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Wikipedia

Colonialism

February 13, 2023

Colonialism is a practice or policy of control by one people or power over other people or areas,[1][2][3] often by establishing colonies[4] and generally with the aim of economic dominance.[5] In the process of colonisation, colonisers may impose their religion, language, economics, and other cultural practices. The foreign administrators rule the territory in pursuit of their interests, seeking to benefit from the colonised region's people and resources.[6] It is associated with but distinct from imperialism.[1]

The pith helmet, an icon of colonialism in tropical lands. This one was used by the Kingdom of Madagascar, inspired by those used by the Second French colonial empire.

Though colonialism has existed since ancient times, the concept is most strongly associated with the European colonial period starting with the 15th century when some European states established colonising empires.

At first, European colonising countries followed policies of mercantilism, aiming to strengthen the home-country economy, so agreements usually restricted the colony to trading only with the metropole (mother country). By the mid-19th century, the British Empire gave up mercantilism and trade restrictions and adopted the principle of free trade, with few restrictions or tariffs.

Christian missionaries were active in practically all of the European-controlled colonies because the metropoles were Christian.

Historian Philip Hoffman calculated that by 1800, before the Industrial Revolution, Europeans already controlled at least 35% of the globe, and by 1914, they had gained control of 84% of the globe.[7] In the aftermath of World War II colonial powers retreated between 1945 and 1975; over which time nearly all colonies gained independence, entering into changed colonial, so-called postcolonial and neocolonialist relations.

Postcolonialism and neocolonialism have continued or shifted relations and ideologies of colonialism, justifying its continuation with concepts such as development and new frontiers, as in exploring outer space for colonization.

Definitions

 
1541: Spanish Conquistadors founding Santiago de Chile

Collins English Dictionary defines colonialism as "the practice by which a powerful country directly controls less powerful countries and uses their resources to increase its own power and wealth".[2] Webster's Encyclopedic Dictionary defines colonialism as "the system or policy of a nation seeking to extend or retain its authority over other people or territories".[3] The Merriam-Webster Dictionary offers four definitions, including "something characteristic of a colony" and "control by one power over a dependent area or people".[8] Etymologically, the word "colony" comes from the Latin colōnia—"a place for agriculture".

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy uses the term "to describe the process of European settlement and political control over the rest of the world, including the Americas, Australia, and parts of Africa and Asia". It discusses the distinction between colonialism, imperialism and conquest and states that "[t]he difficulty of defining colonialism stems from the fact that the term is often used as a synonym for imperialism. Both colonialism and imperialism were forms of conquest that were expected to benefit Europe economically and strategically," and continues "given the difficulty of consistently distinguishing between the two terms, this entry will use colonialism broadly to refer to the project of European political domination from the sixteenth to the twentieth centuries that ended with the national liberation movements of the 1960s".[1]

In his preface to Jürgen Osterhammel's Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview, Roger Tignor says "For Osterhammel, the essence of colonialism is the existence of colonies, which are by definition governed differently from other territories such as protectorates or informal spheres of influence."[4] In the book, Osterhammel asks, "How can 'colonialism' be defined independently from 'colony?'"[9] He settles on a three-sentence definition:

Colonialism is a relationship between an indigenous (or forcibly imported) majority and a minority of foreign invaders. The fundamental decisions affecting the lives of the colonised people are made and implemented by the colonial rulers in pursuit of interests that are often defined in a distant metropolis. Rejecting cultural compromises with the colonised population, the colonisers are convinced of their own superiority and their ordained mandate to rule.[10]

Types

 
Dutch family in Java, 1927

The Times once quipped that there were three types of colonial empire: "The English, which consists in making colonies with colonists; the German, which collects colonists without colonies; the French, which sets up colonies without colonists."[11] Modern studies of colonialism have often distinguished between various overlapping categories of colonialism, broadly classified into four types: settler colonialism, exploitation colonialism, surrogate colonialism, and internal colonialism. Some historians have identified other forms of colonialism, including national and trade forms.[12]

  • Settler colonialism involves large-scale immigration by settlers to colonies, often motivated by religious, political, or economic reasons. This form of colonialism aims largely to supplant prior existing populations with a settler one, and involves large number of settlers emigrating to colonies for the purpose of settling down and establishing settlements.[12] Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, New Zealand, Russia, South Africa, United States, Uruguay, (and to a more controversial extent Israel) are examples of nations created or expanded in their contemporary form by settler colonization.[13][14][15][16]
  • Exploitation colonialism involves fewer colonists and focuses on the exploitation of natural resources or labour to the benefit of the metropole. This form consists of trading posts as well as larger colonies where colonists would constitute much of the political and economic administration. The European colonization of Africa and Asia was largely conducted under the auspices of exploitation colonialism.[17]
  • Surrogate colonialism involves a settlement project supported by a colonial power, in which most of the settlers do not come from the same ethnic group as the ruling power.[18]
  • Internal colonialism is a notion of uneven structural power between areas of a state. The source of exploitation comes from within the state. This is demonstrated in the way control and exploitation may pass from people from the colonizing country to an immigrant population within a newly independent country.[19]
  • National colonialism is a process involving elements of both settler and internal colonialism, in which nation-building and colonization are symbiotically connected, with the colonial regime seeking to remake the colonized peoples into their own cultural and political image. The goal is to integrate them into the state, but only as reflections of the state's preferred culture. The Republic of China in Taiwan is the archetypal example of a national-colonialist society.[20]
  • Trade colonialism involves the undertaking of colonialist ventures in support of trade opportunities for merchants. This form of colonialism was most prominent in 19th-century Asia, where previously isolationist states were forced to open their ports to Western powers. Examples of this include the Opium Wars and the opening of Japan.[21][22]

Socio-cultural evolution

As colonialism often played out in pre-populated areas, sociocultural evolution included the formation of various ethnically hybrid populations. Colonialism gave rise to culturally and ethnically mixed populations such as the mestizos of the Americas, as well as racially divided populations such as those found in French Algeria or in Southern Rhodesia. In fact, everywhere where colonial powers established a consistent and continued presence, hybrid communities existed.

Notable examples in Asia include the Anglo-Burmese, Anglo-Indian, Burgher, Eurasian Singaporean, Filipino mestizo, Kristang, and Macanese peoples. In the Dutch East Indies (later Indonesia) the vast majority of "Dutch" settlers were in fact Eurasians known as Indo-Europeans, formally belonging to the European legal class in the colony (see also Indos in pre-colonial history and Indos in colonial history).[23][24]

History

Main articles: History of colonialism and Chronology of Western colonialism
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    Map of colonial and land-based empires throughout the world in 1800.

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    Map of colonial and land-based empires throughout the world in 1914.

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    Map of colonial empires (and Soviet Union) throughout the world in 1936.

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    Map of colonial empires at the end of the Second World War, 1945.

"Why do the Christian nations, which were so weak in the past compared with Muslim nations begin to dominate so many lands in modern times and even defeat the once victorious Ottoman armies?"..."Because they have laws and rules invented by reason."

Ibrahim Muteferrika, Rational basis for the Politics of Nations (1731)[25]

Antiquity

Activity that could be called colonialism has a long history, starting at least as early as the Ancient Egyptians. Phoenicians, Greeks and Romans founded colonies in antiquity. Phoenicia had an enterprising maritime trading-culture that spread across the Mediterranean from 1550 BC to 300 BC; later the Persian empire and various Greek city-states continued on this line of setting up colonies. The Romans would soon follow, setting up coloniae throughout the Mediterranean, in Northern Africa, and in Western Asia. Beginning in the 7th century, Arabs colonized a substantial portion of the Middle East, Northern Africa, and parts of Asia and Europe. From the 9th century Vikings (Norsemen) established colonies in Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Greenland, North America, present-day Russia and Ukraine, France (Normandy) and Sicily. In the 9th century a new wave of Mediterranean colonisation began, with competitors such as the Venetians, Genovese and Amalfians infiltrating the wealthy previously Byzantine or Eastern Roman islands and lands. European Crusaders set up colonial regimes in Outremer (in the Levant, 1097–1291) and in the Baltic littoral (12th century onwards). Venice began to dominate Dalmatia and reached its greatest nominal colonial extent at the conclusion of the Fourth Crusade in 1204, with the declaration of the acquisition of three octaves of the Byzantine Empire.[26]

Modernity

 
Iberian Union of Spain and Portugal between 1580 and 1640

More than a century before the Jamestown, Virginia settlement led by captain Christopher Newport,[27] modern colonialism started with the Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator (1394–1460), initiating the Age of Discovery and establishing African trading posts (1445 onwards). Spain (initially the Crown of Castile) and soon after Portugal encountered the Americas (1492 onwards) through sea travel and built trading posts or conquered large extents of land. For some people,[which?] it is this building of colonies across oceans that differentiates colonialism from other types of expansionism. Madrid and Lisbon divided the areas of these "new" lands between the Spanish and Portuguese Empires[28] in 1494; other would-be colonial powers paid little heed to the theoretical demarcation.

The 17th century saw the birth of the Dutch and French colonial empires, as well as the English overseas possessions, which later became the British Empire. It also saw the establishment of some Danish and Swedish overseas colonies.[29]

A first wave of independence movements started with the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), initiating a new phase for the British Empire.[30] The Spanish Empire largely collapsed in the Americas with the Spanish American wars of independence (c. 1808 onwards). Empire-builders established several new colonies after this time, including in the German and Belgian colonial empires. In the late 19th century, many European powers became involved in the Scramble for Africa.[31]

The Austrian, Russian, and Ottoman Empires existed at the same time as the above empires but did not expand over oceans. Rather, these empires expanded through the more traditional route of the conquest of neighbouring territories. There was, though, some Russian colonisation of North America across the Bering Strait. From the 1860s, the Empire of Japan modelled itself on European colonial empires and expanded its territories in the Pacific and on the Asian mainland. Argentina and the Empire of Brazil fought for hegemony in South America.[clarification needed] The United States gained overseas territories after the 1898 Spanish–American War, hence, the coining of the term "American Empire".[32]

 
Map of the British Empire (as of 1910)

20th century

 
Colonial Governor of the Seychelles inspecting police guard of honour in 1972

The world's colonial population at the outbreak of the First World War (1914) – a high point for colonialism – totalled about 560 million people, of whom 70% lived in British possessions, 10% in French possessions, 9% in Dutch possessions, 4% in Japanese possessions, 2% in German possessions, 2% in American possessions, 3% in Portuguese possessions, 1% in Belgian possessions and 0.5% in Italian possessions. The domestic domains of the colonial powers had a total population of about 370 million people.[33] Outside Europe, few areas had remained without coming under formal colonial tutorship – and even Siam, China, Japan, Nepal, Afghanistan, Persia, and Abyssinia had felt varying degrees of Western colonial-style influence – concessions, unequal treaties, extraterritoriality and the like.

Asking whether colonies paid, economic historian Grover Clark (1891–1938) argues an emphatic "No!" He reports that in every case the support cost, especially the military system necessary to support and defend colonies, outran the total trade they produced. Apart from the British Empire, they did not provide favoured destinations for the immigration of surplus metropole populations.[34] The question of whether colonies paid is a complicated one when recognizing the multiplicity of interests involved. In some cases colonial powers paid a lot in military costs while private investors pocketed the benefits. In other cases the colonial powers managed to move the burden of administrative costs to the colonies themselves by imposing taxes.[35]

After World War I (1914–1918), the victorious Allies divided up the German colonial empire and much of the Ottoman Empire between themselves as League of Nations mandates, grouping these territories into three classes according to how quickly it was deemed that they could prepare for independence. The empires of Russia and Austria collapsed in 1917–1918.[36] Nazi Germany set up short-lived colonial systems (Reichskommissariate, Generalgouvernement) in Eastern Europe in the early 1940s.

After World War II (1939–1945), decolonisation progressed rapidly, due to a number of reasons. First, the Japanese victories in the Pacific War of 1941–1945 had showed Indians and other subject peoples that the colonial powers were not invincible. Second, World War II had significantly weakened all the overseas colonial powers economically.[37][need quotation to verify]

The word "neocolonialism" originated from Jean-Paul Sartre in 1956,[38] to refer to a variety of contexts since the decolonisation that took place after World War II. Generally it does not refer to a type of direct colonisation – rather to colonialism or colonial-style exploitation by other means. Specifically, neocolonialism may refer to the theory that former or existing economic relationships, such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the Central American Free Trade Agreement, or the operations of companies (such as Royal Dutch Shell in Nigeria and Brunei) fostered by former colonial powers were or are used to maintain control of former colonies and dependencies after the colonial independence movements of the post–World War II period.[39]

The term "neocolonialism" became popular in ex-colonies in the late 20th century.[40]

List of colonies

British

 
Harbour Street, Kingston, Jamaica, c. 1820
 
The Battle of Isandlwana during the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879. After an initial defeat the British were able to conquer Zululand.
Main article: British Empire
 
1966 flag of the Anglo-French Condominium of the New Hebrides

French

Main article: List of French possessions and colonies

American

Further information: List of Guano Island claims and United States territorial acquisitions
 
Governor General William Howard Taft addressing the audience at the Philippine Assembly in the Manila Grand Opera House

Russian

 
The Russian settlement of St. Paul's Harbour (present-day Kodiak, Alaska), Russian America, 1814

German

 
Kamerun (by R. Hellgrewe, 1908)

Italian

 
Postcard of the Italian invasion of Libya during the Italo-Turkish War

Dutch

Portuguese

 
Portuguese women in Goa, India, 16th century
Main article: Portuguese Empire

Spanish

 
An 18th-century casta painting from New Spain shows a Spanish man and his indigenous wife.
 
Spanish General Arsenio Martínez Campos in Havana, Colonial Cuba, 1878
Main article: Spanish Empire

Austrian and Austro-Hungarian

Main article: Austrian colonial policy
 
Muslim Bosniak resistance during the battle of Sarajevo in 1878 against the Austro-Hungarian occupation

Danish

Main article: Danish colonial empire
 
Map of the European Union in the world, with Overseas Countries and Territories and Outermost Regions. (N.B. The United Kingdom left the Union in 2020.)

Belgian

Swedish

Norwegian

Ottoman

Australian

New Zealand

 
Governor Lord Ranfurly reading the annexation proclamation to Queen Makea on 7 October 1900.

Japanese

Main articles: Japanese colonial empire and List of territories occupied by Imperial Japan

Chinese

 
Camp of the Qing Military in Dzungar in 1756.

Omani

Omani Empire

 
Following the expulsion of the Portuguese colonizers, Sultanate of Oman was the preeminent power in the western Indian Ocean during the 17th century.[44]

Mexican

Ecuadorian

Colombian

Argentine

 
Argentine C-130 and control tower, Marambio Airport
 
The Conquest of the Desert extended Argentine power into Patagonia.

Paraguayan colonies

Bolivian

Ethiopian

Moroccan

Indian

Indonesian

 
Indonesian soldiers pose in November 1975 in Batugade, East Timor with a captured Portuguese flag.

Thai/Siamese

 
Siamese Army in Laos in 1893.

