Georgia, Israel, India, Thailand, Cambodia, the Philippines, Mozambique, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Burundi, Kenya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Central African Republic, Gabon, Cameroon, Benin, Togo, Ghana, and Liberia.

Islam by country

Main article: Islam by country
Further information: Political aspects of Islam and Islam and secularism

As the Muslim world came into contact with secular ideals, societies responded in different ways. Some Muslim-majority countries are secular. Azerbaijan became the first secular republic in the Muslim world, between 1918 and 1920, before it was incorporated into the Soviet Union.[136][137][138][failed verification] Turkey has been governed as a secular state since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.[139] By contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a monarchial semi-secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah, Ruhollah Khomeini.[140][141]

Some countries have declared Islam as the official state religion. In those countries, the legal code is largely secular. Only personal status matters pertaining to inheritance and marriage are governed by Sharia law.[142]

Government and religion

Islamic states

Islamic states have adopted Islam as the ideological foundation of state and constitution.

State religion

The following Muslim-majority states have endorsed Islam as their state religion, and though they may guarantee freedom of religion for citizens, do not declare a separation of state and religion:

Secular states

Secular states in the Muslim world have declared separation between civil/government affairs and religion.

Muslim-minority states

There are sizeable[clarification needed] Muslim populations in China and Russia.[citation needed]

Law and ethics

Further information: Islamic ethics
 
Use of Sharia by country, in nations with substantial Muslim population:[citation needed]
  Sharia plays no role in the judicial system
  Sharia applies in personal status issues only
  Sharia applies in full, including criminal law
  Regional variations in the application of sharia

In some states, Muslim ethnic groups enjoy considerable autonomy.[citation needed]

In some places, Muslims implement Islamic law, called sharia in Arabic. The Islamic law exists in a number of variations, called schools of jurisprudence. The Amman Message, which was endorsed in 2005 by prominent Islamic scholars around the world, recognized four Sunni schools (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali), two Shia schools (Ja'fari, Zaidi), the Ibadi school, and the Zahiri school.[193]

  • Hanafi school in Pakistan, North India, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Turkey, Albania, Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, other Balkan States, Lower Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Iraq, Russia, Caucasus Republics, China, and Central Asian Republics.
  • Maliki in Nigeria, North Africa, West Africa, Sahel, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, and Kuwait.
  • Shafi'i in Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, Eritrea, Somalia, Yemen, Maldives, Sri Lanka, and South India.
  • Hanbali in Saudi Arabia.
  • Jaferi in Iran, Iraq, Bahrain and Azerbaijan. These four are the only "Muslim states" in which the majority is Shia. Yemen, Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Turkey, and Syria are countries with Sunni majorities. In Lebanon, the majority Muslims (54%) were about equally divided between Sunni and Shia in 2010.
  • Ibadi in Oman and small regions in North Africa.

In a number of Muslim-majority countries, the law requires women to cover either their legs, shoulders and head, or the whole body apart from the face. In strictest forms, the face as well must be covered leaving just a mesh to see through. These hijab rules for dressing cause tensions, concerning particularly Muslims living in Western countries, where restrictions are considered both sexist and oppressive. Some Muslims oppose this charge, and instead declare that the media in these countries presses on women to reveal too much to be deemed attractive, and that this is itself sexist and oppressive.[citation needed]

Politics

Further information: Islamic revival and Liberalism and progressivism within Islam
 
Benazir Bhutto, the former prime minister of Pakistan became the first woman elected to lead a Muslim-majority country.[194]

During much of the 20th century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues have arguably increased during the early 21st century. The fast-growing interests of the Western world in Islamic regions, international conflicts and globalization have changed the influence of Islam on the world in contemporary history.[195]

Islamism

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Islamism.[edit]

Islamism (also often called political Islam or Islamic fundamentalism)[196] is a religio-political ideology which posits that modern states and regions should be reconstituted in constitutional, economic and judicial terms, in accordance with what is conceived as a revival or a return to authentic Islamic practice in its totality.[197][198][199][200]

Ideologies dubbed Islamist may advocate a "revolutionary" strategy of Islamizing society through exercise of state power, or alternately a "reformist" strategy to re-Islamizing society through grassroots social and political activism.[201] Islamists emphasize the implementation of sharia,[202] pan-Islamic political unity,[202] the creation of Islamic states[203] and outright removal of non-Muslim influences; particularly of Western or universal economic, military, political, social, or cultural nature in the Muslim world; that they believe to be incompatible with Islam and a form of Western neocolonialism. CIA analysts like Graham E. Fuller describe it as a form of identity politics, involving "support for [Muslim] identity, authenticity, broader regionalism, revivalism, [and] revitalization of the community."[204]

The term itself is not popular among many Islamists who criticise the Western mass media for inherently implying violent tactics, human rights violations, and political extremism when using the term.[196] Some authors prefer the term "Islamic activism",[205] while Islamist political figures such as Rached Ghannouchi use the term "Islamic movement" rather than Islamism.[206]

Central and prominent figures in 20th-century Islamism include Sayyid Rashid Rida,[207] Hassan al-Banna, Sayyid Qutb, Abul A'la Maududi,[208] Hasan al-Turabi,[209] and others. Many Islamist movements, such as the Muslim Brotherhood, have been willing to pursue their ends by peaceful political processes, rather than revolutionary means.[210] Others, notably Qutb, called for violence, and his followers are generally considered by Western scholars as "Islamic extremists"; although Qutb openly denounced the killing of innocents.[211] According to Robin Wright, Islamist movements have "arguably altered the Middle East more than any trend since the modern states gained independence", redefining "politics and even borders".[212] Following the Arab Spring, many post-Islamist currents became heavily involved in democratic politics,[212][213] while others spawned "the most aggressive and ambitious Islamist militia" to date, such as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL).[212]

Islamism is a concept whose meaning has been debated in both public and academic contexts.[214] The term can refer to diverse forms of social and political activism advocating that public and political life should be guided by Islamic principles.[214][215] In academic usage, the term Islamism does not specify what vision of "Islamic order" or sharia is being advocated, or how the advocates intend to bring about that vision.[216]

Demographics

See also: Muslim population growth

More than 24.1% of the world's population is Muslim.[217][218] Current estimates conclude that the number of Muslims in the world is around 1.8 billion.[217] Muslims are the majority in 49 countries,[219][220] they speak hundreds of languages and come from diverse ethnic backgrounds. The city of Karachi has the largest Muslim population in the world.[221][222]

In 2010, 73% of the world's Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the majority, while 27% of the world's Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the minority. India's Muslim population is the world's largest Muslim-minority population in the world (11% of the world's Muslim population).[223]

Religion

Islam

The two main denominations of Islam are the Sunni and Shia sects. They differ primarily upon of how the life of the ummah ("faithful") should be governed, and the role of the imam. Sunnis believe that the true political successor of Muhammad according to the Sunnah should be selected based on ٍShura (consultation), as was done at the Saqifah which selected Abu Bakr, Muhammad's father-in-law, to be Muhammad's political but not his religious successor. Shia, on the other hand, believe that Muhammad designated his son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib as his true political as well as religious successor.[224]

The overwhelming majority of Muslims in the world, between 87 and 90%, are Sunni.[225]

Shias and other groups make up the rest, about 10–13% of overall Muslim population. The countries with the highest concentration of Shia populations are: Iran – 89%,[226] Azerbaijan – 65%,[227] Iraq – 60%,[228] Bahrain – 60%, Yemen – 35%,[229] Turkey – 10%,[230][231] Lebanon – 27%, Syria – 13%, Afghanistan – 10%, Pakistan – 10%,[232][233][234][235][236][237][238][239][240] and India – 10%.[241]

The Kharijite Muslims, who are less known, have their own stronghold in the country of Oman holding about 75% of the population.[242]

Islamic schools and branches
Main article: Islamic schools and branches
 
Islamic schools of law across the Muslim world

The first centuries of Islam gave rise to three major sects: Sunnis, Shi'as and Kharijites. Each sect developed distinct jurisprudence schools (madhhab) reflecting different methodologies of jurisprudence (fiqh).

The major Sunni madhhabs are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali.[243]

The major Shi'a branches are Twelver (Imami), Ismaili (Sevener) and Zaidi (Fiver). Isma'ilism later split into Nizari Ismaili and Musta’li Ismaili, and then Mustaali was divided into Hafizi and Taiyabi Ismailis.[244] It also gave rise to the Qarmatian movement and the Druze faith, although Druzes do not identify as Muslims.[245][246] Twelver Shiism developed Ja'fari jurisprudence whose branches are Akhbarism and Usulism, and other movements such as Alawites, Shaykism[247] and Alevism.[248][249]

Similarly, Kharijites were initially divided into five major branches: Sufris, Azariqa, Najdat, Adjarites and Ibadis.

Among these numerous branches, only Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali, Imamiyyah-Ja'fari-Usuli, Nizārī Ismā'īlī, Alevi,[250] Zaydi, Ibadi, Zahiri, Alawite,[251] Druze and Taiyabi communities have survived. In addition, new schools of thought and movements like Quranist Muslims and Ahmadi Muslims later emerged independently.

  •  

    Children read Qur'an in Indonesia.

  •  

    Muslim beggars stalk a car in Nigeria.

  •  

    People pray together in the mosque in Russia.

  •  

    People move close to the Muslim food corner in China.

Other religions

There are sizeable non-Muslim minorities in many Muslim-majority countries, includes, Christians, Hindus, Buddhists, Jews, Bahai's, Druzes, Yazidis, Mandaeans, Yarsanis and Zoroastrians.

 
Church and Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey.

