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Wikipedia

Wind power

January 09, 2023

"wind energy" redirects here. For the academic journal, see Wind Energy (journal).

Wind power or wind energy is mostly the use of wind turbines to generate electricity. Wind power is a popular, sustainable, renewable energy source that has a much smaller impact on the environment than burning fossil fuels. Historically, wind power has been used in sails, windmills and windpumps but today it is mostly used to generate electricity. Wind farms consist of many individual wind turbines, which are connected to the electric power transmission network. New onshore (on-land) wind farms are cheaper than new coal or gas plants,[1] but expansion of wind power is being hindered by fossil fuel subsidies.[2][3][4] Onshore wind farms have a greater visual impact on the landscape than some other power stations.[5][6] Small onshore wind farms can feed some energy into the grid or provide power to isolated off-grid locations. Offshore wind farms deliver more energy per installed capacity with less fluctuations and have less visual impact. Although there is less offshore wind power at present and construction and maintenance costs are higher, it is expanding.[7] Offshore wind power currently has a share of about 10% of new installations.[8]

Wind farm in Xinjiang, China
Electricity production by source

Wind power is variable renewable energy, so power-management techniques are used to match supply and demand, such as: wind hybrid power systems, hydroelectric power or other dispatchable power sources, excess capacity, geographically distributed turbines, exporting and importing power to neighboring areas, or grid storage. As the proportion of wind power in a region increases the grid may need to be upgraded.[9][10] Weather forecasting allows the electric-power network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur.

In 2021, wind supplied over 1800 TWh of electricity, which was over 6% of world electricity[11] and about 2% of world energy.[12][13] With about 100 GW added during 2021, mostly in China and the United States, global installed wind power capacity exceeded 800 GW.[7][13][14] To help meet the Paris Agreement goals to limit climate change, analysts say it should expand much faster - by over 1% of electricity generation per year.[15]

Regions in the higher northern and southern latitudes have the highest potential for wind power.[16] In most regions, wind power generation is higher in nighttime, and in winter when PV output is low. For this reason, combinations of wind and solar power are suitable in many countries.[17]

Wind energy

 
Global map of wind speed at 100 m above surface level[18]
 
Distribution of wind speed (red) and energy (blue) for all of 2002 at the Lee Ranch facility in Colorado. The histogram shows measured data, while the curve is the Rayleigh model distribution for the same average wind speed.

Wind energy is the kinetic energy of air in motion, also called wind. Total wind energy flowing through an imaginary surface with area A during the time t is:

 [19]

where ρ is the density of air; v is the wind speed; Avt is the volume of air passing through A (which is considered perpendicular to the direction of the wind); Avtρ is therefore the mass m passing through A. 1⁄2 ρv2 is the kinetic energy of the moving air per unit volume.

Power is energy per unit time, so the wind power incident on A (e.g. equal to the rotor area of a wind turbine) is:

 [19]

Wind power in an open air stream is thus proportional to the third power of the wind speed; the available power increases eightfold when the wind speed doubles.

Wind is the movement of air across the surface of the Earth, driven by areas of high and low pressure.[20] The global wind kinetic energy averaged approximately 1.50 MJ/m2 over the period from 1979 to 2010, 1.31 MJ/m2 in the Northern Hemisphere with 1.70 MJ/m2 in the Southern Hemisphere. The atmosphere acts as a thermal engine, absorbing heat at higher temperatures, releasing heat at lower temperatures. The process is responsible for the production of wind kinetic energy at a rate of 2.46 W/m2 thus sustaining the circulation of the atmosphere against friction.[21]

Through wind resource assessment, it is possible to estimate wind power potential globally, by country or region, or for a specific site. The Global Wind Atlas provided by the Technical University of Denmark in partnership with the World Bank provides a global assessment of wind power potential.[18][22][23] Unlike 'static' wind resource atlases which average estimates of wind speed and power density across multiple years, tools such as Renewables.ninja provide time-varying simulations of wind speed and power output from different wind turbine models at an hourly resolution.[24] More detailed, site-specific assessments of wind resource potential can be obtained from specialist commercial providers, and many of the larger wind developers have in-house modeling capabilities.

The total amount of economically extractable power available from the wind is considerably more than present human power use from all sources.[25] The strength of wind varies, and an average value for a given location does not alone indicate the amount of energy a wind turbine could produce there.