Ancient Egyptian

Khedivate Egyptian

Impact

Main article: Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization § Colonial actions and their impacts
 
A 1904 cartoon by Bob Satterfield about the brutality committed by Western nations: the personifications of England, the United States, and Germany carrying spears topped by the severed heads of Tibet, the Philippines, and Southwest Africa respectively. The caption describes this as "The advance guard of civilization".
The Dutch Public Health Service provides medical care for the natives of the Dutch East Indies, May 1946

The impacts of colonisation are immense and pervasive.[49] Various effects, both immediate and protracted, include the spread of virulent diseases, unequal social relations, detribalization, exploitation, enslavement, medical advances, the creation of new institutions, abolitionism,[50] improved infrastructure,[51] and technological progress.[52] Colonial practices also spur the spread of colonist languages, literature and cultural institutions, while endangering or obliterating those of native peoples. The native cultures of the colonised peoples can also have a powerful influence on the imperial country.[53]

Economy, trade and commerce

Economic expansion, sometimes described as the colonial surplus, has accompanied imperial expansion since ancient times.[citation needed] Greek trade networks spread throughout the Mediterranean region while Roman trade expanded with the primary goal of directing tribute from the colonised areas towards the Roman metropole. According to Strabo, by the time of emperor Augustus, up to 120 Roman ships would set sail every year from Myos Hormos in Roman Egypt to India.[54] With the development of trade routes under the Ottoman Empire,

Gujari Hindus, Syrian Muslims, Jews, Armenians, Christians from south and central Europe operated trading routes that supplied Persian and Arab horses to the armies of all three empires, Mocha coffee to Delhi and Belgrade, Persian silk to India and Istanbul.[55]

 
Portuguese trade routes (blue) and the rival Manila-Acapulco galleons trade routes (white) established in 1568

Aztec civilisation developed into an extensive empire that, much like the Roman Empire, had the goal of exacting tribute from the conquered colonial areas. For the Aztecs, a significant tribute was the acquisition of sacrificial victims for their religious rituals.[56]

On the other hand, European colonial empires sometimes attempted to channel, restrict and impede trade involving their colonies, funneling activity through the metropole and taxing accordingly.

Despite the general trend of economic expansion, the economic performance of former European colonies varies significantly. In "Institutions as a Fundamental Cause of Long-run Growth", economists Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson and James A. Robinson compare the economic influences of the European colonists on different colonies and study what could explain the huge discrepancies in previous European colonies, for example, between West African colonies like Sierra Leone and Hong Kong and Singapore.[57]

According to the paper, economic institutions are the determinant of the colonial success because they determine their financial performance and order for the distribution of resources. At the same time, these institutions are also consequences of political institutions – especially how de facto and de jure political power is allocated. To explain the different colonial cases, we thus need to look first into the political institutions that shaped the economic institutions.[57]

 
Dutch East India Company was the first-ever multinational corporation, financed by shares that established the first modern stock exchange.

For example, one interesting observation is "the Reversal of Fortune" – the less developed civilisations in 1500, like North America, Australia, and New Zealand, are now much richer than those countries who used to be in the prosperous civilisations in 1500 before the colonists came, like the Mughals in India and the Incas in the Americas. One explanation offered by the paper focuses on the political institutions of the various colonies: it was less likely for European colonists to introduce economic institutions where they could benefit quickly from the extraction of resources in the area. Therefore, given a more developed civilisation and denser population, European colonists would rather keep the existing economic systems than introduce an entirely new system; while in places with little to extract, European colonists would rather establish new economic institutions to protect their interests. Political institutions thus gave rise to different types of economic systems, which determined the colonial economic performance.[57]

European colonisation and development also changed gendered systems of power already in place around the world. In many pre-colonialist areas, women maintained power, prestige, or authority through reproductive or agricultural control. For example, in certain parts of sub-Saharan Africa[where?] women maintained farmland in which they had usage rights. While men would make political and communal decisions for a community, the women would control the village's food supply or their individual family's land. This allowed women to achieve power and autonomy, even in patrilineal and patriarchal societies.[58]

Through the rise of European colonialism came a large push for development and industrialisation of most economic systems. When working to improve productivity, Europeans focused mostly on male workers. Foreign aid arrived in the form of loans, land, credit, and tools to speed up development, but were only allocated to men. In a more European fashion, women were expected to serve on a more domestic level. The result was a technologic, economic, and class-based gender gap that widened over time.[59]

Within a colony, the presence of extractive colonial institutions in a given area has been found have effects on the modern day economic development, institutions and infrastructure of these areas.[60][61]

Slavery and indentured servitude

Further information: Atlantic slave trade, Indentured servant, Coolie, and Blackbirding

European nations entered their imperial projects with the goal of enriching the European metropoles. Exploitation of non-Europeans and of other Europeans to support imperial goals was acceptable to the colonisers. Two outgrowths of this imperial agenda were the extension of slavery and indentured servitude. In the 17th century, nearly two-thirds of English settlers came to North America as indentured servants.[62]

European slave traders brought large numbers of African slaves to the Americas by sail. Spain and Portugal had brought African slaves to work in African colonies such as Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe, and then in Latin America, by the 16th century. The British, French and Dutch joined in the slave trade in subsequent centuries. The European colonial system took approximately 11 million Africans to the Caribbean and to North and South America as slaves.[63]

 
Slave traders in Gorée, Senegal, 18th century
European empire Colonial destination Number of slaves imported between 1450 and 1870[63]
Portuguese Empire Brazil 3,646,800
British Empire British Caribbean 1,665,000
French Empire French Caribbean 1,600,200
Spanish Empire Latin America 1,552,100
Dutch Empire Dutch Caribbean 500,000
British Empire British North America 399,000

Abolitionists in Europe and Americas protested the inhumane treatment of African slaves, which led to the elimination of the slave trade (and later, of most forms of slavery) by the late 19th century. One (disputed) school of thought points to the role of abolitionism in the American Revolution: while the British colonial metropole started to move towards outlawing slavery, slave-owning elites in the Thirteen Colonies saw this as one of the reasons to fight for their post-colonial independence and for the right to develop and continue a largely slave-based economy.[64]

British colonising activity in New Zealand from the early 19th century played a part in ending slave-taking and slave-keeping among the indigenous Māori.[65][66] On the other hand, British colonial administration in Southern Africa, when it officially abolished slavery in the 1830s, caused rifts in society which arguably perpetuated slavery in the Boer Republics and fed into the philosophy of apartheid.[67]

The labour shortages that resulted from abolition inspired European colonisers in Queensland, British Guaiana and Fiji (for example) to develop new sources of labour, re-adopting a system of indentured servitude. Indentured servants consented to a contract with the European colonisers. Under their contract, the servant would work for an employer for a term of at least a year, while the employer agreed to pay for the servant's voyage to the colony, possibly pay for the return to the country of origin, and pay the employee a wage as well. The employees became "indentured" to the employer because they owed a debt back to the employer for their travel expense to the colony, which they were expected to pay through their wages. In practice, indentured servants were exploited through terrible working conditions and burdensome debts imposed by the employers, with whom the servants had no means of negotiating the debt once they arrived in the colony.

India and China were the largest source of indentured servants during the colonial era. Indentured servants from India travelled to British colonies in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean, and also to French and Portuguese colonies, while Chinese servants travelled to British and Dutch colonies. Between 1830 and 1930, around 30 million indentured servants migrated from India, and 24 million returned to India. China sent more indentured servants to European colonies, and around the same proportion returned to China.[68]

Following the Scramble for Africa, an early but secondary focus for most colonial regimes was the suppression of slavery and the slave trade. By the end of the colonial period they were mostly successful in this aim, though slavery persists in Africa and in the world at large with much the same practices of de facto servility despite legislative prohibition.[50]

Military innovation

 
The First Anglo-Ashanti War, 1823–31

Conquering forces have throughout history applied innovation in order to gain an advantage over the armies of the people they aim to conquer. Greeks developed the phalanx system, which enabled their military units to present themselves to their enemies as a wall, with foot soldiers using shields to cover one another during their advance on the battlefield. Under Philip II of Macedon, they were able to organise thousands of soldiers into a formidable battle force, bringing together carefully trained infantry and cavalry regiments.[69] Alexander the Great exploited this military foundation further during his conquests.

The Spanish Empire held a major advantage over Mesoamerican warriors through the use of weapons made of stronger metal, predominantly iron, which was able to shatter the blades of axes used by the Aztec civilisation and others. The use of gunpowder weapons cemented the European military advantage over the peoples they sought to subjugate in the Americas and elsewhere.

End of empire

 
Gandhi with Lord Pethwick-Lawrence, British Secretary of State for India, after a meeting on 18 April 1946

The populations of some colonial territories, such as Canada, enjoyed relative peace and prosperity as part of a European power, at least among the majority. Minority populations such as First Nations peoples and French-Canadians experienced marginalisation and resented colonial practices. Francophone residents of Quebec, for example, were vocal in opposing conscription into the armed services to fight on behalf of Britain during World War I, resulting in the Conscription crisis of 1917. Other European colonies had much more pronounced conflict between European settlers and the local population. Rebellions broke out in the later decades of the imperial era, such as India's Sepoy Rebellion of 1857.

The territorial boundaries imposed by European colonisers, notably in central Africa and South Asia, defied the existing boundaries of native populations that had previously interacted little with one another. European colonisers disregarded native political and cultural animosities, imposing peace upon people under their military control. Native populations were often relocated at the will of the colonial administrators.

The Partition of British India in August 1947 led to the Independence of India and the creation of Pakistan. These events also caused much bloodshed at the time of the migration of immigrants from the two countries. Muslims from India and Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan migrated to the respective countries they sought independence for.

Post-independence population movement

 
The annual Notting Hill Carnival in London is a celebration led by the Trinidadian and Tobagonian British community.

In a reversal of the migration patterns experienced during the modern colonial era, post-independence era migration followed a route back towards the imperial country. In some cases, this was a movement of settlers of European origin returning to the land of their birth, or to an ancestral birthplace. 900,000 French colonists (known as the Pied-Noirs) resettled in France following Algeria's independence in 1962. A significant number of these migrants were also of Algerian descent. 800,000 people of Portuguese origin migrated to Portugal after the independence of former colonies in Africa between 1974 and 1979; 300,000 settlers of Dutch origin migrated to the Netherlands from the Dutch West Indies after Dutch military control of the colony ended.[70]

After WWII 300,000 Dutchmen from the Dutch East Indies, of which the majority were people of Eurasian descent called Indo Europeans, repatriated to the Netherlands. A significant number later migrated to the US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.[71][72]

Global travel and migration in general developed at an increasingly brisk pace throughout the era of European colonial expansion. Citizens of the former colonies of European countries may have a privileged status in some respects with regard to immigration rights when settling in the former European imperial nation. For example, rights to dual citizenship may be generous,[73] or larger immigrant quotas may be extended to former colonies.[citation needed]

In some cases, the former European imperial nations continue to foster close political and economic ties with former colonies. The Commonwealth of Nations is an organisation that promotes cooperation between and among Britain and its former colonies, the Commonwealth members. A similar organisation exists for former colonies of France, the Francophonie; the Community of Portuguese Language Countries plays a similar role for former Portuguese colonies, and the Dutch Language Union is the equivalent for former colonies of the Netherlands.[74][75][76]

Migration from former colonies has proven to be problematic for European countries, where the majority population may express hostility to ethnic minorities who have immigrated from former colonies. Cultural and religious conflict have often erupted in France in recent decades, between immigrants from the Maghreb countries of north Africa and the majority population of France. Nonetheless, immigration has changed the ethnic composition of France; by the 1980s, 25% of the total population of "inner Paris" and 14% of the metropolitan region were of foreign origin, mainly Algerian.[77]

On colonisers

 
Since 1945, immigration to the United Kingdom under British nationality law has been significant, in particular from the former British Empire.[78]

In his 1955 essay, Discourse on Colonialism (French: Discours sur le colonialisme), French poet Aimé Césaire evaluates the effects of racist, sexist, and capitalist attitudes and motivations on the civilisations that attempted to colonise other civilisations. In explaining his position, he says, "I admit that it is a good thing to place different civilisations in contact with each other that it is an excellent thing to blend different worlds; that whatever its own particular genius may be, a civilisation that withdraws into itself atrophies; that for civilisations, exchange is oxygen."[79]

To illustrate his point, he explains that colonisation relies on racist and xenophobic frameworks that dehumanise the targets of colonisation and justify their extreme and brutal mistreatment. Every time an immoral act perpetrated by colonisers onto the colonised is justified by racist, sexist, otherwise xenophobic, or capitalist motivations to subjugate a group of people, the colonising civilisation "acquires another dead weight, a universal regression takes place, a gangrene sets in, a centre of infection begins to spread."[79] Césaire argues the result of this process is that "a poison [is] instilled into the veins of Europe and, slowly but surely, the continent proceeds toward savagery."[80]

Introduced diseases

See also: Globalisation and disease, Columbian Exchange, and Impact and evaluation of colonialism and colonization
 
Aztecs dying of smallpox, ("The Florentine Codex" 1540–85)

Encounters between explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced new diseases, which sometimes caused local epidemics of extraordinary virulence.[81] For example, smallpox, measles, malaria, yellow fever, and others were unknown in pre-Columbian America.[82]

Half the native population of Hispaniola in 1518 was killed by smallpox. Smallpox also ravaged Mexico in the 1520s, killing 150,000 in Tenochtitlan alone, including the emperor, and Peru in the 1530s, aiding the European conquerors. Measles killed a further two million Mexican natives in the 17th century. In 1618–1619, smallpox wiped out 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans.[83] Smallpox epidemics in 1780–1782 and 1837–1838 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians.[84] Some believe[who?] that the death of up to 95% of the Native American population of the New World was caused by Old World diseases.[85] Over the centuries, the Europeans had developed high degrees of immunity to these diseases, while the indigenous peoples had no time to build such immunity.[86]

Smallpox decimated the native population of Australia, killing around 50% of indigenous Australians in the early years of British colonisation.[87] It also killed many New Zealand Māori.[88] As late as 1848–49, as many as 40,000 out of 150,000 Hawaiians are estimated to have died of measles, whooping cough and influenza. Introduced diseases, notably smallpox, nearly wiped out the native population of Easter Island.[89] In 1875, measles killed over 40,000 Fijians, approximately one-third of the population.[90] The Ainu population decreased drastically in the 19th century, due in large part to infectious diseases brought by Japanese settlers pouring into Hokkaido.[91]

Conversely, researchers have hypothesised that a precursor to syphilis may have been carried from the New World to Europe after Columbus's voyages. The findings suggested Europeans could have carried the nonvenereal tropical bacteria home, where the organisms may have mutated into a more deadly form in the different conditions of Europe.[92] The disease was more frequently fatal than it is today; syphilis was a major killer in Europe during the Renaissance.[93] The first cholera pandemic began in Bengal, then spread across India by 1820. Ten thousand British troops and countless Indians died during this pandemic.[94] Between 1736 and 1834 only some 10% of East India Company's officers survived to take the final voyage home.[95] Waldemar Haffkine, who mainly worked in India, who developed and used vaccines against cholera and bubonic plague in the 1890s, is considered the first microbiologist.