The Muslim world is home to some of the world's most ancient Christian communities,[252] and some of the most important cities of the Christian world—including three of its five great patriarchates (Alexandria, Antioch, and Constantinople).[253] Scholars and intellectuals agree Christians have made significant contributions to Arab and Islamic civilization since the introduction of Islam,[254][255] and they have had a significant impact contributing the culture of the Middle East and North Africa and other areas.[256][257][258] Pew Research Center estimates indicate that in 2010, more than 64 million Christians lived in countries with Muslim majorities (excluding Nigeria). The Pew Forum study finds that Indonesia (21.1 million) has the largest Christian population in the Muslim world, followed by Egypt, Chad and Kazakhstan.[259] While according to Adly A. Youssef and Martyn Thomas, in 2004, there were around 30 million Christians who lived in countries with Muslim majorities, with the largest Christian population number lived in Indonesia, followed by Egypt.[260] Nigeria is divided almost evenly between Muslims and Christians, with more than 80 million Christians and Muslims.[261]

Jewish communities have existed across the Middle East and North Africa since the rise of Islam. Today, Jews residing in Muslim countries have been reduced to a small fraction of their former sizes,[262] with the largest communities of Jews in Muslim countries exist in the non-Arab countries of Iran and Turkey (30,000); both, however, are much smaller than they historically have been.[263] Among Arab countries, the largest Jewish community now exists in Morocco with about 2,000 Jews and in Tunisia with about 1,000.[264] The number of Druze worldwide is between 800,000 and one million, with the vast majority residing in the Levant (primarily in Syria and Lebanon).[265]

In 2010, the Pew Forum study finds that Bangladesh (13.5 million), Indonesia (4 million), Pakistan (3.3 million) and Malaysia (1.7 million) has a sizeable Hindu minorities. Malaysia (5 million) has the largest Buddhist population in the Muslim world.[266] Zoroastrians are the oldest remaining religious community in Iran.[267]

  •  

    Egypt has one of the largest Christian population in the Muslim world[268]

  •  

    Bangladesh has the largest Hindu population in the Muslim world

  •  

    Turkey has the largest Jewish population in the Muslim world[269]

Literacy and education

The literacy rate in the Muslim world varies. Azerbaijan is in second place in the Index of Literacy of World Countries. Some members such as Iran, Kuwait, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan have over 97% literacy rates, whereas literacy rates are the lowest in Mali, Afghanistan, Chad and parts of Africa. Several Muslim-majority countries, such as Turkey, Iran and Egypt have a high rate of citable scientific publications.[270][271]

In 2015, the International Islamic News Agency reported that nearly 37% of the population of the Muslim world is unable to read or write, basing that figure on reports from the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.[272] In Egypt, the largest Muslim-majority Arab country, the youth female literacy rate exceeds that for males.[273] Lower literacy rates are more prevalent in South Asian countries such as in Afghanistan and Pakistan, but are rapidly increasing.[274] In the Eastern Middle East, Iran has a high level of youth literacy at 98%,[275] but Iraq's youth literacy rate has sharply declined from 85% to 57% during the American-led war and subsequent occupation.[276] Indonesia, the largest Muslim-majority country in the world, has a 99% youth literacy rate.[277]

A 2011 Pew Research Center showed that at the time about 36% of all Muslims had no formal schooling, with only 8% having graduate and post-graduate degrees.[278] The highest of years of schooling among Muslim-majority countries found in Uzbekistan (11.5), Kuwait (11.0) and Kazakhstan (10.7).[278] In addition, the average of years of schooling in countries in which Muslims are the majority is 6.0 years of schooling, which lag behind the global average (7.7 years of schooling).[278] In the youngest age (25–34) group surveyed, Young Muslims have the lowest average levels of education of any major religious group, with an average of 6.7 years of schooling, which lag behind the global average (8.6 years of schooling).[278] The study found that Muslims have a significant amount of gender inequality in educational attainment, since Muslim women have an average of 4.9 years of schooling, compared to an average of 6.4 years of schooling among Muslim men.[278]

Refugees

 
Muslim Rohingya refugees in Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh.

According to the UNHCR, Muslim-majority countries hosted 18 million refugees by the end of 2010.[citation needed]

Since then Muslim-majority countries have absorbed refugees from recent conflicts, including the uprising in Syria.[279] In July 2013, the UN stated that the number of Syrian refugees had exceeded 1.8 million.[280] In Asia, an estimated 625,000 refugees from Rakhine, Myanmar, mostly Muslim, had crossed the border into Bangladesh since August 2017.[281]

Culture

Throughout history, Muslim cultures have been diverse ethnically, linguistically and regionally.[282] According to M. M. Knight, this diversity includes diversity in beliefs, interpretations and practices and communities and interests. Knight says perception of Muslim world among non-Muslims is usually supported through introductory literature about Islam, mostly present a version as per scriptural view which would include some prescriptive literature and abstracts of history as per authors own point of views, to which even many Muslims might agree, but that necessarily would not reflect Islam as lived on the ground, 'in the experience of real human bodies'.[283]

Islamic architecture

Arts

The term "Islamic art and architecture" denotes the works of art and architecture produced from the 7th century onwards by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally Islamic populations.[284][285]

Architecture

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Islamic architecture.[edit]

Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It encompasses both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. The Islamic world encompasses a wide geographic area historically ranging from western Africa and Europe to eastern Asia. Certain commonalities are shared by Islamic architectural styles across all these regions, but over time different regions developed their own styles according to local materials and techniques, local dynasties and patrons, different regional centers of artistic production, and sometimes different religious affiliations.[286][287]

Early Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman, Byzantine, Iranian, and Mesopotamian architecture and all other lands which the Early Muslim conquests conquered in the seventh and eighth centuries.[288][289][290][291][292] Further east, it was also influenced by Chinese and Indian architecture as Islam spread to South and Southeast Asia. Later it developed distinct characteristics in the form of buildings and in the decoration of surfaces with Islamic calligraphy, arabesques, and geometric motifs.[293] New architectural elements like minarets, muqarnas, and multifoil arches were invented. Common or important types of buildings in Islamic architecture include mosques, madrasas, tombs, palaces, hammams (public baths), Sufi hospices (e.g. khanqahs or zawiyas), fountains and sabils, commercial buildings (e.g. caravanserais and bazaars), and military fortifications.[287]

Aniconism

Main article: Aniconism in Islam

No Islamic visual images or depictions of God are meant to exist because it is believed that such artistic depictions may lead to idolatry. Muslims describe God by the names and attributes that, according to Islam, he revealed to his creation. All but one sura of the Quran begins with the phrase "In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful". Images of Mohammed are likewise prohibited. Such aniconism and iconoclasm[294] can also be found in Jewish and some Christian theology.

Arabesque

Main article: Arabesque

Islamic art frequently adopts the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as arabesque. Such designs are highly nonrepresentational, as Islam forbids representational depictions as found in pre-Islamic pagan religions. Despite this, there is a presence of depictional art in some Muslim societies, notably the miniature style made famous in Persia and under the Ottoman Empire which featured paintings of people and animals, and also depictions of Quranic stories and Islamic traditional narratives. Another reason why Islamic art is usually abstract is to symbolize the transcendence, indivisible and infinite nature of God, an objective achieved by arabesque.[295] Islamic calligraphy is an omnipresent decoration in Islamic art, and is usually expressed in the form of Quranic verses. Two of the main scripts involved are the symbolic kufic and naskh scripts, which can be found adorning the walls and domes of mosques, the sides of minbars, and so on.[295]

Distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture have always been ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect, fractal geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques and palaces. Other features employed as motifs include columns, piers and arches, organized and interwoven with alternating sequences of niches and colonnettes.[296] The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable. Its usage spans centuries, first appearing in 691 with the construction of the Dome of the Rock mosque, and recurring even up until the 17th century with the Taj Mahal. And as late as the 19th century, Islamic domes had been incorporated into European architecture.[297]

  •  

    Example of an Arabesque

  •  

    Example of an Arabesque

  •  

    Example of an Arabesque

Girih

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Girih.[edit]

Girih (Persian: گره, "knot", also written gereh[298]) are decorative Islamic geometric patterns used in architecture and handicraft objects, consisting of angled lines that form an interlaced strapwork pattern.

Girih decoration is believed to have been inspired by Syrian Roman knotwork patterns from the second century. The earliest girih dates from around 1000 CE, and the artform flourished until the 15th century. Girih patterns can be created in a variety of ways, including the traditional straightedge and compass construction; the construction of a grid of polygons; and the use of a set of girih tiles with lines drawn on them: the lines form the pattern. Patterns may be elaborated by the use of two levels of design, as at the 1453 Darb-e Imam shrine. Square repeating units of known patterns can be copied as templates, and historic pattern books may have been intended for use in this way.

The 15th century Topkapı Scroll explicitly shows girih patterns together with the tilings used to create them. A set of tiles consisting of a dart and a kite shape can be used to create aperiodic Penrose tilings, though there is no evidence that such a set was used in medieval times. Girih patterns have been used to decorate varied materials including stone screens, as at Fatehpur Sikri; plasterwork, as at mosques and madrasas such as the Hunat Hatun Complex in Kayseri; metal, as at Mosque-Madrassa of Sultan Hassan in Cairo; and in wood, as at the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba.

Islamic calligraphy

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Islamic calligraphy.[edit]

Islamic calligraphy is the artistic practice of handwriting and calligraphy, in the languages which use Arabic alphabet or the alphabets derived from it. It includes Arabic, Persian, Ottoman, and Urdu calligraphy.[299][300] It is known in Arabic as khatt Arabi (خط عربي), which translates into Arabic line, design, or construction.[301]

The development of Islamic calligraphy is strongly tied to the Qur'an; chapters and excerpts from the Qur'an are a common and almost universal text upon which Islamic calligraphy is based. Although artistic depictions of people and animals are not explicitly forbidden by the Qur'an, pictures have traditionally been limited in Islamic books in order to avoid idolatry. Although some scholars dispute this, Kufic script was supposedly developed around the end of the 7th century in Kufa, Iraq, from which it takes its name. The style later developed into several varieties, including floral, foliated, plaited or interlaced, bordered, and square kufic. In the ancient world, though, artists would often get around this prohibition by using strands of tiny writing to construct lines and images. Calligraphy was a valued art form, even as a moral good. An ancient Arabic proverb illustrates this point by emphatically stating that "Purity of writing is purity of the soul."[302]

However, Islamic calligraphy is not limited to strictly religious subjects, objects, or spaces. Like all Islamic art, it encompasses a diverse array of works created in a wide variety of contexts.[303] The prevalence of calligraphy in Islamic art is not directly related to its non-figural tradition; rather, it reflects the centrality of the notion of writing and written text in Islam.[304] For instance, the Islamic prophet Muhammad is related to have said: "The first thing God created was the pen."[305]

Islamic calligraphy developed from two major styles: Kufic and Naskh. There are several variations of each, as well as regionally specific styles. Arabic or Persian calligraphy has also been incorporated into modern art, beginning with the post-colonial period in the Middle East, as well as the more recent style of calligraffiti.

Calendar

Two calendars are used all over the Muslim world. One is a lunar calendar that is most widely used among Muslims. The other one is a solar calendar officially used in Iran and Afghanistan.

