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Turkmenistan

February 07, 2023

"Turkomania" redirects here. For other uses, see Turkomania (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Turkestan, Turkey, or Turkmeneli.

Turkmenistan (/tɜːrkˈmɛnɪstæn/ (listen) or /ˌtɜːrkmɛnɪˈstɑːn/ (listen); Turkmen: Türkmenistan, pronounced [tʏɾkmønʏˈθːɑːn][13]) is a country located in Central Asia, bordered by Kazakhstan to the northwest, Uzbekistan to the north, east and northeast, Afghanistan to the southeast, Iran to the south and southwest and the Caspian Sea to the west. Ashgabat is the capital and largest city. The population is about 6 million, the lowest of the Central Asian republics, and Turkmenistan is one of the most sparsely populated nations in Asia.[5][14][6]

Turkmenistan
Türkmenistan (Turkmen)
Motto: 
Türkmenistan Bitaraplygyň watanydyr
"Turkmenistan is the motherland of Neutrality"[1][2]
Anthem: 
Garaşsyz Bitarap Türkmenistanyň Döwlet Gimni
"National Anthem of Independent Neutral Turkmenistan"
Location of Turkmenistan (red)
Capital
and largest city
Ashgabat
37°58′N 58°20′E / 37.967°N 58.333°E / 37.967; 58.333
Official languagesTurkmen[3]
Ethnic groups
(2012)
Religion
(2020 est.)[4]
Demonym(s)Turkmenistani[5]
Turkmen[6]
Turkmenian
GovernmentUnitary presidential republic under a totalitarian family dictatorship[7][8]
• President
Serdar Berdimuhamedow
Raşit Meredow
• Chairman of the People's Council
Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow
Gülşat Mämmedowa
LegislatureAssembly
Independence from the Soviet Union
• Conquest
1879
13 May 1925
• Declared state sovereignty
22 August 1990
• From the Soviet Union
27 October 1991
• Recognized
26 December 1991
18 May 1992
Area
• Total
491,210 km2 (189,660 sq mi)[9] (52nd)
• Water
24,069 km2 (9,293 sq mi)
• Water (%)
4.9
Population
• 2022 estimate
5,636,011[10] (115th)
• Density
10.5/km2 (27.2/sq mi) (221st)
GDP (PPP)2018 estimate
• Total
$112.659 billion[11]
• Per capita
$19,526[11]
GDP (nominal)2018 estimate
• Total
$42.764 billion[11]
• Per capita
$7,411[11]
Gini (1998)40.8
medium
HDI (2021) 0.745[12]
high · 91st
CurrencyManat (TMT)
Time zoneUTC+05 (TMT)
Driving sideright
Calling code+993
ISO 3166 codeTM
Internet TLD.tm

Turkmenistan has long served as a thoroughfare for other nations and cultures.[15] Merv is one of the oldest oasis-cities in Central Asia,[16] and was once the biggest city in the world.[17] It was also one of the great cities of the Islamic world and an important stop on the Silk Road. Annexed by the Russian Empire in 1881, Turkmenistan figured prominently in the anti-Bolshevik movement in Central Asia. In 1925, Turkmenistan became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic (Turkmen SSR); it became independent after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.[5]

Turkmenistan possesses the world's fifth largest reserves of natural gas.[18] Most of the country is covered by the Karakum Desert. From 1993 to 2017, citizens received government-provided electricity, water and natural gas free of charge.[19]

Turkmenistan is an observer state in the Organisation of Turkic States, the Türksoy community and a member of the United Nations.[20] It is also the only permanent neutral country recognized by the UN General Assembly in Asia.[21]

The country is widely criticized for its poor human rights,[22][23] its treatment of minorities, press and religious freedoms. Since gaining independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, Turkmenistan has been ruled by repressive totalitarian regimes: that of President for Life Saparmurat Niyazov (also known as Türkmenbaşy or "Head of the Turkmens") until his death in 2006; Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow, who became president in 2007 after winning a non-democratic election (he had been vice-president and then acting president previously); and his son Serdar, who won a subsequent presidential election described by international observers as neither free nor fair, and now shares power with his father.[24][25][8]

The use of the death penalty in the country was suspended in 1999,[26] before being formally abolished in 2008.[3]

Etymology

The name of Turkmenistan (Turkmen: Türkmenistan) can be divided into two components: the ethnonym Türkmen and the Persian suffix -stan meaning "place of" or "country". The name "Turkmen" comes from Turk, plus the Sogdian suffix -men, meaning "almost Turk", in reference to their status outside the Turkic dynastic mythological system.[27] However, some scholars argue the suffix is an intensifier, changing the meaning of Türkmen to "pure Turks" or "the Turkish Turks."[28]

Muslim chroniclers like Ibn Kathir suggested that the etymology of Turkmenistan came from the words Türk and Iman (Arabic: إيمان, "faith, belief") in reference to a massive conversion to Islam of two hundred thousand households in the year 971.[29]

Turkmenistan declared its independence from the Soviet Union after the independence referendum in 1991. As a result, the constitutional law was adopted on 27 October of that year and Article 1 established the new name of the state: Turkmenistan (Türkmenistan / Түркменистан).[30]

A common name for the Turkmen SSR was Turkmenia (Russian: Туркмения, romanization: Turkmeniya), used in some reports of the country's independence.[31]

History

Main article: History of Turkmenistan

Historically inhabited by the Indo-Iranians, the written history of Turkmenistan begins with its annexation by the Achaemenid Empire of Ancient Iran. Later, in the 8th century AD, Turkic-speaking Oghuz tribes moved from Mongolia into present-day Central Asia. Part of a powerful confederation of tribes, these Oghuz formed the ethnic basis of the modern Turkmen population.[32] In the 10th century, the name "Turkmen" was first applied to Oghuz groups that accepted Islam and began to occupy present-day Turkmenistan.[32] There they were under the dominion of the Seljuk Empire, which was composed of Oghuz groups living in present-day Iran and Turkmenistan.[32] Oghuz groups in the service of the empire played an important role in the spreading of Turkic culture when they migrated westward into present-day Azerbaijan and eastern Turkey.[32]

 
Turkmen helmet (15th century)

In the 12th century, Turkmen and other tribes overthrew the Seljuk Empire.[32] In the next century, the Mongols took over the more northern lands where the Turkmens had settled, scattering the Turkmens southward and contributing to the formation of new tribal groups.[32] The sixteenth and eighteenth centuries saw a series of splits and confederations among the nomadic Turkmen tribes, who remained staunchly independent and inspired fear in their neighbors.[32] By the 16th century, most of those tribes were under the nominal control of two sedentary Uzbek khanates, Khiva and Bukhoro.[32] Turkmen soldiers were an important element of the Uzbek militaries of this period.[32] In the 19th century, raids and rebellions by the Yomud Turkmen group resulted in that group's dispersal by the Uzbek rulers.[32] In 1855 the Turkmen tribe of Teke led by Gowshut-Khan defeated the invading army of the Khan of Khiva Muhammad Amin Khan[33] and in 1861 the invading Persian army of Nasreddin-Shah.[34]

In the second half of the 19th century, northern Turkmens were the main military and political power in the Khanate of Khiva.[35][36] According to Paul R. Spickard, "Prior to the Russian conquest, the Turkmen were known and feared for their involvement in the Central Asian slave trade."[37][38]

 
City of Çärjew in Russian Turkestan, 1890

Russian forces began occupying Turkmen territory late in the 19th century.[32] From their Caspian Sea base at Krasnovodsk (now Türkmenbaşy), the Russians eventually overcame the Uzbek khanates.[32] In 1879, the Russian forces were defeated by the Teke Turkmens during the first attempt to conquer the Ahal area of Turkmenistan.[39] However, in 1881, the last significant resistance in Turkmen territory was crushed at the Battle of Geok Tepe, and shortly thereafter Turkmenistan was annexed, together with adjoining Uzbek territory, into the Russian Empire.[32] In 1916, the Russian Empire's participation in World War I resonated in Turkmenistan, as an anticonscription revolt swept most of Russian Central Asia.[32] Although the Russian Revolution of 1917 had little direct impact, in the 1920s Turkmen forces joined Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and Uzbeks in the so-called Basmachi Rebellion against the rule of the newly formed Soviet Union.[32] In 1921 the tsarist province of Transcaspia (Russian: Закаспийская область, 'Transcaspian Oblast') was renamed Turkmen Oblast (Russian: Туркменская область), and in 1924, the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic was formed from it.[32][40] By the late 1930s, Soviet reorganization of agriculture had destroyed what remained of the nomadic lifestyle in Turkmenistan, and Moscow controlled political life.[32] The Ashgabat earthquake of 1948 killed over 110,000 people,[41] amounting to two-thirds of the city's population.

 
A Turkmen man of Central Asia in traditional clothes. Photo by Prokudin-Gorsky between 1905 and 1915.

During the next half-century, Turkmenistan played its designated economic role within the Soviet Union and remained outside the course of major world events.[32] Even the major liberalization movement that shook Russia in the late 1980s had little impact.[32] However, in 1990, the Supreme Soviet of Turkmenistan declared sovereignty as a nationalist response to perceived exploitation by Moscow.[32] Although Turkmenistan was ill-prepared for independence and then-communist leader Saparmurat Niyazov preferred to preserve the Soviet Union, in October 1991, the fragmentation of that entity forced him to call a national referendum that approved independence.[32] On 26 December 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. Niyazov continued as Turkmenistan's chief of state, replacing communism with a unique brand of independent nationalism reinforced by a pervasive cult of personality.[32] A 1994 referendum and legislation in 1999 abolished further requirements for the president to stand for re-election (although in 1992 he completely dominated the only presidential election in which he ran, as he was the only candidate and no one else was allowed to run for the office), making him effectively president for life.[32] During his tenure, Niyazov conducted frequent purges of public officials and abolished organizations deemed threatening.[32] Throughout the post-Soviet era, Turkmenistan has taken a neutral position on almost all international issues.[32] Niyazov eschewed membership in regional organizations such as the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, and in the late 1990s he maintained relations with the Taliban and its chief opponent in Afghanistan, the Northern Alliance.[32] He offered limited support to the military campaign against the Taliban following the 11 September 2001 attacks.[32] In 2002 an alleged assassination attempt against Niyazov led to a new wave of security restrictions, dismissals of government officials, and restrictions placed on the media.[32] Niyazov accused exiled former foreign minister Boris Shikhmuradov of having planned the attack.[32]

Between 2002 and 2004, serious tension arose between Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan because of bilateral disputes and Niyazov's implication that Uzbekistan had a role in the 2002 assassination attempt.[32] In 2004, a series of bilateral treaties restored friendly relations.[32] In the parliamentary elections of December 2004 and January 2005, only Niyazov's party was represented, and no international monitors participated.[32] In 2005, Niyazov exercised his dictatorial power by closing all hospitals outside Ashgabat and all rural libraries.[32] The year 2006 saw intensification of the trends of arbitrary policy changes, shuffling of top officials, diminishing economic output outside the oil and gas sector, and isolation from regional and world organizations.[32] China was among a very few nations to whom Turkmenistan made significant overtures.[32] The sudden death of Niyazov at the end of 2006 left a complete vacuum of power, as his cult of personality, comparable to the one of eternal president Kim Il-sung of North Korea, had precluded the naming of a successor.[32] Deputy Prime Minister Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow, who was named interim head of government, won a non-democratic special presidential election held in early February 2007.[32] His appointment as interim president and subsequent run for president violated the constitution.[42] Berdimuhamedow won two additional non-democratic elections, with approximately 97% of the vote in both 2012[43] and 2017.[44] His son Serdar Berdimuhamedow won a non-democratic snap presidential election in 2022, establishing a political dynasty in Turkmenistan.[45] On 19 March 2022, Serdar Berdimuhamedov was sworn in as Turkmenistan's new president to succeed his father.[46]

Government

After over a century of being a part of the Russian Empire and then the Soviet Union (including 67 years as a union republic), Turkmenistan declared its independence on 27 October 1991, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union.[47]

Saparmurat Niyazov, a former official of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, ruled Turkmenistan from 1985, when he became head of the Communist Party of the Turkmen SSR, until his death in 2006. He retained absolute control over the country as President after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. On 28 December 1999, Niyazov was declared President for Life of Turkmenistan by the Mejlis (parliament), which itself had taken office a week earlier in elections that included only candidates hand-picked by President Niyazov. No opposition candidates were allowed.

The former Communist Party, now known as the Democratic Party of Turkmenistan, is the dominant party. The second party, the Party of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs, was established in August 2012, and an agrarian party appeared two years later. Political gatherings are illegal unless government sanctioned.[citation needed] In 2013, the first multi-party parliamentary elections were held in Turkmenistan. Turkmenistan was a one-party state from 1991 to 2012; however, the 2013 elections were widely seen as rigged.[48] In practice, all parties in parliament operate jointly under the direction of the DPT. There are no true opposition parties in the Turkmen parliament.[49]

Legislature

See also: National Council of Turkmenistan, People's Council of Turkmenistan, and Assembly of Turkmenistan

In September 2020 the Turkmenistan Parliament adopted a constitutional amendment creating an upper chamber and thus making the Parliament bicameral.[50] The upper chamber is named the People's Council (Turkmen: Halk Maslahaty) and consists of 56 members, 48 of whom are elected and 8 of whom are appointed by the president. Together with the previous unicameral parliament, the 125-seat Mejlis, as the lower chamber, the Parliament is now called the National Council (Turkmen: Milli Geňeş). Elections to the upper chamber were held 28 March 2021.[51][52] Elections to the Mejlis were last held 25 March 2018.[53][54]

Outside observers consider the Turkmen legislature to be a rubber stamp parliament.[53][54][55] The 2018 OSCE election observer mission noted,

The 25 March elections lacked important prerequisites of a genuinely democratic electoral process. The political environment is only nominally pluralist and does not offer voters political alternatives. Exercise of fundamental freedoms is severely curtailed, inhibiting free expression of the voters' will. Despite measures to demonstrate transparency, the integrity of elections was not ensured, leaving veracity of results in doubt[56]

Judiciary

See also: Supreme Court of Turkmenistan

The judiciary in Turkmenistan is not independent. Under Articles 71 and 100 of the constitution of Turkmenistan, the president appoints all judges, including the chairperson (chief justice) of the Supreme Court, and may dismiss them with the consent of the Parliament.[57] Outside observers consider the Turkmen legislature to be a rubber stamp parliament,[53][54][55] and thus despite constitutional guarantees of judicial independence under Articles 98 and 99, the judiciary is de facto firmly under presidential control.[58] The chief justice is considered a member of the executive authority of the government and sits on the State Security Council.[59] The U.S. Department of State stated in its 2020-human rights report on Turkmenistan,

Although the law provides for an independent judiciary, the executive controls it, and it is subordinate to the executive. There was no legislative review of the president's judicial appointments and dismissals. The president had sole authority to dismiss any judge. The judiciary was widely reputed to be corrupt and inefficient.[60]

 
T-90SA and T-72UMG units.