To assess prospective wind power sites, a probability distribution function is often fit to the observed wind speed data.[26] Different locations will have different wind speed distributions. The Weibull model closely mirrors the actual distribution of hourly/ten-minute wind speeds at many locations. The Weibull factor is often close to 2 and therefore a Rayleigh distribution can be used as a less accurate, but simpler model.[27]

Wind farms

Main articles: Wind farm and List of onshore wind farms
Large onshore wind farms
Wind farm Capacity
(MW) 		Country Refs
Gansu Wind Farm 7,965   China [28]
Muppandal wind farm 1,500   India [29]
Alta (Oak Creek-Mojave) 1,320   United States [30]
Jaisalmer Wind Park 1,064   India [31]

A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location. A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines distributed over an extended area. The land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes. For example, Gansu Wind Farm, the largest wind farm in the world, has several thousand turbines. A wind farm may also be located offshore. Almost all large wind turbines have the same design — a horizontal axis wind turbine having an upwind rotor with 3 blades, attached to a nacelle on top of a tall tubular tower.

In a wind farm, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage (often 34.5 kV) power collection system[32] and communications network. In general, a distance of 7D (7 times the rotor diameter of the wind turbine) is set between each turbine in a fully developed wind farm.[33] At a substation, this medium-voltage electric current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high voltage electric power transmission system.[34]

Generator characteristics and stability

Induction generators are not used in current turbines. Instead, most turbines use variable speed generators combined with either a partial or full-scale power converter between the turbine generator and the collector system, which generally have more desirable properties for grid interconnection and have low voltage ride through-capabilities.[35] Modern turbines use either doubly fed electric machines with partial-scale converters or squirrel-cage induction generators or synchronous generators (both permanently and electrically excited) with full-scale converters.[36] Black start is possible[37] and is being further developed for places (such as Iowa) which generate most of their electricity from wind.[38]

Transmission systems operators will supply a wind farm developer with a grid code to specify the requirements for interconnection to the transmission grid. This will include the power factor, the constancy of frequency, and the dynamic behaviour of the wind farm turbines during a system fault.[39][40]

Offshore wind power

 
The world's second full-scale floating wind turbine (and first to be installed without the use of heavy-lift vessels), WindFloat, operating at rated capacity (2  MW) approximately 5  km offshore of Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal
 
Offshore windfarms, including floating windfarms, provide a small but growing fraction of total windfarm power generation. Such power generation capacity must grow substantially to help meet the IEA's Net Zero by 2050 pathway to combat climate change.[41]
Main articles: Offshore wind power and List of offshore wind farms

Offshore wind power is wind farms in large bodies of water, usually the sea. These installations can use the more frequent and powerful winds that are available in these locations and have less visual impact on the landscape than land-based projects. However, the construction and maintenance costs are considerably higher.[42][43]

Siemens and Vestas are the leading turbine suppliers for offshore wind power. Ørsted, Vattenfall, and RWE are the leading offshore operators.[44][better source needed] As of November 2021, the Hornsea Wind Farm in the United Kingdom is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 1,218 MW.[45]

Collection and transmission network

In a wind farm, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage (usually 34.5 kV) power collection system and communications network. At a substation, this medium-voltage electric current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high voltage electric power transmission system. A transmission line is required to bring the generated power to (often remote) markets. For an offshore station, this may require a submarine cable. Construction of a new high voltage line may be too costly for the wind resource alone, but wind sites may take advantage of lines already installed for conventional fuel generation.[citation needed]

Wind power resources are not always located near to high population density. As transmission lines become longer, the losses associated with power transmission increase, as modes of losses at lower lengths are exacerbated and new modes of losses are no longer negligible as the length is increased; making it harder to transport large loads over large distances.[46]

When the transmission capacity does not meet the generation capacity, wind farms are forced to produce below their full potential or stop running altogether, in a process known as curtailment. While this leads to potential renewable generation left untapped, it prevents possible grid overload or risk to reliable service.[47]

One of the biggest current challenges to wind power grid integration in some countries is the necessity of developing new transmission lines to carry power from wind farms, usually in remote lowly populated areas due to availability of wind, to high load locations, usually on the coasts where population density is higher.[48] Any existing transmission lines in remote locations may not have been designed for the transport of large amounts of energy.[49] In particular geographic regions, peak wind speeds may not coincide with peak demand for electrical power, whether offshore or onshore. A possible future option may be to interconnect widely dispersed geographic areas with an HVDC super grid.[50]