According to a 2021 study by Jörg Baten and Laura Maravall on the anthropometric influence of colonialism on Africans, the average height of Africans decreased by 1.1 centimetres upon colonization and later recovered and increased overall during colonial rule. The authors attributed the decrease to diseases, such as malaria and sleeping sickness, forced labor during the early decades of colonial rule, conflicts, land grabbing, and widespread cattle deaths from the rinderpest viral disease.[96]

Countering disease

As early as 1803, the Spanish Crown organised a mission (the Balmis expedition) to transport the smallpox vaccine to the Spanish colonies, and establish mass vaccination programs there.[97] By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans.[98] Under the direction of Mountstuart Elphinstone a program was launched to propagate smallpox vaccination in India.[99] From the beginning of the 20th century onwards, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers.[100] The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk.[101] In the 20th century, the world saw the biggest increase in its population in human history due to lessening of the mortality rate in many countries due to medical advances.[102] The world population has grown from 1.6 billion in 1900 to over seven billion today.[citation needed]

Botany

Colonial botany refers to the body of works concerning the study, cultivation, marketing and naming of the new plants that were acquired or traded during the age of European colonialism. Notable examples of these plants included sugar, nutmeg, tobacco, cloves, cinnamon, Peruvian bark, peppers and tea. This work was a large part of securing financing for colonial ambitions, supporting European expansion and ensuring the profitability of such endeavors. Vasco de Gama and Christopher Columbus were seeking to establish routes to trade spices, dyes and silk from the Moluccas, India and China by sea that would be independent of the established routes controlled by Venetian and Middle Eastern merchants. Naturalists like Hendrik van Rheede, Georg Eberhard Rumphius, and Jacobus Bontius compiled data about eastern plants on behalf of the Europeans. Though Sweden did not possess an extensive colonial network, botanical research based on Carl Linnaeus identified and developed techniques to grow cinnamon, tea and rice locally as an alternative to costly imports.[103]

Geography

 
British Togoland in 1953

Settlers acted as the link between indigenous populations and the imperial hegemony, thus bridging the geographical, ideological and commercial gap between the colonisers and colonised. While the extent in which geography as an academic study is implicated in colonialism is contentious, geographical tools such as cartography, shipbuilding, navigation, mining and agricultural productivity were instrumental in European colonial expansion. Colonisers' awareness of the Earth's surface and abundance of practical skills provided colonisers with a knowledge that, in turn, created power.[104]

Anne Godlewska and Neil Smith argue that "empire was 'quintessentially a geographical project'".[clarification needed][105] Historical geographical theories such as environmental determinism legitimised colonialism by positing the view that some parts of the world were underdeveloped, which created notions of skewed evolution.[104] Geographers such as Ellen Churchill Semple and Ellsworth Huntington put forward the notion that northern climates bred vigour and intelligence as opposed to those indigenous to tropical climates (See The Tropics) viz a viz a combination of environmental determinism and Social Darwinism in their approach.[106]

Political geographers also maintain that colonial behaviour was reinforced by the physical mapping of the world, therefore creating a visual separation between "them" and "us". Geographers are primarily focused on the spaces of colonialism and imperialism; more specifically, the material and symbolic appropriation of space enabling colonialism.[107]: 5 

 
Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913

Maps played an extensive role in colonialism, as Bassett would put it "by providing geographical information in a convenient and standardised format, cartographers helped open West Africa to European conquest, commerce, and colonisation".[108] Because the relationship between colonialism and geography was not scientifically objective, cartography was often manipulated during the colonial era. Social norms and values had an effect on the constructing of maps. During colonialism map-makers used rhetoric in their formation of boundaries and in their art. The rhetoric favoured the view of the conquering Europeans; this is evident in the fact that any map created by a non-European was instantly regarded as inaccurate. Furthermore, European cartographers were required to follow a set of rules which led to ethnocentrism; portraying one's own ethnicity in the centre of the map. As J.B. Harley put it, "The steps in making a map – selection, omission, simplification, classification, the creation of hierarchies, and 'symbolisation' – are all inherently rhetorical."[109]

A common practice by the European cartographers of the time was to map unexplored areas as "blank spaces". This influenced the colonial powers as it sparked competition amongst them to explore and colonise these regions. Imperialists aggressively and passionately looked forward to filling these spaces for the glory of their respective countries.[110] The Dictionary of Human Geography notes that cartography was used to empty 'undiscovered' lands of their Indigenous meaning and bring them into spatial existence via the imposition of "Western place-names and borders, [therefore] priming 'virgin' (putatively empty land, 'wilderness') for colonisation (thus sexualising colonial landscapes as domains of male penetration), reconfiguring alien space as absolute, quantifiable and separable (as property)."[111]

David Livingstone stresses "that geography has meant different things at different times and in different places" and that we should keep an open mind in regards to the relationship between geography and colonialism instead of identifying boundaries.[105] Geography as a discipline was not and is not an objective science, Painter and Jeffrey argue, rather it is based on assumptions about the physical world.[104] Comparison of exogeographical representations of ostensibly tropical environments in science fiction art support this conjecture, finding the notion of the tropics to be an artificial collection of ideas and beliefs that are independent of geography.[112]

Versus imperialism

 
Governor-General Félix Éboué welcomes Charles de Gaulle to Chad
This section is an excerpt from Imperialism § Versus colonialism.[edit]
 
Imperial powers in 1800[113]
 
Imperial powers in 1945

The term "imperialism" is often conflated with "colonialism"; however, many scholars have argued that each has its own distinct definition. Imperialism and colonialism have been used in order to describe one's perceived superiority, domination and influence upon a person or group of people. Robert Young writes that while imperialism operates from the centre, is a state policy and is developed for ideological as well as financial reasons, it is simply development for settlement or commercial intentions. However, colonialism still includes invasion.[114] Colonialism in modern usage also tends to imply a degree of geographic separation between the colony and the imperial power. Particularly, Edward Said distinguishes between imperialism and colonialism by stating: "imperialism involved 'the practice, the theory and the attitudes of a dominating metropolitan center ruling a distant territory', while colonialism refers to the 'implanting of settlements on a distant territory.'[115] Contiguous land empires such as the Russian or Ottoman have traditionally been excluded from discussions of colonialism, though this is beginning to change, since it is accepted that they also sent populations into the territories they ruled.[115]: 116 

Imperialism and colonialism both dictate the political and economic advantage over a land and the indigenous populations they control, yet scholars sometimes find it difficult to illustrate the difference between the two.[116]: 107  Although imperialism and colonialism focus on the suppression of another, if colonialism refers to the process of a country taking physical control of another, imperialism refers to the political and monetary dominance, either formally or informally. Colonialism is seen to be the architect deciding how to start dominating areas and then imperialism can be seen as creating the idea behind conquest cooperating with colonialism. Colonialism is when the imperial nation begins a conquest over an area and then eventually is able to rule over the areas the previous nation had controlled. Colonialism's core meaning is the exploitation of the valuable assets and supplies of the nation that was conquered and the conquering nation then gaining the benefits from the spoils of the war.[116]: 170–75  The meaning of imperialism is to create an empire, by conquering the other state's lands and therefore increasing its own dominance. Colonialism is the builder and preserver of the colonial possessions in an area by a population coming from a foreign region.[116]: 173–76  Colonialism can completely change the existing social structure, physical structure, and economics of an area; it is not unusual that the characteristics of the conquering peoples are inherited by the conquered indigenous populations.[116]: 41  Few colonies remain remote from their mother country. Thus, most will eventually establish a separate nationality or remain under complete control of their mother colony.[117]

The Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin suggested that "imperialism was the highest form of capitalism, claiming that imperialism developed after colonialism, and was distinguished from colonialism by monopoly capitalism".[115]: 116 

Marxism

Marxism views colonialism as a form of capitalism, enforcing exploitation and social change. Marx thought that working within the global capitalist system, colonialism is closely associated with uneven development. It is an "instrument of wholesale destruction, dependency and systematic exploitation producing distorted economies, socio-psychological disorientation, massive poverty and neocolonial dependency".[118] Colonies are constructed into modes of production. The search for raw materials and the current search for new investment opportunities is a result[according to whom?] of inter-capitalist rivalry for capital accumulation[citation needed]. Lenin regarded colonialism as the root cause of imperialism, as imperialism was distinguished by monopoly capitalism via colonialism and as Lyal S. Sunga explains: "Vladimir Lenin advocated forcefully the principle of self-determination of peoples in his "Theses on the Socialist Revolution and the Right of Nations to Self-Determination" as an integral plank in the programme of socialist internationalism" and he quotes Lenin who contended that "The right of nations to self-determination implies exclusively the right to independence in the political sense, the right to free political separation from the oppressor nation. Specifically, this demand for political democracy implies complete freedom to agitate for secession and for a referendum on secession by the seceding nation."[119] Non Russian marxists within the RSFSR and later the USSR, like Sultan Galiev and Vasyl Shakhrai, meanwhile, between 1918 and 1923 and then after 1929, considered the Soviet Regime a renewed version of the Russian imperialism and colonialism.

In his critique of colonialism in Africa, the Guyanese historian and political activist Walter Rodney states:

"The decisiveness of the short period of colonialism and its negative consequences for Africa spring mainly from the fact that Africa lost power. Power is the ultimate determinant in human society, being basic to the relations within any group and between groups. It implies the ability to defend one's interests and if necessary to impose one's will by any means available ... When one society finds itself forced to relinquish power entirely to another society that in itself is a form of underdevelopment ... During the centuries of pre-colonial trade, some control over social political and economic life was retained in Africa, in spite of the disadvantageous commerce with Europeans. That little control over internal matters disappeared under colonialism. Colonialism went much further than trade. It meant a tendency towards direct appropriation by Europeans of the social institutions within Africa. Africans ceased to set indigenous cultural goals and standards, and lost full command of training young members of the society. Those were undoubtedly major steps backwards ... Colonialism was not merely a system of exploitation, but one whose essential purpose was to repatriate the profits to the so-called 'mother country'. From an African view-point, that amounted to consistent expatriation of surplus produced by African labour out of African resources. It meant the development of Europe as part of the same dialectical process in which Africa was underdeveloped. Colonial Africa fell within that part of the international capitalist economy from which surplus was drawn to feed the metropolitan sector. As seen earlier, exploitation of land and labour is essential for human social advance, but only on the assumption that the product is made available within the area where the exploitation takes place."[120][121]

According to Lenin, the new imperialism emphasised the transition of capitalism from free trade to a stage of monopoly capitalism to finance capital. He states it is, "connected with the intensification of the struggle for the partition of the world". As free trade thrives on exports of commodities[according to whom?], monopoly capitalism thrived on the export of capital amassed by profits from banks and industry. This, to Lenin, was the highest stage of capitalism. He goes on to state that this form of capitalism was doomed for war between the capitalists and the exploited nations with the former inevitably losing. War is stated to be the consequence of imperialism. As a continuation of this thought G.N. Uzoigwe states, "But it is now clear from more serious investigations of African history in this period that imperialism was essentially economic in its fundamental impulses."[122]

Liberalism and capitalism

Classical liberals were generally in abstract opposition to colonialism and imperialism, including Adam Smith, Frédéric Bastiat, Richard Cobden, John Bright, Henry Richard, Herbert Spencer, H.R. Fox Bourne, Edward Morel, Josephine Butler, W.J. Fox and William Ewart Gladstone.[123] Their philosophies found the colonial enterprise, particularly mercantilism, in opposition to the principles of free trade and liberal policies.[124] Adam Smith wrote in The Wealth of Nations that Britain should grant independence to all of its colonies and also argued that it would be economically beneficial for British people in the average, although the merchants having mercantilist privileges would lose out.[123][125]

Race and gender

During the colonial era, the global process of colonisation served to spread and synthesize the social and political belief systems of the "mother-countries" which often included a belief in a certain natural racial superiority of the race of the mother-country. Colonialism also acted to reinforce these same racial belief systems within the "mother-countries" themselves. Usually also included within the colonial belief systems was a certain belief in the inherent superiority of male over female. This particular belief was often pre-existing amongst the pre-colonial societies, prior to their colonisation.[126][127][128]

Popular political practices of the time reinforced colonial rule by legitimising European (and/ or Japanese) male authority, and also legitimising female and non-mother-country race inferiority through studies of craniology, comparative anatomy, and phrenology.[127][128][129] Biologists, naturalists, anthropologists, and ethnologists of the 19th century were focused on the study of colonised indigenous women, as in the case of Georges Cuvier's study of Sarah Baartman.[128] Such cases embraced a natural superiority and inferiority relationship between the races based on the observations of naturalists' from the mother-countries. European studies along these lines gave rise to the perception that African women's anatomy, and especially genitalia, resembled those of mandrills, baboons, and monkeys, thus differentiating colonised Africans from what were viewed as the features of the evolutionarily superior, and thus rightfully authoritarian, European woman.[128]

In addition to what would now be viewed as pseudo-scientific studies of race, which tended to reinforce a belief in an inherent mother-country racial superiority, a new supposedly "science-based" ideology concerning gender roles also then emerged as an adjunct to the general body of beliefs of inherent superiority of the colonial era.[127] Female inferiority across all cultures was emerging as an idea supposedly supported by craniology that led scientists to argue that the typical brain size of the female human was, on the average, slightly smaller than that of the male, thus inferring that therefore female humans must be less developed and less evolutionarily advanced than males.[127] This finding of relative cranial size difference was later attributed to the general typical size difference of the human male body versus that of the typical human female body.[130]

Within the former European colonies, non-Europeans and women sometimes faced invasive studies by the colonial powers in the interest of the then prevailing pro-colonial scientific ideology of the day.[128] Such seemingly flawed studies of race and gender coincided with the era of colonialism and the initial introduction of foreign cultures, appearances, and gender roles into the now gradually widening world-views of the scholars of the mother-countries.[citation needed]

Othering

Othering is the process of creating a separate entity to persons or groups who are labelled as different or non-normal due to the repetition of characteristics.[131] Othering is the creation of those who discriminate, to distinguish, label, categorise those who do not fit in the societal norm. Several scholars in recent decades developed the notion of the "other" as an epistemological concept in social theory.[131] For example, postcolonial scholars, believed that colonising powers explained an "other" who were there to dominate, civilise, and extract resources through colonisation of land.[131]

Political geographers explain how colonial/imperial powers "othered" places they wanted to dominate to legalise their exploitation of the land.[131] During and after the rise of colonialism the Western powers perceived the East as the "other", being different and separate from their societal norm. This viewpoint and separation of culture had divided the Eastern and Western culture creating a dominant/subordinate dynamic, both being the "other" towards themselves.[131]

Post-colonialism

Main articles: Post-colonialism and Postcolonial literature
Further information: Dutch Indies literature
 
Queen Victoria Street in the former British colony of Hong Kong

Post-colonialism (or post-colonial theory) can refer to a set of theories in philosophy and literature that grapple with the legacy of colonial rule. In this sense, one can regard post-colonial literature as a branch of postmodern literature concerned with the political and cultural independence of peoples formerly subjugated in colonial empires.

Many practitioners take Edward Saïd's book Orientalism (1978) as the theory's founding work (although French theorists such as Aimé Césaire (1913–2008) and Frantz Fanon (1925–1961) made similar claims decades before Saïd). Saïd analyzed the works of Balzac, Baudelaire and Lautréamont, arguing that they helped to shape a societal fantasy of European racial superiority.

Writers of post-colonial fiction interact with the traditional colonial discourse, but modify or subvert it; for instance by retelling a familiar story from the perspective of an oppressed minor character in the story. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak's Can the Subaltern Speak? (1998) gave its name to Subaltern Studies.

In A Critique of Postcolonial Reason (1999), Spivak argued that major works of European metaphysics (such as those of Kant and Hegel) not only tend to exclude the subaltern from their discussions, but actively prevent non-Europeans from occupying positions as fully human subjects. Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (1807), famous for its explicit ethnocentrism, considers Western civilisation as the most accomplished of all, while Kant also had some traces of racialism in his work.

Colonistics

The field of colonistics studies colonialism from such viewpoints as those of economics, sociology and psychology.[132]

British public opinion about the British Empire

The 2014 YouGov survey found that British people are mostly proud of colonialism and the British Empire:[133]

A new YouGov survey finds that most think the British Empire is more something to be proud of (59%) than to be ashamed of (19%). 23% don't know. Young people are least likely to feel pride over shame when it comes to the Empire, though about half (48%) of 18–24 year old's do. In comparison, about two-thirds (65%) of over 60's feel mostly proud. ... A third of British people (34%) also say they would like it if Britain still had an empire. Under half (45%) say they would not like the Empire to exist today. 20% don't know.[134]

Migrations

Further information: Settler colonialism and Greater Europe
 
"Areas of European settlement". Censuses, articles quoted in description..)