Many national laws of Turkmenistan have been published online on the Ministry of Justice website.[61]

Military

Main article: Armed Forces of Turkmenistan

The Armed Forces of Turkmenistan (Turkmen: Türkmenistanyň Ýaragly Güýçleri), known informally as the Turkmen National Army (Turkmen: Türkmenistanyň Milli goşun) is the national military of Turkmenistan. It consists of the Ground Forces, the Air Force and Air Defense Forces, Navy, and other independent formations (etc. Border Troops, Internal Troops and National Guard).

Law enforcement

Main article: Law enforcement in Turkmenistan

The national police force in Turkmenistan is mostly governed by the Interior Ministry. The Ministry of National Security (KNB) is the intelligence-gathering asset. The Interior Ministry commands the 25,000 personnel of the national police force directly, while the KNB deals with intelligence and counter-intelligence work.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Turkmenistan
 
Golden statue of Saparmurat Niyazov in Ashgabat

Since the December 2006 death of Niyazov, Turkmenistan's leadership has made tentative moves to open up the country. His successor, President Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow, repealed some of Niyazov's most idiosyncratic policies, including banning operas and circuses for being "insufficiently Turkmen", though other such rules were later put into place such as the banning of non-white cars.[62][63] In education, Berdimuhamedow's government increased basic education to ten years from nine years, and higher education was extended from four years to five. Berdimuhamedow was succeeded by his son Serdar in 2022.[64]

The politics of Turkmenistan take place in the framework of a presidential republic, with the President both head of state and head of government. Under Niyazov, Turkmenistan had an one-party system; however, in September 2008, the People's Council unanimously passed a resolution adopting a new Constitution. The latter resulted in the abolition of the council and a significant increase in the size of Parliament in December 2008 and also permits the formation of multiple political parties.[65]

Corruption

Main article: Corruption in Turkmenistan

Transparency International's 2021 Corruption Perceptions Index placed Turkmenistan in a tie with Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo for 169th place globally, between Chad and Equatorial Guinea, with a score of 19 out of 100.[66]

Opposition media and foreign human rights organizations describe Turkmenistan as suffering from rampant corruption. A non-governmental organization, Crude Accountability, has openly called the economy of Turkmenistan a kleptocracy.[67] Opposition and domestic state-controlled media have described widespread bribery in education and law enforcement.[68][69][70][71] In 2019, the national chief of police, Minister of Internal Affairs Isgender Mulikov, was convicted and imprisoned for corruption.[72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79][80] In 2020 the deputy prime minister for education and science, Pürli Agamyradow, was dismissed for failure to control bribery in education.[69]

The illegal adoption of abandoned babies in Turkmenistan is blamed on rampant corruption in the agencies involved in the legal adoption process which pushes some parents to a "cheaper and faster" option.[81] One married couple in the eastern Farap district said that they had to provide documents and letters from 40 different agencies to support their adoption application, yet three years later there was still no decision on their bid. Meanwhile, wealthier applicants in Farap received a child for legal adoption within four months after applying because they paid up to 50,000 manats (about $14,300) in bribes.[81]

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Turkmenistan
 
Former president Berdimuhamedov with Russian President Vladimir Putin, 2017

Turkmenistan's declaration of "permanent neutrality" was formally recognized by the United Nations in 1995.[82] Former President Saparmurat Niyazov stated that the neutrality would prevent Turkmenistan from participating in multi-national defense organizations, but allows military assistance. Its neutral foreign policy has an important place in the country's constitution. Turkmenistan has diplomatic relations with 139 countries, some of the most important allies being Afghanistan, Armenia, Iran, Pakistan and Russia.[83] Turkmenistan is a member of the United Nations, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the Economic Cooperation Organization, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Islamic Development Bank, Asian Development Bank, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Food and Agriculture Organization, International Organization of Turkic Culture and observer member of Organisation of Turkic States.

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Turkmenistan

Turkmenistan has been widely criticised for human rights abuses and has imposed severe restrictions on foreign travel for its citizens.[22][23] Discrimination against the country's ethnic minorities remains in practice. Universities have been encouraged to reject applicants with non-Turkmen surnames, especially ethnic Russians.[84] It is forbidden to teach the customs and language of the Baloch, an ethnic minority.[85] The same happens to Uzbeks, though the Uzbek language was formerly taught in some national schools.[85]

According to Human Rights Watch, "Turkmenistan remains one of the world's most repressive countries. The country is virtually closed to independent scrutiny, media and religious freedoms are subject to draconian restrictions, and human rights defenders and other activists face the constant threat of government reprisal."[86]

According to Reporters Without Borders's 2014 World Press Freedom Index, Turkmenistan had the 3rd worst press freedom conditions in the world (178/180 countries), just before North Korea and Eritrea.[87] It is considered to be one of the "10 Most Censored Countries". Each broadcast under Niyazov began with a pledge that the broadcaster's tongue will shrivel if he slanders the country, flag, or president.[88]

Religious minorities are discriminated against for conscientious objection and practicing their religion by imprisonment, preventing foreign travel, confiscating copies of Christian literature or defamation.[60][89][90][91] Many detainees who have been arrested for exercising their freedom of religion or belief were tortured and subsequently sentenced to imprisonment, many of them without a court decision.[92][93] Homosexual acts are illegal in Turkmenistan.[94]

Restrictions on free and open communication

See also: Telecommunications in Turkmenistan § Censorship

Despite the launch of Turkmenistan's first communication satellite, the TurkmenSat 1, in April 2015, the Turkmen government banned all satellite dishes in Turkmenistan the same month. The statement issued by the government indicated that all existing satellite dishes would have to be removed or destroyed—despite the communications receiving antennas having been legally installed since 1995—in an effort by the government to fully block access of the population to many "hundreds of independent international media outlets" which are currently accessible in the country only through satellite dishes, including all leading international news channels in different languages. The main target of this campaign is Radio Azatlyk, the Turkmen-language service of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (which is run by the U.S. government).[95]

Internet access is filtered and websites to which the government objects are blocked. Blocked websites include opposition news media, YouTube, many social media including Facebook, and encrypted communications applications. Use of virtual private networks to circumvent censorship is prohibited.[96][97][98]

Geography

Main articles: Geography of Turkmenistan and List of mountains of Turkmenistan
 
Topography of Turkmenistan

At 488,100 km2 (188,500 sq mi), Turkmenistan is the world's 52nd-largest country. It is slightly smaller than Spain and larger than Cameroon. It lies between latitudes 35° and 43° N, and longitudes 52° and 67° E. Over 80% of the country is covered by the Karakum Desert. The center of the country is dominated by the Turan Depression and the Karakum Desert. Topographically, Turkmenistan is bounded by the Ustyurt Plateau to the north, the Kopet Dag Range to the south, the Paropamyz Plateau, the Koytendag Range to the east, the Amu Darya Valley, and the Caspian Sea to the west.[99] Turkmenistan includes three tectonic regions, the Epigersin platform region, the Alpine shrinkage region, and the Epiplatform orogenesis region.[99] The Alpine tectonic region is the epicenter of earthquakes in Turkmenistan. Strong earthquakes occurred in the Kopet Dag Range in 1869, 1893, 1895, 1929, 1948, and 1994. The city of Ashgabat and surrounding villages were largely destroyed by the 1948 earthquake.[99]

The Kopet Dag Range, along the southwestern border, reaches 2,912 metres (9,554 feet) at Kuh-e Rizeh (Mount Rizeh).[100]

The Great Balkhan Range in the west of the country (Balkan Province) and the Köýtendag Range on the southeastern border with Uzbekistan (Lebap Province) are the only other significant elevations. The Great Balkhan Range rises to 1,880 metres (6,170 ft) at Mount Arlan[101] and the highest summit in Turkmenistan is Ayrybaba in the Kugitangtau Range – 3,137 metres (10,292 ft).[102] The Kopet Dag mountain range forms most of the border between Turkmenistan and Iran.

Major rivers include the Amu Darya, the Murghab River, the Tejen River, and the Atrek (Etrek) River. Tributaries of the Atrek include the Sumbar River and Chandyr River.

The Turkmen shore along the Caspian Sea is 1,748 kilometres (1,086 mi) long. The Caspian Sea is entirely landlocked, with no natural access to the ocean, although the Volga–Don Canal allows shipping access to and from the Black Sea.

Major cities include Aşgabat, Türkmenbaşy (formerly Krasnovodsk), Balkanabat, Daşoguz, Türkmenabat, and Mary.

Climate, biodiversity and environment

Main articles: Climate of Turkmenistan and Environmental issues in Turkmenistan
 
Turkmenistan map of Köppen climate classification

Turkmenistan is in a temperate desert zone with a dry continental climate. Remote from the open sea, with mountain ranges to the south and southeast, Turkmenistan's climate is characterized by low precipitation, low cloudiness, and high evaporation. Absence of mountains to the north allows cold Arctic air to penetrate southward to the southerly mountain ranges, which in turn block warm, moist air from the Indian Ocean. Limited winter and spring rains are attributable to moist air from the west, originating in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea.[99] Winters are mild and dry, with most precipitation falling between January and May. The Kopet Dag Range receives the highest level of precipitation.

The Karakum Desert is one of the driest deserts in the world; some places have an average annual precipitation of only 12 mm (0.47 in). The highest temperature recorded in Ashgabat is 48.0 °C (118.4 °F) and Kerki, an extreme inland city located on the banks of the Amu Darya river, recorded 51.7 °C (125.1 °F) in July 1983, although this value is unofficial. 50.1 °C (122 °F) is the highest temperature recorded at Repetek Reserve, recognized as the highest temperature ever recorded in the whole former Soviet Union.[103] Turkmenistan enjoys 235–240 sunny days per year. The average number of degree days ranges from 4500 to 5000 Celsius, sufficient for production of extra long staple cotton.[99]

Turkmenistan contains seven terrestrial ecoregions: Alai-Western Tian Shan steppe, Kopet Dag woodlands and forest steppe, Badghyz and Karabil semi-desert, Caspian lowland desert, Central Asian riparian woodlands, Central Asian southern desert, and Kopet Dag semi-desert.[104]

Turkmenistan's greenhouse gas emissions per person (17.5 tCO2e) are considerably higher than the OECD average: due mainly to natural gas seepage from oil and gas exploration.[105]

Administrative divisions

Further information: Districts of Turkmenistan

Turkmenistan is divided into five provinces or welayatlar (singular welayat) and one capital city district. The provinces are subdivided into districts (etraplar, sing. etrap), which may be either counties or cities. According to the Constitution of Turkmenistan (Article 16 in the 2008 Constitution, Article 47 in the 1992 Constitution), some cities may have the status of welaýat (province) or etrap (district).

Balkan ProvinceDasoguz ProvinceAhal ProvinceLebap ProvinceMary Province 
Division ISO 3166-2 Capital city Area[106] Pop (2005)[106] Key
Ashgabat City TM-S Ashgabat 470 km2 (180 sq mi) 871,500
Ahal Province TM-A Änew 97,160 km2 (37,510 sq mi) 939,700 1
Balkan Province TM-B Balkanabat　 139,270 km2 (53,770 sq mi) 553,500 2
Daşoguz Province TM-D Daşoguz 73,430 km2 (28,350 sq mi) 1,370,400 3
Lebap Province TM-L Türkmenabat 93,730 km2 (36,190 sq mi) 1,334,500 4
Mary Province TM-M Mary 87,150 km2 (33,650 sq mi) 1,480,400 5

Economy

Main articles: Economy of Turkmenistan and Agriculture in Turkmenistan
 
A proportional representation of Turkmenistan exports, 2019

The country possesses the world's fourth largest reserves of natural gas and substantial oil resources.[107]

Turkmenistan has taken a cautious approach to economic reform, hoping to use gas and cotton sales to sustain its economy. In 2014, the unemployment rate was estimated to be 11%.[5]

Between 1998 and 2002, Turkmenistan suffered from the continued lack of adequate export routes for natural gas and from obligations on extensive short-term external debt. At the same time, however, the value of total exports rose sharply due to increases in international oil and gas prices. The subsequent collapse of both hydrocarbon and cotton prices in 2014 cut revenues from export sales severely, causing Turkmenistan to run trade deficits from 2015 through 2017.[108] Economic prospects in the near future are discouraging because of widespread internal poverty and the burden of foreign debt,[109] coupled with continued low hydrocarbon prices and reduced Chinese purchases of natural gas.[110][111] One reflection of economic stress is the black-market exchange rate for the Turkmen manat, which though officially set at 3.5 manats to the US dollar, reportedly was trading in January 2021 at 32 manats to the dollar.[112]

President Niyazov spent much of the country's revenue on extensively renovating cities, Ashgabat in particular. Corruption watchdogs voiced particular concern over the management of Turkmenistan's currency reserves, most of which are held in off-budget funds such as the Foreign Exchange Reserve Fund in the Deutsche Bank in Frankfurt, according to a report released in April 2006 by London-based non-governmental organization Global Witness.