Wind power capacity and production

Main articles: Wind power by country and Wind power industry

Growth trends

Log graph of global wind power cumulative capacity (Data:GWEC)[51]
 
Wind energy generation by region over time[52]

In 2020, wind supplied almost 1600 TWh of electricity, which was over 5% of worldwide electrical generation and about 2% of energy consumption.[12][13] With over 100 GW added during 2020, mostly in China, global installed wind power capacity reached more than 730 GW.[7][13] But to help meet the Paris Agreement's goals to limit climate change, analysts say it should expand much faster - by over 1% of electricity generation per year.[15] Expansion of wind power is being hindered by fossil fuel subsidies.[2][3][4]

The actual amount of electric power that wind can generate is calculated by multiplying the nameplate capacity by the capacity factor, which varies according to equipment and location. Estimates of the capacity factors for wind installations are in the range of 35% to 44%.[53]

 
Wind generation by country
Number of countries with wind capacities in the gigawatt-scale
10
20
30
40
2005
2010
2015
2019
Growing number of wind gigawatt-markets
  Countries above the 1-GW mark
  Countries above the 10-GW mark
  Countries above the 100-GW mark
  • 2019  
    2014                    

Capacity factor

Since wind speed is not constant, a wind farm's annual energy production is never as much as the sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by the total hours in a year. The ratio of actual productivity in a year to this theoretical maximum is called the capacity factor. Online data is available for some locations, and the capacity factor can be calculated from the yearly output.[54][55]

Unlike fueled generating plants, the capacity factor is affected by several parameters, including the variability of the wind at the site and the size of the generator relative to the turbine's swept area. A small generator would be cheaper and achieve a higher capacity factor but would produce less electric power (and thus less profit) in high winds. Conversely, a large generator would cost more but generate little extra power and, depending on the type, may stall out at low wind speed. Thus an optimum capacity factor of around 40–50% would be aimed for.[56][57][better source needed]

Penetration

 
Share of electricity production from wind, 2021
 
In 2021, wind and solar power reached a record 10% of global electricity.[58] Shown: 20 leading countries.[59]

Wind energy penetration is the fraction of energy produced by wind compared with the total generation. Wind power's share of worldwide electricity usage in 2021 was almost 7%,[60] up from 3.5% in 2015.[61][62]

There is no generally accepted maximum level of wind penetration. The limit for a particular grid will depend on the existing generating plants, pricing mechanisms, capacity for energy storage, demand management, and other factors. An interconnected electric power grid will already include reserve generating and transmission capacity to allow for equipment failures. This reserve capacity can also serve to compensate for the varying power generation produced by wind stations. Studies have indicated that 20% of the total annual electrical energy consumption may be incorporated with minimal difficulty.[63] These studies have been for locations with geographically dispersed wind farms, some degree of dispatchable energy or hydropower with storage capacity, demand management, and interconnected to a large grid area enabling the export of electric power when needed. Beyond the 20% level, there are few technical limits, but the economic implications become more significant.[citation needed] Electrical utilities continue to study the effects of large-scale penetration of wind generation on system stability.[64]

A wind energy penetration figure can be specified for different duration of time but is often quoted annually. To obtain 100% from wind annually requires substantial long-term storage or substantial interconnection to other systems that may already have substantial storage. On a monthly, weekly, daily, or hourly basis—or less—wind might supply as much as or more than 100% of current use, with the rest stored, exported or curtailed. The seasonal industry might then take advantage of high wind and low usage times such as at night when wind output can exceed normal demand. Such industry might include the production of silicon, aluminum,[65] steel, or natural gas, and hydrogen, and using future long-term storage to facilitate 100% energy from variable renewable energy.[66][67] Homes can also be programmed to accept extra electric power on demand, for example by remotely turning up water heater thermostats.[68]

Variability

Main article: Variable renewable energy
Further information: Grid balancing
 
Wind turbines are typically installed in windy locations. In the image, wind power generators in Spain, near an Osborne bull.
 