Nations and regions outside Europe with significant populations of European ancestry[135]

 
Boer family in South Africa, 1886
 
Russian settlers in Central Asia, present-day Kazakhstan, 1911

Numbers of European settlers in the colonies (1500–1914)

 
Irish leaving Ireland, many in response to the Great Famine in the 1840s
Further information: Settler colonialism

By 1914, Europeans had migrated to the colonies in the millions. Some intended to remain in the colonies as temporary settlers, mainly as military personnel or on business. Others went to the colonies as immigrants. British people were by far the most numerous population to migrate to the colonies: 2.5 million settled in Canada; 1.5 million in Australia; 750,000 in New Zealand; 450,000 in the Union of South Africa; and 200,000 in India. French citizens also migrated in large numbers, mainly to the colonies in the north African Maghreb region: 1.3 million settled in Algeria; 200,000 in Morocco; 100,000 in Tunisia; while only 20,000 migrated to French Indochina. Dutch and German colonies saw relatively scarce European migration, since Dutch and German colonial expansion focused on commercial goals rather than settlement. Portugal sent 150,000 settlers to Angola, 80,000 to Mozambique, and 20,000 to Goa. During the Spanish Empire, approximately 550,000 Spanish settlers migrated to Latin America.[189]

See also

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Further reading

  • Albertini, Rudolf von. European Colonial Rule, 1880–1940: The Impact of the West on India, Southeast Asia, and Africa (1982) 581 pp
  • Benjamin, Thomas, ed. Encyclopedia of Western Colonialism Since 1450 (2006)
  • Cooper, Frederick. Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History (2005)
  • Cotterell, Arthur. Western Power in Asia: Its Slow Rise and Swift Fall, 1415 – 1999 (2009) popular history; excerpt
  • Getz, Trevor R. and Heather Streets-Salter, eds.: Modern Imperialism and Colonialism: A Global Perspective (2010)
  • Jensen, Niklas Thode; Simonsen, Gunvor (2016). "Introduction: The historiography of slavery in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies, c. 1950–2016". Scandinavian Journal of History. 41 (4–5): 475–494. doi:10.1080/03468755.2016.1210880.
  • LeCour Grandmaison, Olivier: Coloniser, Exterminer – Sur la guerre et l'Etat colonial, Fayard, 2005, ISBN 2-213-62316-3
  • Lindqvist, Sven: Exterminate All The Brutes, 1992, New Press; Reprint edition (June 1997), ISBN 978-1-56584-359-2
  • Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present (1970) online
  • Ness, Immanuel and Zak Cope, eds. The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Imperialism and Anti-Imperialism (2 vol 2015), 1456 pp
  • Nuzzo, Luigi: Colonial Law, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2010, retrieved: December 17, 2012.
  • Osterhammel, Jürgen: Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview, Princeton, NJ: M. Wiener, 1997.
  • Page, Melvin E. et al. eds. Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia (3 vol 2003)
  • Petringa, Maria, Brazza, A Life for Africa (2006), ISBN 978-1-4259-1198-0.
  • Prashad, Vijay: The Darker Nations: A People's History of the Third World, The New Press, 2007. ISBN 978-1-56584-785-9
  • Resendez, Andres (2016). The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 448. ISBN 978-0544602670.
  • Rönnbäck, K. & Broberg, O. (2019) Capital and Colonialism. The Return on British Investments in Africa 1869–1969 (Palgrave Studies in Economic History)
  • Schill, Pierre : Réveiller l'archive d'une guerre coloniale. Photographies et écrits de Gaston Chérau, correspondant de guerre lors du conflit italo-turc pour la Libye (1911–1912), Créaphis, 480 p., 2018 (ISBN 978-2-35428-141-0). Awaken the archive of a colonial war. Photographs and writings of a French war correspondent during the Italo-Turkish war in Libya (1911–1912). With contributions from art historian Caroline Recher, critic Smaranda Olcèse, writer Mathieu Larnaudie and historian Quentin Deluermoz.
  • Stuchtey, Benedikt: Colonialism and Imperialism, 1450–1950, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: July 13, 2011.
  • Townsend, Mary Evelyn. European colonial expansion since 1871 (1941).
  • U.S. Tariff Commission. Colonial tariff policies (1922), worldwide; 922pp survey online
  • Velychenko, Stephen (2002). "The Issue of Russian Colonialism in Ukrainian Thought. Dependency Identity and Development". Ab Imperio. 2002 (1): 323–367. doi:10.1353/imp.2002.0070. S2CID 155635060. Ab Imperio E
  • Wendt, Reinhard: European Overseas Rule, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: June 13, 2012.