According to a decree of the Peoples' Council of 14 August 2003,[113] electricity, natural gas, water and salt were to have been subsidized for citizens until 2030. Under implementing regulations, every citizen was entitled to 35 kilowatt hours of electricity and 50 cubic meters of natural gas each month. The state also provided 250 liters (66 gallons) of water per day.[114] As of 1 January 2019, however, all such subsidies were abolished, and payment for utilities was implemented.[115][116][117][118]

Natural gas and export routes

Main articles: Economy of Turkmenistan § Natural gas, and Pipelines in Turkmenistan
 
Ceremony on completion of the Turkmen section of the Turkmenistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan–India Pipeline

As of May 2011, the Galkynysh Gas Field was estimated to possess the second-largest volume of gas in the world, after the South Pars field in the Persian Gulf. Reserves at the Galkynysh Gas Field are estimated at 21.2 trillion cubic metres.[119] The Turkmenistan Natural Gas Company (Türkmengaz) controls gas extraction in the country. Gas production is the most dynamic and promising sector of the national economy.[120] In 2009 the government of Turkmenistan began a policy of diversifying export routes for its raw materials.[121]

Prior to 1958 gas production was limited to associated gas from oil wells in western Turkmenistan. In 1958, the first gas wells were drilled at Serhetabat (then Kushky) and at Derweze.[99] Oil and gas fields were discovered in the Central Karakum Desert between 1959 and 1965. In addition to Derweze, these include Takyr, Shyh, Chaljulba, Topjulba, Chemmerli, Atabay, Sakarchage, Atasary, Mydar, Goyun, and Zakli. These fields are located in Jurassic and Cretaceous sediments.[99] The Turkmen gas industry got underway with the opening of the Ojak gas field in 1966. To put this in perspective, associated gas production in Turkmenistan was only 1.157 billion cubic meters in 1965, but by 1970 natural gas production reached 13 billion cubic meters, and by 1989, 90 billion cubic meters. The USSR exported much of this gas to western Europe. Following independence, natural gas extraction fell as Turkmenistan sought export markets but was limited to existing delivery infrastructure under Russian control: Turkmenistan-Russia in two lines (3087 km, originating at Ojak, and another of 2259 km, also originating at Ojak); the Gumdag line (2530 km); and the Shatlyk line (2644 km) to Russia, Ukraine, and the Caucasus.[99] On 1 January 2016, Russia halted natural gas purchases from Turkmenistan after reducing them step by step for the previous years.[122] Russia's Gazprom announced resumption of purchases in April 2019, but reported volumes remained low compared to previous delivery levels.[123]

In 1997, the Korpeje-Gurtguy natural gas pipeline was built to Iran. It is 140 kilometers in length and was the first gas pipeline to a foreign customer constructed after independence.[99] Turkmenistan's exports of natural gas to Iran, estimated at 12 bcma, ended on 1 January 2017, when Turkmengaz unilaterally cut off deliveries, citing payment arrears.[124][125]

In December 2009 the first line, Line A, of the Trans-Asia pipeline to China opened, creating a second major market for Turkmen natural gas. By 2015 Turkmenistan was delivering up to 35 billion cubic meters per annum (bcma) to China.[126] China is the largest buyer of gas from Turkmenistan, via three pipelines linking the two countries through Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. In 2019, China bought over 30bcm of gas from Turkmenistan,[127][128] making China Turkmenistan's main external source of revenue.[129]

The East–West pipeline was completed in December 2015, with the intent of delivering up to 30 bcm of natural gas to the Caspian shore for eventual export through a yet-to-be-built Trans-Caspian natural gas pipeline connecting the Belek-1 compressor station in Turkmenistan to Azerbaijan.

The Turkmenistan government continues to pursue construction of the Turkmenistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan–India Pipeline, or TAPI.[130] The anticipated cost of the TAPI pipeline is currently estimated at $25 billion. Turkmenistan's section of the pipeline was started in 2015 and was completed in 2019, though the Afghanistan and Pakistan sections remain under construction.

6 billion dollars worth of methane, a greenhouse gas which causes climate change, was estimated to leak in 2019/20.[131]

Oil

Main article: Economy of Turkmenistan § Oil
See also: Pipelines in Turkmenistan
 
Oil platform of Turkmenistan in the Caspian Sea.

Oil was known to exist in western Turkmenistan as early as the 18th century. General Aleksey Kuropatkin reported in 1879 that the Cheleken Peninsula had as many as three thousand oil sources.[132] Turkmen settlers in the 19th century extracted oil near the surface and shipped it to Astrakhan by ship and to Iran by camel caravan. Commercial oil drilling began in the 1890s. The oil extraction industry grew with the exploitation of the fields in Cheleken in 1909 (by Branobel) and in Balkanabat in the 1930s. Production leaped ahead with the discovery of the Gumdag field in 1948 and the Goturdepe field in 1959. By 1940 production had reached two million tons per year, by 1960 over four million tons, and by 1970 over 14 million tons. Oil production in 2019 was 9.8 million tons.[99][108]

Oil wells are mainly found in the western lowlands. This area also produces associated natural gas. The main oilfields are Cheleken, Gonurdepe, Nebitdag, Gumdag, Barsagelmez, Guyujyk, Gyzylgum, Ordekli, Gogerendag, Gamyshlyja, Ekerem, Chekishler, Keymir, Ekizek, and Bugdayly. Oil is also produced from offshore wells in the Caspian Sea.[99] Most oil is extracted by the Turkmenistan State Company (Concern) Türkmennebit from fields at Goturdepe, Balkanabat, and on the Cheleken Peninsula near the Caspian Sea, which have a combined estimated reserve of 700 million tons. Much of the oil produced in Turkmenistan is refined in the Türkmenbaşy and Seydi refineries. Some oil is exported by tanker vessel across the Caspian Sea en route to Europe via Baku and Makhachkala.[133][134][135] Foreign firms involved in offshore oil extraction include Eni S.p.A. of Italy, Dragon Oil of the United Arab Emirates, and Petronas of Malaysia.

On 21 January 2021, the governments of Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan signed a memorandum of understanding to develop jointly an oil field in the Caspian Sea that straddles the nations' border. Known previously as Kyapaz in Azeri and Serdar in Turkmen, the oil field, now called Dostluk ("friendship" in both languages), potentially has reserves of up to 60 million tons of oil as well as associated natural gas.[136][137][138]

Energy

See also: Economy of Turkmenistan § Power generation
 
The generators of the Hindukush hydro power plant

Turkmenistan's first electrical power plant was built in 1909 and went into full operation in 1913. As of 2019 it was still in operation. The original triple-turbine Hindukush hydroelectric plant, built by the Austro-Hungarian company Ganz Works[139] on the Murghab River, was designed to produce 1.2 megawatts at 16.5 kilovolts.[140][141] Until 1957, however, most electrical power in Turkmenistan was produced locally by small diesel generators and diesel-electric locomotives.[141]

In 1957 Soviet authorities created a republic-level directorate for power generation, and in 1966 Turkmenistan entered the first phase of connecting its remote regions to the regional Central Asian electrical grid. By 1979 all rural areas of Turkmenistan were brought on line. Construction of the Mary thermal power plant began in 1969, and by 1987 the eighth and final generator block was completed, bringing the plant to its design capacity of 1.686 gigawatts. In 1998 Turkmenenergo commissioned its first gas-turbine power plant, using GE turbines.[141]

As of 2010 Turkmenistan featured eight major power plants operating on natural gas, in Mary, Ashgabat, Balkanabat, Buzmeyin (suburb of Ashgabat), Dashoguz, Türkmenbaşy, Turkmenabat, and Seydi.[99] As of 2013, Turkmenistan had 10 electrical power plants equipped with 32 turbines, including 14 steam-driven, 15 gas powered, and 3 hydroelectric.[142] Power output in 2011 was 18.27 billion kWh, of which 2.5 billion kWh was exported.[142] Major power generating installations include the Hindukush Hydroelectric Station,[143] which has a rated capacity of 350 megawatts, and the Mary Thermoelectric Power Station,[144] which has a rated capacity of 1,370 megawatts. In 2018, electrical power production totaled more than 21 billion kilowatt-hours.[145]

Since 2013, additional power plants have been constructed in Mary and Ahal province, and Çärjew District of Lebap province. The Mary-3 combined cycle power plant, built by Çalık Holding with GE turbines, commissioned in 2018, produces 1.574 gigawatts of electrical power and is specifically intended to support expanded exports of electricity to Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Zerger power plant built by Sumitomo, Mitsubishi, Hitachi, and Rönesans Holding in Çärjew District has a design capacity of 432 megawatts from three 144-megawatt gas turbines and was commissioned in September 2021.[146] It is also primarily intended for export of electricity. The Ahal power plant, with capacity of 650 megawatts, was constructed to power the city of Ashgabat and in particular the Olympic Village.[147][148][149][150]

Turkmenistan is a net exporter of electrical power to Central Asian republics and southern neighbors. In 2019, total electrical energy generation in Turkmenistan reportedly totaled 22,521.6 million kilowatt-hours (22.52 terawatt-hours).[151]

Agriculture

Main article: Agriculture in Turkmenistan

Following independence in 1991, Soviet-era collective- and state farms were converted to "farmers associations" (Turkmen: daýhan birleşigi).[99] Virtually all field crops are irrigated due to the aridity of the climate. The top crop in terms of area planted is wheat (761 thousand hectares in 2019), followed by cotton (551 thousand hectares in 2019).[108]

Turkmenistan is the world's tenth-largest cotton producer.[152] Turkmenistan started producing cotton in the Murghab Valley following conquest of Merv by the Russian Empire in 1884.[153] According to human rights organizations, public sector workers, such as teachers and doctors, are required by the government to pick cotton under the threat of losing their jobs if they refuse.[154]

During the 2020 season, Turkmenistan reportedly produced roughly 1.5 million tons of raw cotton. In 2012, around 7,000 tractors, 5,000 cotton cultivators, 2,200 sowing machines and other machinery, mainly procured from Belarus and the United States, were used. Prior to imposition of a ban on export of raw cotton in October 2018, Turkmenistan exported raw cotton to Russia, Iran, South Korea, United Kingdom, China, Indonesia, Turkey, Ukraine, Singapore and the Baltic states. Beginning in 2019, the Turkmenistan government shifted focus to export of cotton yarn and finished textiles and garments.[155][156][157]

Tourism

 
Panorama of the site of the Darvaza gas crater
Main article: Tourism in Turkmenistan

Turkmenistan reported arrival of 14,438 foreign tourists in 2019.[108] Turkmenistan's international tourism has not grown significantly despite creation of the Awaza tourist zone on the Caspian Sea.[158] Every traveler must obtain a visa before entering Turkmenistan (see Visa policy of Turkmenistan). To obtain a tourist visa, citizens of most countries need visa support from a local travel agency. For tourists visiting Turkmenistan, organized tours exist providing visits to historical sites in and near Daşoguz, Konye-Urgench, Nisa, Ancient Merv, and Mary, as well as beach tours to Avaza and medical tours and holidays in the sanatoria in Mollagara, Bayramaly, Ýylysuw and Archman.[159][160][161]

In January 2022 President Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow ordered that the fire at the Darvaza gas crater, known informally as the country's "Gateway to Hell", and one of Turkmenistan's most popular tourist attractions, should be extinguished.[162] Many believe that the crater formed when a Soviet drilling operation went wrong in 1971, but Canadian explorer George Kourounis examined it in 2013 and discovered that no-one actually knows how it started.[163]

Transportation

Main article: Transportation in Turkmenistan

Automobile transport

Prior to the 1917 Russian Revolution only three automobiles existed in Turkmenistan, all of them foreign models in Ashgabat. No automobile roads existed between settlements. After the revolution, Soviet authorities graded dirt roads to connect Mary and Kushky (Serhetabat), Tejen and Sarahs, Kyzyl-Arvat (Serdar) with Garrygala (Magtymguly) and Chekishler, i.e., with important border crossings. In 1887–1888 the Gaudan Highway (Russian: Гауданское шоссе) was built between Ashgabat and the Persian border at Gaudan Pass, and Persian authorities extended it to Mashhad, allowing for easier commercial relations. Municipal bus service began in Ashgabat in 1925 with five routes, and taxicab service began in 1938 with five vehicles. The road network was extended in the 1970s with construction of republic-level highways connecting Ashgabat and Kazanjyk (Bereket), Ashgabat and Bayramaly, Nebit Dag (Balkanabat) and Krasnovodsk (Türkmenbaşy), Çärjew (Turkmenabat) and Kerki, and Mary and Kushka (Serhetabat).[164]

The primary west–east motor route is the M37 highway linking the Turkmenbashy International Seaport to the Farap border crossing via Ashgabat, Mary, and Turkmenabat. The primary north–south route is the Ashgabat-Dashoguz Automobile Road (Turkmen: Aşgabat-Daşoguz awtomobil ýoly), built in the 2000s. Major international routes include European route E003, European route E60, European route E121, and Asian Highway (AH) routes AH5, AH70, AH75, AH77, and AH78.[165]

A new toll motorway is under construction between Ashgabat and Turkmenabat by "Turkmen Awtoban" company, which will construct the 600-km highway in three phases: Ashgabat-Tejen by December 2020, Tejen-Mary by December 2022 and Mary-Turkmenabat by December 2023. A sister project to link Türkmenbaşy and Ashgabat was suspended when the Turkish contractor, Polimeks, walked away from the project, reportedly because of non-payment.[166]

As of 29 January 2019, the Turkmen Automobile Roads state concern (Turkmen: Türkmenawtoýollary) was subordinated by presidential decree to the Ministry of Construction and Architecture, and responsibility for road construction and maintenance was shifted to provincial and municipal governments.[167][168] Operation of motor coaches (buses) and taxicabs is the responsibility of the Automobile Services Agency (Turkmen: Türkmenawtoulaglary Agentligi) of the Ministry of Industry and Communication.[169]

Air transport

See also: List of airports in Turkmenistan and List of Turkmenistan Airlines destinations

Air service began in 1927 with a route between Çärjew (Turkmenabat) and Tashauz (Dashoguz), flying German Junkers 13 and Soviet K-4 aircraft, each capable of carrying four passengers. In 1932 an aerodrome was built in Ashgabat on the site of the current Howdan neighborhoods, for both passenger and freight service, the latter mainly to deliver supplies to sulfur mines near Derweze in the Karakum Desert.[170]

Airports serving the major cities of Ashgabat, Dashoguz, Mary, Turkmenabat, and Türkmenbaşy, which are operated by Turkmenistan's civil aviation authority's airline, Türkmenhowaýollary, feature scheduled domestic commercial air service.[171][172] Under normal circumstances international scheduled commercial air service is limited to Ashgabat. During the COVID-19 pandemic, however, international flights take off from and land at Turkmenabat, where quarantine facilities have been established.[173][174]

State-owned Turkmenistan Airlines is the only Turkmen air carrier. Turkmenistan Airlines' passenger fleet is composed of Boeing and Bombardier Aerospace aircraft.[175] Air transport carries more than two thousand passengers daily in the country.[176] Under normal conditions, international flights annually transport over half a million people into and out of Turkmenistan, and Turkmenistan Air operates regular flights to Moscow, London, Frankfurt, Birmingham, Bangkok, Delhi, Abu Dhabi, Amritsar, Kyiv, Lviv, Beijing, Istanbul, Minsk, Almaty, Tashkent, and St. Petersburg.

Small airfields serve industrial sites near other cities, but do not feature scheduled commercial passenger service. Airfields slated for modernization and expansion include those serving Garabogaz, Jebel, and Galaýmor.[177][178][179][180][181] The new Turkmenabat International Airport was commissioned in February 2018.[182] In June 2021, an international airport was opened in Kerki.

Maritime transport

 
Workers in the service of Maritime and River Transport of Turkmenistan

Since 1962, the Turkmenbashy International Seaport has operated a passenger ferry to the port of Baku, Azerbaijan as well as rail ferries to other ports on the Caspian Sea (Baku, Aktau). In recent years tanker transport of oil to the ports of Baku and Makhachkala has increased.