Islamic lunar calendar

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Islamic calendar.[edit]

The Hijri calendar (Arabic: ٱلتَّقْوِيم ٱلْهِجْرِيّ, romanized: al-taqwīm al-hijrī), also known in English as the Muslim calendar and Islamic calendar, is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days. It is used to determine the proper days of Islamic holidays and rituals, such as the annual fasting and the annual season for the great pilgrimage. In almost all countries where the predominant religion is Islam, the civil calendar is the Gregorian calendar, with Syriac month-names used in the Levant and Mesopotamia (Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon and Palestine) but the religious calendar is the Hijri one.

This calendar enumerates the Hijri era, whose epoch was established as the Islamic New Year in 622 CE.[306] During that year, Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina and established the first Muslim community (ummah), an event commemorated as the Hijrah. In the West, dates in this era are usually denoted AH (Latin: Anno Hegirae, "in the year of the Hijrah").[a] In Muslim countries, it is also sometimes denoted as H[307] from its Arabic form (سَنَة هِجْرِيَّة, abbreviated ھ). In English, years prior to the Hijra are denoted as BH ("Before the Hijra").[308]

As of 30 July 2022 CE, the current Islamic year is 1444 AH. In the Gregorian calendar reckoning, 1444 AH runs from approximately 30 July 2022 to 18 July 2023.[309][310][b]

Solar Hijri calendar

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Solar Hijri calendar.[edit]

The Solar Hijri calendar[c] (Persian: گاه‌شماری هجری خورشیدی, romanized: Gâhšomâri-ye Xoršidi; Pashto: لمريز لېږدیز کلیز, romanized: lamrez legdez kalhandara; Kurdish: ڕۆژژمێری کۆچیی ھەتاوی, romanized: Salnameya Koçberiyê) is a solar calendar and one of the various ancient Iranian calendars. It begins on the March equinox as determined by astronomical calculation for the Iran Standard Time meridian (52.5°E, UTC+03:30) and has years of 365 or 366 days. It is the modern principal calendar of both Iran and Afghanistan, and is sometimes also called the Shamsi calendar, and abbreviated as SH, HS or, by analogy with AH, AHSh.

The Ancient Iran Solar calendar is one of the oldest calendars in the world, as well as the most accurate solar calendar in use today. Since the calendar uses astronomical calculation for determining the vernal equinox, it has no intrinsic error.[312][313][314][315] It is older than the Lunar Hijri calendar used by the majority of Muslims (known in the West as the Islamic calendar): the Hijrah, the journey of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in the year 622.[316][317] Unlike the latter, its years are solar years rather than lunar years.

Each of the twelve months corresponds with a zodiac sign; their names are the same as ancient Zoroastrian names from the Zoroastrian calendar – in Afghanistan on the other hand, the names of the zodiacal signs are used instead. The first six months have 31 days, the next five have 30 days, and the last month has 29 days in usual years but 30 days in leap years. The ancient Iranian New Year's Day, which is called Nowruz, always falls on the March equinox. While Nowruz is celebrated by communities in a wide range of countries from the Balkans to Mongolia, the Solar Hijri calendar itself remains only in official use in Iran and Afghanistan.

Women

See also: Women in Islam and Musawah

According to Riada Asimovic Akyol while Muslim women's experiences differs a lot by location and personal situations such as family upbringing, class and education;[318] the difference between culture and religions is often ignored by community and state leaders in many of the Muslim majority countries,[318] the key issue in the Muslim world regarding gender issues is that medieval religious texts constructed in highly patriarchal environments and based on biological essentialism are still valued highly in Islam; hence views emphasizing on men's superiority in unequal gender roles– are widespread among many conservative Muslims (men and women).[318] Orthodox Muslims often believe that rights and responsibilities of women in Islam are different than that of men and sacrosanct since assigned by the God.[318] According to Asma Barlas patriarchal behaviour among Muslims is based in an ideology which jumbles sexual and biological differences with gender dualisms and inequality. Modernist discourse of liberal progressive movements like Islamic feminism have been revisiting hermeneutics of feminism in Islam in terms of respect for Muslim women's lives and rights.[318] Riada Asimovic Akyol further says that equality for Muslim women needs to be achieved through self-criticism.[318]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ The constitution of Bangladesh declares Islam as the state religion, but also guarantees equal rights and treatment for other religions, and separation of government and religion.[154][155]
  1. ^ This notation is similar to that of AD for the Christian era, CE for the Common Era and AM for the Jewish era.
  2. ^ exact dates depend on which variant of the Islamic calendar is followed.
  3. ^ Also called in some English sources as Iranian Solar calendar.'[311]