Roscoe Wind Farm: an onshore wind farm in West Texas near Roscoe

Wind power is variable, and during low wind periods, it may need to be replaced by other power sources. Transmission networks presently cope with outages of other generation plants and daily changes in electrical demand, but the variability of intermittent power sources such as wind power is more frequent than those of conventional power generation plants which, when scheduled to be operating, may be able to deliver their nameplate capacity around 95% of the time.

Electric power generated from wind power can be highly variable at several different timescales: hourly, daily, or seasonally. Annual variation also exists but is not as significant.[citation needed] Because instantaneous electrical generation and consumption must remain in balance to maintain grid stability, this variability can present substantial challenges to incorporating large amounts of wind power into a grid system. Intermittency and the non-dispatchable nature of wind energy production can raise costs for regulation, incremental operating reserve, and (at high penetration levels) could require an increase in the already existing energy demand management, load shedding, storage solutions, or system interconnection with HVDC cables.

Fluctuations in load and allowance for the failure of large fossil-fuel generating units require operating reserve capacity, which can be increased to compensate for the variability of wind generation.

Utility-scale batteries are often used to balance hourly and shorter timescale variation,[69][70] but car batteries may gain ground from the mid-2020s.[71] Wind power advocates argue that periods of low wind can be dealt with by simply restarting existing power stations that have been held in readiness, or interlinking with HVDC.[72]

The combination of diversifying variable renewables by type and location, forecasting their variation, and integrating them with dispatchable renewables, flexible fueled generators, and demand response can create a power system that has the potential to meet power supply needs reliably. Integrating ever-higher levels of renewables is being successfully demonstrated in the real world:

In 2009, eight American and three European authorities, writing in the leading electrical engineers' professional journal, didn't find "a credible and firm technical limit to the amount of wind energy that can be accommodated by electric power grids". In fact, not one of more than 200 international studies, nor official studies for the eastern and western U.S. regions, nor the International Energy Agency, has found major costs or technical barriers to reliably integrating up to 30% variable renewable supplies into the grid, and in some studies much more.

— [73]
 
Seasonal cycle of capacity factors for wind and photovoltaics in Europe under idealized assumptions. The figure illustrates the balancing effects of wind and solar energy at the seasonal scale (Kaspar et al., 2019).[74]

Solar power tends to be complementary to wind.[75][76] On daily to weekly timescales, high-pressure areas tend to bring clear skies and low surface winds, whereas low-pressure areas tend to be windier and cloudier. On seasonal timescales, solar energy peaks in summer, whereas in many areas wind energy is lower in summer and higher in winter.[A][77] Thus the seasonal variation of wind and solar power tend to cancel each other somewhat.[74] Wind hybrid power systems are becoming more popular.[78]

Predictability

Main article: Wind power forecasting

For any particular generator, there is an 80% chance that wind output will change less than 10% in an hour and a 40% chance that it will change 10% or more in 5 hours.[79]

In summer 2021, wind power in the United Kingdom fell due to the lowest winds in seventy years,[80] In the future, smoothing peaks by producing green hydrogen may help when wind has a larger share of generation.[81]

While the output from a single turbine can vary greatly and rapidly as local wind speeds vary, as more turbines are connected over larger and larger areas the average power output becomes less variable and more predictable.[35][82] Weather forecasting permits the electric-power network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur.[83]

It is thought that the most reliable low-carbon electricity systems will include a large share of wind power.[84]

Energy storage

Main article: Grid energy storage
See also: List of energy storage projects

Typically, conventional hydroelectricity complements wind power very well. When the wind is blowing strongly, nearby hydroelectric stations can temporarily hold back their water. When the wind drops they can, provided they have the generation capacity, rapidly increase production to compensate. This gives a very even overall power supply and virtually no loss of energy and uses no more water.

Alternatively, where a suitable head of water is not available, pumped-storage hydroelectricity or other forms of grid energy storage such as compressed air energy storage and thermal energy storage can store energy developed by high-wind periods and release it when needed. The type of storage needed depends on the wind penetration level – low penetration requires daily storage, and high penetration requires both short- and long-term storage – as long as a month or more.[citation needed] Stored energy increases the economic value of wind energy since it can be shifted to displace higher-cost generation during peak demand periods. The potential revenue from this arbitrage can offset the cost and losses of storage. Although pumped-storage power systems are only about 75% efficient and have high installation costs, their low running costs and ability to reduce the required electrical base-load can save both fuel and total electrical generation costs.[85][86]

Fuel savings and energy payback

According to the American Wind Energy Association, production of wind power in the United States in 2015 avoided consumption of 280 million cubic metres (73 billion US gallons) of water and reduced CO2 emissions by 132 million metric tons, while providing US$7.3 bn in public health savings.[87][88]

The energy needed to build a wind farm divided into the total output over its life, Energy Return on Energy Invested, of wind power varies, but averages about 20–25.[89][90] Thus, the energy payback time is typically around a year.