In May 2018 construction was completed of a major expansion of the Turkmenbashy seaport.[183][184] Cost of the project was $1.5 billion. The general contractor for the project was Gap Inşaat, a subsidiary of Çalık Holding of Turkey. The expansion added 17 million tons of annual capacity, making total throughput including previously existing facilities of over 25 million tons per year. The international ferry and passenger terminals will be able to serve 300,000 passengers and 75,000 vehicles per year, and the container terminal is designed to handle 400,000 TEU (20-foot container equivalent) per year.[185][186][187]

Railway transport

 
Turkmen diesel locomotive
Main article: Rail transport in Turkmenistan
Main article: Türkmendemirýollary

The first rail line in Turkmenistan was built in 1880, from the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea to Mollagara. By October 1881 the line was extended to Kyzyl-Arvat, by 1886 had reached Çärjew. In 1887 a wooden rail bridge was built over the Amu Darya, and the line was continued to Samarkand (1888) and Tashkent (1898).[188] Rail service in Turkmenistan began as part of Imperial Russia's Trans-Caspian Railway, then of the Central Asian Railway. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the railway network in Turkmenistan was transferred to and operated by the state-owned Türkmendemirýollary. The rail gauge is the same as the Russian (and former Soviet) one-1520 millimeters.

The total length of railways is 3181 km. Only domestic passenger service is available, except for special trains operated by tour operators.[189] The railway carries approximately 5.5 million passengers and moves nearly 24 million tons of freight per year.[108][190][191]

Turkmen Railways is currently constructing a rail line in Afghanistan to connect Serhetabat to Herat.[192] Upon completion, it may connect to the proposed rail line to connect Herat to Khaf, Iran.[193]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Turkmenistan
 
Turkmens in folk costume at the 20th Independence Day parade, 2011.

The last census to be published was held in 1995. Results of every census since then have been kept secret. Available figures indicate that most of Turkmenistan's citizens are ethnic Turkmens with sizeable minorities of Uzbeks and Russians. Smaller minorities include Kazakhs, Tatars, Ukrainians, Kurds (native to the Kopet Dagh mountains), Armenians, Azeris, Balochs and Pashtuns. The percentage of ethnic Russians in Turkmenistan dropped from 18.6% in 1939 to 9.5% in 1989. The CIA World Factbook estimated the ethnic composition of Turkmenistan in 2003 as 85% Turkmen, 5% Uzbek, 4% Russian and 6% other.[5] According to official data announced in Ashgabat in February 2001, 91% of the population were Turkmen, 3% were Uzbeks and 2% were Russians. Between 1989 and 2001 the number of Turkmen in Turkmenistan doubled (from 2.5 to 4.9 million), while the number of Russians dropped by two-thirds (from 334,000 to slightly over 100,000).[194][195] As of 2021, the number of Russians in Turkmenistan was estimated at 100,000.[196] Opposition media reported that some results of the 2012 census had been surreptitiously released, including a total population number of 4,751,120. According to this source, as of 2012 85.6% of the population was ethnically Turkmen, followed by 5.8% ethnic Uzbek and 5.1% ethnic Russian. In contrast, an official Turkmen delegation reported to the UN in January 2015 some different figures on national minorities, including slightly under 9% ethnic Uzbek, 2.2% ethnic Russian, and 0.4% ethnic Kazakh. The 2012 census reportedly counted 58 different nationalities.[197][198][199]

Official population estimates of 6.2 million are likely too high, given known emigration trends.[200] Population growth has been offset by emigration in search of permanent employment.[201] In July 2021 opposition media reported, based on three independent anonymous sources, that the population of Turkmenistan was between 2.7 and 2.8 million.[202]

A once-in-a-decade national census was conducted December 17–27, 2022. Opposition media reported that many people claimed not to have been interviewed by census workers, or that census workers merely telephoned respondents, and did not visit them to count residents.[203][204]

 
 
Largest cities or towns in Turkmenistan
Rank Name Province Pop.
 
Ashgabat
 
Türkmenabat 		1 Ashgabat Capital 947,221  
Daşoguz
2 Türkmenabat Lebap 279,765
3 Daşoguz Daşoguz 245,872
4 Mary Mary 126,141
5 Serdar Balkan 93,692
6 Baýramaly Mary 91,713
7 Balkanabat Balkan 90,149
8 Tejen Ahal 79,324
9 Türkmenbaşy Balkan 73,803
10 Magdanly Lebap 68,133

Migration

See also: Demographics of Turkmenistan § Demographic trends

Based on data from receiving countries, MeteoZhurnal estimated that at least 102,346 Turkmenistani citizens emigrated abroad in 2019, 78% of them to Turkey, and 24,206 apparently returned home, for net migration of 77,014.[201] According to leaked results of a 2018 survey, between 2008 and 2018 1,879,413 Turkmenistani citizens emigrated permanently out of an estimated base population of 5.4 million.[205][206]

Turkmen tribes

Main article: Turkmen tribes

The tribal nature of Turkmen society is well documented. The major modern Turkmen tribes are Teke, Yomut, Ersari, Chowdur, Gokleng and Saryk.[207][208] The most numerous are the Teke.[209]

Languages

Further information: Turkmenization

Turkmen is the official language of Turkmenistan (per the 1992 Constitution). Since the late 20th century, the government of Turkmenistan has taken steps to distance itself from the Russian language (which has been seen as a soft power tool for Russian interests). The first step in this campaign was the shift to the Latin alphabet in 1993,[210] and Russian lost its status as the language of inter-ethnic communication in 1996.[211] As of 1999 Turkmen was spoken by 72% of the population, Russian by 12% (349,000), Uzbek by 9%[5] (317,000), and other languages by 7% (Kazakh (88,000), Tatar (40,400), Ukrainian (37,118), Azerbaijani (33,000), Armenian (32,000), Northern Kurdish (20,000), Lezgian (10,400), Persian (8,000), Belarusian (5,290), Erzya (3,490), Korean (3,490), Bashkir (2,610), Karakalpak (2,540), Ossetic (1,890), Dargwa (1,600), Lak (1,590), Tajik (1,280), Georgian (1,050), Lithuanian (224), Tabasaran (180), and Dungan).[212]

Religion

Further information: Religion in Turkmenistan and Islam in Turkmenistan
 
Ashgabat Mosque, 2013

According to the CIA World Factbook, Muslims constitute 93% of the population while 6% of the population are followers of the Eastern Orthodox Church and the remaining 1% religion is reported as non-religious.[5] According to a 2009 Pew Research Center report, 93.1% of Turkmenistan's population is Muslim.[213]

The first migrants were sent as missionaries and often were adopted as patriarchs of particular clans or tribal groups, thereby becoming their "founders." Reformulation of communal identity around such figures accounts for one of the highly localized developments of Islamic practice in Turkmenistan.[214]

In the Soviet era, all religious beliefs were attacked by the communist authorities as superstition and "vestiges of the past." Most religious schooling and religious observance were banned, and the vast majority of mosques were closed. However, since 1990, efforts have been made to regain some of the cultural heritage lost under Soviet rule.[215]

Former president Saparmurat Niyazov ordered that basic Islamic principles be taught in public schools. More religious institutions, including religious schools and mosques, have appeared, many with the support of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Turkey. Under Niyazov, religious classes were held in both schools and mosques, with instruction in Arabic language, the Qur'an and the hadith, and history of Islam.[216] At present, the only educational institution teaching religion is the theological faculty of Turkmen State University.

 
Russian Orthodox church in Mary

President Niyazov wrote his own religious text, published in separate volumes in 2001 and 2004, entitled the Ruhnama ("Book of the Soul"). The Turkmenbashy regime required that the book, which formed the basis of the educational system in Turkmenistan, be given equal status with the Quran (mosques were required to display the two books side by side). The book was heavily promoted as part of the former president's personality cult, and knowledge of the Ruhnama was required even for obtaining a driver's license.[217] Quotations from the Ruhnama are inscribed on the walls of the Türkmenbaşy Ruhy Mosque, which many Muslims consider sacrilege.[218]

Most Christians in Turkmenistan belong to Eastern Orthodoxy (about 5% of the population).[219] There are 12 Russian Orthodox churches in Turkmenistan, four of which are in Ashgabat.[220] An archpriest resident in Ashgabat leads the Orthodox Church within the country. Until 2007 Turkmenistan fell under the religious jurisdiction of the Russian Orthodox archbishop in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, but since then has been subordinate to the Archbishop of Pyatigorsk and Cherkessia.[221] There are no Russian Orthodox seminaries in Turkmenistan.

There are also small communities of the following denominations: the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Roman Catholic Church, Pentecostal Christians, the Protestant Word of Life Church, the Greater Grace World Outreach Church, the New Apostolic Church, Jehovah's Witnesses, Jews, and several unaffiliated, nondenominational evangelical Christian groups. In addition, there are small communities of Baháʼís, Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, and Hare Krishnas.[89]

The history of Baháʼí Faith in Turkmenistan is as old as the religion itself, and Baháʼí communities still exist today.[222] The first Baháʼí House of Worship was built in Ashgabat at the beginning of the twentieth century. It was seized by the Soviets in the 1920s and converted to an art gallery. It was heavily damaged in the earthquake of 1948 and later demolished. The site was converted to a public park.[223]

The Russian Academy of Sciences has identified many instances of syncretic influence of pre-Islamic Turkic belief systems on practice of Islam among Turkmen.[224]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Turkmenistan
 
Turkmen bakshy – traditional musicians – historically are traveling singers and shamans, acting as healers and spiritual figures, providing music for celebrations of weddings, births, and other important life events.

The Turkmen people have traditionally been nomads and equestrians, and even today after the fall of the USSR attempts to urbanize the Turkmens have not been very successful.[225] They never really formed a coherent nation or ethnic group until they were forged into one by Joseph Stalin in the 1930s. Rather they are divided into clans, and each clan has its own dialect and style of dress.[226] Turkmens are famous for making knotted Turkmen carpets, often mistakenly called Bukhara rugs in the West. These are elaborate and colorful hand-knotted carpets, and these too help indicate the distinctions among the various Turkmen clans. Ethnic groups throughout the region build yurts, circular houses with dome roofs, made of a wooden frame covered in felt from the hides of sheep or other livestock. Horses are an essential ingredient of recreational activities in most of the region, in such games as horseback fighting, in which riders grapple to topple each other from their horses; horse racing.[227]

Turkmen men wear traditional telpek hats, which are large black or white sheepskin hats. Traditional dress for men consists of these high, shaggy sheepskin hats and red robes over white shirts. Women wear long sack-dresses over narrow trousers (the pants are trimmed with a band of embroidery at the ankle). Female headdresses usually consist of silver jewelry. Bracelets and brooches are set with semi-precious stones.

Mass media

Main article: Mass media in Turkmenistan
Further information: Telecommunications in Turkmenistan

Newspapers and monthly magazines are published by state-controlled media outlets, primarily in Turkmen. The daily official newspaper is published in both Turkmen (Türkmenistan)[228] and Russian (Нейтральный Туркменистан).[229] Two online news portals repeat official content, Turkmenportal and Parahat.info,[230] in addition to the official "Golden Age" (Turkmen: Altyn Asyr, Russian: Золотой век) news website,[231] which is available in Turkmen, Russian, and English. Two Ashgabat-based private news organizations, Infoabad[232] and Arzuw,[233] offer online content.

Articles published by the state-controlled newspapers are heavily censored and written to glorify the state and its leader. Uncensored press coverage specific to Turkmenistan is provided only by news organizations located outside Turkmenistan: Azatlyk Radiosy,[234] the Turkmen service of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty based in Prague; Chronicles of Turkmenistan,[235] the Vienna-based outlet of the Turkmen Initiative for Human Rights; Turkmen.news,[236] previously known as Alternative News of Turkmenistan, based in the Netherlands; and Gündogar.[237] In addition, Mediazona Central Asia,[238] Eurasianet[239] and Central Asia News[240] provide some reporting on events in Turkmenistan.

Turkmenistan currently broadcasts 7 national TV channels via satellite. They are Altyn Asyr, Ýaşlyk, Miras, Turkmenistan (in 7 languages), Türkmen Owazy (music), Aşgabat and Turkmenistan Sport. There are no commercial or private TV stations. The nightly official news broadcast, Watan (Homeland), is available on YouTube.[241]

External video
  Example of Turkmenistan TV News[242]
  Turkmen President celebrates Independence Day[243]

Although officially banned,[95] widespread use of satellite dish receivers allows access to foreign programming, particularly outside Ashgabat.[244] Due to the high mutual intelligibility of the Turkmen and Turkish languages, Turkish-language programs have grown in popularity despite official efforts to discourage viewership.[245][246][247][248]

Internet services are the least developed in Central Asia. Access to Internet services is provided by the government's ISP company, Turkmentelekom. As of 27 January 2021, Turkmenistan reported an estimated 1,265,794 internet users or roughly 21% of the total population.[249][5][250]

Holidays

Main article: Public holidays in Turkmenistan

Holidays in Turkmenistan are laid out in the Constitution of Turkmenistan. Holidays in Turkmenistan practiced internationally include New Year's Day, Nowruz, Eid al-Fitr, and Eid al-Adha. Turkmenistan exclusive holidays include Melon Day, Turkmen Woman's Day, and the Day of Remembrance for Saparmurat Niyazov.

Education

Main article: Education in Turkmenistan
 
Turkmeni students in university uniform

Education is universal and mandatory through the secondary level. Under former President Niyazov, the total duration of primary and secondary education was reduced from 10 to 9 years. President Berdimuhamedov restored 10-year education as of the 2007–2008 school year. Effective 2013, general education in Turkmenistan was expanded to three-stages lasting 12 years: elementary school (grades 1–3), high school – the first cycle of secondary education with duration of 5 years (grades 4–8), and secondary school (grades 9–12).[251][252]

At the end of the 2019–20 academic year, nearly 80,000 Turkmen pupils graduated from high school.[253] As of the 2019–20 academic year, 12,242 of these students were admitted to institutions of higher education in Turkmenistan. An additional 9,063 were admitted to the country's 42 vocational colleges.[254] An estimated 95,000 Turkmen students were enrolled in institutions of higher education abroad as of Autumn 2019.[255]

Architecture

See also: Ashgabat § Architecture

The tasks for modern Turkmen architecture are diverse application of modern aesthetics, the search for an architect's own artistic style, and inclusion of the existing historico-cultural environment. Most major new buildings, especially those in Ashgabat, are faced with white marble. Major projects such as Turkmenistan Tower, Bagt köşgi, Alem Cultural and Entertainment Center, Ashgabat Flagpole have transformed the country's skyline and promote its identity as a modern, contemporary city.