Citations

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  2. ^ Esposito, John L., ed. (2009). "Preface". The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001. ISBN 9780195305135. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World (OEIW) deals with all aspects of Islam—the world's second largest and fastest-growing religion—and the societies in which it exists, including their religion, politics, economics, everyday life, culture, and thought
  3. ^ a b c Afsaruddin, Asma (2016). "Islamic World". In McNeill, William H. (ed.). Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Berkshire Publishing Group. doi:10.1093/acref/9780190622718.001.0001. ISBN 9781933782652. The Islamic world is generally defined contemporaneously as consisting of nation-states whose population contains a majority of Muslims. [...] in the contemporary era, the term Islamic world now includes not only the traditional heartlands of Islam, but also Europe and North America, both of which have sizeable minority Muslim populations
  4. ^ Scott Carpenter, Soner Cagaptay (2 June 2009). "What Muslim World?". Foreign Policy. from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
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  12. ^ (PDF). Pew. December 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015.
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  15. ^ Burke, Daniel (29 July 2016). "The moment American Muslims were waiting for". CNN. from the original on 12 March 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
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  17. ^ "Region: Asia-Pacific". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. from the original on 9 March 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
  18. ^ "Region: Europe". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. from the original on 7 April 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
  19. ^ "Region: Americas". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. from the original on 7 April 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
  20. ^ Kington, Tom (31 March 2008). "Number of Muslims ahead of Catholics, says Vatican". The Guardian. from the original on 2 September 2013. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
  21. ^ "Muslim Population". IslamicPopulation.com. from the original on 25 May 2013. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
  22. ^ . Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
  23. ^ * "Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. 7 October 2009. from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 24 September 2013. Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims.
    • Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide 16 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90 percent) of that community."
    • "Sunni". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. from the original on 12 October 2014. Retrieved 20 December 2012. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims.
    • . The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 24 December 2018. Retrieved 25 August 2010. Sunni Islam accounts for over 85% of the world's Muslim population...
  24. ^ See
    • "Shiʿi". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 October 2019. from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 30 September 2019. In the early 21st century some 10–13 percent of the world's 1.6 billion Muslims were Shiʿi.
    • "Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. 7 October 2009. from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 24 September 2013. The Pew Forum's estimate of the Shia population (10%) is in keeping with previous estimates, which generally have been in the range of 10%. Some previous estimates, however, have placed the number of Shias at nearly 15% of the world's Muslim population.
    • . Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Archived from the original on 15 December 2012. Retrieved 5 December 2011. Shi'a Islam is the second largest branch of the tradition, with up to 150 million followers who comprise around 10% of all Muslims worldwide...
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January 18, 2023
muslim, world, this, article, multiple, issues, please, help, improve, discuss, these, issues, talk, page, learn, when, remove, these, template, messages, this, article, needs, additional, citations, verification, please, help, improve, this, article, adding, . This article has multiple issues Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page Learn how and when to remove these template messages This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Muslim world news newspapers books scholar JSTOR June 2020 Learn how and when to remove this template message This article possibly contains original research Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations Statements consisting only of original research should be removed June 2020 Learn how and when to remove this template message Learn how and when to remove this template message The terms Muslim worldand Islamic world commonly refer to the Islamic community which is also known as the Ummah This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs and laws of Islam 1 or to societies in which Islam is practiced 2 3 In a modern geopolitical sense these terms refer to countries in which Islam is widespread although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion 4 3 The term Muslim majority countries is an alternative often used for the latter sense 5 World Muslim population by percentage Pew Research Center 2014 The history of the Muslim world spans about 1 400 years and includes a variety of socio political developments as well as advances in the arts science medicine philosophy law economics and technology particularly during the Islamic Golden Age All Muslims look for guidance to the Quran and believe in the prophetic mission of the Islamic prophet Muhammad but disagreements on other matters have led to the appearance of different religious schools of thought and sects within Islam 6 In the modern era most of the Muslim world came under European colonial domination The nation states that emerged in the post colonial era have adopted a variety of political and economic models and they have been affected by secular and as well as religious trends 7 As of 2013 update the combined GDP nominal of 49 Muslim majority countries was US 5 7 trillion 8 As of 2016 update they contributed 8 of the world s total 9 In 2020 Economy of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation which consists of 57 member states had combined GDP US 22 trillion or US 28 trillion with 5 OIC observer states which is equal about 22 world GDP As of 2015 1 8 billion or about 24 1 of the world population are Muslims 10 By the percentage of the total population in a region considering themselves Muslim 91 in the Middle East North Africa MENA 11 89 in Central Asia 12 40 in Southeast Asia 13 31 in South Asia 14 15 30 in Sub Saharan Africa 16 25 in Asia Oceania 17 around 6 in Europe 18 and 1 in the Americas 19 20 21 22 Most Muslims are of one of two denominations Sunni Islam 87 90 23 and Shia 10 13 24 However other denominations exist in pockets such as Ibadi primarily in Oman About 13 of Muslims live in Indonesia the largest Muslim majority country 25 31 of Muslims live in South Asia 26 the largest population of Muslims in the world 27 20 in the Middle East North Africa 28 where it is the dominant religion 29 and 15 in Sub Saharan Africa and West Africa incl Nigeria 30 Muslims are the overwhelming majority in Central Asia 31 the majority in the Caucasus 32 33 and widespread in Southeast Asia 34 India has the largest Muslim population outside Muslim majority countries 35 Pakistan Bangladesh Iran and Egypt are home to second fourth sixth and seventh largest Muslim populations Sizeable Muslim communities are also found in the Americas Russia China and Europe 36 37 38 Islam is the fastest growing major religion in the world 39 40 41 China has the second largest Muslim population outside Muslim majority countries while Russia has the third largest Muslim population Nigeria has the largest Muslim population in Africa while Indonesia has the largest Muslim population in Asia Contents 1 Terminology 2 Culture 2 1 Classical culture 2 1 1 Ceramics 2 1 2 Literature 2 1 3 Philosophy 2 1 4 Sciences 2 1 5 Technology 3 History 3 1 Mongol invasions 3 2 Gunpowder empires 3 3 Great Divergence 3 4 Colonialism 3 5 Postcolonial era 4 Geography 5 Islam by country 5 1 Government and religion 5 1 1 Islamic states 5 1 2 State religion 5 1 3 Secular states 5 1 4 Muslim minority states 5 2 Law and ethics 5 3 Politics 5 3 1 Islamism 6 Demographics 6 1 Religion 6 1 1 Islam 6 1 1 1 Islamic schools and branches 6 1 2 Other religions 6 2 Literacy and education 6 3 Refugees 7 Culture 7 1 Arts 7 1 1 Architecture 7 1 2 Aniconism 7 1 3 Arabesque 7 1 4 Girih 7 1 5 Islamic calligraphy 7 2 Calendar 7 2 1 Islamic lunar calendar 7 2 2 Solar Hijri calendar 8 Women 9 See also 10 References 10 1 Notes 10 2 Citations 10 3 Sources 11 External linksTerminology EditThe term has been documented as early as 1912 to encompass the influence of perceived pan Islamic propaganda The Times described Pan Islamism as a movement with power importance and cohesion born in Paris where Turks Arabs and Persians congregated The correspondent s focus was on India it would take too long to consider the progress made in various parts of the Muslim world The article considered the position of the Amir the effect of the Tripoli Campaign disambiguation needed Anglo Russian action in Persia and Afghan Ambitions 42 In a modern geopolitical sense the terms Muslim world and Islamic world refer to countries in which Islam is widespread although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion 43 3 Some scholars and commentators have criticised the term Muslim Islamic world and its derivative terms Muslim Islamic country as simplistic and binary since no state has a religiously homogeneous population e g Egypt s citizens are c 10 Christians and in absolute numbers there are sometimes fewer Muslims living in countries in which they make up the majority than in countries in which they form a minority 44 45 46 Hence the term Muslim majority countries is often preferred in literature 5 Culture EditClassical culture Edit Main article Islamic Golden Age Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni receiving a richly decorated robe of honor from the caliph al Qadir in 1000 Miniature from the Rashid al Din s Jami al Tawarikh Battle between Ismail of the Safaviyya and the ruler of Shirvan Farrukh Yassar Shah of Safavid Empire Abbas I meet with Vali Muhammad Khan Mir Sayyid Ali a scholar writing a commentary on the Quran during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan Portrait of a painter during the reign of Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II A Persian miniature of Shah Abu l Ma ali a scholar Ilkhanate Empire ruler Ghazan studying the Quran Layla and Majnun studying together from a Persian miniature paintingThe term Islamic Golden Age has been attributed to a period in history during which science economic development and cultural works in most of the Muslim dominated world flourished 47 48 The age is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al Rashid 786 809 with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad where scholars from various parts of the world sought to translate and gather all the known world s knowledge into Arabic 49 50 and to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due to Mongol invasions and the Siege of Baghdad in 1258 51 The Abbasids were influenced by the Quranic injunctions and hadiths such as the ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr that stressed the value of knowledge The major Islamic capital cities of Baghdad Cairo and Cordoba became the main intellectual centers for science philosophy medicine and education 52 During this period the Muslim world was a collection of cultures they drew together and advanced the knowledge gained from the ancient Greek Roman Persian Chinese Indian Egyptian and Phoenician civilizations 53 Ceramics Edit Further information Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world A Seljuq shatranj chess set glazed fritware 12th century Between the 8th and 18th centuries the use of ceramic glaze was prevalent in Islamic art usually assuming the form of elaborate pottery 54 Tin opacified glazing was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue painted ware in Basra dating to around the 8th century Another contribution was the development of fritware originating from 9th century Iraq 55 Other centers for innovative ceramic pottery in the Old world included Fustat from 975 to 1075 Damascus from 1100 to around 1600 and Tabriz from 1470 to 1550 56 Literature Edit Main article Islamic literature Further information Islamic poetry Hadiqatus suada by Oghuz Turkic poet Fuzuli The story of Princess Parizade and the Magic Tree 57 Cassim in the Cave by Maxfield Parrish The Magic carpet The best known work of fiction from the Islamic world is One Thousand and One Nights In Persian hezar o yek sab gt Arabic ʔalf layl at wa l layla One thousand Night and one Night or Arabian Nights a name invented by early Western translators which is a compilation of folk tales from Sanskrit Persian and later Arabian fables The original concept is derived from a pre Islamic Persian prototype Hezar Afsan Thousand Fables that relied on particular Indian elements 58 It reached its final form by the 14th century the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another 59 All Arabian fantasy tales tend to be called Arabian Nights stories when translated into English regardless of whether they appear in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights or not 59 This work has been very influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century first by Antoine Galland 60 Imitations were written especially in France 61 Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture such as Aladdin Sinbad the Sailor and Ali Baba citation needed A famous citation needed example of Arabic poetry and Persian poetry on romance love is Layla and Majnun dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century It is a tragic story of undying love Ferdowsi s Shahnameh the national epic of Greater Iran is a mythical and heroic retelling of Persian history