Primary sources

External links

February 13, 2023
colonialism, this, article, needs, additional, citations, verification, please, help, improve, this, article, adding, citations, reliable, sources, unsourced, material, challenged, removed, find, sources, news, newspapers, books, scholar, jstor, april, 2021, l. This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Colonialism news newspapers books scholar JSTOR April 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Colonialism is a practice or policy of control by one people or power over other people or areas 1 2 3 often by establishing colonies 4 and generally with the aim of economic dominance 5 In the process of colonisation colonisers may impose their religion language economics and other cultural practices The foreign administrators rule the territory in pursuit of their interests seeking to benefit from the colonised region s people and resources 6 It is associated with but distinct from imperialism 1 The pith helmet an icon of colonialism in tropical lands This one was used by the Kingdom of Madagascar inspired by those used by the Second French colonial empire Though colonialism has existed since ancient times the concept is most strongly associated with the European colonial period starting with the 15th century when some European states established colonising empires At first European colonising countries followed policies of mercantilism aiming to strengthen the home country economy so agreements usually restricted the colony to trading only with the metropole mother country By the mid 19th century the British Empire gave up mercantilism and trade restrictions and adopted the principle of free trade with few restrictions or tariffs Christian missionaries were active in practically all of the European controlled colonies because the metropoles were Christian Historian Philip Hoffman calculated that by 1800 before the Industrial Revolution Europeans already controlled at least 35 of the globe and by 1914 they had gained control of 84 of the globe 7 In the aftermath of World War II colonial powers retreated between 1945 and 1975 over which time nearly all colonies gained independence entering into changed colonial so called postcolonial and neocolonialist relations Postcolonialism and neocolonialism have continued or shifted relations and ideologies of colonialism justifying its continuation with concepts such as development and new frontiers as in exploring outer space for colonization Contents 1 Definitions 2 Types 3 Socio cultural evolution 4 History 4 1 Antiquity 4 2 Modernity 4 3 20th century 5 List of colonies 5 1 British 5 2 French 5 3 American 5 4 Russian 5 5 German 5 6 Italian 5 7 Dutch 5 8 Portuguese 5 9 Spanish 5 10 Austrian and Austro Hungarian 5 11 Danish 5 12 Belgian 5 13 Swedish 5 14 Norwegian 5 15 Ottoman 5 16 Australian 5 17 New Zealand 5 18 Japanese 5 19 Chinese 5 20 Omani 5 21 Mexican 5 22 Ecuadorian 5 23 Colombian 5 24 Argentine 5 24 1 Paraguayan colonies 5 25 Bolivian 5 26 Ethiopian 5 27 Moroccan 5 28 Indian 5 29 Indonesian 5 30 Thai Siamese 5 31 Ancient Egyptian 5 32 Khedivate Egyptian 6 Impact 6 1 Economy trade and commerce 6 2 Slavery and indentured servitude 6 3 Military innovation 6 4 End of empire 6 5 Post independence population movement 6 6 On colonisers 6 7 Introduced diseases 6 7 1 Countering disease 7 Botany 8 Geography 9 Versus imperialism 10 Marxism 11 Liberalism and capitalism 12 Race and gender 13 Othering 14 Post colonialism 15 Colonistics 16 British public opinion about the British Empire 17 Migrations 17 1 Numbers of European settlers in the colonies 1500 1914 18 See also 19 References 20 Further reading 20 1 Primary sources 21 External linksDefinitions 1541 Spanish Conquistadors founding Santiago de Chile Collins English Dictionary defines colonialism as the practice by which a powerful country directly controls less powerful countries and uses their resources to increase its own power and wealth 2 Webster s Encyclopedic Dictionary defines colonialism as the system or policy of a nation seeking to extend or retain its authority over other people or territories 3 The Merriam Webster Dictionary offers four definitions including something characteristic of a colony and control by one power over a dependent area or people 8 Etymologically the word colony comes from the Latin colōnia a place for agriculture The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy uses the term to describe the process of European settlement and political control over the rest of the world including the Americas Australia and parts of Africa and Asia It discusses the distinction between colonialism imperialism and conquest and states that t he difficulty of defining colonialism stems from the fact that the term is often used as a synonym for imperialism Both colonialism and imperialism were forms of conquest that were expected to benefit Europe economically and strategically and continues given the difficulty of consistently distinguishing between the two terms this entry will use colonialism broadly to refer to the project of European political domination from the sixteenth to the twentieth centuries that ended with the national liberation movements of the 1960s 1 In his preface to Jurgen Osterhammel s Colonialism A Theoretical Overview Roger Tignor says For Osterhammel the essence of colonialism is the existence of colonies which are by definition governed differently from other territories such as protectorates or informal spheres of influence 4 In the book Osterhammel asks How can colonialism be defined independently from colony 9 He settles on a three sentence definition Colonialism is a relationship between an indigenous or forcibly imported majority and a minority of foreign invaders The fundamental decisions affecting the lives of the colonised people are made and implemented by the colonial rulers in pursuit of interests that are often defined in a distant metropolis Rejecting cultural compromises with the colonised population the colonisers are convinced of their own superiority and their ordained mandate to rule 10 Types Dutch family in Java 1927 The Times once quipped that there were three types of colonial empire The English which consists in making colonies with colonists the German which collects colonists without colonies the French which sets up colonies without colonists 11 Modern studies of colonialism have often distinguished between various overlapping categories of colonialism broadly classified into four types settler colonialism exploitation colonialism surrogate colonialism and internal colonialism Some historians have identified other forms of colonialism including national and trade forms 12 Settler colonialism involves large scale immigration by settlers to colonies often motivated by religious political or economic reasons This form of colonialism aims largely to supplant prior existing populations with a settler one and involves large number of settlers emigrating to colonies for the purpose of settling down and establishing settlements 12 Argentina Australia Brazil Canada Chile New Zealand Russia South Africa United States Uruguay and to a more controversial extent Israel are examples of nations created or expanded in their contemporary form by settler colonization 13 14 15 16 Exploitation colonialism involves fewer colonists and focuses on the exploitation of natural resources or labour to the benefit of the metropole This form consists of trading posts as well as larger colonies where colonists would constitute much of the political and economic administration The European colonization of Africa and Asia was largely conducted under the auspices of exploitation colonialism 17 Surrogate colonialism involves a settlement project supported by a colonial power in which most of the settlers do not come from the same ethnic group as the ruling power 18 Internal colonialism is a notion of uneven structural power between areas of a state The source of exploitation comes from within the state This is demonstrated in the way control and exploitation may pass from people from the colonizing country to an immigrant population within a newly independent country 19 National colonialism is a process involving elements of both settler and internal colonialism in which nation building and colonization are symbiotically connected with the colonial regime seeking to remake the colonized peoples into their own cultural and political image The goal is to integrate them into the state but only as reflections of the state s preferred culture The Republic of China in Taiwan is the archetypal example of a national colonialist society 20 Trade colonialism involves the undertaking of colonialist ventures in support of trade opportunities for merchants This form of colonialism was most prominent in 19th century Asia where previously isolationist states were forced to open their ports to Western powers Examples of this include the Opium Wars and the opening of Japan 21 22 Socio cultural evolutionAs colonialism often played out in pre populated areas sociocultural evolution included the formation of various ethnically hybrid populations Colonialism gave rise to culturally and ethnically mixed populations such as the mestizos of the Americas as well as racially divided populations such as those found in French Algeria or in Southern Rhodesia In fact everywhere where colonial powers established a consistent and continued presence hybrid communities existed Notable examples in Asia include the Anglo Burmese Anglo Indian Burgher Eurasian Singaporean Filipino mestizo Kristang and Macanese peoples In the Dutch East Indies later Indonesia the vast majority of Dutch settlers were in fact Eurasians known as Indo Europeans formally belonging to the European legal class in the colony see also Indos in pre colonial history and Indos in colonial history 23 24 HistoryMain articles History of colonialism and Chronology of Western colonialism Map of colonial and land based empires throughout the world in 1800 Map of colonial and land based empires throughout the world in 1914 Map of colonial empires and Soviet Union throughout the world in 1936 Map of colonial empires at the end of the Second World War 1945 Why do the Christian nations which were so weak in the past compared with Muslim nations begin to dominate so many lands in modern times and even defeat the once victorious Ottoman armies Because they have laws and rules invented by reason Ibrahim Muteferrika Rational basis for the Politics of Nations 1731 25 Antiquity Activity that could be called colonialism has a long history starting at least as early as the Ancient Egyptians Phoenicians Greeks and Romans founded colonies in antiquity Phoenicia had an enterprising maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean from 1550 BC to 300 BC later the Persian empire and various Greek city states continued on this line of setting up colonies The Romans would soon follow setting up coloniae throughout the Mediterranean in Northern Africa and in Western Asia Beginning in the 7th century Arabs colonized a substantial portion of the Middle East Northern Africa and parts of Asia and Europe From the 9th century Vikings Norsemen established colonies in Britain Ireland Iceland Greenland North America present day Russia and Ukraine France Normandy and Sicily In the 9th century a new wave of Mediterranean colonisation began with competitors such as the Venetians Genovese and Amalfians infiltrating the wealthy previously Byzantine or Eastern Roman islands and lands European Crusaders set up colonial regimes in Outremer in the Levant 1097 1291 and in the Baltic littoral 12th century onwards Venice began to dominate Dalmatia and reached its greatest nominal colonial extent at the conclusion of the Fourth Crusade in 1204 with the declaration of the acquisition of three octaves of the Byzantine Empire 26 Modernity Iberian Union of Spain and Portugal between 1580 and 1640 More than a century before the Jamestown Virginia settlement led by captain Christopher Newport 27 modern colonialism started with the Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator 1394 1460 initiating the Age of Discovery and establishing African trading posts 1445 onwards Spain initially the Crown of Castile and soon after Portugal encountered the Americas 1492 onwards through sea travel and built trading posts or conquered large extents of land For some people which it is this building of colonies across oceans that differentiates colonialism from other types of expansionism Madrid and Lisbon divided the areas of these new lands between the Spanish and Portuguese Empires 28 in 1494 other would be colonial powers paid little heed to the theoretical demarcation The 17th century saw the birth of the Dutch and French colonial empires as well as the English overseas possessions which later became the British Empire It also saw the establishment of some Danish and Swedish overseas colonies 29 A first wave of independence movements started with the American Revolutionary War 1775 1783 initiating a new phase for the British Empire 30 The Spanish Empire largely collapsed in the Americas with the Spanish American wars of independence c 1808 onwards Empire builders established several new colonies after this time including in the German and Belgian colonial empires In the late 19th century many European powers became involved in the Scramble for Africa 31 The Austrian Russian and Ottoman Empires existed at the same time as the above empires but did not expand over oceans Rather these empires expanded through the more traditional route of the conquest of neighbouring territories There was though some Russian colonisation of North America across the Bering Strait From the 1860s the Empire of Japan modelled itself on European colonial empires and expanded its territories in the Pacific and on the Asian mainland Argentina and the Empire of Brazil fought for hegemony in South America clarification needed The United States gained overseas territories after the 1898 Spanish American War hence the coining of the term American Empire 32 Map of the British Empire as of 1910 20th century Colonial Governor of the Seychelles inspecting police guard of honour in 1972 The world s colonial population at the outbreak of the First World War 1914 a high point for colonialism totalled about 560 million people of whom 70 lived in British possessions 10 in French possessions 9 in Dutch possessions 4 in Japanese possessions 2 in German possessions 2 in American possessions 3 in Portuguese possessions 1 in Belgian possessions and 0 5 in Italian possessions The domestic domains of the colonial powers had a total population of about 370 million people 33 Outside Europe few areas had remained without coming under formal colonial tutorship and even Siam China Japan Nepal Afghanistan Persia and Abyssinia had felt varying degrees of Western colonial style influence concessions unequal treaties extraterritoriality and the like Asking whether colonies paid economic historian Grover Clark 1891 1938 argues an emphatic No He reports that in every case the support cost especially the military system necessary to support and defend colonies outran the total trade they produced Apart from the British Empire they did not provide favoured destinations for the immigration of surplus metropole populations 34 The question of whether colonies paid is a complicated one when recognizing the multiplicity of interests involved In some cases colonial powers paid a lot in military costs while private investors pocketed the benefits In other cases the colonial powers managed to move the burden of administrative costs to the colonies themselves by imposing taxes 35 After World War I 1914 1918 the victorious Allies divided up the German colonial empire and much of the Ottoman Empire between themselves as League of Nations mandates grouping these territories into three classes according to how quickly it was deemed that they could prepare for independence The empires of Russia and Austria collapsed in 1917 1918 36 Nazi Germany set up short lived colonial systems Reichskommissariate Generalgouvernement in Eastern Europe in the early 1940s After World War II 1939 1945 decolonisation progressed rapidly due to a number of reasons First the Japanese victories in the Pacific War of 1941 1945 had showed Indians and other subject peoples that the colonial powers were not invincible Second World War II had significantly weakened all the overseas colonial powers economically 37 need quotation to verify The word neocolonialism originated from Jean Paul Sartre in 1956 38 to refer to a variety of contexts since the decolonisation that took place after World War II Generally it does not refer to a type of direct colonisation rather to colonialism or colonial style exploitation by other means Specifically neocolonialism may refer to the theory that former or existing economic relationships such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the Central American Free Trade Agreement or the operations of companies such as Royal Dutch Shell in Nigeria and Brunei fostered by former colonial powers were or are used to maintain control of former colonies and dependencies after the colonial independence movements of the post World War II period 39 The term neocolonialism became popular in ex colonies in the late 20th century 40 List of coloniesBritish Harbour Street Kingston Jamaica c 1820 The Battle of Isandlwana during the Anglo Zulu War of 1879 After an initial defeat the British were able to conquer Zululand Main article British Empire Aden Afghanistan Anglo Egyptian Sudan Ascension Island Australia New South Wales Victoria Tasmania Queensland South Australia Western Australia Bahamas Barbados Basutoland Bechuanaland British Borneo Brunei Labuan North Borneo Sarawak British East Africa British Guiana British Honduras British Hong Kong British Leeward Islands Anguilla Antigua Barbuda British Virgin Islands Dominica Montserrat Nevis The Delhi Durbar of 1877 the proclamation of Queen Victoria as Empress of India Saint Kitts British Malaya The First Anglo Sikh War 1845 46 Federated Malay States Straits Settlements Unfederated Malay States British Somaliland British Western Pacific Territories British Solomon Islands Fiji Gilbert and Ellice Islands Phoenix Islands Pitcairn Islands New Hebrides condominium with France Tonga Union Islands British Windward Islands Barbados Dominica Grenada Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Myanmar Canada Ceylon Christmas Island Cocos Keeling Islands Cyprus including Akrotiri and Dhekelia The result of the Boer Wars was the annexation of the Boer Republics to the British Empire in 1902 Egypt Falkland Islands Falkland Islands Dependencies Graham Land South Georgia South Orkney Islands South Shetland Islands South Sandwich Islands Victoria Land Gambia Gibraltar Gold Coast India including what is today Pakistan Bangladesh and Myanmar A view of shops with anti British and pro Independence signs Malta c 1960 Heard Island and McDonald Islands Ireland Jamaica Kenya Maldives Malta Mandatory Palestine Emirate of Transjordan Mandatory Iraq Mauritius Muscat and Oman Norfolk Island Nigeria Northern Rhodesia Nyasaland Gibraltar National Day in British controlled Gibraltar Seychelles Sierra Leone Shanghai International Settlement South Africa Cape Colony Natal Transvaal Colony Orange River Colony Southern Rhodesia St Helena Swaziland Trinidad and Tobago Tristan da Cunha Trucial States Uganda Tonga 1966 flag of the Anglo French Condominium of the New Hebrides French Main article List of French possessions and colonies Acadia Algeria Canada Clipperton Island Comoros Islands including Mayotte Siege of Constantine 1836 during the French conquest of Algeria French Guiana French Equatorial Africa Chad Oubangui Chari French Congo Gabon French India Pondichery Chandernagor Karikal Mahe and Yanaon French Indochina Annam French officers and Tonkinese riflemen 1884 Tonkin Cochinchina Cambodia Laos French Polynesia French Somaliland French Southern and Antarctic Lands French West Africa Ivory Coast Dahomey Guinea Contemporary illustration of Major Marchand s trek across Africa in 1898 French Sudan Mauritania Niger Senegal Upper Volta Guadeloupe Saint Barthelemy Saint Martin La Reunion Louisiana Madagascar Martinique French Morocco French Mandate for Syria and Lebanon New Caledonia Saint Pierre et Miquelon Saint Domingue Shanghai French Concession similar concessions in Kouang Tcheou Wan Tientsin Hankeou Tunisia New Hebrides condominium with Britain Wallis et FutunaAmerican Further information List of Guano Island claims and United States territorial acquisitions Governor General William Howard Taft addressing the audience at the Philippine Assembly in the Manila Grand Opera House American Concession in Tianjin 1869 1902 American Concession in Shanghai 1848 1863 American Concession in Beihai 1876 1943 American Concession in Harbin 1898 1943 American Samoa Beijing Legation Quarter 1861 1945 Corn Islands 1914 1971 Canton and Enderbury Islands Caroline Islands Cuba Platt Amendment turned Cuba into a protectorate until Cuban Revolution Falkland Islands 1832 Guantanamo Bay Guam Gulangyu Island 1903 1945 Haiti 1915 1934 Indian Territory 1834 1907 Isle of Pines 1899 1925 Liberia Independent since 1847 US protectorate until post WW2 Marshall Islands Midway Nicaragua 1912 1933 Northern Mariana Islands Palau Palmyra Atoll Panama Hay Bunau Varilla Treaty turned Panama into a protectorate protectorate until post WW2 Panama Canal Zone 1903 1979 Philippines 1898 1946 Puerto Rico Quita Sueno Bank 1869 1981 Roncador Bank 1856 1981 Ryukyu Islands 1945 1972 41 Shanghai International Settlement 1863 1945 Sultanate of Sulu 1903 1915 Swan Islands Honduras 1914 1972 Treaty Ports of China Korea and Japan United States Virgin Islands Wake Island Wilkes LandRussian The Russian settlement of St Paul s Harbour present day Kodiak Alaska Russian America 1814 Emirate of Bukhara 1873 1917 Grand Duchy of Finland 1809 1917 Khiva Khanate 1873 1917 Kauai Hawaii 1816 1817 Russian America Alaska 1733 1867 Fort Ross California Russian Dalian 1898 1905 German Kamerun by R Hellgrewe 1908 Bismarck Archipelago Kamerun Caroline Islands German New Guinea German Samoa German Solomon Islands German East Africa German South West Africa Gilbert Islands Jiaozhou Bay Mariana Islands Marshall Islands Nauru Palau Togoland TianjinItalian Postcard of the Italian invasion of Libya during the Italo Turkish War Italian Aegean Islands Italian Albania 1918 1920 Italian Albania 1939 1943 Italian concession of Tientsin Italian governorate of Dalmatia Italian governorate of Montenegro Hellenic State Italian Eritrea Italian Somaliland Italian Trans Juba briefly annexed Libya Italian Tripolitania Italian Cyrenaica Italian Libya Italian East Africa Italian occupation of Majorca 1936 1939 Dutch Dutch Brazil Dutch Ceylon Dutch Formosa Dutch Cape Colony Aruba Bonaire Curacao Saba Sint Eustatius Sint Maarten Surinam Dutch colony Dutch East Indies Dutch New GuineaPortuguese Portuguese women in Goa India 16th century Main article Portuguese Empire Portuguese Africa Cabinda Ceuta