Sports

Further information: Sports in Turkmenistan

The most popular sport in Turkmenistan is football. The national team has never qualified for the FIFA World Cup but has appeared twice at the AFC Asian Cup, in 2004 and 2019, failing to advance past the group stage at both editions. Another popular sport is archery, Turkmenistan holds league and local competitions for archery. International sports events hosted in Turkmenistan include; the 2021 UCI Track Cycling World Championships, the 2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games, and the 2018 World Weightlifting Championships.

See also

References

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Further reading

See also: Bibliography of the history of Central Asia
  • Abazov, Rafis (2005). Historical Dictionary of Turkmenistan. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-5362-1.
  • Blackwell, Carole (2001). Tradition and Society in Turkmenistan: Gender, Oral Culture and Song. Curzon. ISBN 0-7007-1354-9. from the original on 29 April 2021. Retrieved 14 February 2021.
  • Brummel, Paul (2006). Bradt Travel Guide: Turkmenistan. Bradt Travel Guides. ISBN 978-1-84162-144-9.
  • Clammer, Paul; Kohn, Michael; Mayhew, Bradley (2014). Lonely Planet Guide: Central Asia. Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-1-74179-953-8.
  • Clement, Victoria (2018). Learning to Become Turkmen. University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 978-0822964636. from the original on 21 April 2022. Retrieved 14 February 2021.
  • Edgar, Adrienne Lynn (2004). Tribal Nation: The Making of Soviet Turkmenistan. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12799-6. from the original on 21 April 2022. Retrieved 14 February 2021.
  • Hopkirk, Peter (1992).
February 07, 2023
turkmenistan, turkomania, redirects, here, other, uses, turkomania, disambiguation, confused, with, turkestan, turkey, turkmeneli, ɜːr, listen, ɜːr, ɑː, listen, turkmen, türkmenistan, pronounced, tʏɾkmønʏˈθːɑːn, country, located, central, asia, bordered, kazak. Turkomania redirects here For other uses see Turkomania disambiguation Not to be confused with Turkestan Turkey or Turkmeneli Turkmenistan t ɜːr k ˈ m ɛ n ɪ s t ae n listen or ˌ t ɜːr k m ɛ n ɪ ˈ s t ɑː n listen Turkmen Turkmenistan pronounced tʏɾkmonʏˈ8ːɑːn 13 is a country located in Central Asia bordered by Kazakhstan to the northwest Uzbekistan to the north east and northeast Afghanistan to the southeast Iran to the south and southwest and the Caspian Sea to the west Ashgabat is the capital and largest city The population is about 6 million the lowest of the Central Asian republics and Turkmenistan is one of the most sparsely populated nations in Asia 5 14 6 TurkmenistanTurkmenistan Turkmen Flag EmblemMotto Turkmenistan Bitaraplygyn watanydyr Turkmenistan is the motherland of Neutrality 1 2 Anthem Garassyz Bitarap Turkmenistanyn Dowlet Gimni National Anthem of Independent Neutral Turkmenistan source source track track track track track Location of Turkmenistan red Capitaland largest cityAshgabat37 58 N 58 20 E 37 967 N 58 333 E 37 967 58 333Official languagesTurkmen 3 Ethnic groups 2012 85 6 Turkmens5 8 Uzbeks5 1 Russians0 4 Kazakhs1 2 Azerbaijanis1 1 Turks3 1 OthersReligion 2020 est 4 93 Islam6 4 Christianity0 6 OtherDemonym s Turkmenistani 5 Turkmen 6 TurkmenianGovernmentUnitary presidential republic under a totalitarian family dictatorship 7 8 PresidentSerdar Berdimuhamedow Vice PresidentRasit Meredow Chairman of the People s CouncilGurbanguly Berdimuhamedow Chairperson of the AssemblyGulsat MammedowaLegislatureAssemblyIndependence from the Soviet Union Conquest1879 Soviet rule13 May 1925 Declared state sovereignty22 August 1990 From the Soviet Union27 October 1991 Recognized26 December 1991 Current constitution18 May 1992Area Total491 210 km2 189 660 sq mi 9 52nd Water24 069 km2 9 293 sq mi Water 4 9Population 2022 estimate5 636 011 10 115th Density10 5 km2 27 2 sq mi 221st GDP PPP 2018 estimate Total 112 659 billion 11 Per capita 19 526 11 GDP nominal 2018 estimate Total 42 764 billion 11 Per capita 7 411 11 Gini 1998 40 8mediumHDI 2021 0 745 12 high 91stCurrencyManat TMT Time zoneUTC 05 TMT Driving siderightCalling code 993ISO 3166 codeTMInternet TLD tmTurkmenistan has long served as a thoroughfare for other nations and cultures 15 Merv is one of the oldest oasis cities in Central Asia 16 and was once the biggest city in the world 17 It was also one of the great cities of the Islamic world and an important stop on the Silk Road Annexed by the Russian Empire in 1881 Turkmenistan figured prominently in the anti Bolshevik movement in Central Asia In 1925 Turkmenistan became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic Turkmen SSR it became independent after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 5 Turkmenistan possesses the world s fifth largest reserves of natural gas 18 Most of the country is covered by the Karakum Desert From 1993 to 2017 citizens received government provided electricity water and natural gas free of charge 19 Turkmenistan is an observer state in the Organisation of Turkic States the Turksoy community and a member of the United Nations 20 It is also the only permanent neutral country recognized by the UN General Assembly in Asia 21 The country is widely criticized for its poor human rights 22 23 its treatment of minorities press and religious freedoms Since gaining independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 Turkmenistan has been ruled by repressive totalitarian regimes that of President for Life Saparmurat Niyazov also known as Turkmenbasy or Head of the Turkmens until his death in 2006 Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow who became president in 2007 after winning a non democratic election he had been vice president and then acting president previously and his son Serdar who won a subsequent presidential election described by international observers as neither free nor fair and now shares power with his father 24 25 8 The use of the death penalty in the country was suspended in 1999 26 before being formally abolished in 2008 3 Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Government 3 1 Legislature 3 2 Judiciary 3 3 Military 3 4 Law enforcement 4 Politics 4 1 Corruption 4 2 Foreign relations 4 3 Human rights 4 4 Restrictions on free and open communication 5 Geography 5 1 Climate biodiversity and environment 5 2 Administrative divisions 6 Economy 6 1 Natural gas and export routes 6 2 Oil 6 3 Energy 6 4 Agriculture 6 5 Tourism 7 Transportation 7 1 Automobile transport 7 2 Air transport 7 3 Maritime transport 7 4 Railway transport 8 Demographics 8 1 Migration 8 2 Turkmen tribes 8 3 Languages 8 4 Religion 9 Culture 9 1 Mass media 9 2 Holidays 9 3 Education 9 4 Architecture 9 5 Sports 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External linksEtymology EditThe name of Turkmenistan Turkmen Turkmenistan can be divided into two components the ethnonym Turkmen and the Persian suffix stan meaning place of or country The name Turkmen comes from Turk plus the Sogdian suffix men meaning almost Turk in reference to their status outside the Turkic dynastic mythological system 27 However some scholars argue the suffix is an intensifier changing the meaning of Turkmen to pure Turks or the Turkish Turks 28 Muslim chroniclers like Ibn Kathir suggested that the etymology of Turkmenistan came from the words Turk and Iman Arabic إيمان faith belief in reference to a massive conversion to Islam of two hundred thousand households in the year 971 29 Turkmenistan declared its independence from the Soviet Union after the independence referendum in 1991 As a result the constitutional law was adopted on 27 October of that year and Article 1 established the new name of the state Turkmenistan Turkmenistan Tүrkmenistan 30 A common name for the Turkmen SSR was Turkmenia Russian Turkmeniya romanization Turkmeniya used in some reports of the country s independence 31 History EditMain article History of Turkmenistan Historically inhabited by the Indo Iranians the written history of Turkmenistan begins with its annexation by the Achaemenid Empire of Ancient Iran Later in the 8th century AD Turkic speaking Oghuz tribes moved from Mongolia into present day Central Asia Part of a powerful confederation of tribes these Oghuz formed the ethnic basis of the modern Turkmen population 32 In the 10th century the name Turkmen was first applied to Oghuz groups that accepted Islam and began to occupy present day Turkmenistan 32 There they were under the dominion of the Seljuk Empire which was composed of Oghuz groups living in present day Iran and Turkmenistan 32 Oghuz groups in the service of the empire played an important role in the spreading of Turkic culture when they migrated westward into present day Azerbaijan and eastern Turkey 32 Turkmen helmet 15th century In the 12th century Turkmen and other tribes overthrew the Seljuk Empire 32 In the next century the Mongols took over the more northern lands where the Turkmens had settled scattering the Turkmens southward and contributing to the formation of new tribal groups 32 The sixteenth and eighteenth centuries saw a series of splits and confederations among the nomadic Turkmen tribes who remained staunchly independent and inspired fear in their neighbors 32 By the 16th century most of those tribes were under the nominal control of two sedentary Uzbek khanates Khiva and Bukhoro 32 Turkmen soldiers were an important element of the Uzbek militaries of this period 32 In the 19th century raids and rebellions by the Yomud Turkmen group resulted in that group s dispersal by the Uzbek rulers 32 In 1855 the Turkmen tribe of Teke led by Gowshut Khan defeated the invading army of the Khan of Khiva Muhammad Amin Khan 33 and in 1861 the invading Persian army of Nasreddin Shah 34 In the second half of the 19th century northern Turkmens were the main military and political power in the Khanate of Khiva 35 36 According to Paul R Spickard Prior to the Russian conquest the Turkmen were known and feared for their involvement in the Central Asian slave trade 37 38 City of Carjew in Russian Turkestan 1890 Russian forces began occupying Turkmen territory late in the 19th century 32 From their Caspian Sea base at Krasnovodsk now Turkmenbasy the Russians eventually overcame the Uzbek khanates 32 In 1879 the Russian forces were defeated by the Teke Turkmens during the first attempt to conquer the Ahal area of Turkmenistan 39 However in 1881 the last significant resistance in Turkmen territory was crushed at the Battle of Geok Tepe and shortly thereafter Turkmenistan was annexed together with adjoining Uzbek territory into the Russian Empire 32 In 1916 the Russian Empire s participation in World War I resonated in Turkmenistan as an anticonscription revolt swept most of Russian Central Asia 32 Although the Russian Revolution of 1917 had little direct impact in the 1920s Turkmen forces joined Kazakhs Kyrgyz and Uzbeks in the so called Basmachi Rebellion against the rule of the newly formed Soviet Union 32 In 1921 the tsarist province of Transcaspia Russian Zakaspijskaya oblast Transcaspian Oblast was renamed Turkmen Oblast Russian Turkmenskaya oblast and in 1924 the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic was formed from it 32 40 By the late 1930s Soviet reorganization of agriculture had destroyed what remained of the nomadic lifestyle in Turkmenistan and Moscow controlled political life 32 The Ashgabat earthquake of 1948 killed over 110 000 people 41 amounting to two thirds of the city s population A Turkmen man of Central Asia in traditional clothes Photo by Prokudin Gorsky between 1905 and 1915 During the next half century Turkmenistan played its designated economic role within the Soviet Union and remained outside the course of major world events 32 Even the major liberalization movement that shook Russia in the late 1980s had little impact 32 However in 1990 the Supreme Soviet of Turkmenistan declared sovereignty as a nationalist response to perceived exploitation by Moscow 32 Although Turkmenistan was ill prepared for independence and then communist leader Saparmurat Niyazov preferred to preserve the Soviet Union in October 1991 the fragmentation of that entity forced him to call a national referendum that approved independence 32 On 26 December 1991 the Soviet Union ceased to exist Niyazov continued as Turkmenistan s chief of state replacing communism with a unique brand of independent nationalism reinforced by a pervasive cult of personality 32 A 1994 referendum and legislation in 1999 abolished further requirements for the president to stand for re election although in 1992 he completely dominated the only presidential election in which he ran as he was the only candidate and no one else was allowed to run for the office making him effectively president for life 32 During his tenure Niyazov conducted frequent purges of public officials and abolished organizations deemed threatening 32 Throughout the post Soviet era Turkmenistan has taken a neutral position on almost all international issues 32 Niyazov eschewed membership in regional organizations such as the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and in the late 1990s he maintained relations with the Taliban and its chief opponent in Afghanistan the Northern Alliance 32 He offered limited support to the military campaign against the Taliban following the 11 September 2001 attacks 32 In 2002 an alleged assassination attempt against Niyazov led to a new wave of security restrictions dismissals of government officials and restrictions placed on the media 32 Niyazov accused exiled former foreign minister Boris Shikhmuradov of having planned the attack 32 Between 2002 and 2004 serious tension arose between Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan because of bilateral disputes and Niyazov s implication that Uzbekistan had a role in the 2002 assassination attempt 32 In 2004 a series of bilateral treaties restored friendly relations 32 In the parliamentary elections of December 2004 and January 2005 only Niyazov s party was represented and no international monitors participated 32 In 2005 Niyazov exercised his dictatorial power by closing all hospitals outside Ashgabat and all rural libraries 32 The year 2006 saw intensification of the trends of arbitrary policy changes shuffling of top officials diminishing economic output outside the oil and gas sector and isolation from regional and world organizations 32 China was among a very few nations to whom Turkmenistan made significant overtures 32 The sudden death of Niyazov at the end of 2006 left a complete vacuum of power as his cult of personality comparable to the one of eternal president Kim Il sung of North Korea had precluded the naming of a successor 32 Deputy Prime Minister Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow who was named interim head of government won a non democratic special presidential election held in early February 2007 32 His appointment as interim president and subsequent run for president violated the constitution 42 Berdimuhamedow won two additional non democratic elections with approximately 97 of the vote in both 2012 43 and 2017 44 His son Serdar Berdimuhamedow won a non democratic snap presidential election in 2022 establishing a political dynasty in Turkmenistan 45 On 19 March 2022 Serdar Berdimuhamedov was sworn in as Turkmenistan s new president to succeed his father 46 Government EditAfter over a century of being a part of the Russian Empire and then the Soviet Union including 67 years as a union republic Turkmenistan declared its independence on 27 October 1991 following the dissolution of the Soviet Union 47 Saparmurat Niyazov a former official of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ruled Turkmenistan from 1985 when he became head of the Communist Party of the Turkmen SSR until his death in 2006 He retained absolute control over the country as President after the dissolution of the Soviet Union On 28 December 1999 Niyazov was declared President for Life of Turkmenistan by the Mejlis parliament which itself had taken office a week earlier in elections that included only candidates hand picked by President Niyazov No opposition candidates were allowed The former Communist Party now known as the Democratic Party of Turkmenistan is the dominant party The second party the Party of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs was established in August 2012 and an agrarian party appeared two years later Political gatherings are illegal unless government sanctioned citation needed In 2013 the first multi party parliamentary elections were held in Turkmenistan Turkmenistan was a one party state from 1991 to 2012 however the 2013 elections were widely seen as rigged 48 In practice all parties in parliament operate jointly under the direction of the DPT There