Amir Arsalan was also a popular mythical Persian story which has influenced some modern works of fantasy fiction such as The Heroic Legend of Arslan citation needed Ibn Tufail Abubacer and Ibn al Nafis were pioneers of the philosophical novel Ibn Tufail wrote the first Arabic novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan Philosophus Autodidactus as a response to Al Ghazali s The Incoherence of the Philosophers and then Ibn al Nafis also wrote a novel Theologus Autodidactus as a response to Ibn Tufail s Philosophus Autodidactus Both of these narratives had protagonists Hayy in Philosophus Autodidactus and Kamil in Theologus Autodidactus who were autodidactic feral children living in seclusion on a desert island both being the earliest examples of a desert island story However while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story in Philosophus Autodidactus the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in Theologus Autodidactus developing into the earliest known coming of age plot and eventually becoming the first example of a science fiction novel 62 63 Theologus Autodidactus 64 65 written by the Arabian polymath Ibn al Nafis 1213 1288 is the first example of a science fiction novel 66 It deals with various science fiction elements such as spontaneous generation futurology the end of the world and doomsday resurrection and the afterlife Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explanations for these events Ibn al Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using the scientific knowledge of biology astronomy cosmology and geology known in his time Ibn al Nafis fiction explained Islamic religious teachings via science and Islamic philosophy 67 A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail s work Philosophus Autodidactus first appeared in 1671 prepared by Edward Pococke the Younger followed by an English translation by Simon Ockley in 1708 as well as German and Dutch translations These translations might have later inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe regarded as the first novel in English 68 69 70 71 Philosophus Autodidactus continuing the thoughts of philosophers such as Aristotle from earlier ages inspired Robert Boyle to write his own philosophical novel set on an island The Aspiring Naturalist 72 Dante Alighieri s Divine Comedy 73 derived features of and episodes about Bolgia 74 from Arabic works on Islamic eschatology 75 76 the Hadith and the Kitab al Miraj translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before 77 as Liber scalae Machometi 78 concerning the ascension to Heaven of Muhammad 79 and the spiritual writings of Ibn Arabi 80 The Moors also had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peele and William Shakespeare Some of their works featured Moorish characters such as Peele s The Battle of Alcazar and Shakespeare s The Merchant of Venice Titus Andronicus and Othello which featured a Moorish Othello as its title character These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish delegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England at the beginning of the 17th century 81 Philosophy Edit Main article Contemporary Islamic philosophy Further information Logic in Islamic philosophy and Kalam Ibn Rushd Averroes Muslim polymath from Al Andalus One of the common definitions for Islamic philosophy is the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture 82 Islamic philosophy in this definition is neither necessarily concerned with religious issues nor is exclusively produced by Muslims 82 The Persian scholar Ibn Sina Avicenna 980 1037 had more than 450 books attributed to him His writings were concerned with various subjects most notably philosophy and medicine His medical textbook The Canon of Medicine was used as the standard text in European universities for centuries He also wrote The Book of Healing an influential scientific and philosophical encyclopedia citation needed One of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West was Averroes Ibn Rushd founder of the Averroism school of philosophy whose works and commentaries affected the rise of secular thought in Europe 83 He also developed the concept of existence precedes essence 84 Another figure from the Islamic Golden Age Avicenna also founded his own Avicennism school of philosophy which was influential in both Islamic and Christian lands 85 He was also a critic of Aristotelian logic and founder of Avicennian logic developed the concepts of empiricism and tabula rasa and distinguished between essence and existence citation needed Yet another influential philosopher who had an influence on modern philosophy was Ibn Tufail His philosophical novel Hayy ibn Yaqdha translated into Latin as Philosophus Autodidactus in 1671 developed the themes of empiricism tabula rasa nature versus nurture 86 condition of possibility materialism 87 and Molyneux s problem 88 European scholars and writers influenced by this novel include John Locke 89 Gottfried Leibniz 71 Melchisedech Thevenot John Wallis Christiaan Huygens 90 George Keith Robert Barclay the Quakers 91 and Samuel Hartlib 72 Islamic philosophers continued making advances in philosophy through to the 17th century when Mulla Sadra founded his school of Transcendent theosophy and developed the concept of existentialism 92 Other influential Muslim philosophers include al Jahiz a pioneer in evolutionary thought Ibn al Haytham Alhazen a pioneer of phenomenology and the philosophy of science and a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy and Aristotle s concept of place topos Al Biruni a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy Ibn Tufail and Ibn al Nafis pioneers of the philosophical novel Shahab al Din Suhrawardi founder of Illuminationist philosophy Fakhr al Din al Razi a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer of inductive logic and Ibn Khaldun a pioneer in the philosophy of history 93 Sciences Edit Main article Timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world See also Physics in the medieval Islamic world Psychology in medieval Islam Mathematics in medieval Islam Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world and Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world Sciences Nasir al Din al Tusi s Astrolabe 13th century One of Mansur ibn Ilyas Ak Koyunlu era colored illustrations of human anatomy Abu al Qasim al Zahrawi s Kitab al TasrifSurgical instruments illustrations 11th century A self trimming lamp from Banu Musa s work On Mechanical Devices on Automation An illustration from al Biruni s astronomical works explains the different phases of the moon The Elephant Clock was one of the most famous inventions of Al Jazari Cubic equations and intersections of conic sections of Omar Khayyam Lagari Hasan Celebi s rocket flight depicted in a 17th century engraving Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on experiment than the Greeks citation needed This led to an early scientific method being developed in the Muslim world where progress in methodology was made beginning with the experiments of Ibn al Haytham Alhazen on optics from circa 1000 in his Book of Optics The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation which began among Muslim scientists Ibn al Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light Jim Al Khalili stated in 2009 that Ibn al Haytham is often referred to as the world s first true scientist 94 al Khwarzimi s invented the log base systems that are being used today he also contributed theorems in trigonometry as well as limits 95 Recent studies show that it is very likely that the Medieval Muslim artists were aware of advanced decagonal quasicrystal geometry discovered half a millennium later in the 1970s and 1980s in the West and used it in intricate decorative tilework in the architecture 96 Muslim physicians contributed to the field of medicine including the subjects of anatomy and physiology such as in the 15th century Persian work by Mansur ibn Muhammad ibn al Faqih Ilyas entitled Tashrih al badan Anatomy of the body which contained comprehensive diagrams of the body s structural nervous and circulatory systems or in the work of the Egyptian physician Ibn al Nafis who proposed the theory of pulmonary circulation Avicenna s The Canon of Medicine remained an authoritative medical textbook in Europe until the 18th century Abu al Qasim al Zahrawi also known as Abulcasis contributed to the discipline of medical surgery with his Kitab al Tasrif Book of Concessions a medical encyclopedia which was later translated to Latin and used in European and Muslim medical schools for centuries Other medical advancements came in the fields of pharmacology and pharmacy 97 In astronomy Muḥammad ibn Jabir al Ḥarrani al Battani improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth s axis citation needed The corrections made to the geocentric model by al Battani Averroes Nasir al Din al Tusi Mu ayyad al Din al Urdi and Ibn al Shatir were later incorporated into the Copernican heliocentric model citation needed Heliocentric theories were also discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Al Biruni Al Sijzi Qotb al Din Shirazi and Najm al Din al Qazwini al Katibi citation needed The astrolabe though originally developed by the Greeks was perfected by Islamic astronomers and engineers and was subsequently brought to Europe citation needed Some most famous scientists from the medieval Islamic world include Jabir ibn Hayyan al Farabi Abu al Qasim al Zahrawi Ibn al Haytham Al Biruni Avicenna Nasir al Din al Tusi and Ibn Khaldun citation needed Technology Edit The Spinning wheel is believed to have been invented in the medieval era of what is now the Greater Middle East it is considered to be an important device that contributed greatly to the advancement of the Industrial Revolution scene from Al Maqamat painted by al Wasiti 1237 Main articles List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world and Arab Agricultural Revolution In technology the Muslim world adopted papermaking from China 98 The knowledge of gunpowder was also transmitted from China via predominantly Islamic countries 99 where formulas for pure potassium nitrate 100 101 were developed Advances were made in irrigation and farming using new technology such as the windmill Crops such as almonds and citrus fruit were brought to Europe through al Andalus and sugar cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans Arab merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean until the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century Hormuz was an important center for this trade There was also a dense network of trade routes in the Mediterranean along which Muslim majority countries traded with each other and with European powers such as Venice Genoa and Catalonia The Silk Road crossing Central Asia passed through Islamic states between China and Europe The emergence of major economic empires with technological resources after the conquests of Timur Tamerlane and the resurgence of the Timurid Renaissance include the Mali Empire and the India s Bengal Sultanate in particular a major global trading nation in the world described by the Europeans to be the richest country to trade with 102 Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made a number of innovative industrial uses of hydropower and early industrial uses of tidal power and wind power 103 fossil fuels such as petroleum and early large factory complexes tiraz in Arabic 104 The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century while horizontal wheeled and vertical wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century A variety of industrial mills were being employed in the Islamic world including early fulling mills gristmills paper mills hullers sawmills ship mills stamp mills steel mills sugar mills tide mills and windmills By the 11th century every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation from al Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia 98 Muslim engineers also invented crankshafts and water turbines employed gears in mills and water raising machines and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power used to provide additional power to watermills and water raising machines 105 Such advances made it possible for industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe had an influence on the Industrial Revolution particularly from the proto industrialised Mughal Bengal and Tipu Sultan s Kingdom through the conquests of the East India Company 106 History EditThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed June 2020 Learn how and when to remove this template message Main articles History of Islam and Timeline of Islamic history The Tabula Rogeriana drawn by Al Idrisi of Sicily in 1154 one of the most advanced ancient world maps Al Idrisi also wrote about the diverse Muslim communities found in various lands Note the map is here shown upside down from the original to match current North Up South Down map design The history of the Islamic faith as a religion and social institution begins with its inception around 610 CE when the Islamic prophet Muhammad a native of Mecca is believed by Muslims to have received the first revelation of the Quran and began to preach his message 107 In 622 CE facing opposition in Mecca he and his followers migrated to Yathrib now Medina where he was invited to establish a new constitution for the city under his leadership 107 This migration called the Hijra marks the first year of the Islamic calendar By the time of his death Muhammad had become the political and spiritual leader of Medina Mecca the surrounding region and numerous other tribes in the Arabian Peninsula 107 After Muhammad died in 632 his successors the Caliphs continued to lead the Muslim community based on his teachings and guidelines of the Quran The majority of Muslims consider the first four successors to be rightly guided or Rashidun citation needed The conquests of the Rashidun Caliphate helped to spread Islam beyond the Arabian Peninsula stretching from northwest India across Central Asia the Near East North Africa southern Italy and the Iberian Peninsula to the Pyrenees The Arab Muslims were unable to conquer the entire Christian Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor during the Arab Byzantine wars however The succeeding Umayyad Caliphate attempted two failed sieges of Constantinople in 674 678 and 717 718 Meanwhile the Muslim community tore itself