Madeira Portuguese Angola Portuguese Cape Verde Portuguese Guinea Portuguese Mozambique Portuguese Sao Tome and Principe Fort of Sao Joao Baptista de Ajuda Portuguese Asia Portuguese Ceylon Portuguese India Goa Daman Diu Portuguese Macau Portuguese Oceania Flores Portuguese Timor Solor Portuguese South America Colonial Brazil Cisplatina Misiones Orientales Portuguese North America Azores Newfoundland and LabradorSpanish An 18th century casta painting from New Spain shows a Spanish man and his indigenous wife The Battle of Tetouan 1860 by Maria Fortuny Spanish General Arsenio Martinez Campos in Havana Colonial Cuba 1878 Main article Spanish Empire Canary Islands Cape Juby Captaincy General of Cuba Spanish Florida Spanish Louisiana Captaincy General of the Philippines Caroline Islands Mariana Islands Marshall Islands Palau Islands Ifni Rio de Oro Saguia el Hamra Spanish Morocco Spanish Netherlands Spanish Sahara Spanish Sardinia Spanish Sicily Viceroyalty of Peru Captaincy General of Chile Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata Spanish Guinea Annobon Fernando Po Rio Muni Viceroyalty of New Granada Captaincy General of Venezuela Viceroyalty of New Spain Captaincy General of Guatemala Captaincy General of Yucatan Captaincy General of Santo Domingo Captaincy General of Puerto Rico Spanish FormosaAustrian and Austro Hungarian Main article Austrian colonial policy Muslim Bosniak resistance during the battle of Sarajevo in 1878 against the Austro Hungarian occupation Bosnia and Herzegovina 1878 1918 42 Tianjin China 1902 1917 Austrian Netherlands 1714 1797 Nicobar Islands 1778 1783 North Borneo 1876 1879Danish Main article Danish colonial empire Map of the European Union in the world with Overseas Countries and Territories and Outermost Regions N B The United Kingdom left the Union in 2020 Andaman and Nicobar Islands Danish West Indies now United States Virgin Islands Danish Norway Faroe Islands Greenland Iceland Serampore Danish Gold Coast Danish IndiaBelgian Belgian Congo Ruanda Urundi TianjinSwedish Guadeloupe New Sweden Saint Barthelemy Swedish Gold Coast Dominions of Sweden in continental EuropeNorwegian Svalbard Jan Mayen Bouvet Island Queen Maud Land Peter I IslandOttoman Rumelia Ottoman North Africa Ottoman ArabiaAustralian Papua New Guinea Christmas Island Cocos Islands Coral Sea Islands Heard Island and McDonald Islands Norfolk Island Nauru Australian Antarctic TerritoryNew Zealand Governor Lord Ranfurly reading the annexation proclamation to Queen Makea on 7 October 1900 Cook Islands Nauru Niue Ross Dependency Balleny Islands Ross Island Scott Island Roosevelt IslandJapanese Main articles Japanese colonial empire and List of territories occupied by Imperial Japan Bonin Islands Three Koreans shot for pulling up rails as a protest against seizure of land without payment by the Japanese Karafuto Korea Kuril Islands Kwantung Leased Territory Nanyo Caroline Islands Marshall Islands Northern Mariana Islands Palau Islands Penghu Islands Ryukyu Domain Taiwan Volcano IslandsChinese Camp of the Qing Military in Dzungar in 1756 Dzungaria Xinjiang from 1758 present Kashgaria East Turkistan from 1884 1933 1934 1944 1949 present Guangxi Tusi Hainan Nansha Islands Xisha Islands Manchuria Inner Mongolia Outer Mongolia Mongolia amp Tuva during the late Qing dynasty 43 Taiwan Tibet Kashag Yunnan Tusi Vietnam during the Han Sui and Tang dynastiesOmani Omani Empire Following the expulsion of the Portuguese colonizers Sultanate of Oman was the preeminent power in the western Indian Ocean during the 17th century 44 Swahili coast Zanzibar Qatar Bahrain Somalia SocotraMexican The Californias Texas Central America Clipperton Island Revillagigedo Islands ChiapasEcuadorian Galapagos IslandsColombian Panama Ecuador Venezuela Archipelago of San Andres Providencia and Santa CatalinaArgentine Argentine C 130 and control tower Marambio Airport The Conquest of the Desert extended Argentine power into Patagonia Protectorate of Peru 1820 1822 Gobierno del Cerrito 1843 1851 Chile 1817 1818 Paraguay 1810 1811 1873 Uruguay 1810 1813 Bolivia 1810 1822 Tierra del Fuego Patagonia Falkland Islands and Dependencies 1829 1831 1832 1833 1982 Argentine Antarctica Misiones Formosa Puna de Atacama 1839 Argentina expedition to California 1818 Equatorial Guinea 1810 1815 Paraguayan colonies Mato Grosso do Sul FormosaBolivian Puna de Atacama 1825 1839 ceded to Argentina 1825 1879 ceded to Chile AcreEthiopian EritreaMoroccan Western SaharaIndian Gilgit BaltistanIndonesian Indonesian soldiers pose in November 1975 in Batugade East Timor with a captured Portuguese flag East TimorThai Siamese Siamese Army in Laos in 1893 Kingdom of Vientiane 1778 1828 Kingdom of Luang Prabang 1778 1893 Kingdom of Champasak 1778 1893 Kingdom of Cambodia 1771 1867 Kedah 1821 1826 Perlis 1821 1836 Ancient Egyptian Canaan 45 Nubia 46 Khedivate Egyptian Anglo Egyptian Sudan Habesh Eyalet 47 Sidon Eyalet 48 Damascus Eyalet 48 ImpactMain article Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization Colonial actions and their impacts A 1904 cartoon by Bob Satterfield about the brutality committed by Western nations the personifications of England the United States and Germany carrying spears topped by the severed heads of Tibet the Philippines and Southwest Africa respectively The caption describes this as The advance guard of civilization source source source source source source The Dutch Public Health Service provides medical care for the natives of the Dutch East Indies May 1946 The impacts of colonisation are immense and pervasive 49 Various effects both immediate and protracted include the spread of virulent diseases unequal social relations detribalization exploitation enslavement medical advances the creation of new institutions abolitionism 50 improved infrastructure 51 and technological progress 52 Colonial practices also spur the spread of colonist languages literature and cultural institutions while endangering or obliterating those of native peoples The native cultures of the colonised peoples can also have a powerful influence on the imperial country 53 Economy trade and commerce Economic expansion sometimes described as the colonial surplus has accompanied imperial expansion since ancient times citation needed Greek trade networks spread throughout the Mediterranean region while Roman trade expanded with the primary goal of directing tribute from the colonised areas towards the Roman metropole According to Strabo by the time of emperor Augustus up to 120 Roman ships would set sail every year from Myos Hormos in Roman Egypt to India 54 With the development of trade routes under the Ottoman Empire Gujari Hindus Syrian Muslims Jews Armenians Christians from south and central Europe operated trading routes that supplied Persian and Arab horses to the armies of all three empires Mocha coffee to Delhi and Belgrade Persian silk to India and Istanbul 55 Portuguese trade routes blue and the rival Manila Acapulco galleons trade routes white established in 1568 Aztec civilisation developed into an extensive empire that much like the Roman Empire had the goal of exacting tribute from the conquered colonial areas For the Aztecs a significant tribute was the acquisition of sacrificial victims for their religious rituals 56 On the other hand European colonial empires sometimes attempted to channel restrict and impede trade involving their colonies funneling activity through the metropole and taxing accordingly Despite the general trend of economic expansion the economic performance of former European colonies varies significantly In Institutions as a Fundamental Cause of Long run Growth economists Daron Acemoglu Simon Johnson and James A Robinson compare the economic influences of the European colonists on different colonies and study what could explain the huge discrepancies in previous European colonies for example between West African colonies like Sierra Leone and Hong Kong and Singapore 57 According to the paper economic institutions are the determinant of the colonial success because they determine their financial performance and order for the distribution of resources At the same time these institutions are also consequences of political institutions especially how de facto and de jure political power is allocated To explain the different colonial cases we thus need to look first into the political institutions that shaped the economic institutions 57 Dutch East India Company was the first ever multinational corporation financed by shares that established the first modern stock exchange For example one interesting observation is the Reversal of Fortune the less developed civilisations in 1500 like North America Australia and New Zealand are now much richer than those countries who used to be in the prosperous civilisations in 1500 before the colonists came like the Mughals in India and the Incas in the Americas One explanation offered by the paper focuses on the political institutions of the various colonies it was less likely for European colonists to introduce economic institutions where they could benefit quickly from the extraction of resources in the area Therefore given a more developed civilisation and denser population European colonists would rather keep the existing economic systems than introduce an entirely new system while in places with little to extract European colonists would rather establish new economic institutions to protect their interests Political institutions thus gave rise to different types of economic systems which determined the colonial economic performance 57 European colonisation and development also changed gendered systems of power already in place around the world In many pre colonialist areas women maintained power prestige or authority through reproductive or agricultural control For example in certain parts of sub Saharan Africa where women maintained farmland in which they had usage rights While men would make political and communal decisions for a community the women would control the village s food supply or their individual family s land This allowed women to achieve power and autonomy even in patrilineal and patriarchal societies 58 Through the rise of European colonialism came a large push for development and industrialisation of most economic systems When working to improve productivity Europeans focused mostly on male workers Foreign aid arrived in the form of loans land credit and tools to speed up development but were only allocated to men In a more European fashion women were expected to serve on a more domestic level The result was a technologic economic and class based gender gap that widened over time 59 Within a colony the presence of extractive colonial institutions in a given area has been found have effects on the modern day economic development institutions and infrastructure of these areas 60 61 Slavery and indentured servitude Further information Atlantic slave trade Indentured servant Coolie and Blackbirding European nations entered their imperial projects with the goal of enriching the European metropoles Exploitation of non Europeans and of other Europeans to support imperial goals was acceptable to the colonisers Two outgrowths of this imperial agenda were the extension of slavery and indentured servitude In the 17th century nearly two thirds of English settlers came to North America as indentured servants 62 European slave traders brought large numbers of African slaves to the Americas by sail Spain and Portugal had brought African slaves to work in African colonies such as Cape Verde and Sao Tome and Principe and then in Latin America by the 16th century The British French and Dutch joined in the slave trade in subsequent centuries The European colonial system took approximately 11 million Africans to the Caribbean and to North and South America as slaves 63 Slave traders in Goree Senegal 18th century European empire Colonial destination Number of slaves imported between 1450 and 1870 63 Portuguese Empire Brazil 3 646 800British Empire British Caribbean 1 665 000French Empire French Caribbean 1 600 200Spanish Empire Latin America 1 552 100Dutch Empire Dutch Caribbean 500 000British Empire British North America 399 000Abolitionists in Europe and Americas protested the inhumane treatment of African slaves which led to the elimination of the slave trade and later of most forms of slavery by the late 19th century One disputed school of thought points to the role of abolitionism in the American Revolution while the British colonial metropole started to move towards outlawing slavery slave owning elites in the Thirteen Colonies saw this as one of the reasons to fight for their post colonial independence and for the right to develop and continue a largely slave based economy 64 British colonising activity in New Zealand from the early 19th century played a part in ending slave taking and slave keeping among the indigenous Maori 65 66 On the other hand British colonial administration in Southern Africa when it officially abolished slavery in the 1830s caused rifts in society which arguably perpetuated slavery in the Boer Republics and fed into the philosophy of apartheid 67 The labour shortages that resulted from abolition inspired European colonisers in Queensland British Guaiana and Fiji for example to develop new sources of labour re adopting a system of indentured servitude Indentured servants consented to a contract with the European colonisers Under their contract the servant would work for an employer for a term of at least a year while the employer agreed to pay for the servant s voyage to the colony possibly pay for the return to the country of origin and pay the employee a wage as well The employees became indentured to the employer because they owed a debt back to the employer for their travel expense to the colony which they were expected to pay through their wages In practice indentured servants were exploited through terrible working conditions and burdensome debts imposed by the employers with whom the servants had no means of negotiating the debt once they arrived in the colony India and China were the largest source of indentured servants during the colonial era Indentured servants from India travelled to British colonies in Asia Africa and the Caribbean and also to French and Portuguese colonies while Chinese servants travelled to British and Dutch colonies Between 1830 and 1930 around 30 million indentured servants migrated from India and 24 million returned to India China sent more indentured servants to European colonies and around the same proportion returned to China 68 Following the Scramble for Africa an early but secondary focus for most colonial regimes was the suppression of slavery and the slave trade By the end of the colonial period they were mostly successful in this aim though slavery persists in Africa and in the world at large with much the same practices of de facto servility despite legislative prohibition 50 Military innovation The First Anglo Ashanti War 1823 31 Conquering forces have throughout history applied innovation in order to gain an advantage over the armies of the people they aim to conquer Greeks developed the phalanx system which enabled their military units to present themselves to their enemies as a wall with foot soldiers using shields to cover one another during their advance on the battlefield Under Philip II of Macedon they were able to organise thousands of soldiers into a formidable battle force bringing together carefully trained infantry and cavalry regiments 69 Alexander the Great exploited this military foundation further during his conquests The Spanish Empire held a major advantage over Mesoamerican warriors through the use of weapons made of stronger metal predominantly iron which was able to shatter the blades of axes used by the Aztec civilisation and others The use of gunpowder weapons cemented the European military advantage over the peoples they sought to subjugate in the Americas and elsewhere End of empire This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed April 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Gandhi with Lord Pethwick Lawrence British Secretary of State for India after a meeting on 18 April 1946 The populations of some colonial territories such as Canada enjoyed relative peace and prosperity as part of a European power at least among the majority Minority populations such as First Nations peoples and French Canadians experienced marginalisation and resented colonial practices Francophone residents of Quebec for example were vocal in opposing conscription into the armed services to fight on behalf of Britain during World War I resulting in the Conscription crisis of 1917 Other European colonies had much more pronounced conflict between European settlers and the local population Rebellions broke out in the later decades of the imperial era such as India s Sepoy Rebellion of 1857 The territorial boundaries imposed by European colonisers notably in central Africa and South Asia defied the existing boundaries of native populations that had previously interacted little with one another European colonisers disregarded native political and cultural animosities imposing peace upon people under their military control Native populations were often relocated at the will of the colonial administrators The Partition of British India in August 1947 led to the Independence of India and the creation of Pakistan These events also caused much bloodshed at the time of the migration of immigrants from the two countries Muslims from India and Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan migrated to the respective countries they sought independence for Post independence population movement The annual Notting Hill Carnival in London is a celebration led by the Trinidadian and Tobagonian British community In a reversal of the migration patterns experienced during the modern colonial era post independence era migration followed a route back towards the imperial country In some cases this was a movement of settlers of European origin returning to the land of their birth or to an ancestral birthplace 900 000 French colonists known as the Pied Noirs resettled in France following Algeria s independence in 1962 A significant number of these migrants were also of Algerian descent 800 000 people of Portuguese origin migrated to Portugal after the independence of former colonies in Africa between 1974 and 1979 300 000 settlers of Dutch origin migrated to the Netherlands from the Dutch West Indies after Dutch military control of the colony ended 70 After WWII 300 000 Dutchmen from the Dutch East Indies of which the majority were people of Eurasian descent called Indo Europeans repatriated to the Netherlands A significant number later migrated to the US Canada Australia and New Zealand 71 72 Global travel and migration in general developed at an increasingly brisk pace throughout the era of European colonial expansion Citizens of the former colonies of European countries may have a privileged status in some respects with regard to immigration rights when settling in the former European imperial nation For example rights to dual citizenship may be generous 73 or larger immigrant quotas may be extended to former colonies citation needed In some cases the former European imperial nations continue to foster close political and economic ties with former colonies The Commonwealth of Nations is an organisation that promotes cooperation between and among Britain and its former colonies the Commonwealth members A similar organisation exists for former colonies of France the Francophonie the Community of Portuguese Language Countries plays a similar role for former Portuguese colonies and the Dutch Language Union is the equivalent for former colonies of the Netherlands 74 75 76 Migration from former colonies has proven to be problematic for European countries where the majority population may express hostility to ethnic minorities who have immigrated from former colonies Cultural and religious conflict have often erupted in France in recent decades between immigrants from the Maghreb countries of north Africa and the majority population of France Nonetheless immigration has changed the ethnic composition of France by the 1980s 25 of the total population of inner Paris and 14 of the metropolitan region were of foreign origin mainly Algerian 77 On colonisers Since 1945 immigration to the United Kingdom under British nationality law has been significant in particular from the former British Empire 78 In his 1955 essay Discourse on Colonialism French Discours sur le colonialisme French poet Aime Cesaire evaluates the effects of racist sexist and capitalist attitudes and motivations on the civilisations that attempted to colonise other civilisations In explaining his position he says I admit that it is a good thing to place different civilisations in contact with each other that it is an excellent thing to blend different worlds that whatever its own particular genius may be a civilisation that withdraws into itself atrophies that for civilisations exchange is oxygen 79 To illustrate his point he explains that colonisation relies on racist and xenophobic frameworks that dehumanise the targets of colonisation and justify their extreme and brutal mistreatment Every time an immoral act perpetrated by colonisers onto the colonised is justified by racist sexist otherwise xenophobic or capitalist motivations to subjugate a group of people the colonising civilisation acquires another dead weight a universal regression takes place a gangrene sets in a centre of infection begins to spread 79 Cesaire argues the result of this process is that a poison is instilled into the veins of Europe and slowly but surely the continent proceeds toward savagery 80 Introduced diseases See also Globalisation and disease Columbian Exchange and Impact and evaluation of colonialism and colonization Aztecs dying of smallpox The Florentine Codex 1540 85 Encounters between explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced new diseases which sometimes caused local epidemics of extraordinary virulence 81 For example smallpox measles malaria yellow fever and others were unknown in pre Columbian America 82 Half the native population of Hispaniola in 1518 was killed by smallpox Smallpox also ravaged Mexico in the 1520s killing 150 000 in Tenochtitlan alone including the emperor and Peru in the 1530s aiding the European conquerors Measles killed a further two million Mexican natives in the 17th century In 1618 1619 smallpox wiped out 90 of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans 83 Smallpox epidemics in 1780 1782 and 1837 1838 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians 84 Some believe who that the death of up to 95 of the Native American population of the New World was caused by Old World diseases 85 Over the centuries the Europeans had developed high degrees of immunity to these diseases while the indigenous peoples had no time to build such immunity 86 Smallpox decimated the native population of Australia killing around 50 of indigenous Australians in the early years