are no true opposition parties in the Turkmen parliament 49 Legislature Edit See also National Council of Turkmenistan People s Council of Turkmenistan and Assembly of Turkmenistan In September 2020 the Turkmenistan Parliament adopted a constitutional amendment creating an upper chamber and thus making the Parliament bicameral 50 The upper chamber is named the People s Council Turkmen Halk Maslahaty and consists of 56 members 48 of whom are elected and 8 of whom are appointed by the president Together with the previous unicameral parliament the 125 seat Mejlis as the lower chamber the Parliament is now called the National Council Turkmen Milli Genes Elections to the upper chamber were held 28 March 2021 51 52 Elections to the Mejlis were last held 25 March 2018 53 54 Outside observers consider the Turkmen legislature to be a rubber stamp parliament 53 54 55 The 2018 OSCE election observer mission noted The 25 March elections lacked important prerequisites of a genuinely democratic electoral process The political environment is only nominally pluralist and does not offer voters political alternatives Exercise of fundamental freedoms is severely curtailed inhibiting free expression of the voters will Despite measures to demonstrate transparency the integrity of elections was not ensured leaving veracity of results in doubt 56 Judiciary Edit See also Supreme Court of TurkmenistanThe judiciary in Turkmenistan is not independent Under Articles 71 and 100 of the constitution of Turkmenistan the president appoints all judges including the chairperson chief justice of the Supreme Court and may dismiss them with the consent of the Parliament 57 Outside observers consider the Turkmen legislature to be a rubber stamp parliament 53 54 55 and thus despite constitutional guarantees of judicial independence under Articles 98 and 99 the judiciary is de facto firmly under presidential control 58 The chief justice is considered a member of the executive authority of the government and sits on the State Security Council 59 The U S Department of State stated in its 2020 human rights report on Turkmenistan Although the law provides for an independent judiciary the executive controls it and it is subordinate to the executive There was no legislative review of the president s judicial appointments and dismissals The president had sole authority to dismiss any judge The judiciary was widely reputed to be corrupt and inefficient 60 T 90SA and T 72UMG units Many national laws of Turkmenistan have been published online on the Ministry of Justice website 61 Military Edit Main article Armed Forces of Turkmenistan The Armed Forces of Turkmenistan Turkmen Turkmenistanyn Yaragly Guycleri known informally as the Turkmen National Army Turkmen Turkmenistanyn Milli gosun is the national military of Turkmenistan It consists of the Ground Forces the Air Force and Air Defense Forces Navy and other independent formations etc Border Troops Internal Troops and National Guard Law enforcement Edit Main article Law enforcement in Turkmenistan The national police force in Turkmenistan is mostly governed by the Interior Ministry The Ministry of National Security KNB is the intelligence gathering asset The Interior Ministry commands the 25 000 personnel of the national police force directly while the KNB deals with intelligence and counter intelligence work Politics EditMain article Politics of Turkmenistan Golden statue of Saparmurat Niyazov in Ashgabat Since the December 2006 death of Niyazov Turkmenistan s leadership has made tentative moves to open up the country His successor President Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow repealed some of Niyazov s most idiosyncratic policies including banning operas and circuses for being insufficiently Turkmen though other such rules were later put into place such as the banning of non white cars 62 63 In education Berdimuhamedow s government increased basic education to ten years from nine years and higher education was extended from four years to five Berdimuhamedow was succeeded by his son Serdar in 2022 64 The politics of Turkmenistan take place in the framework of a presidential republic with the President both head of state and head of government Under Niyazov Turkmenistan had an one party system however in September 2008 the People s Council unanimously passed a resolution adopting a new Constitution The latter resulted in the abolition of the council and a significant increase in the size of Parliament in December 2008 and also permits the formation of multiple political parties 65 Corruption Edit Main article Corruption in Turkmenistan Transparency International s 2021 Corruption Perceptions Index placed Turkmenistan in a tie with Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo for 169th place globally between Chad and Equatorial Guinea with a score of 19 out of 100 66 Opposition media and foreign human rights organizations describe Turkmenistan as suffering from rampant corruption A non governmental organization Crude Accountability has openly called the economy of Turkmenistan a kleptocracy 67 Opposition and domestic state controlled media have described widespread bribery in education and law enforcement 68 69 70 71 In 2019 the national chief of police Minister of Internal Affairs Isgender Mulikov was convicted and imprisoned for corruption 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 In 2020 the deputy prime minister for education and science Purli Agamyradow was dismissed for failure to control bribery in education 69 The illegal adoption of abandoned babies in Turkmenistan is blamed on rampant corruption in the agencies involved in the legal adoption process which pushes some parents to a cheaper and faster option 81 One married couple in the eastern Farap district said that they had to provide documents and letters from 40 different agencies to support their adoption application yet three years later there was still no decision on their bid Meanwhile wealthier applicants in Farap received a child for legal adoption within four months after applying because they paid up to 50 000 manats about 14 300 in bribes 81 Foreign relations Edit Main article Foreign relations of Turkmenistan Former president Berdimuhamedov with Russian President Vladimir Putin 2017 Turkmenistan s declaration of permanent neutrality was formally recognized by the United Nations in 1995 82 Former President Saparmurat Niyazov stated that the neutrality would prevent Turkmenistan from participating in multi national defense organizations but allows military assistance Its neutral foreign policy has an important place in the country s constitution Turkmenistan has diplomatic relations with 139 countries some of the most important allies being Afghanistan Armenia Iran Pakistan and Russia 83 Turkmenistan is a member of the United Nations the International Monetary Fund the World Bank the Economic Cooperation Organization the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation the Islamic Development Bank Asian Development Bank European Bank for Reconstruction and Development the Food and Agriculture Organization International Organization of Turkic Culture and observer member of Organisation of Turkic States Human rights Edit Main article Human rights in Turkmenistan Turkmenistan has been widely criticised for human rights abuses and has imposed severe restrictions on foreign travel for its citizens 22 23 Discrimination against the country s ethnic minorities remains in practice Universities have been encouraged to reject applicants with non Turkmen surnames especially ethnic Russians 84 It is forbidden to teach the customs and language of the Baloch an ethnic minority 85 The same happens to Uzbeks though the Uzbek language was formerly taught in some national schools 85 According to Human Rights Watch Turkmenistan remains one of the world s most repressive countries The country is virtually closed to independent scrutiny media and religious freedoms are subject to draconian restrictions and human rights defenders and other activists face the constant threat of government reprisal 86 According to Reporters Without Borders s 2014 World Press Freedom Index Turkmenistan had the 3rd worst press freedom conditions in the world 178 180 countries just before North Korea and Eritrea 87 It is considered to be one of the 10 Most Censored Countries Each broadcast under Niyazov began with a pledge that the broadcaster s tongue will shrivel if he slanders the country flag or president 88 Religious minorities are discriminated against for conscientious objection and practicing their religion by imprisonment preventing foreign travel confiscating copies of Christian literature or defamation 60 89 90 91 Many detainees who have been arrested for exercising their freedom of religion or belief were tortured and subsequently sentenced to imprisonment many of them without a court decision 92 93 Homosexual acts are illegal in Turkmenistan 94 Restrictions on free and open communication Edit See also Telecommunications in Turkmenistan Censorship Despite the launch of Turkmenistan s first communication satellite the TurkmenSat 1 in April 2015 the Turkmen government banned all satellite dishes in Turkmenistan the same month The statement issued by the government indicated that all existing satellite dishes would have to be removed or destroyed despite the communications receiving antennas having been legally installed since 1995 in an effort by the government to fully block access of the population to many hundreds of independent international media outlets which are currently accessible in the country only through satellite dishes including all leading international news channels in different languages The main target of this campaign is Radio Azatlyk the Turkmen language service of Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty which is run by the U S government 95 Internet access is filtered and websites to which the government objects are blocked Blocked websites include opposition news media YouTube many social media including Facebook and encrypted communications applications Use of virtual private networks to circumvent censorship is prohibited 96 97 98 Geography EditMain articles Geography of Turkmenistan and List of mountains of Turkmenistan Topography of Turkmenistan At 488 100 km2 188 500 sq mi Turkmenistan is the world s 52nd largest country It is slightly smaller than Spain and larger than Cameroon It lies between latitudes 35 and 43 N and longitudes 52 and 67 E Over 80 of the country is covered by the Karakum Desert The center of the country is dominated by the Turan Depression and the Karakum Desert Topographically Turkmenistan is bounded by the Ustyurt Plateau to the north the Kopet Dag Range to the south the Paropamyz Plateau the Koytendag Range to the east the Amu Darya Valley and the Caspian Sea to the west 99 Turkmenistan includes three tectonic regions the Epigersin platform region the Alpine shrinkage region and the Epiplatform orogenesis region 99 The Alpine tectonic region is the epicenter of earthquakes in Turkmenistan Strong earthquakes occurred in the Kopet Dag Range in 1869 1893 1895 1929 1948 and 1994 The city of Ashgabat and surrounding villages were largely destroyed by the 1948 earthquake 99 The Kopet Dag Range along the southwestern border reaches 2 912 metres 9 554 feet at Kuh e Rizeh Mount Rizeh 100 The Great Balkhan Range in the west of the country Balkan Province and the Koytendag Range on the southeastern border with Uzbekistan Lebap Province are the only other significant elevations The Great Balkhan Range rises to 1 880 metres 6 170 ft at Mount Arlan 101 and the highest summit in Turkmenistan is Ayrybaba in the Kugitangtau Range 3 137 metres 10 292 ft 102 The Kopet Dag mountain range forms most of the border between Turkmenistan and Iran Major rivers include the Amu Darya the Murghab River the Tejen River and the Atrek Etrek River Tributaries of the Atrek include the Sumbar River and Chandyr River The Turkmen shore along the Caspian Sea is 1 748 kilometres 1 086 mi long The Caspian Sea is entirely landlocked with no natural access to the ocean although the Volga Don Canal allows shipping access to and from the Black Sea Major cities include Asgabat Turkmenbasy formerly Krasnovodsk Balkanabat Dasoguz Turkmenabat and Mary Climate biodiversity and environment Edit Main articles Climate of Turkmenistan and Environmental issues in Turkmenistan Turkmenistan map of Koppen climate classification Turkmenistan is in a temperate desert zone with a dry continental climate Remote from the open sea with mountain ranges to the south and southeast Turkmenistan s climate is characterized by low precipitation low cloudiness and high evaporation Absence of mountains to the north allows cold Arctic air to penetrate southward to the southerly mountain ranges which in turn block warm moist air from the Indian Ocean Limited winter and spring rains are attributable to moist air from the west originating in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea 99 Winters are mild and dry with most precipitation falling between January and May The Kopet Dag Range receives the highest level of precipitation The Karakum Desert is one of the driest deserts in the world some places have an average annual precipitation of only 12 mm 0 47 in The highest temperature recorded in Ashgabat is 48 0 C 118 4 F and Kerki an extreme inland city located on the banks of the Amu Darya river recorded 51 7 C 125 1 F in July 1983 although this value is unofficial 50 1 C 122 F is the highest temperature recorded at Repetek Reserve recognized as the highest temperature ever recorded in the whole former Soviet Union 103 Turkmenistan enjoys 235 240 sunny days per year The average number of degree days ranges from 4500 to 5000 Celsius sufficient for production of extra long staple cotton 99 Turkmenistan contains seven terrestrial ecoregions Alai Western Tian Shan steppe Kopet Dag woodlands and forest steppe Badghyz and Karabil semi desert Caspian lowland desert Central Asian riparian woodlands Central Asian southern desert and Kopet Dag semi desert 104 Turkmenistan s greenhouse gas emissions per person 17 5 tCO2e are considerably higher than the OECD average due mainly to natural gas seepage from oil and gas exploration 105 Administrative divisions Edit Further information Districts of TurkmenistanTurkmenistan is divided into five provinces or welayatlar singular welayat and one capital city district The provinces are subdivided into districts etraplar sing etrap which may be either counties or cities According to the Constitution of Turkmenistan Article 16 in the 2008 Constitution Article 47 in the 1992 Constitution some cities may have the status of welayat province or etrap district Division ISO 3166 2 Capital city Area 106 Pop 2005 106 KeyAshgabat City TM S Ashgabat 470 km2 180 sq mi 871 500Ahal Province TM A Anew 97 160 km2 37 510 sq mi 939 700 1Balkan Province TM B Balkanabat 139 270 km2 53 770 sq mi 553 500 2Dasoguz Province TM D Dasoguz 73 430 km2 28 350 sq mi 1 370 400 3Lebap Province TM L Turkmenabat 93 730 km2 36 190 sq mi 1 334 500 4Mary Province TM M Mary 87 150 km2 33 650 sq mi 1 480 400 5Economy EditMain articles Economy of Turkmenistan and Agriculture in Turkmenistan A proportional representation of Turkmenistan exports 2019 The country possesses the world s fourth largest reserves of natural gas and substantial oil resources 107 Turkmenistan has taken a cautious approach to economic reform hoping to use gas and cotton sales to sustain its economy In 2014 the unemployment rate was estimated to be 11 5 Between 1998 and 2002 Turkmenistan suffered from the continued lack of adequate export routes for natural gas and from obligations on extensive short term external debt At the same time however the value of total exports rose sharply due to increases in international oil and gas prices The subsequent collapse of both hydrocarbon and cotton prices in 2014 cut revenues from export sales severely causing Turkmenistan to run trade deficits from 2015 through 2017 108 Economic prospects in the near future are discouraging because of widespread internal poverty and the burden of foreign debt 109 coupled with continued low hydrocarbon prices and reduced Chinese purchases of natural gas 110 111 One reflection of economic stress is the black market exchange rate for the Turkmen manat which though officially set at 3 5 manats to the US dollar reportedly was trading in January 2021 at 32 manats to the dollar 112 President Niyazov spent much of the country s revenue on extensively renovating cities Ashgabat in particular Corruption watchdogs voiced particular concern over the management of Turkmenistan s currency reserves most of which are held in off budget funds such as the Foreign Exchange Reserve Fund in the Deutsche Bank in Frankfurt according to a report released