apart into the rivalling Sunni and Shia sects since the killing of caliph Uthman in 656 resulting in a succession crisis that has never been resolved 108 The following First Second and Third Fitnas and finally the Abbasid Revolution 746 750 also definitively destroyed the political unity of the Muslims who have been inhabiting multiple states ever since 109 Ghaznavids rule was succeeded by the Ghurid Empire of Muhammad of Ghor and Ghiyath al Din Muhammad whose reigns under the leadership of Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji extended until the Bengal where Indian Islamic missionaries achieved their greatest success in terms of dawah and number of converts to Islam 110 111 page needed Qutb ud din Aybak conquered Delhi in 1206 and began the reign of the Delhi Sultanate 112 a successive series of dynasties that synthesized Indian civilization with the wider commercial and cultural networks of Africa and Eurasia greatly increased demographic and economic growth in India and deterred Mongol incursion into the prosperous Indo Gangetic Plain and enthroned one of the few female Muslim rulers Razia Sultana citation needed Notable major empires dominated by Muslims such as those of the Abbasids Fatimids Almoravids Gao Empire Seljukids largest contiguous Songhai Empire 15th 16th centuries of Sahel West Africa southern North Africa and western Central Africa which dominated the centers of Islamic knowledge of Timbuktu Djenne Oualata and Gao Ajuran Adal and Warsangali in Somalia Mughals in the Indian subcontinent India Bangladesh Pakistan e t c Safavids in Persia and Ottomans in Anatolia Massina Empire Sokoto Caliphate of northern Nigeria Toucouleur Empire were among the influential and distinguished powers in the world citation needed 19th century colonialism and 20th century decolonisation have resulted in several independent Muslim majority states around the world with vastly differing attitudes towards and political influences granted to or restricted for Islam from country to country citation needed These have revolved around the question of Islam s compatibility with other ideological concepts such as secularism nationalism especially Arab nationalism and Pan Arabism as opposed to Pan Islamism socialism see also Arab socialism and socialism in Iran democracy see Islamic democracy republicanism see also Islamic republic liberalism and progressivism feminism capitalism and more citation needed Mongol invasions Edit This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it February 2022 The city of Baghdad being besieged during the Mongolian invasions Mongol armies capture of the Alamut Persian miniature Gunpowder empires Edit Main article Gunpowder empires Scholars often use the term Age of the Islamic Gunpowders to describe period the Safavid Ottoman and Mughal states Each of these three empires had considerable military exploits using the newly developed firearms especially cannon and small arms to create their empires 113 They existed primarily between the fourteenth and the late seventeenth centuries 114 During the 17th 18th centuries when the Indian subcontinent was ruled by Mughal Empire s sixth ruler Muhammad Auranzgeb through sharia and Islamic economics 115 116 India became the world s largest economy valued 25 of world GDP 117 Safavid Empire s Zamburak Bullocks dragging siege guns up hill during Mughal Emperor Akbar s Siege of Ranthambore Fort in 1568 118 The Mughal Army under the command of Islamist Aurangzeb recaptures Orchha in October 1635 Gun wielding Ottoman Janissaries in combat against the Knights of Saint John at the Siege of Rhodes in 1522 Cannons and guns belonging to the Aceh Sultanate in modern Indonesia Great Divergence Edit Main article Great Divergence Why do the Christian nations which were so weak in the past compared with Muslim nations begin to dominate so many lands in modern times and even defeat the once victorious Ottoman armies Because they have laws and rules invented by reason Ibrahim Muteferrika Rational basis for the Politics of Nations 1731 119 The Great Divergence was the reason why European colonial powers militarily defeated preexisting Oriental powers like the Mughal Empire starting from the wealthy Bengal Subah Tipu Sultan s Kingdom of Mysore the Ottoman Empire and many smaller states in the pre modern Greater Middle East and initiated a period known as colonialism 119 Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II negotiates with the East India Company after being defeated during the Battle of Buxar East India Company s Robert Clive meeting the Nawabs of Bengal before the Battle of Plassey Siege of Ochakov 1788 an armed conflict between the Ottomans and the Russian Tsardom Combat during the Russo Persian Wars French campaign in Egypt and Syria against the Mamluks and Ottomans Colonialism Edit Main articles Colonial empire and Colonialism Map of colonial powers throughout the world in the year 1914 note colonial powers in the pre modern Muslim world Beginning with the 15th century colonialism by European powers profoundly affected Muslim majority societies in Africa Europe the Middle East and Asia Colonialism was often advanced by conflict with mercantile initiatives by colonial powers and caused tremendous social upheavals in Muslim dominated societies 120 A number of Muslim majority societies reacted to Western powers with zealotry and thus initiating the rise of Pan Islamism or affirmed more traditionalist and inclusive cultural ideals and in rare cases adopted modernity that was ushered by the colonial powers 121 120 The only Muslim majority regions not to be colonized by the Europeans were Saudi Arabia Iran Turkey and Afghanistan citation needed Turkey was one of the first colonial powers of the world with the Ottoman empire ruling several states for over 6 centuries The French conquest of Algeria from 1830 to 1903 The Hispano Moroccan War between Spain and Morocco from 1859 to 1860 The Italo Turkish War between Italy and the Ottoman Empire from 1911 to 1912 The Christian reconquest of Buda Ottoman Hungary 1686 painted by Frans Geffels French conquest of Algeria 1830 1857 Anglo Egyptian invasion of Sudan 1896 1899 The Melilla War between Spain and Rif Berbers of Morocco in 1909Postcolonial era Edit Further information Decolonization In the 20th century the end of the European colonial domination has led to creation of a number of nation states with significant Muslim populations These states drew on Islamic traditions to varying degree and in various ways in organizing their legal educational and economic systems 120 The Times first documented the term Muslim world in 1912 when describing Pan Islamism as a movement with power importance and cohesion born in Paris where Turks Arabs and Persians congregated The article considered The position of the Amir the effect of the Tripoli Campaign Anglo Russian action in Persia and Afghan Ambitions 42 A significant change in the Muslim world was the defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire 1908 1922 to which the Ottoman officer and Turkish revolutionary statesman Mustafa Kemal Ataturk had an instrumental role in ending and replacing it with the Republic of Turkey a modern secular democracy 122 see Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate 122 The secular values of Kemalist Turkey which separated religion from the state with the abolition of the Caliphate in 1924 122 have sometimes been seen as the result of Western influence citation needed In the 21st century after the September 11 attacks 2001 coordinated by the Wahhabi Islamist 123 terrorist group 124 Al Qaeda 124 125 126 127 against the United States scholars considered the ramifications of seeking to understand Muslim experience through the framework of secular Enlightenment principles Muhammad Atta one of the 11 September hijackers reportedly quoted from the Quran to allay his fears Fight them and God will chastise them at your hands And degrade them and He will help you Against them and bring healing to the breasts of a people who believe referring to the ummah the community of Muslim believers and invoking the imagery of the early warriors of Islam who lead the faithful from the darkness of jahiliyyah 128 By Sayyid Qutb s definition of Islam the faith is a complete divorce from jahiliyyah He complained that American churches served as centers of community social life that were very hard to distinguish from places of fun and amusement For Qutb Western society was the modern jahliliyyah His understanding of the Muslim world and its social order was that presented to the Western world as the result of practicing Islamic teachings would impress by the beauty and charm of true Islamic ideology He argued that the values of the Enlightenment and its related precursor the Scientific Revolution denies or suspends God s sovereignty on earth and argued that strengthening Islamic character was needed to abolish the negative influences of jahili life 128 Geography Edit Indonesia is currently the most populous Muslim majority country Main article Islam by country According to a 2010 study and released January 2011 129 130 Islam had 1 5 billion adherents making up c 22 of the world population 131 132 133 Because the terms Muslim world and Islamic world are disputed since no country is homogeneously Muslim and there is no way to determine at what point a Muslim minority in a country is to be considered significant enough there is no consensus on how to define the Muslim world geographically 44 45 5 The only rule of thumb for inclusion which has some support is that countries need to have a Muslim population of more than 50 44 5 According to the Pew Research Center in 2015 there were 50 Muslim majority countries 134 135 Jones 2005 defines a large minority as being between 30 and 50 which described nine countries in 2000 namely Bosnia and Herzegovina Eritrea Ethiopia Guinea Bissau Ivory Coast Kazakhstan Nigeria North Macedonia and Tanzania 5 Islam is the second largest religion in numerous other countries including Serbia Romania Bulgaria North Macedonia Georgia Israel India Thailand Cambodia the Philippines Mozambique Malawi Tanzania Uganda Burundi Kenya Ethiopia Eritrea Central African Republic Gabon Cameroon Benin Togo Ghana and Liberia Islam by country EditThis section possibly contains original research Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations Statements consisting only of original research should be removed June 2018 Learn how and when to remove this template message Main article Islam by country Further information Political aspects of Islam and Islam and secularism As the Muslim world came into contact with secular ideals societies responded in different ways Some Muslim majority countries are secular Azerbaijan became the first secular republic in the Muslim world between 1918 and 1920 before it was incorporated into the Soviet Union 136 137 138 failed verification Turkey has been governed as a secular state since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk 139 By contrast the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a monarchial semi secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini 140 141 Some countries have declared Islam as the official state religion In those countries the legal code is largely secular Only personal status matters pertaining to inheritance and marriage are governed by Sharia law 142 Government and religion Edit Islamic states Edit Islamic states have adopted Islam as the ideological foundation of state and constitution Afghanistan 143 144 Brunei 145 better source needed Iran 143 146 Mauritania 143 147 Oman 148 better source needed Pakistan 143 149 Saudi Arabia 143 150 Yemen 143 151 State religion Edit The following Muslim majority states have endorsed Islam as their state religion and though they may guarantee freedom of religion for citizens do not declare a separation of state and religion Algeria 143 152 Bahrain 143 153 Bangladesh 143 note 1 Comoros 156 Djibouti 157 better source needed Egypt 143 158 Iraq 143 159 Jordan 143 160 Kuwait 143 161 Libya 143 162 Malaysia 143 163 Maldives 143 164 Morocco 143 165 Palestine 166 Qatar 167 Somalia 143 168 Tunisia 143 169 United Arab Emirates 143 170 Secular states Edit Secular states in the Muslim world have declared separation between civil government affairs and religion Albania 143 171 Azerbaijan 143 172 Bosnia and Herzegovina 173 Burkina Faso 143 174 Chad 143 175 The Gambia 143 176 Guinea 143 177 Guinea Bissau 178 Indonesia 179 Ivory Coast Kazakhstan 143 180 Kosovo 143 181 Kyrgyzstan 143 182 Lebanon 143 Mali 143 183 Niger 184 Nigeria 143 Senegal 143 185 Sierra Leone 186 Sudan 187 Syria 188 Tajikistan 143 189 Turkey 143 190 Turkmenistan 143 191 Uzbekistan 143 192 Muslim minority states Edit There are sizeable clarification needed Muslim populations in China and Russia citation needed China India RussiaLaw and ethics Edit This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed January 2018 Learn how and when to remove this template message Further information Islamic ethics Use of Sharia by country in nations with substantial Muslim population citation needed Sharia plays no role in the judicial system Sharia applies in personal status issues only Sharia applies in full including criminal law Regional variations in the application of sharia In some states Muslim ethnic groups enjoy considerable autonomy citation needed In some places Muslims implement Islamic law called sharia in Arabic The Islamic law exists in a number of variations called schools of jurisprudence The Amman Message which was endorsed in 2005 by prominent Islamic scholars around the world recognized four Sunni schools Hanafi Maliki Shafi i Hanbali two Shia schools Ja fari Zaidi the Ibadi school and the Zahiri school 193 Hanafi school in Pakistan North India Afghanistan Bangladesh Turkey Albania Kosovo Bosnia and Herzegovina other Balkan States Lower Egypt Jordan Lebanon Iraq Russia Caucasus Republics China and Central Asian Republics Maliki in Nigeria North Africa West Africa Sahel Qatar United Arab Emirates and Kuwait Shafi i in Malaysia Indonesia Brunei Eritrea Somalia Yemen Maldives Sri Lanka and South India Hanbali in Saudi Arabia Jaferi in Iran Iraq Bahrain and Azerbaijan These four are the only Muslim states in which the majority is Shia Yemen Afghanistan India Pakistan Tajikistan Saudi Arabia Kuwait Turkey and Syria are countries with Sunni majorities In Lebanon the majority Muslims 54 were about equally divided between Sunni and Shia in 2010 Ibadi