Economics

 
Onshore wind cost per kilowatt-hour between 1983 and 2017[91]

Onshore wind is an inexpensive source of electric power, cheaper than coal plants and new gas plants.[1] According to BusinessGreen, wind turbines reached grid parity (the point at which the cost of wind power matches traditional sources) in some areas of Europe in the mid-2000s, and in the US around the same time. Falling prices continue to drive the Levelized cost down and it has been suggested that it has reached general grid parity in Europe in 2010, and will reach the same point in the US around 2016 due to an expected reduction in capital costs of about 12%.[92][needs update] In 2021, the CEO of Siemens Gamesa warned that increased demand for low-cost wind turbines combined with high input costs and high costs of steel result in increased pressure on the manufacturers and decreasing profit margins.[93]

Northern Eurasia, Canada, some parts of the United States, and Patagonia in Argentina are the best areas for onshore wind: whereas in other parts of the world solar power, or a combination of wind and solar, tend to be cheaper.[94]: 8 

Electric power cost and trends

 
A turbine blade convoy passing through Edenfield in the U.K. (2008). Even longer 2-piece blades are now manufactured, and then assembled on-site to reduce difficulties in transportation.
See also: Cost of electricity by source

Wind power is capital intensive but has no fuel costs.[95] The price of wind power is therefore much more stable than the volatile prices of fossil fuel sources.[96] However, the estimated average cost per unit of electric power must incorporate the cost of construction of the turbine and transmission facilities, borrowed funds, return to investors (including the cost of risk), estimated annual production, and other components, averaged over the projected useful life of the equipment, which may be more than 20 years. Energy cost estimates are highly dependent on these assumptions so published cost figures can differ substantially.

The presence of wind energy, even when subsidized, can reduce costs for consumers (€5 billion/yr in Germany) by reducing the marginal price, by minimizing the use of expensive peaking power plants.[97]

The cost has decreased as wind turbine technology has improved. There are now longer and lighter wind turbine blades, improvements in turbine performance, and increased power generation efficiency. Also, wind project capital expenditure costs and maintenance costs have continued to decline.[98]

In 2021, a Lazard study of unsubsidized electricity said that wind power levelized cost of electricity continues to fall but more slowly than before. The study estimated new wind-generated electricity cost from $26 to $50/MWh, compared to new gas power from $45 to $74/MWh. The median cost of fully deprecated existing coal power was $42/MWh, nuclear $29/MWh and gas $24/MWh. The study estimated offshore wind at around $83/MWh. Compound annual growth rate was 4% per year from 2016 to 2021, compared to 10% per year from 2009 to 2021.[1]

Incentives and community benefits

Turbine prices have fallen significantly in recent years due to tougher competitive conditions such as the increased use of energy auctions, and the elimination of subsidies in many markets.[99] As of 2021, subsidies are still often given to offshore wind. But they are generally no longer necessary for onshore wind in countries with even a very low carbon price such as China, provided there are no competing fossil fuel subsidies.[100]

Secondary market forces provide incentives for businesses to use wind-generated power, even if there is a premium price for the electricity. For example, socially responsible manufacturers pay utility companies a premium that goes to subsidize and build new wind power infrastructure. Companies use wind-generated power, and in return, they can claim that they are undertaking strong "green" efforts.[101] Wind projects provide local taxes, or payments in place of taxes and strengthen the economy of rural communities by providing income to farmers with wind turbines on their land.[102][103]

The wind energy sector can also produce jobs during the construction and operating phase.[104] Jobs include the manufacturing of wind turbines and the construction process, which includes transporting, installing, and then maintaining the turbines. An estimated 1.25 million people were employed in wind power in 2020.[105]

Small-scale wind power

Main article: Small wind turbine
Further information: Microgeneration
 
A small Quietrevolution QR5 Gorlov type vertical axis wind turbine on the roof of Colston Hall in Bristol, England. Measuring 3 m in diameter and 5 m high, it has a nameplate rating of 6.5 kW.