in April 2006 by London based non governmental organization Global Witness According to a decree of the Peoples Council of 14 August 2003 113 electricity natural gas water and salt were to have been subsidized for citizens until 2030 Under implementing regulations every citizen was entitled to 35 kilowatt hours of electricity and 50 cubic meters of natural gas each month The state also provided 250 liters 66 gallons of water per day 114 As of 1 January 2019 however all such subsidies were abolished and payment for utilities was implemented 115 116 117 118 Natural gas and export routes Edit Main articles Economy of Turkmenistan Natural gas and Pipelines in Turkmenistan Ceremony on completion of the Turkmen section of the Turkmenistan Afghanistan Pakistan India Pipeline As of May 2011 update the Galkynysh Gas Field was estimated to possess the second largest volume of gas in the world after the South Pars field in the Persian Gulf Reserves at the Galkynysh Gas Field are estimated at 21 2 trillion cubic metres 119 The Turkmenistan Natural Gas Company Turkmengaz controls gas extraction in the country Gas production is the most dynamic and promising sector of the national economy 120 In 2009 the government of Turkmenistan began a policy of diversifying export routes for its raw materials 121 Prior to 1958 gas production was limited to associated gas from oil wells in western Turkmenistan In 1958 the first gas wells were drilled at Serhetabat then Kushky and at Derweze 99 Oil and gas fields were discovered in the Central Karakum Desert between 1959 and 1965 In addition to Derweze these include Takyr Shyh Chaljulba Topjulba Chemmerli Atabay Sakarchage Atasary Mydar Goyun and Zakli These fields are located in Jurassic and Cretaceous sediments 99 The Turkmen gas industry got underway with the opening of the Ojak gas field in 1966 To put this in perspective associated gas production in Turkmenistan was only 1 157 billion cubic meters in 1965 but by 1970 natural gas production reached 13 billion cubic meters and by 1989 90 billion cubic meters The USSR exported much of this gas to western Europe Following independence natural gas extraction fell as Turkmenistan sought export markets but was limited to existing delivery infrastructure under Russian control Turkmenistan Russia in two lines 3087 km originating at Ojak and another of 2259 km also originating at Ojak the Gumdag line 2530 km and the Shatlyk line 2644 km to Russia Ukraine and the Caucasus 99 On 1 January 2016 Russia halted natural gas purchases from Turkmenistan after reducing them step by step for the previous years 122 Russia s Gazprom announced resumption of purchases in April 2019 but reported volumes remained low compared to previous delivery levels 123 In 1997 the Korpeje Gurtguy natural gas pipeline was built to Iran It is 140 kilometers in length and was the first gas pipeline to a foreign customer constructed after independence 99 Turkmenistan s exports of natural gas to Iran estimated at 12 bcma ended on 1 January 2017 when Turkmengaz unilaterally cut off deliveries citing payment arrears 124 125 In December 2009 the first line Line A of the Trans Asia pipeline to China opened creating a second major market for Turkmen natural gas By 2015 Turkmenistan was delivering up to 35 billion cubic meters per annum bcma to China 126 China is the largest buyer of gas from Turkmenistan via three pipelines linking the two countries through Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan In 2019 China bought over 30bcm of gas from Turkmenistan 127 128 making China Turkmenistan s main external source of revenue 129 The East West pipeline was completed in December 2015 with the intent of delivering up to 30 bcm of natural gas to the Caspian shore for eventual export through a yet to be built Trans Caspian natural gas pipeline connecting the Belek 1 compressor station in Turkmenistan to Azerbaijan The Turkmenistan government continues to pursue construction of the Turkmenistan Afghanistan Pakistan India Pipeline or TAPI 130 The anticipated cost of the TAPI pipeline is currently estimated at 25 billion Turkmenistan s section of the pipeline was started in 2015 and was completed in 2019 though the Afghanistan and Pakistan sections remain under construction 6 billion dollars worth of methane a greenhouse gas which causes climate change was estimated to leak in 2019 20 131 Oil Edit Main article Economy of Turkmenistan Oil See also Pipelines in Turkmenistan Oil platform of Turkmenistan in the Caspian Sea Oil was known to exist in western Turkmenistan as early as the 18th century General Aleksey Kuropatkin reported in 1879 that the Cheleken Peninsula had as many as three thousand oil sources 132 Turkmen settlers in the 19th century extracted oil near the surface and shipped it to Astrakhan by ship and to Iran by camel caravan Commercial oil drilling began in the 1890s The oil extraction industry grew with the exploitation of the fields in Cheleken in 1909 by Branobel and in Balkanabat in the 1930s Production leaped ahead with the discovery of the Gumdag field in 1948 and the Goturdepe field in 1959 By 1940 production had reached two million tons per year by 1960 over four million tons and by 1970 over 14 million tons Oil production in 2019 was 9 8 million tons 99 108 Oil wells are mainly found in the western lowlands This area also produces associated natural gas The main oilfields are Cheleken Gonurdepe Nebitdag Gumdag Barsagelmez Guyujyk Gyzylgum Ordekli Gogerendag Gamyshlyja Ekerem Chekishler Keymir Ekizek and Bugdayly Oil is also produced from offshore wells in the Caspian Sea 99 Most oil is extracted by the Turkmenistan State Company Concern Turkmennebit from fields at Goturdepe Balkanabat and on the Cheleken Peninsula near the Caspian Sea which have a combined estimated reserve of 700 million tons Much of the oil produced in Turkmenistan is refined in the Turkmenbasy and Seydi refineries Some oil is exported by tanker vessel across the Caspian Sea en route to Europe via Baku and Makhachkala 133 134 135 Foreign firms involved in offshore oil extraction include Eni S p A of Italy Dragon Oil of the United Arab Emirates and Petronas of Malaysia On 21 January 2021 the governments of Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan signed a memorandum of understanding to develop jointly an oil field in the Caspian Sea that straddles the nations border Known previously as Kyapaz in Azeri and Serdar in Turkmen the oil field now called Dostluk friendship in both languages potentially has reserves of up to 60 million tons of oil as well as associated natural gas 136 137 138 Energy Edit See also Economy of Turkmenistan Power generation The generators of the Hindukush hydro power plant Turkmenistan s first electrical power plant was built in 1909 and went into full operation in 1913 As of 2019 it was still in operation The original triple turbine Hindukush hydroelectric plant built by the Austro Hungarian company Ganz Works 139 on the Murghab River was designed to produce 1 2 megawatts at 16 5 kilovolts 140 141 Until 1957 however most electrical power in Turkmenistan was produced locally by small diesel generators and diesel electric locomotives 141 In 1957 Soviet authorities created a republic level directorate for power generation and in 1966 Turkmenistan entered the first phase of connecting its remote regions to the regional Central Asian electrical grid By 1979 all rural areas of Turkmenistan were brought on line Construction of the Mary thermal power plant began in 1969 and by 1987 the eighth and final generator block was completed bringing the plant to its design capacity of 1 686 gigawatts In 1998 Turkmenenergo commissioned its first gas turbine power plant using GE turbines 141 As of 2010 Turkmenistan featured eight major power plants operating on natural gas in Mary Ashgabat Balkanabat Buzmeyin suburb of Ashgabat Dashoguz Turkmenbasy Turkmenabat and Seydi 99 As of 2013 Turkmenistan had 10 electrical power plants equipped with 32 turbines including 14 steam driven 15 gas powered and 3 hydroelectric 142 Power output in 2011 was 18 27 billion kWh of which 2 5 billion kWh was exported 142 Major power generating installations include the Hindukush Hydroelectric Station 143 which has a rated capacity of 350 megawatts and the Mary Thermoelectric Power Station 144 which has a rated capacity of 1 370 megawatts In 2018 electrical power production totaled more than 21 billion kilowatt hours 145 Since 2013 additional power plants have been constructed in Mary and Ahal province and Carjew District of Lebap province The Mary 3 combined cycle power plant built by Calik Holding with GE turbines commissioned in 2018 produces 1 574 gigawatts of electrical power and is specifically intended to support expanded exports of electricity to Afghanistan and Pakistan The Zerger power plant built by Sumitomo Mitsubishi Hitachi and Ronesans Holding in Carjew District has a design capacity of 432 megawatts from three 144 megawatt gas turbines and was commissioned in September 2021 146 It is also primarily intended for export of electricity The Ahal power plant with capacity of 650 megawatts was constructed to power the city of Ashgabat and in particular the Olympic Village 147 148 149 150 Turkmenistan is a net exporter of electrical power to Central Asian republics and southern neighbors In 2019 total electrical energy generation in Turkmenistan reportedly totaled 22 521 6 million kilowatt hours 22 52 terawatt hours 151 Agriculture Edit Main article Agriculture in Turkmenistan Following independence in 1991 Soviet era collective and state farms were converted to farmers associations Turkmen dayhan birlesigi 99 Virtually all field crops are irrigated due to the aridity of the climate The top crop in terms of area planted is wheat 761 thousand hectares in 2019 followed by cotton 551 thousand hectares in 2019 108 Turkmenistan is the world s tenth largest cotton producer 152 Turkmenistan started producing cotton in the Murghab Valley following conquest of Merv by the Russian Empire in 1884 153 According to human rights organizations public sector workers such as teachers and doctors are required by the government to pick cotton under the threat of losing their jobs if they refuse 154 During the 2020 season Turkmenistan reportedly produced roughly 1 5 million tons of raw cotton In 2012 around 7 000 tractors 5 000 cotton cultivators 2 200 sowing machines and other machinery mainly procured from Belarus and the United States were used Prior to imposition of a ban on export of raw cotton in October 2018 Turkmenistan exported raw cotton to Russia Iran South Korea United Kingdom China Indonesia Turkey Ukraine Singapore and the Baltic states Beginning in 2019 the Turkmenistan government shifted focus to export of cotton yarn and finished textiles and garments 155 156 157 Tourism Edit Panorama of the site of the Darvaza gas crater Main article Tourism in Turkmenistan Turkmenistan reported arrival of 14 438 foreign tourists in 2019 108 Turkmenistan s international tourism has not grown significantly despite creation of the Awaza tourist zone on the Caspian Sea 158 Every traveler must obtain a visa before entering Turkmenistan see Visa policy of Turkmenistan To obtain a tourist visa citizens of most countries need visa support from a local travel agency For tourists visiting Turkmenistan organized tours exist providing visits to historical sites in and near Dasoguz Konye Urgench Nisa Ancient Merv and Mary as well as beach tours to Avaza and medical tours and holidays in the sanatoria in Mollagara Bayramaly Yylysuw and Archman 159 160 161 In January 2022 President Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow ordered that the fire at the Darvaza gas crater known informally as the country s Gateway to Hell and one of Turkmenistan s most popular tourist attractions should be extinguished 162 Many believe that the crater formed when a Soviet drilling operation went wrong in 1971 but Canadian explorer George Kourounis examined it in 2013 and discovered that no one actually knows how it started 163 Transportation EditMain article Transportation in Turkmenistan Automobile transport Edit Prior to the 1917 Russian Revolution only three automobiles existed in Turkmenistan all of them foreign models in Ashgabat No automobile roads existed between settlements After the revolution Soviet authorities graded dirt roads to connect Mary and Kushky Serhetabat Tejen and Sarahs Kyzyl Arvat Serdar with Garrygala Magtymguly and Chekishler i e with important border crossings In 1887 1888 the Gaudan Highway Russian Gaudanskoe shosse was built between Ashgabat and the Persian border at Gaudan Pass and Persian authorities extended it to Mashhad allowing for easier commercial relations Municipal bus service began in Ashgabat in 1925 with five routes and taxicab service began in 1938 with five vehicles The road network was extended in the 1970s with construction of republic level highways connecting Ashgabat and Kazanjyk Bereket Ashgabat and Bayramaly Nebit Dag Balkanabat and Krasnovodsk Turkmenbasy Carjew Turkmenabat and Kerki and Mary and Kushka Serhetabat 164 The primary west east motor route is the M37 highway linking the Turkmenbashy International Seaport to the Farap border crossing via Ashgabat Mary and Turkmenabat The primary north south route is the Ashgabat Dashoguz Automobile Road Turkmen Asgabat Dasoguz awtomobil yoly built in the 2000s Major international routes include European route E003 European route E60 European route E121 and Asian Highway AH routes AH5 AH70 AH75 AH77 and AH78 165 A new toll motorway is under construction between Ashgabat and Turkmenabat by Turkmen Awtoban company which will construct the 600 km highway in three phases Ashgabat Tejen by December 2020 Tejen Mary by December 2022 and Mary Turkmenabat by December 2023 A sister project to link Turkmenbasy and Ashgabat was suspended when the Turkish contractor Polimeks walked away from the project reportedly because of non payment 166 As of 29 January 2019 the Turkmen Automobile Roads state concern Turkmen Turkmenawtoyollary was subordinated by presidential decree to the Ministry of Construction and Architecture and responsibility for road construction and maintenance was shifted to provincial and municipal governments 167 168 Operation of motor coaches buses and taxicabs is the responsibility of the Automobile Services Agency Turkmen Turkmenawtoulaglary Agentligi of the Ministry of Industry and Communication 169 Air transport Edit See also List of airports in Turkmenistan and List of Turkmenistan Airlines destinations Turkmenistan Airlines Boeing 777 200LR Air service began in 1927 with a route between Carjew Turkmenabat and Tashauz Dashoguz flying German Junkers 13 and Soviet K 4 aircraft each capable of carrying four passengers In 1932 an aerodrome was built in Ashgabat on the site of the current Howdan neighborhoods for both passenger and freight service the latter mainly to deliver supplies to sulfur mines near Derweze in the Karakum Desert 170 Airports serving the major cities of Ashgabat Dashoguz Mary Turkmenabat and Turkmenbasy which are operated by Turkmenistan s civil aviation authority s airline Turkmenhowayollary feature scheduled domestic commercial air service 171 172 Under normal circumstances international scheduled commercial air service is limited to Ashgabat During the COVID 19 pandemic however international flights take off from and land at Turkmenabat where quarantine facilities have been established 173 174 State owned Turkmenistan Airlines is the only Turkmen air carrier Turkmenistan Airlines passenger fleet is composed of Boeing and Bombardier Aerospace aircraft 175 Air transport carries more than two thousand passengers daily in the country 176 Under normal conditions international flights annually transport over half a million people into and out of Turkmenistan and Turkmenistan Air operates regular flights to Moscow London Frankfurt Birmingham Bangkok Delhi Abu Dhabi Amritsar Kyiv Lviv Beijing Istanbul Minsk Almaty Tashkent and St Petersburg Small airfields serve industrial sites near other cities but do not feature scheduled commercial passenger service Airfields slated for modernization and expansion include those serving Garabogaz Jebel and Galaymor 177 178 179 180 181 The new Turkmenabat International Airport was commissioned in February 2018 182 In June 2021 an international airport was opened in Kerki Maritime transport Edit Workers in the service of Maritime and River Transport of Turkmenistan Since 1962 the Turkmenbashy International Seaport has operated a passenger ferry to the port of Baku Azerbaijan as well as rail ferries to other ports on the Caspian Sea Baku Aktau In recent years tanker transport of oil to the ports of Baku and Makhachkala has increased In May 2018 construction was completed of a major expansion of the Turkmenbashy seaport 