in Oman and small regions in North Africa In a number of Muslim majority countries the law requires women to cover either their legs shoulders and head or the whole body apart from the face In strictest forms the face as well must be covered leaving just a mesh to see through These hijab rules for dressing cause tensions concerning particularly Muslims living in Western countries where restrictions are considered both sexist and oppressive Some Muslims oppose this charge and instead declare that the media in these countries presses on women to reveal too much to be deemed attractive and that this is itself sexist and oppressive citation needed Politics Edit Further information Islamic revival and Liberalism and progressivism within Islam Benazir Bhutto the former prime minister of Pakistan became the first woman elected to lead a Muslim majority country 194 During much of the 20th century the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues have arguably increased during the early 21st century The fast growing interests of the Western world in Islamic regions international conflicts and globalization have changed the influence of Islam on the world in contemporary history 195 Islamism Edit These paragraphs are an excerpt from Islamism edit Islamism also often called political Islam or Islamic fundamentalism 196 is a religio political ideology which posits that modern states and regions should be reconstituted in constitutional economic and judicial terms in accordance with what is conceived as a revival or a return to authentic Islamic practice in its totality 197 198 199 200 Ideologies dubbed Islamist may advocate a revolutionary strategy of Islamizing society through exercise of state power or alternately a reformist strategy to re Islamizing society through grassroots social and political activism 201 Islamists emphasize the implementation of sharia 202 pan Islamic political unity 202 the creation of Islamic states 203 and outright removal of non Muslim influences particularly of Western or universal economic military political social or cultural nature in the Muslim world that they believe to be incompatible with Islam and a form of Western neocolonialism CIA analysts like Graham E Fuller describe it as a form of identity politics involving support for Muslim identity authenticity broader regionalism revivalism and revitalization of the community 204 The term itself is not popular among many Islamists who criticise the Western mass media for inherently implying violent tactics human rights violations and political extremism when using the term 196 Some authors prefer the term Islamic activism 205 while Islamist political figures such as Rached Ghannouchi use the term Islamic movement rather than Islamism 206 Central and prominent figures in 20th century Islamism include Sayyid Rashid Rida 207 Hassan al Banna Sayyid Qutb Abul A la Maududi 208 Hasan al Turabi 209 and others Many Islamist movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood have been willing to pursue their ends by peaceful political processes rather than revolutionary means 210 Others notably Qutb called for violence and his followers are generally considered by Western scholars as Islamic extremists although Qutb openly denounced the killing of innocents 211 According to Robin Wright Islamist movements have arguably altered the Middle East more than any trend since the modern states gained independence redefining politics and even borders 212 Following the Arab Spring many post Islamist currents became heavily involved in democratic politics 212 213 while others spawned the most aggressive and ambitious Islamist militia to date such as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ISIL 212 Islamism is a concept whose meaning has been debated in both public and academic contexts 214 The term can refer to diverse forms of social and political activism advocating that public and political life should be guided by Islamic principles 214 215 In academic usage the term Islamism does not specify what vision of Islamic order or sharia is being advocated or how the advocates intend to bring about that vision 216 Demographics EditSee also Muslim population growth More than 24 1 of the world s population is Muslim 217 218 Current estimates conclude that the number of Muslims in the world is around 1 8 billion 217 Muslims are the majority in 49 countries 219 220 they speak hundreds of languages and come from diverse ethnic backgrounds The city of Karachi has the largest Muslim population in the world 221 222 In 2010 73 of the world s Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the majority while 27 of the world s Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the minority India s Muslim population is the world s largest Muslim minority population in the world 11 of the world s Muslim population 223 Religion Edit Islam Edit The two main denominations of Islam are the Sunni and Shia sects They differ primarily upon of how the life of the ummah faithful should be governed and the role of the imam Sunnis believe that the true political successor of Muhammad according to the Sunnah should be selected based on Shura consultation as was done at the Saqifah which selected Abu Bakr Muhammad s father in law to be Muhammad s political but not his religious successor Shia on the other hand believe that Muhammad designated his son in law Ali ibn Abi Talib as his true political as well as religious successor 224 The overwhelming majority of Muslims in the world between 87 and 90 are Sunni 225 Shias and other groups make up the rest about 10 13 of overall Muslim population The countries with the highest concentration of Shia populations are Iran 89 226 Azerbaijan 65 227 Iraq 60 228 Bahrain 60 Yemen 35 229 Turkey 10 230 231 Lebanon 27 Syria 13 Afghanistan 10 Pakistan 10 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 and India 10 241 The Kharijite Muslims who are less known have their own stronghold in the country of Oman holding about 75 of the population 242 Turkish Muslims at the Eyup Sultan Mosque on Eid al Adha Shi a Muslims in Iran commemorate Ashura Friday prayer for Sunni Muslims in Dhaka BangladeshIslamic schools and branches Edit Main article Islamic schools and branches Islamic schools of law across the Muslim world The first centuries of Islam gave rise to three major sects Sunnis Shi as and Kharijites Each sect developed distinct jurisprudence schools madhhab reflecting different methodologies of jurisprudence fiqh The major Sunni madhhabs are Hanafi Maliki Shafi i and Hanbali 243 The major Shi a branches are Twelver Imami Ismaili Sevener and Zaidi Fiver Isma ilism later split into Nizari Ismaili and Musta li Ismaili and then Mustaali was divided into Hafizi and Taiyabi Ismailis 244 It also gave rise to the Qarmatian movement and the Druze faith although Druzes do not identify as Muslims 245 246 Twelver Shiism developed Ja fari jurisprudence whose branches are Akhbarism and Usulism and other movements such as Alawites Shaykism 247 and Alevism 248 249 Similarly Kharijites were initially divided into five major branches Sufris Azariqa Najdat Adjarites and Ibadis Among these numerous branches only Hanafi Maliki Shafi i Hanbali Imamiyyah Ja fari Usuli Nizari Isma ili Alevi 250 Zaydi Ibadi Zahiri Alawite 251 Druze and Taiyabi communities have survived In addition new schools of thought and movements like Quranist Muslims and Ahmadi Muslims later emerged independently A Sufi dervish drums up the Friday afternoon crowd in Omdurman Sudan Druze dignitaries celebrating the Nabi Shu ayb festival at the tomb of the prophet in Hittin Ibadis living in the M zab valley in Algerian Sahara Zaydi Imams ruled in Yemen until 1962 Most of the inhabitants of the Hunza Valley in Pakistan are Ismaili Muslims Children read Qur an in Indonesia Muslim beggars stalk a car in Nigeria People pray together in the mosque in Russia People move close to the Muslim food corner in China Other religions Edit There are sizeable non Muslim minorities in many Muslim majority countries includes Christians Hindus Buddhists Jews Bahai s Druzes Yazidis Mandaeans Yarsanis and Zoroastrians Church and Mosque in Istanbul Turkey The Muslim world is home to some of the world s most ancient Christian communities 252 and some of the most important cities of the Christian world including three of its five great patriarchates Alexandria Antioch and Constantinople 253 Scholars and intellectuals agree Christians have made significant contributions to Arab and Islamic civilization since the introduction of Islam 254 255 and they have had a significant impact contributing the culture of the Middle East and North Africa and other areas 256 257 258 Pew Research Center estimates indicate that in 2010 more than 64 million Christians lived in countries with Muslim majorities excluding Nigeria The Pew Forum study finds that Indonesia 21 1 million has the largest Christian population in the Muslim world followed by Egypt Chad and Kazakhstan 259 While according to Adly A Youssef and Martyn Thomas in 2004 there were around 30 million Christians who lived in countries with Muslim majorities with the largest Christian population number lived in Indonesia followed by Egypt 260 Nigeria is divided almost evenly between Muslims and Christians with more than 80 million Christians and Muslims 261 Jewish communities have existed across the Middle East and North Africa since the rise of Islam Today Jews residing in Muslim countries have been reduced to a small fraction of their former sizes 262 with the largest communities of Jews in Muslim countries exist in the non Arab countries of Iran and Turkey 30 000 both however are much smaller than they historically have been 263 Among Arab countries the largest Jewish community now exists in Morocco with about 2 000 Jews and in Tunisia with about 1 000 264 The number of Druze worldwide is between 800 000 and one million with the vast majority residing in the Levant primarily in Syria and Lebanon 265 In 2010 the Pew Forum study finds that Bangladesh 13 5 million Indonesia 4 million Pakistan 3 3 million and Malaysia 1 7 million has a sizeable Hindu minorities Malaysia 5 million has the largest Buddhist population in the Muslim world 266 Zoroastrians are the oldest remaining religious community in Iran 267 Egypt has one of the largest Christian population in the Muslim world 268 Bangladesh has the largest Hindu population in the Muslim world Turkey has the largest Jewish population in the Muslim world 269 Literacy and education Edit The literacy rate in the Muslim world varies Azerbaijan is in second place in the Index of Literacy of World Countries Some members such as Iran Kuwait Kazakhstan Tajikistan and Turkmenistan have over 97 literacy rates whereas literacy rates are the lowest in Mali Afghanistan Chad and parts of Africa Several Muslim majority countries such as Turkey Iran and Egypt have a high rate of citable scientific publications 270 271 In 2015 the International Islamic News Agency reported that nearly 37 of the population of the Muslim world is unable to read or write basing that figure on reports from the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Islamic Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization 272 In Egypt the largest Muslim majority Arab country the youth female literacy rate exceeds that for males 273 Lower literacy rates are more prevalent in South Asian countries such as in Afghanistan and Pakistan but are rapidly increasing 274 In the Eastern Middle East Iran has a high level of youth literacy at 98 275 but Iraq s youth literacy rate has sharply declined from 85 to 57 during the American led war and subsequent occupation 276 Indonesia the largest Muslim majority country in the world has a 99 youth literacy rate 277 A 2011 Pew Research Center showed that at the time about 36 of all Muslims had no formal schooling with only 8 having graduate and post graduate degrees 278 The highest of years of schooling among Muslim majority countries found in Uzbekistan 11 5 Kuwait 11 0 and Kazakhstan 10 7 278 In addition the average of years of schooling in countries in which Muslims are the majority is 6 0 years of schooling which lag behind the global average 7 7 years of schooling 278 In the youngest age 25 34 group surveyed Young Muslims have the lowest average levels of education of any major religious group with an average of 6 7 years of schooling which lag behind the global average 8 6 years of schooling 278 The study found that Muslims have a significant amount of gender inequality in educational attainment since Muslim women have an average of 4 9 years of schooling compared to an average of 6 4 years of schooling among Muslim men 278 Young school girls in Paktia Province of Afghanistan A primary classroom in Niger Schoolgirls in Gaza lining up for class 2009 Medical students of anatomy before an exam in moulage IranRefugees Edit Muslim Rohingya refugees in Cox s Bazar Bangladesh According to the UNHCR Muslim majority countries hosted 18 million refugees by the end of 2010 citation needed Since then Muslim majority countries have absorbed refugees from recent conflicts including the uprising in Syria 279 In July 2013 the UN stated that the number of Syrian refugees had exceeded 1 8 million 280 In Asia an estimated 625 000 refugees from Rakhine Myanmar mostly Muslim had crossed the border into Bangladesh since August 2017 281 Culture EditThroughout history Muslim cultures have been diverse ethnically linguistically and regionally 282 According to M M Knight this diversity includes diversity in beliefs interpretations and practices and communities and interests Knight says perception of Muslim world among non Muslims is usually supported through introductory literature about Islam mostly present a version as per scriptural view which would include some prescriptive literature and abstracts of history as per authors own point of views to which even many Muslims might agree but that necessarily would not reflect Islam as lived on the ground in the experience of real human bodies 283 Islamic architecture Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem Taj Mahal in Agra city of India was constructed during the Mughal Empire Menara Kudus Mosque in Kudus Indonesia with pre Islamic Javanese style architecture Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul Turkey Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Mosque in Selangor Malaysia Great Mosque of Cordoba in Spain is a Moorish style mosque The Charminar in Hyderabad