of British colonisation 87 It also killed many New Zealand Maori 88 As late as 1848 49 as many as 40 000 out of 150 000 Hawaiians are estimated to have died of measles whooping cough and influenza Introduced diseases notably smallpox nearly wiped out the native population of Easter Island 89 In 1875 measles killed over 40 000 Fijians approximately one third of the population 90 The Ainu population decreased drastically in the 19th century due in large part to infectious diseases brought by Japanese settlers pouring into Hokkaido 91 Conversely researchers have hypothesised that a precursor to syphilis may have been carried from the New World to Europe after Columbus s voyages The findings suggested Europeans could have carried the nonvenereal tropical bacteria home where the organisms may have mutated into a more deadly form in the different conditions of Europe 92 The disease was more frequently fatal than it is today syphilis was a major killer in Europe during the Renaissance 93 The first cholera pandemic began in Bengal then spread across India by 1820 Ten thousand British troops and countless Indians died during this pandemic 94 Between 1736 and 1834 only some 10 of East India Company s officers survived to take the final voyage home 95 Waldemar Haffkine who mainly worked in India who developed and used vaccines against cholera and bubonic plague in the 1890s is considered the first microbiologist According to a 2021 study by Jorg Baten and Laura Maravall on the anthropometric influence of colonialism on Africans the average height of Africans decreased by 1 1 centimetres upon colonization and later recovered and increased overall during colonial rule The authors attributed the decrease to diseases such as malaria and sleeping sickness forced labor during the early decades of colonial rule conflicts land grabbing and widespread cattle deaths from the rinderpest viral disease 96 Countering disease As early as 1803 the Spanish Crown organised a mission the Balmis expedition to transport the smallpox vaccine to the Spanish colonies and establish mass vaccination programs there 97 By 1832 the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans 98 Under the direction of Mountstuart Elphinstone a program was launched to propagate smallpox vaccination in India 99 From the beginning of the 20th century onwards the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers 100 The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk 101 In the 20th century the world saw the biggest increase in its population in human history due to lessening of the mortality rate in many countries due to medical advances 102 The world population has grown from 1 6 billion in 1900 to over seven billion today citation needed BotanyColonial botany refers to the body of works concerning the study cultivation marketing and naming of the new plants that were acquired or traded during the age of European colonialism Notable examples of these plants included sugar nutmeg tobacco cloves cinnamon Peruvian bark peppers and tea This work was a large part of securing financing for colonial ambitions supporting European expansion and ensuring the profitability of such endeavors Vasco de Gama and Christopher Columbus were seeking to establish routes to trade spices dyes and silk from the Moluccas India and China by sea that would be independent of the established routes controlled by Venetian and Middle Eastern merchants Naturalists like Hendrik van Rheede Georg Eberhard Rumphius and Jacobus Bontius compiled data about eastern plants on behalf of the Europeans Though Sweden did not possess an extensive colonial network botanical research based on Carl Linnaeus identified and developed techniques to grow cinnamon tea and rice locally as an alternative to costly imports 103 Geography British Togoland in 1953 Settlers acted as the link between indigenous populations and the imperial hegemony thus bridging the geographical ideological and commercial gap between the colonisers and colonised While the extent in which geography as an academic study is implicated in colonialism is contentious geographical tools such as cartography shipbuilding navigation mining and agricultural productivity were instrumental in European colonial expansion Colonisers awareness of the Earth s surface and abundance of practical skills provided colonisers with a knowledge that in turn created power 104 Anne Godlewska and Neil Smith argue that empire was quintessentially a geographical project clarification needed 105 Historical geographical theories such as environmental determinism legitimised colonialism by positing the view that some parts of the world were underdeveloped which created notions of skewed evolution 104 Geographers such as Ellen Churchill Semple and Ellsworth Huntington put forward the notion that northern climates bred vigour and intelligence as opposed to those indigenous to tropical climates See The Tropics viz a viz a combination of environmental determinism and Social Darwinism in their approach 106 Political geographers also maintain that colonial behaviour was reinforced by the physical mapping of the world therefore creating a visual separation between them and us Geographers are primarily focused on the spaces of colonialism and imperialism more specifically the material and symbolic appropriation of space enabling colonialism 107 5 Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913 Maps played an extensive role in colonialism as Bassett would put it by providing geographical information in a convenient and standardised format cartographers helped open West Africa to European conquest commerce and colonisation 108 Because the relationship between colonialism and geography was not scientifically objective cartography was often manipulated during the colonial era Social norms and values had an effect on the constructing of maps During colonialism map makers used rhetoric in their formation of boundaries and in their art The rhetoric favoured the view of the conquering Europeans this is evident in the fact that any map created by a non European was instantly regarded as inaccurate Furthermore European cartographers were required to follow a set of rules which led to ethnocentrism portraying one s own ethnicity in the centre of the map As J B Harley put it The steps in making a map selection omission simplification classification the creation of hierarchies and symbolisation are all inherently rhetorical 109 A common practice by the European cartographers of the time was to map unexplored areas as blank spaces This influenced the colonial powers as it sparked competition amongst them to explore and colonise these regions Imperialists aggressively and passionately looked forward to filling these spaces for the glory of their respective countries 110 The Dictionary of Human Geography notes that cartography was used to empty undiscovered lands of their Indigenous meaning and bring them into spatial existence via the imposition of Western place names and borders therefore priming virgin putatively empty land wilderness for colonisation thus sexualising colonial landscapes as domains of male penetration reconfiguring alien space as absolute quantifiable and separable as property 111 David Livingstone stresses that geography has meant different things at different times and in different places and that we should keep an open mind in regards to the relationship between geography and colonialism instead of identifying boundaries 105 Geography as a discipline was not and is not an objective science Painter and Jeffrey argue rather it is based on assumptions about the physical world 104 Comparison of exogeographical representations of ostensibly tropical environments in science fiction art support this conjecture finding the notion of the tropics to be an artificial collection of ideas and beliefs that are independent of geography 112 Versus imperialism Governor General Felix Eboue welcomes Charles de Gaulle to Chad This section is an excerpt from Imperialism Versus colonialism edit Imperial powers in 1800 113 Imperial powers in 1945 The term imperialism is often conflated with colonialism however many scholars have argued that each has its own distinct definition Imperialism and colonialism have been used in order to describe one s perceived superiority domination and influence upon a person or group of people Robert Young writes that while imperialism operates from the centre is a state policy and is developed for ideological as well as financial reasons it is simply development for settlement or commercial intentions However colonialism still includes invasion 114 Colonialism in modern usage also tends to imply a degree of geographic separation between the colony and the imperial power Particularly Edward Said distinguishes between imperialism and colonialism by stating imperialism involved the practice the theory and the attitudes of a dominating metropolitan center ruling a distant territory while colonialism refers to the implanting of settlements on a distant territory 115 Contiguous land empires such as the Russian or Ottoman have traditionally been excluded from discussions of colonialism though this is beginning to change since it is accepted that they also sent populations into the territories they ruled 115 116 Imperialism and colonialism both dictate the political and economic advantage over a land and the indigenous populations they control yet scholars sometimes find it difficult to illustrate the difference between the two 116 107 Although imperialism and colonialism focus on the suppression of another if colonialism refers to the process of a country taking physical control of another imperialism refers to the political and monetary dominance either formally or informally Colonialism is seen to be the architect deciding how to start dominating areas and then imperialism can be seen as creating the idea behind conquest cooperating with colonialism Colonialism is when the imperial nation begins a conquest over an area and then eventually is able to rule over the areas the previous nation had controlled Colonialism s core meaning is the exploitation of the valuable assets and supplies of the nation that was conquered and the conquering nation then gaining the benefits from the spoils of the war 116 170 75 The meaning of imperialism is to create an empire by conquering the other state s lands and therefore increasing its own dominance Colonialism is the builder and preserver of the colonial possessions in an area by a population coming from a foreign region 116 173 76 Colonialism can completely change the existing social structure physical structure and economics of an area it is not unusual that the characteristics of the conquering peoples are inherited by the conquered indigenous populations 116 41 Few colonies remain remote from their mother country Thus most will eventually establish a separate nationality or remain under complete control of their mother colony 117 The Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin suggested that imperialism was the highest form of capitalism claiming that imperialism developed after colonialism and was distinguished from colonialism by monopoly capitalism 115 116 MarxismMarxism views colonialism as a form of capitalism enforcing exploitation and social change Marx thought that working within the global capitalist system colonialism is closely associated with uneven development It is an instrument of wholesale destruction dependency and systematic exploitation producing distorted economies socio psychological disorientation massive poverty and neocolonial dependency 118 Colonies are constructed into modes of production The search for raw materials and the current search for new investment opportunities is a result according to whom of inter capitalist rivalry for capital accumulation citation needed Lenin regarded colonialism as the root cause of imperialism as imperialism was distinguished by monopoly capitalism via colonialism and as Lyal S Sunga explains Vladimir Lenin advocated forcefully the principle of self determination of peoples in his Theses on the Socialist Revolution and the Right of Nations to Self Determination as an integral plank in the programme of socialist internationalism and he quotes Lenin who contended that The right of nations to self determination implies exclusively the right to independence in the political sense the right to free political separation from the oppressor nation Specifically this demand for political democracy implies complete freedom to agitate for secession and for a referendum on secession by the seceding nation 119 Non Russian marxists within the RSFSR and later the USSR like Sultan Galiev and Vasyl Shakhrai meanwhile between 1918 and 1923 and then after 1929 considered the Soviet Regime a renewed version of the Russian imperialism and colonialism In his critique of colonialism in Africa the Guyanese historian and political activist Walter Rodney states The decisiveness of the short period of colonialism and its negative consequences for Africa spring mainly from the fact that Africa lost power Power is the ultimate determinant in human society being basic to the relations within any group and between groups It implies the ability to defend one s interests and if necessary to impose one s will by any means available When one society finds itself forced to relinquish power entirely to another society that in itself is a form of underdevelopment During the centuries of pre colonial trade some control over social political and economic life was retained in Africa in spite of the disadvantageous commerce with Europeans That little control over internal matters disappeared under colonialism Colonialism went much further than trade It meant a tendency towards direct appropriation by Europeans of the social institutions within Africa Africans ceased to set indigenous cultural goals and standards and lost full command of training young members of the society Those were undoubtedly major steps backwards Colonialism was not merely a system of exploitation but one whose essential purpose was to repatriate the profits to the so called mother country From an African view point that amounted to consistent expatriation of surplus produced by African labour out of African resources It meant the development of Europe as part of the same dialectical process in which Africa was underdeveloped Colonial Africa fell within that part of the international capitalist economy from which surplus was drawn to feed the metropolitan sector As seen earlier exploitation of land and labour is essential for human social advance but only on the assumption that the product is made available within the area where the exploitation takes place 120 121 According to Lenin the new imperialism emphasised the transition of capitalism from free trade to a stage of monopoly capitalism to finance capital He states it is connected with the intensification of the struggle for the partition of the world As free trade thrives on exports of commodities according to whom monopoly capitalism thrived on the export of capital amassed by profits from banks and industry This to Lenin was the highest stage of capitalism He goes on to state that this form of capitalism was doomed for war between the capitalists and the exploited nations with the former inevitably losing War is stated to be the consequence of imperialism As a continuation of this thought G N Uzoigwe states But it is now clear from more serious investigations of African history in this period that imperialism was essentially economic in its fundamental impulses 122 Liberalism and capitalismClassical liberals were generally in abstract opposition to colonialism and imperialism including Adam Smith Frederic Bastiat Richard Cobden John Bright Henry Richard Herbert Spencer H R Fox Bourne Edward Morel Josephine Butler W J Fox and William Ewart Gladstone 123 Their philosophies found the colonial enterprise particularly mercantilism in opposition to the principles of free trade and liberal policies 124 Adam Smith wrote in The Wealth of Nations that Britain should grant independence to all of its colonies and also argued that it would be economically beneficial for British people in the average although the merchants having mercantilist privileges would lose out 123 125 Race and genderDuring the colonial era the global process of colonisation served to spread and synthesize the social and political belief systems of the mother countries which often included a belief in a certain natural racial superiority of the race of the mother country Colonialism also acted to reinforce these same racial belief systems within the mother countries themselves Usually also included within the colonial belief systems was a certain belief in the inherent superiority of male over female This particular belief was often pre existing amongst the pre colonial societies prior to their colonisation 126 127 128 Popular political practices of the time reinforced colonial rule by legitimising European and or Japanese male authority and also legitimising female and non mother country race inferiority through studies of craniology comparative anatomy and phrenology 127 128 129 Biologists naturalists anthropologists and ethnologists of the 19th century were focused on the study of colonised indigenous women as in the case of Georges Cuvier s study of Sarah Baartman 128 Such cases embraced a natural superiority and inferiority relationship between the races based on the observations of naturalists from the mother countries European studies along these lines gave rise to the perception that African women s anatomy and especially genitalia resembled those of mandrills baboons and monkeys thus differentiating colonised Africans from what were viewed as the features of the evolutionarily superior and thus rightfully authoritarian European woman 128 In addition to what would now be viewed as pseudo scientific studies of race which tended to reinforce a belief in an inherent mother country racial superiority a new supposedly science based ideology concerning gender roles also then emerged as an adjunct to the general body of beliefs of inherent superiority of the colonial era 127 Female inferiority across all cultures was emerging as an idea supposedly supported by craniology that led scientists to argue that the typical brain size of the female human was on the average slightly smaller than that of the male thus inferring that therefore female humans must be less developed and less evolutionarily advanced than males 127 This finding of relative cranial size difference was later attributed to the general typical size difference of the human male body versus that of the typical human female body 130 Within the former European colonies non Europeans and women sometimes faced invasive studies by the colonial powers in the interest of the then prevailing pro colonial scientific ideology of the day 128 Such seemingly flawed studies of race and gender coincided with the era of colonialism and the initial introduction of foreign cultures appearances and gender roles into the now gradually widening world views of the scholars of the mother countries citation needed Othering The East Offering its Riches to Britannia painted by Spiridione Roma for the boardroom of the British East India Company Othering is the process of creating a separate entity to persons or groups who are labelled as different or non normal due to the repetition of characteristics 131 Othering is the creation of those who discriminate to distinguish label categorise those who do not fit in the societal norm Several scholars in recent decades developed the notion of the other as an epistemological concept in social theory 131 For example postcolonial scholars believed that colonising powers explained an other who were there to dominate civilise and extract resources through colonisation of land 131 Political geographers explain how colonial imperial powers othered places they wanted to dominate to legalise their exploitation of the land 131 During and after the rise of colonialism the Western powers perceived the East as the other being different and separate from their societal norm This viewpoint and separation of culture had divided the Eastern and Western culture creating a dominant subordinate dynamic both being the other towards themselves 131 Post colonialismMain articles Post colonialism and Postcolonial literature Further information Dutch Indies literatureThis section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed April 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Queen Victoria Street in the former British colony of Hong Kong Post colonialism or post colonial theory can refer to a set of theories in philosophy and literature that grapple with the legacy of colonial rule In this sense one can regard post colonial literature as a branch of postmodern literature concerned with the political and cultural independence of peoples formerly subjugated in colonial empires Many practitioners take Edward Said s book Orientalism 1978 as the theory s founding work although French theorists such as Aime Cesaire 1913 2008 and Frantz Fanon 1925 1961 made similar claims decades before Said Said analyzed the works of Balzac Baudelaire and Lautreamont arguing that they helped to shape a societal fantasy of European racial superiority Writers of post colonial fiction interact with the traditional colonial discourse but modify or subvert it for instance by retelling a familiar story from the perspective of an oppressed minor character in the story Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak s Can the Subaltern Speak 1998 gave its name to Subaltern Studies In A Critique of Postcolonial Reason 1999 Spivak argued that major works of European metaphysics such as those of Kant and Hegel not only tend to exclude the subaltern from their discussions but actively prevent non Europeans from occupying positions as fully human subjects Hegel s Phenomenology of Spirit 1807 famous for its explicit ethnocentrism considers Western civilisation as the most accomplished of all while Kant also had some traces of racialism in his work ColonisticsThe field of colonistics studies colonialism from such viewpoints as those of economics sociology and psychology 132 British public opinion about the British EmpireThe 2014 YouGov survey found that British people are mostly proud of colonialism and the British Empire 133 A new YouGov survey finds that most think the British Empire is more something to be proud of 59 than to be ashamed of 19 23 don t know Young people are least likely to feel pride over shame when it comes to the Empire though about half 48 of 18 24 year old s do In comparison about two thirds 65 of over 60 s feel mostly proud A third of British people 34 also say they would like it if Britain still had an empire Under half 45 say they would not like the Empire to exist today 20 don t know 134 MigrationsFurther information Settler colonialism and Greater Europe Areas of European settlement Censuses articles quoted in description Nations and regions outside