183 184 Cost of the project was 1 5 billion The general contractor for the project was Gap Insaat a subsidiary of Calik Holding of Turkey The expansion added 17 million tons of annual capacity making total throughput including previously existing facilities of over 25 million tons per year The international ferry and passenger terminals will be able to serve 300 000 passengers and 75 000 vehicles per year and the container terminal is designed to handle 400 000 TEU 20 foot container equivalent per year 185 186 187 Railway transport Edit Turkmen diesel locomotive Main article Rail transport in Turkmenistan Main article Turkmendemiryollary The first rail line in Turkmenistan was built in 1880 from the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea to Mollagara By October 1881 the line was extended to Kyzyl Arvat by 1886 had reached Carjew In 1887 a wooden rail bridge was built over the Amu Darya and the line was continued to Samarkand 1888 and Tashkent 1898 188 Rail service in Turkmenistan began as part of Imperial Russia s Trans Caspian Railway then of the Central Asian Railway After the dissolution of the Soviet Union the railway network in Turkmenistan was transferred to and operated by the state owned Turkmendemiryollary The rail gauge is the same as the Russian and former Soviet one 1520 millimeters The total length of railways is 3181 km Only domestic passenger service is available except for special trains operated by tour operators 189 The railway carries approximately 5 5 million passengers and moves nearly 24 million tons of freight per year 108 190 191 Turkmen Railways is currently constructing a rail line in Afghanistan to connect Serhetabat to Herat 192 Upon completion it may connect to the proposed rail line to connect Herat to Khaf Iran 193 Demographics EditMain article Demographics of Turkmenistan Turkmens in folk costume at the 20th Independence Day parade 2011 The last census to be published was held in 1995 Results of every census since then have been kept secret Available figures indicate that most of Turkmenistan s citizens are ethnic Turkmens with sizeable minorities of Uzbeks and Russians Smaller minorities include Kazakhs Tatars Ukrainians Kurds native to the Kopet Dagh mountains Armenians Azeris Balochs and Pashtuns The percentage of ethnic Russians in Turkmenistan dropped from 18 6 in 1939 to 9 5 in 1989 The CIA World Factbook estimated the ethnic composition of Turkmenistan in 2003 as 85 Turkmen 5 Uzbek 4 Russian and 6 other 5 According to official data announced in Ashgabat in February 2001 update 91 of the population were Turkmen 3 were Uzbeks and 2 were Russians Between 1989 and 2001 the number of Turkmen in Turkmenistan doubled from 2 5 to 4 9 million while the number of Russians dropped by two thirds from 334 000 to slightly over 100 000 194 195 As of 2021 the number of Russians in Turkmenistan was estimated at 100 000 196 Opposition media reported that some results of the 2012 census had been surreptitiously released including a total population number of 4 751 120 According to this source as of 2012 85 6 of the population was ethnically Turkmen followed by 5 8 ethnic Uzbek and 5 1 ethnic Russian In contrast an official Turkmen delegation reported to the UN in January 2015 some different figures on national minorities including slightly under 9 ethnic Uzbek 2 2 ethnic Russian and 0 4 ethnic Kazakh The 2012 census reportedly counted 58 different nationalities 197 198 199 Official population estimates of 6 2 million are likely too high given known emigration trends 200 Population growth has been offset by emigration in search of permanent employment 201 In July 2021 opposition media reported based on three independent anonymous sources that the population of Turkmenistan was between 2 7 and 2 8 million 202 A once in a decade national census was conducted December 17 27 2022 Opposition media reported that many people claimed not to have been interviewed by census workers or that census workers merely telephoned respondents and did not visit them to count residents 203 204 Largest cities or towns in Turkmenistan List of cities in TurkmenistanRank Name Province Pop Ashgabat Turkmenabat 1 Ashgabat Capital 947 221 Dasoguz2 Turkmenabat Lebap 279 7653 Dasoguz Dasoguz 245 8724 Mary Mary 126 1415 Serdar Balkan 93 6926 Bayramaly Mary 91 7137 Balkanabat Balkan 90 1498 Tejen Ahal 79 3249 Turkmenbasy Balkan 73 80310 Magdanly Lebap 68 133 Migration Edit See also Demographics of Turkmenistan Demographic trends Based on data from receiving countries MeteoZhurnal estimated that at least 102 346 Turkmenistani citizens emigrated abroad in 2019 78 of them to Turkey and 24 206 apparently returned home for net migration of 77 014 201 According to leaked results of a 2018 survey between 2008 and 2018 1 879 413 Turkmenistani citizens emigrated permanently out of an estimated base population of 5 4 million 205 206 Turkmen tribes Edit Main article Turkmen tribes The tribal nature of Turkmen society is well documented The major modern Turkmen tribes are Teke Yomut Ersari Chowdur Gokleng and Saryk 207 208 The most numerous are the Teke 209 Languages Edit Further information Turkmenization Turkmen is the official language of Turkmenistan per the 1992 Constitution Since the late 20th century the government of Turkmenistan has taken steps to distance itself from the Russian language which has been seen as a soft power tool for Russian interests The first step in this campaign was the shift to the Latin alphabet in 1993 210 and Russian lost its status as the language of inter ethnic communication in 1996 211 As of 1999 Turkmen was spoken by 72 of the population Russian by 12 349 000 Uzbek by 9 5 317 000 and other languages by 7 Kazakh 88 000 Tatar 40 400 Ukrainian 37 118 Azerbaijani 33 000 Armenian 32 000 Northern Kurdish 20 000 Lezgian 10 400 Persian 8 000 Belarusian 5 290 Erzya 3 490 Korean 3 490 Bashkir 2 610 Karakalpak 2 540 Ossetic 1 890 Dargwa 1 600 Lak 1 590 Tajik 1 280 Georgian 1 050 Lithuanian 224 Tabasaran 180 and Dungan 212 Religion Edit Further information Religion in Turkmenistan and Islam in Turkmenistan Ashgabat Mosque 2013 According to the CIA World Factbook Muslims constitute 93 of the population while 6 of the population are followers of the Eastern Orthodox Church and the remaining 1 religion is reported as non religious 5 According to a 2009 Pew Research Center report 93 1 of Turkmenistan s population is Muslim 213 The first migrants were sent as missionaries and often were adopted as patriarchs of particular clans or tribal groups thereby becoming their founders Reformulation of communal identity around such figures accounts for one of the highly localized developments of Islamic practice in Turkmenistan 214 In the Soviet era all religious beliefs were attacked by the communist authorities as superstition and vestiges of the past Most religious schooling and religious observance were banned and the vast majority of mosques were closed However since 1990 efforts have been made to regain some of the cultural heritage lost under Soviet rule 215 Former president Saparmurat Niyazov ordered that basic Islamic principles be taught in public schools More religious institutions including religious schools and mosques have appeared many with the support of Saudi Arabia Kuwait and Turkey Under Niyazov religious classes were held in both schools and mosques with instruction in Arabic language the Qur an and the hadith and history of Islam 216 At present the only educational institution teaching religion is the theological faculty of Turkmen State University Russian Orthodox church in Mary President Niyazov wrote his own religious text published in separate volumes in 2001 and 2004 entitled the Ruhnama Book of the Soul The Turkmenbashy regime required that the book which formed the basis of the educational system in Turkmenistan be given equal status with the Quran mosques were required to display the two books side by side The book was heavily promoted as part of the former president s personality cult and knowledge of the Ruhnama was required even for obtaining a driver s license 217 Quotations from the Ruhnama are inscribed on the walls of the Turkmenbasy Ruhy Mosque which many Muslims consider sacrilege 218 Most Christians in Turkmenistan belong to Eastern Orthodoxy about 5 of the population 219 There are 12 Russian Orthodox churches in Turkmenistan four of which are in Ashgabat 220 An archpriest resident in Ashgabat leads the Orthodox Church within the country Until 2007 Turkmenistan fell under the religious jurisdiction of the Russian Orthodox archbishop in Tashkent Uzbekistan but since then has been subordinate to the Archbishop of Pyatigorsk and Cherkessia 221 There are no Russian Orthodox seminaries in Turkmenistan There are also small communities of the following denominations the Armenian Apostolic Church the Roman Catholic Church Pentecostal Christians the Protestant Word of Life Church the Greater Grace World Outreach Church the New Apostolic Church Jehovah s Witnesses Jews and several unaffiliated nondenominational evangelical Christian groups In addition there are small communities of Bahaʼis Baptists Seventh day Adventists and Hare Krishnas 89 The history of Bahaʼi Faith in Turkmenistan is as old as the religion itself and Bahaʼi communities still exist today 222 The first Bahaʼi House of Worship was built in Ashgabat at the beginning of the twentieth century It was seized by the Soviets in the 1920s and converted to an art gallery It was heavily damaged in the earthquake of 1948 and later demolished The site was converted to a public park 223 The Russian Academy of Sciences has identified many instances of syncretic influence of pre Islamic Turkic belief systems on practice of Islam among Turkmen 224 Culture EditMain article Culture of Turkmenistan Turkmen bakshy traditional musicians historically are traveling singers and shamans acting as healers and spiritual figures providing music for celebrations of weddings births and other important life events The Turkmen people have traditionally been nomads and equestrians and even today after the fall of the USSR attempts to urbanize the Turkmens have not been very successful 225 They never really formed a coherent nation or ethnic group until they were forged into one by Joseph Stalin in the 1930s Rather they are divided into clans and each clan has its own dialect and style of dress 226 Turkmens are famous for making knotted Turkmen carpets often mistakenly called Bukhara rugs in the West These are elaborate and colorful hand knotted carpets and these too help indicate the distinctions among the various Turkmen clans Ethnic groups throughout the region build yurts circular houses with dome roofs made of a wooden frame covered in felt from the hides of sheep or other livestock Horses are an essential ingredient of recreational activities in most of the region in such games as horseback fighting in which riders grapple to topple each other from their horses horse racing 227 Turkmen men wear traditional telpek hats which are large black or white sheepskin hats Traditional dress for men consists of these high shaggy sheepskin hats and red robes over white shirts Women wear long sack dresses over narrow trousers the pants are trimmed with a band of embroidery at the ankle Female headdresses usually consist of silver jewelry Bracelets and brooches are set with semi precious stones Mass media Edit Main article Mass media in Turkmenistan Further information Telecommunications in Turkmenistan Newspapers and monthly magazines are published by state controlled media outlets primarily in Turkmen The daily official newspaper is published in both Turkmen Turkmenistan 228 and Russian Nejtralnyj Turkmenistan 229 Two online news portals repeat official content Turkmenportal and Parahat info 230 in addition to the official Golden Age Turkmen Altyn Asyr Russian Zolotoj vek news website 231 which is available in Turkmen Russian and English Two Ashgabat based private news organizations Infoabad 232 and Arzuw 233 offer online content Articles published by the state controlled newspapers are heavily censored and written to glorify the state and its leader Uncensored press coverage specific to Turkmenistan is provided only by news organizations located outside Turkmenistan Azatlyk Radiosy 234 the Turkmen service of Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty based in Prague Chronicles of Turkmenistan 235 the Vienna based outlet of the Turkmen Initiative for Human Rights Turkmen news 236 previously known as Alternative News of Turkmenistan based in the Netherlands and Gundogar 237 In addition Mediazona Central Asia 238 Eurasianet 239 and Central Asia News 240 provide some reporting on events in Turkmenistan Turkmenistan currently broadcasts 7 national TV channels via satellite They are Altyn Asyr Yaslyk Miras Turkmenistan in 7 languages Turkmen Owazy music Asgabat and Turkmenistan Sport There are no commercial or private TV stations The nightly official news broadcast Watan Homeland is available on YouTube 241 External video Example of Turkmenistan TV News 242 Turkmen President celebrates Independence Day 243 Although officially banned 95 widespread use of satellite dish receivers allows access to foreign programming particularly outside Ashgabat 244 Due to the high mutual intelligibility of the Turkmen and Turkish languages Turkish language programs have grown in popularity despite official efforts to discourage viewership 245 246 247 248 Internet services are the least developed in Central Asia Access to Internet services is provided by the government s ISP company Turkmentelekom As of 27 January 2021 Turkmenistan reported an estimated 1 265 794 internet users or roughly 21 of the total population 249 5 250 Holidays Edit Main article Public holidays in Turkmenistan Holidays in Turkmenistan are laid out in the Constitution of Turkmenistan Holidays in Turkmenistan practiced internationally include New Year s Day Nowruz Eid al Fitr and Eid al Adha Turkmenistan exclusive holidays include Melon Day Turkmen Woman s Day and the Day of Remembrance for Saparmurat Niyazov Education Edit Main article Education in Turkmenistan Turkmeni students in university uniform Education is universal and mandatory through the secondary level Under former President Niyazov the total duration of primary and secondary education was reduced from 10 to 9 years President Berdimuhamedov restored 10 year education as of the 2007 2008 school year Effective 2013 general education in Turkmenistan was expanded to three stages lasting 12 years elementary school grades 1 3 high school the first cycle of secondary education with duration of 5 years grades 4 8 and secondary school grades 9 12 251 252 At the end of the 2019 20 academic year nearly 80 000 Turkmen pupils graduated from high school 253 As of the 2019 20 academic year 12 242 of these students were admitted to institutions of higher education in Turkmenistan An additional 9 063 were admitted to the country s 42 vocational colleges 254 An estimated 95 000 Turkmen students were enrolled in institutions of higher education abroad as of Autumn 2019 255 Architecture Edit See also Ashgabat Architecture The tasks for modern Turkmen architecture are diverse application of modern aesthetics the search for an architect s own artistic style and inclusion of the existing historico cultural environment Most major new buildings especially those in Ashgabat are faced with white marble Major projects such as Turkmenistan Tower Bagt kosgi Alem Cultural and Entertainment Center Ashgabat Flagpole have transformed the country s skyline and promote its identity as a modern contemporary city Sports Edit Further information Sports in Turkmenistan The most popular sport in Turkmenistan is football The national team has never qualified for the FIFA World Cup but has appeared twice at the AFC Asian Cup in 2004 and 2019 failing to advance past the group stage at both editions Another popular sport is archery Turkmenistan holds league and local competitions for archery International sports events hosted in Turkmenistan include the 2021 UCI Track Cycling World Championships the 2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games and the 2018 World Weightlifting Championships See also Edit Asia portal 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Lonely Planet ISBN 978 1 74179 953 8 Clement Victoria 2018 Learning to Become Turkmen University of Pittsburgh Press ISBN 978 0822964636 Archived from the original on 21 April 2022 Retrieved 14 February 2021 Edgar Adrienne Lynn 2004 Tribal Nation The Making of Soviet Turkmenistan Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 12799 6 Archived from the original on 21 April 2022 Retrieved 14 February 2021 Hopkirk Peter 1992 a title, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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