India Tower of Introspection 省心楼 at the Great Mosque of Xi an China The design of Faisal Mosque in Islamabad Pakistan is inspired by Bedouin s tent Moscow Cathedral Mosque in Moscow Russia Lagos Central Mosque in Lagos Nigeria Shah Mosque in Tehran IranArts Edit The term Islamic art and architecture denotes the works of art and architecture produced from the 7th century onwards by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally Islamic populations 284 285 Architecture Edit These paragraphs are an excerpt from Islamic architecture edit Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam It encompasses both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day The Islamic world encompasses a wide geographic area historically ranging from western Africa and Europe to eastern Asia Certain commonalities are shared by Islamic architectural styles across all these regions but over time different regions developed their own styles according to local materials and techniques local dynasties and patrons different regional centers of artistic production and sometimes different religious affiliations 286 287 Early Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman Byzantine Iranian and Mesopotamian architecture and all other lands which the Early Muslim conquests conquered in the seventh and eighth centuries 288 289 290 291 292 Further east it was also influenced by Chinese and Indian architecture as Islam spread to South and Southeast Asia Later it developed distinct characteristics in the form of buildings and in the decoration of surfaces with Islamic calligraphy arabesques and geometric motifs 293 New architectural elements like minarets muqarnas and multifoil arches were invented Common or important types of buildings in Islamic architecture include mosques madrasas tombs palaces hammams public baths Sufi hospices e g khanqahs or zawiyas fountains and sabils commercial buildings e g caravanserais and bazaars and military fortifications 287 Aniconism Edit Main article Aniconism in Islam No Islamic visual images or depictions of God are meant to exist because it is believed that such artistic depictions may lead to idolatry Muslims describe God by the names and attributes that according to Islam he revealed to his creation All but one sura of the Quran begins with the phrase In the name of God the Beneficent the Merciful Images of Mohammed are likewise prohibited Such aniconism and iconoclasm 294 can also be found in Jewish and some Christian theology Arabesque Edit Main article Arabesque Islamic art frequently adopts the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as arabesque Such designs are highly nonrepresentational as Islam forbids representational depictions as found in pre Islamic pagan religions Despite this there is a presence of depictional art in some Muslim societies notably the miniature style made famous in Persia and under the Ottoman Empire which featured paintings of people and animals and also depictions of Quranic stories and Islamic traditional narratives Another reason why Islamic art is usually abstract is to symbolize the transcendence indivisible and infinite nature of God an objective achieved by arabesque 295 Islamic calligraphy is an omnipresent decoration in Islamic art and is usually expressed in the form of Quranic verses Two of the main scripts involved are the symbolic kufic and naskh scripts which can be found adorning the walls and domes of mosques the sides of minbars and so on 295 Distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture have always been ordered repetition radiating structures and rhythmic metric patterns In this respect fractal geometry has been a key utility especially for mosques and palaces Other features employed as motifs include columns piers and arches organized and interwoven with alternating sequences of niches and colonnettes 296 The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable Its usage spans centuries first appearing in 691 with the construction of the Dome of the Rock mosque and recurring even up until the 17th century with the Taj Mahal And as late as the 19th century Islamic domes had been incorporated into European architecture 297 Example of an Arabesque Example of an Arabesque Example of an ArabesqueGirih Edit These paragraphs are an excerpt from Girih edit Girih Persian گره knot also written gereh 298 are decorative Islamic geometric patterns used in architecture and handicraft objects consisting of angled lines that form an interlaced strapwork pattern Girih decoration is believed to have been inspired by Syrian Roman knotwork patterns from the second century The earliest girih dates from around 1000 CE and the artform flourished until the 15th century Girih patterns can be created in a variety of ways including the traditional straightedge and compass construction the construction of a grid of polygons and the use of a set of girih tiles with lines drawn on them the lines form the pattern Patterns may be elaborated by the use of two levels of design as at the 1453 Darb e Imam shrine Square repeating units of known patterns can be copied as templates and historic pattern books may have been intended for use in this way The 15th century Topkapi Scroll explicitly shows girih patterns together with the tilings used to create them A set of tiles consisting of a dart and a kite shape can be used to create aperiodic Penrose tilings though there is no evidence that such a set was used in medieval times Girih patterns have been used to decorate varied materials including stone screens as at Fatehpur Sikri plasterwork as at mosques and madrasas such as the Hunat Hatun Complex in Kayseri metal as at Mosque Madrassa of Sultan Hassan in Cairo and in wood as at the Mosque Cathedral of Cordoba Girih tiles The subdivision rule used to generate the Girih pattern on the spandrel Girih pattern that can be drawn with compass and straight edge Islamic calligraphy Edit These paragraphs are an excerpt from Islamic calligraphy edit Islamic calligraphy is the artistic practice of handwriting and calligraphy in the languages which use Arabic alphabet or the alphabets derived from it It includes Arabic Persian Ottoman and Urdu calligraphy 299 300 It is known in Arabic as khatt Arabi خط عربي which translates into Arabic line design or construction 301 The development of Islamic calligraphy is strongly tied to the Qur an chapters and excerpts from the Qur an are a common and almost universal text upon which Islamic calligraphy is based Although artistic depictions of people and animals are not explicitly forbidden by the Qur an pictures have traditionally been limited in Islamic books in order to avoid idolatry Although some scholars dispute this Kufic script was supposedly developed around the end of the 7th century in Kufa Iraq from which it takes its name The style later developed into several varieties including floral foliated plaited or interlaced bordered and square kufic In the ancient world though artists would often get around this prohibition by using strands of tiny writing to construct lines and images Calligraphy was a valued art form even as a moral good An ancient Arabic proverb illustrates this point by emphatically stating that Purity of writing is purity of the soul 302 However Islamic calligraphy is not limited to strictly religious subjects objects or spaces Like all Islamic art it encompasses a diverse array of works created in a wide variety of contexts 303 The prevalence of calligraphy in Islamic art is not directly related to its non figural tradition rather it reflects the centrality of the notion of writing and written text in Islam 304 For instance the Islamic prophet Muhammad is related to have said The first thing God created was the pen 305 Islamic calligraphy developed from two major styles Kufic and Naskh There are several variations of each as well as regionally specific styles Arabic or Persian calligraphy has also been incorporated into modern art beginning with the post colonial period in the Middle East as well as the more recent style of calligraffiti Kufic script from an early Qur an manuscript 7th century Surah 7 86 87 Bismallah calligraphy Islamic calligraphy represented for amulet of sailors in the Ottoman Empire Islamic calligraphy praising Ali Modern Islamic calligraphy representing various planets Calendar Edit Two calendars are used all over the Muslim world One is a lunar calendar that is most widely used among Muslims The other one is a solar calendar officially used in Iran and Afghanistan Islamic lunar calendar Edit These paragraphs are an excerpt from Islamic calendar edit The Hijri calendar Arabic ٱلت ق و يم ٱل ه ج ر ي romanized al taqwim al hijri also known in English as the Muslim calendar and Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days It is used to determine the proper days of Islamic holidays and rituals such as the annual fasting and the annual season for the great pilgrimage In almost all countries where the predominant religion is Islam the civil calendar is the Gregorian calendar with Syriac month names used in the Levant and Mesopotamia Iraq Syria Jordan Lebanon and Palestine but the religious calendar is the Hijri one This calendar enumerates the Hijri era whose epoch was established as the Islamic New Year in 622 CE 306 During that year Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina and established the first Muslim community ummah an event commemorated as the Hijrah In the West dates in this era are usually denoted AH Latin Anno Hegirae in the year of the Hijrah a In Muslim countries it is also sometimes denoted as H 307 from its Arabic form س ن ة ه ج ر ي ة abbreviated ھ In English years prior to the Hijra are denoted as BH Before the Hijra 308 As of 30 July 2022 update CE the current Islamic year is 1444 AH In the Gregorian calendar reckoning 1444 AH runs from approximately 30 July 2022 to 18 July 2023 309 310 b Solar Hijri calendar Edit These paragraphs are an excerpt from Solar Hijri calendar edit The Solar Hijri calendar c Persian گاه شماری هجری خورشیدی romanized Gahsomari ye Xorsidi Pashto لمريز لېږدیز کلیز romanized lamrez legdez kalhandara Kurdish ڕۆژژمێری کۆچیی ھەتاوی romanized Salnameya Kocberiye is a solar calendar and one of the various ancient Iranian calendars It begins on the March equinox as determined by astronomical calculation for the Iran Standard Time meridian 52 5 E UTC 03 30 and has years of 365 or 366 days It is the modern principal calendar of both Iran and Afghanistan and is sometimes also called the Shamsi calendar and abbreviated as SH HS or by analogy with AH AHSh The Ancient Iran Solar calendar is one of the oldest calendars in the world as well as the most accurate solar calendar in use today Since the calendar uses astronomical calculation for determining the vernal equinox it has no intrinsic error 312 313 314 315 It is older than the Lunar Hijri calendar used by the majority of Muslims known in the West as the Islamic calendar the Hijrah the journey of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in the year 622 316 317 Unlike the latter its years are solar years rather than lunar years Each of the twelve months corresponds with a zodiac sign their names are the same as ancient Zoroastrian names from the Zoroastrian calendar in Afghanistan on the other hand the names of the zodiacal signs are used instead The first six months have 31 days the next five have 30 days and the last month has 29 days in usual years but 30 days in leap years The ancient Iranian New Year s Day which is called Nowruz always falls on the March equinox While Nowruz is celebrated by communities in a wide range of countries from the Balkans to Mongolia the Solar Hijri calendar itself remains only in official use in Iran and Afghanistan Women EditSee also Women in Islam and Musawah According to Riada Asimovic Akyol while Muslim women s experiences differs a lot by location and personal situations such as family upbringing class and education 318 the difference between culture and religions is often ignored by community and state leaders in many of the Muslim majority countries 318 the key issue in the Muslim world regarding gender issues is that medieval religious texts constructed in highly patriarchal environments and based on biological essentialism are still valued highly in Islam hence views emphasizing on men s superiority in unequal gender roles are widespread among many conservative Muslims men and women 318 Orthodox Muslims often believe that rights and responsibilities of women in Islam are different than that of men and sacrosanct since assigned by the God 318 According to Asma Barlas patriarchal behaviour among Muslims is based in an ideology which jumbles sexual and biological differences with gender dualisms and inequality Modernist discourse of liberal progressive movements like Islamic feminism have been revisiting hermeneutics of feminism in Islam in terms of respect for Muslim women s lives and rights 318 Riada Asimovic Akyol further says that equality for Muslim women needs to be achieved through self criticism 318 A Kazakh wedding ceremony in a mosque A group of marabouts West African religious leaders and teachers of the Quran Muslim girls at Istiqlal Mosque in Jakarta A tribal delegation in Chad Minangkabau people Padang Western Sumatra reciting Al Qur an Muslim girls walking for school in BangladeshSee also Edit Islam portal Society portal World portalArab world Outline of Islam Glossary of Islam Index of Islam related articles Spread of Islam Islam by country Islamic studies Islam and other religions Islam and secularism Pan Islamism Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition Organisation of Islamic CooperationReferences EditNotes Edit The constitution of Bangladesh declares Islam as the state religion but also guarantees equal rights and treatment for other religions and separation of government and religion 154 155 This notation is similar to that of AD for the Christian era CE for the Common Era and AM for the Jewish era exact dates depend on which variant of the Islamic calendar is followed Also called in some English sources as Iranian Solar calendar 311 Citations Edit Waldman Marilyn R Zeghal Malika 2009 Islamic world Britannica Archived from the original on 2 February 2017 Retrieved 29 January 2017 Esposito John L ed 2009 Preface The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World Oxford Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 acref 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