Europe with significant populations of European ancestry 135 Boer family in South Africa 1886 Africa see Europeans in Africa South Africa European South African 5 8 of the population 136 Namibia European Namibians 6 5 of the population of which most are Afrikaans speaking in addition to a German speaking minority 137 Reunion estimated to be approx 25 of the population 138 Zimbabwe Europeans in Zimbabwe Algeria Pied noir 139 Botswana 3 of the population 140 Kenya Europeans in Kenya Mauritius Franco Mauritian Morocco European Moroccans 141 Ivory Coast French people 142 Senegal 143 Canary Islands Spaniards known as Canarians Seychelles Franco Seychellois Somalia Italian Somalis Eritrea Italian Eritreans Saint Helena UK including Tristan da Cunha UK predominantly European Eswatini 3 of the population 144 Tunisia European Tunisians 145 Russian settlers in Central Asia present day Kazakhstan 1911 Asia Siberia Russians Germans and Ukrainians 146 147 Kazakhstan Russians in Kazakhstan Germans of Kazakhstan 30 of the population 148 149 Uzbekistan Russians and other Slavs 6 of the population 149 Kyrgyzstan Russians and other Slavs 14 of the population 149 150 151 Turkmenistan Russians and other Slavs 4 of the population 149 152 Tajikistan Russians and other Slavs 1 of the population 149 153 Hong Kong 154 Philippines Spanish Ancestry 3 of the population China Russians in China Indian subcontinent Anglo Indians Latin America see White Latin American Italian immigrants arriving in Sao Paulo Brazil c 1890 Argentina European Immigration to Argentina 97 european and mestizo of the population 155 Bolivia 15 of the population 156 Brazil White Brazilian 47 of the population 157 Chile White Chilean 60 70 of the population 158 159 160 Colombia White Colombian 37 of the population 161 Costa Rica 83 of the population 162 Cuba White Cuban 65 of the population 163 Dominican Republic 16 of the population 164 Ecuador 7 of the population 165 Honduras 1 of the population 166 El Salvador 12 of the population 167 Mexico White Mexican 9 or 17 of the population 168 169 and 70 80 more as Mestizos 168 169 Nicaragua 17 of the population 170 Panama 10 of the population 171 Puerto Rico approx 80 of the population 172 Peru European Peruvian 15 of the population 173 Paraguay approx 20 of the population 174 Uruguay White Uruguayan 88 of the population 175 Mennonites of German descent in Belize Venezuela White Venezuelan 42 of the population 176 Rest of the Americas Bahamas 12 of the population 177 Barbados White Barbadian 4 of the population 178 Bermuda 34 of the population 179 Canada European Canadians 80 of the population 180 Falkland Islands mostly of British descent French Guiana 12 of the population 181 Greenland 12 of the population 182 Martinique 5 of the population 183 Saint Barthelemy 184 Trinidad and Tobago 185 1 of the population Portuguese immigrant family in Hawaii during the 19th century United States European American 72 of the population including Hispanic and Non Hispanic Whites Oceania see Europeans in Oceania Australia European Australians 90 of the population New Zealand European New Zealanders 78 of the population New Caledonia Caldoche 35 of the population French Polynesia Zoreilles 10 of the population 186 Hawaii 25 of the population 187 Christmas Island approx 20 of the population Guam 7 of the population 188 Norfolk Island 9 5 of the populationNumbers of European settlers in the colonies 1500 1914 Irish leaving Ireland many in response to the Great Famine in the 1840s Further information Settler colonialism By 1914 Europeans had migrated to the colonies in the millions Some intended to remain in the colonies as temporary settlers mainly as military personnel or on business Others went to the colonies as immigrants British people were by far the most numerous population to migrate to the colonies 2 5 million settled in Canada 1 5 million in Australia 750 000 in New Zealand 450 000 in the Union of South Africa and 200 000 in India French citizens also migrated in large numbers mainly to the colonies in the north African Maghreb region 1 3 million settled in Algeria 200 000 in Morocco 100 000 in Tunisia while only 20 000 migrated to French Indochina Dutch and German colonies saw relatively scarce European migration since Dutch and German colonial expansion focused on commercial goals rather than settlement Portugal sent 150 000 settlers to Angola 80 000 to Mozambique and 20 000 to Goa During the Spanish Empire approximately 550 000 Spanish settlers migrated to Latin America 189 See also History portalAfrican independence movements Age of Discovery Anti imperialism Chartered company Chinese imperialism Christianity and colonialism Civilising mission Colonial Empire Colonialism and the Olympic Games Coloniality of power Colonial war Cultural colonialism Decoloniality Decolonization of the Americas Developmentalism Direct colonial rule Empire of Liberty European colonization of Africa European colonization of the Americas European colonization of Micronesia European colonisation of Southeast Asia French law on colonialism German eastward expansion Global Empire Historiography of the British Empire Impact of Western European colonialism and colonisation International relations of the Great Powers 1814 1919 Muslim conquests Orientalism Pluricontinental Protectorate Satellite state Soviet Empire Stranger King Concept Western imperialism in AsiaReferences a b c Margaret Kohn 29 August 2017 Colonialism Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Stanford University Retrieved 5 May 2018 a b Colonialism Collins English Dictionary HarperCollins 2011 Retrieved 8 January 2012 a b Webster s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language 1989 p 291 a b Tignor Roger 2005 Preface to Colonialism a theoretical overview Markus Weiner Publishers p x ISBN 978 1 55876 340 1 Retrieved 5 April 2010 Rodney Walter 2018 How Europe underdeveloped 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online In the early years of the Qing Dynasty the Chinese were prohibited from entering Mongolia to prevent the assimilation of the Mongols loss of combat effectiveness The prohibition was abolished after the Late Qing reforms and then Mongolia declared its independence from the Manchu Qing Oman Country Profile Oman Country Profile British Library Partnership Qatar Digital Library 2014 Naomi Porat 1992 An Egyptian Colony in Southern Palestine During the Late Predynastic to Early Dynastic In Edwin C M van den Brink ed The Nile Delta in Transition 4th 3rd Millennium B C Proceedings of the Seminar Held in Cairo 21 24 October 1990 at the Netherlands Institute of Archaeology and Arabic Studies Van den Brink pp 433 440 ISBN 978 965 221 015 9 Retrieved 24 February 2013 Ancient Tomb Sheds New Light on Egyptian Colonialism Siegbert Uhlig 2005 Encyclopaedia Aethiopica D Ha Otto Harrassowitz Verlag p 951 ISBN 978 3 447 05238 2 Retrieved 2013 06 01 a b Safi Khaled M 2008 Territorial Awareness in the 1834 Palestinian Revolt in Roger Heacock ed Of Times and Spaces in Palestine The Flows and Resistances of Identity Beirut Presses de l Ifpo ISBN 9782351592656 Perry Alex 2008 02 14 Come Back Colonialism All Is Forgiven Time ISSN 0040 781X Retrieved 2019 09 29 a b Lovejoy Paul E 2012 Transformations of Slavery A History of Slavery in Africa London Cambridge University Press Ferguson Niall 2003 Empire How Britain Made the Modern World London Allen Lane Thong Tezenlo 2012 Civilised Colonisers and Barbaric Colonised Reclaiming Naga Identity by Demythologising Colonial Portraits History and Anthropology 23 3 375 97 doi 10 1080 02757206 2012 697060 S2CID 162411962 Mercy Olumide Yetunde 2016 10 06 The Vanishing Black African Woman Volume Two A Compendium of the Global Skin Lightening Practice Langaa RPCIG ISBN 978 9956 763 68 9 Strabo s Geography Book II Chapter 5 Pagden Anthony 2003 Peoples and Empires New York Modern Library p 45 ISBN 978 0 8129 6761 6 Pagden Anthony 2003 Peoples and Empires New York Modern Library p 5 ISBN 978 0 8129 6761 6 a b c Acemoglu Daron Johnson Simon Robinson James A 2005 Institutions as a Fundamental Cause of Long Run Growth Handbook of Economic Growth Vol 1A pp 385 472 doi 10 1016 S1574 0684 05 01006 3 ISBN 9780444520418 Freedman Estelle 2002 No Turning Back The History of Feminism and The Future of Women Random House Publishing Group pp 25 26 ISBN 978 0 345 45053 1 Freedman Estelle 2002 No Turning Back The History of Feminism and The Future of Women Random House Publishing pp 113 ISBN 978 0 345 45053 1 Dell Melissa Olken Benjamin A 2020 The Development Effects of the Extractive Colonial Economy The Dutch Cultivation System in Java The Review of Economic Studies 87 164 203 doi 10 1093 restud rdz017 Mattingly Daniel C 2017 Colonial Legacies and State Institutions in China Evidence From a Natural Experiment PDF Comparative Political Studies 50 4 434 463 doi 10 1177 0010414015600465 S2CID 156822667 Archived PDF from the original on 2016 07 14 White Servitude Archived 2014 10 09 at the Wayback Machine by Richard Hofstadter Montgomery College a b King Russell 2010 People on the Move An Atlas of Migration Berkeley Los Angeles University of California Press p 24 ISBN 978 0 520 26124 2 Hannah Jones Nikole August 14 2019 Our democracy s founding ideals were false when they were written Black Americans have fought to make them true The New York Times Magazine The wealth and prominence that allowed Jefferson at just 33 and the other founding fathers to believe they could successfully break off from one of the mightiest empires in the world came from the dizzying profits generated by chattel slavery In other words we may never have revolted against Britain if the founders had not understood that slavery empowered them to do so nor if they had not believed that independence was required in order to ensure that slavery would continue It is not incidental that 10 of this nation s first 12 presidents were enslavers and some might argue that this nation was founded not as a democracy but as a slavocracy Petrie Hazel 2015 Outcasts of the Gods The Struggle over Slavery in Maori New Zealand Auckland University Press ISBN 9781775587859 Retrieved 17 June 2020 Trade with the early explorers whalers sealers and shore based traders interaction with missionaries the availability of muskets unprecedented warfare new methods of dispute resolution and English law all played their part in influencing the increase or decline of Maori captive taking Firth Raymond 1929 Primitive Economics of the New Zealand Maori Routledge Revivals reprint ed Abingdon Routledge published 2011 p 203 ISBN 9780415694728 Retrieved 17 June 2020 The economic value of the slave to the community was considerable Slavery among the Maori is certainly not comparable to the system as it existed among the ancient civilized states of Europe but relative to the culture of this native people it played an important part Lowe Joshua 2014 To what extent was the Great Trek undertaken to preserve Afrikaner Culture GRIN p 2 ISBN 9783656715245 Retrieved 17 June 2020 There were also threats to what the Afrikaner perceived as tradition and slavery was included in this perception The abolition of slavery had an effect on why the Great Trek was undertaken and has links to the Afrikaner cultural preservation theory Slavery was an integral part of Afrikaner society and there was a sense of discontent when it was called to an end King Russell 2010 People on the Move An Atlas of Migration Berkeley Los Angeles University of California Press pp 26 27 ISBN 978 0 520 26124 2 Pagden Anthony 2003 Peoples and Empires New York Modern Library p 6 ISBN 978 0 8129 6761 6 King Russell 2010 People on the Move An Atlas of Migration Berkeley Los Angeles University of California Press p 35 ISBN 978 0 520 26124 2 Willems Wim De uittocht uit Indie 1945 1995 De geschiedenis van Indische Nederlanders Publisher Bert Bakker Amsterdam 2001 ISBN 90 351 2361 1 Crul Lindo and Lin 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Carolyn Dahlman Carl T Gilmartin Mary Mountz Alison Shirlow Peter 2009 Key Concepts in Political Geography London Sage p 392 ISBN 978 1 4129 4672 8 Retrieved July 31 2014 Bassett Thomas J 1994 Cartography and Empire Building in Nineteenth Century West Africa Geographical Review 84 3 316 335 doi 10 2307 215456 JSTOR 215456 S2CID 161167051 Harley J B 1989 Deconstructing the Map PDF Cartographica 26 2 1 20 doi 10 3138 E635 7827 1757 9T53 Bassett Thomas J 1994 Cartography and Empire Building in Nineteenth Century West Africa Geographical Review 84 3 322 324 25 doi 10 2307 215456 JSTOR 215456 S2CID 161167051 Gregory Derek Johnston Ron Pratt Geraldine Watts Michael Whatmore Sarah eds 2009 The dictionary of human geography 5th ed Chichester UK Wiley Blackwell pp 96 97 ISBN 978 1 4051 3288 6 Menadue Christopher Benjamin 2018 09 04 Cities in Flight A Descriptive Examination of the Tropical City Imagined in Twentieth Century Science Fiction Cover Art ETropic Electronic Journal of Studies in the Tropics 17 2 doi 10 25120 etropic 17 2 2018 3658 ISSN 1448 2940 Clapp C H 1912 Southern Vancouver Island Canada Geological Survey Memoirno 13 Ottawa doi 10 4095 100487 hdl 2027 nyp 33433090753066 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Young Robert 2015 Empire colony postcolony p 54 ISBN 978 1 4051 9355 9 OCLC 907133189 a b c Gilmartin Mary 2009 Colonialism Imperialism In Gallaher Carolyn Dahlman Carl Gilmartin Mary Mountz Alison Shirlow Peter eds Key Concepts in Political Geography pp 115 123 doi 10 4135 9781446279496 n13 ISBN 9781412946728 a b c d Painter Joe Jeffrey Alex 2009 Political Geography 2nd ed ISBN 978 1 4462 4435 7 Imperialism A Study Online Library of Liberty Watts Michael 2005 colonialism history of In Forsyth Tim ed Encyclopedia of International Development Routledge ISBN 9781136952913 Sunga Lyal S 1997 The Emerging System of International Criminal Law Developments in Codification and Implementation Martinus Nijhoff Publishers pp 90ff ISBN 9789041104724 Sunga traces the origin of the international movement against colonialism and relates it to the rise of the right to self determination in international law Walter Rodney 1972 How Europe Underdeveloped Africa East African Publishers pp 149 224 ISBN 978 9966 25 113 8 Henry Schwarz Sangeeta Ray 2004 A Companion To Postcolonial Studies John Wiley amp Sons p 271 ISBN 978 0 470 99833 5 Boahen A Adu Africa under Colonial Domination 1880 1935 London Heinemann 1985 11 Print a b Liberal Anti Imperialism Archived 2011 09 22 at the Wayback Machine professor Daniel Klein 1 7 2004 Hidalgo Dennis 2007 Anticolonialism In Benjamin Thomas ed Encyclopedia of Western Colonialism since 1450 Gale Virtual Reference Library ed Detroit Macmillan Reference USA pp 57 65 Retrieved May 22 2015 Smith Adam 1811 The nature and causes of the wealth of nations Of Colonies London T Cadell pp 343 84 Stoler Ann L Nov 1989 Making Empire Respectable The Politics of 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published 2013 p 137 ISBN 978 1 136 24522 0 Retrieved 7 December 2018 There are thus three elements in Colonistics or colonial study Colonial Economics Colonial Sociology and Colonial Psychology Colonial nostalgia is back in fashion blinding us to the horrors of empire The Guardian 24 August 2016 Dahlgreen Will 26 July 2014 The British Empire is something to be proud of YouGov Ethnic groups by country Archived 2019 01 06 at the Wayback Machine Statistics where available from CIA Factbook South Africa People and Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Naimbia People and Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Tarnus Evelyne Bourdon Emmanuel 2006 Anthropometric evaluations of body composition of undergraduate students at the University of La Reunion Advances in Physiology Education 30 4 248 53 doi 10 1152 advan 00069 2005 PMID 17108254 S2CID 19474655 Laurenson John July 29 2006 Former settlers return to Algeria BBC News Botswana People and Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency De Azevedo Raimondo Cagiano 1994 Migration and development co operation Council of Europe p 25 ISBN 92 871 2611 9 Ivory Coast The Economy Library of Congress Country Studies Senegal About 50 000 Europeans mostly French and Lebanese reside in Senegal mainly in the cities Eswatini People and Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Tunisia Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations Thomson Gale 2007 Encyclopedia com Fiona Hill Russia Coming In From the Cold Archived 2011 07 15 at the Wayback Machine The Globalist 23 February 2004 Siberian Germans Migrant resettlement in the Russian federation reconstructing homes and homelands Moya Flynn 1994 p 15 ISBN 1 84331 117 8 a b c d e Robert Greenall Russians left behind in Central Asia BBC News 23 November 2005 Kyrgyzstan People and Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency The Kyrgyz Children of Manas Petr Kokaisl Pavla Kokaislova 2009 p 125 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Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Retrieved 2007 11 21 Archived 2007 edition 3 9 million whites and mestizos Tabla II 3 Poblacion por color de la piel y grupos de edades segun zona de residencia y sexo Censo de Poblacion y Viviendas in Spanish Oficina Nacional de Estadisticas 2002 Archived from the original on 2011 04 14 Retrieved 2008 10 13 Dominican Republic People and Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Ecuador People and Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Retrieved 2007 11 26 Archived 2007 edition Honduras The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency 19 October 2021 Archived 2021 edition El Salvador People and Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency a b Mexico People and Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Retrieved 2010 01 24 Archived 2010 edition a b Mexico Ethnic Groups Encyclopaedia Britannica Nicaragua People and Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Retrieved 2007 11 15 Archived 2007 edition Panama People and Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Retrieved 2007 11 21 Archived 2007 edition Puerto Rico People and Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Peru People and Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Francisco Lizcano Fernandez May August 2005 Composicion Etnica de las Tres Areas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI PDF Convergencia UAEM Mexico 38 ISSN 1405 1435 Archived from the original PDF on June 26 2013 Uruguay People and Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Resultado Basico del XIV Censo Nacional de Poblacion y Vivienda 2011 p 14 Bahamas The People and Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Barbados People and Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Bermuda People and Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Canadian Census 2006 Archived from the original on 2017 10 19 Retrieved 2012 08 23 French Guiana People and Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Archived 2006 edition Greenland Martinique People Ethnic Groups Archived 2018 09 11 at the Wayback Machine World Factbook of CIA Fact Sheet on St Barthelemy Trinidad French Creole French Polynesia People and Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency American FactFinder Results Archived from the original on 21 May 2019 Guam People and Society The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency King Russell 2010 People on the Move An Atlas of Migration Berkeley Los Angeles University of California Press pp 34 35 ISBN 978 0 520 26151 8 Further readingAlbertini Rudolf von European Colonial Rule 1880 1940 The Impact of the West on India Southeast Asia and Africa 1982 581 pp Benjamin Thomas ed Encyclopedia of Western Colonialism Since 1450 2006 Cooper Frederick Colonialism in Question Theory Knowledge History 2005 Cotterell Arthur Western Power in Asia Its Slow Rise and Swift Fall 1415 1999 2009 popular history excerpt Getz Trevor R and Heather Streets Salter eds Modern Imperialism and Colonialism A Global Perspective 2010 Jensen Niklas Thode Simonsen Gunvor 2016 Introduction The historiography of slavery in the Danish Norwegian West Indies c 1950 2016 Scandinavian Journal of History 41 4 5 475 494 doi 10 1080 03468755 2016 1210880 LeCour Grandmaison Olivier Coloniser Exterminer Sur la guerre et l Etat colonial Fayard 2005 ISBN 2 213 62316 3 Lindqvist Sven Exterminate All The Brutes 1992 New Press Reprint edition June 1997 ISBN 978 1 56584 359 2 Morris Richard B and Graham W Irwin eds Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present 1970 online Ness Immanuel and Zak Cope eds The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Imperialism and Anti Imperialism 2 vol 2015 1456 pp Nuzzo Luigi Colonial Law European History Online Mainz Institute of European History 2010 retrieved December 17 2012 Osterhammel Jurgen Colonialism A Theoretical Overview Princeton NJ M Wiener 1997 Page Melvin E et al eds Colonialism An International Social Cultural and Political Encyclopedia 3 vol 2003 Petringa Maria Brazza A Life for Africa 2006 ISBN 978 1 4259 1198 0 Prashad Vijay The Darker Nations A People s History of the Third World The New Press 2007 ISBN 978 1 56584 785 9 Resendez Andres 2016 The Other Slavery The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America Houghton Mifflin Harcourt p 448 ISBN 978 0544602670 Ronnback K amp Broberg O 2019 Capital and Colonialism The Return on British Investments in Africa 1869 1969 Palgrave Studies in Economic History Schill Pierre Reveiller l archive d une guerre coloniale Photographies et ecrits de Gaston Cherau correspondant de guerre lors du conflit italo turc pour la Libye 1911 1912 Creaphis 480 p 2018 ISBN 978 2 35428 141 0 Awaken the archive of a colonial war Photographs and writings of a French war correspondent during the Italo Turkish war in Libya 1911 1912 With contributions from art historian Caroline Recher critic Smaranda Olcese writer Mathieu Larnaudie and historian Quentin Deluermoz Stuchtey Benedikt Colonialism and Imperialism 1450 1950 European History Online Mainz Institute of European History 2011 retrieved July 13 2011 Townsend Mary Evelyn European colonial expansion since 1871 1941 U S Tariff Commission Colonial tariff policies 1922 worldwide 922pp survey online Velychenko Stephen 2002 The Issue of Russian Colonialism in Ukrainian Thought Dependency Identity and Development Ab Imperio 2002 1 323 367 doi 10 1353 imp 2002 0070 S2CID 155635060 Ab Imperio E Wendt Reinhard European Overseas Rule European History Online Mainz Institute of European History 2011 retrieved June 13 2012 Primary sources Conrad Joseph Heart of Darkness 1899 Fanon Frantz The Wretched of the Earth Preface by Jean Paul Sartre Translated by Constance Farrington London Penguin Book 2001 Las Casas Bartolome de A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies 1542 published in 1552 External links Quotations related to colonialism at Wikiquote Kohn Margaret Colonialism In Zalta Edward N ed Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Colonialism amp oldid 1138788993, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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