Small-scale wind power is the name given to wind generation systems with the capacity to produce up to 50 kW of electrical power.[106] Isolated communities, that may otherwise rely on diesel generators, may use wind turbines as an alternative. Individuals may purchase these systems to reduce or eliminate their dependence on grid electric power for economic reasons, or to reduce their carbon footprint. Wind turbines have been used for household electric power generation in conjunction with battery storage over many decades in remote areas.[107]

Examples of small-scale wind power projects in an urban setting can be found in New York City, where, since 2009, several building projects have capped their roofs with Gorlov-type helical wind turbines. Although the energy they generate is small compared to the buildings' overall consumption, they help to reinforce the building's 'green' credentials in ways that "showing people your high-tech boiler" cannot, with some of the projects also receiving the direct support of the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority.[108]

Grid-connected domestic wind turbines may use grid energy storage, thus replacing purchased electric power with locally produced power when available. The surplus power produced by domestic microgenerators can, in some jurisdictions, be fed into the network and sold to the utility company, producing a retail credit for the microgenerators' owners to offset their energy costs.[109]

Off-grid system users can either adapt to intermittent power or use batteries, photovoltaic, or diesel systems to supplement the wind turbine.[110] Equipment such as parking meters, traffic warning signs, street lighting, or wireless Internet gateways may be powered by a small wind turbine, possibly combined with a photovoltaic system, that charges a small battery replacing the need for a connection to the power grid.[111]

Distributed generation from renewable resources is increasing as a consequence of the increased awareness of climate change. The electronic interfaces required to connect renewable generation units with the utility system can include additional functions, such as active filtering to enhance the power quality.[112]

Airborne wind turbines, such as kites, can be used in places at risk of hurricanes, as they can be taken down in advance.[113]

Impact on environment and landscape

Main article: Environmental impact of wind power
 
Livestock grazing near a wind turbine.[114]

The environmental impact of electricity generation from wind power is minor when compared to that of fossil fuel power.[115] Wind turbines have some of the lowest life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources: far less greenhouse gas is emitted than for the average unit of electricity, so wind power helps limit climate change.[116] Wind power consumes no fuel, and emits no local air pollution, unlike fossil fuel power sources.

Onshore wind farms can have a significant visual impact.[117] Due to a very low surface power density and spacing requirements, wind farms typically need to be spread over more land than other power stations.[5][118] Their network of turbines, access roads, transmission lines, and substations can result in "energy sprawl";[6] although land between the turbines and roads can still be used for agriculture.[119][120] They also need to be built away from urban areas,[121] which can lead to "industrialization of the countryside".[122] Some wind farms are opposed for potentially spoiling protected scenic areas, archaeological landscapes and heritage sites.[123][124][125] A report by the Mountaineering Council of Scotland concluded that wind farms harmed tourism in areas known for natural landscapes and panoramic views.[126]

Habitat loss and fragmentation are the greatest potential impacts on wildlife of onshore wind farms,[6] but the worldwide ecological impact is minimal.[115] Thousands of birds and bats, including rare species, have been killed by wind turbine blades,[127] though wind turbines are responsible for far fewer bird deaths than fossil-fueled power stations.[128] This can be mitigated with proper wildlife monitoring.[129]

Many wind turbine blades are made of fiberglass, and have a lifetime of 20 years.[130] Blades are hollow: some blades are crushed to reduce their volume and then landfilled.[131] Blade end-of-life is complicated,[132] and blades manufactured in the 2020s are more likely to be designed to be completely recyclable.[133]

Wind turbines also generate noise. At a distance of 300 metres (980 ft), this may be around 45 dB, which is slightly louder than a refrigerator. At 1.5 km (1 mi), they become inaudible.[134][135] There are anecdotal reports of negative health effects on people who live very close to wind turbines.[136] Peer-reviewed research has generally not supported these claims.[137][138][139]

Politics

Central government

 
Wind turbine floating off France

Although wind turbines with fixed bases are a mature technology and new installations are generally no longer subsidized,[140][141] floating wind turbines are a relatively new technology so some governments subsidize them, for example to use deeper waters.[142]

Fossil fuel subsidies by some governments are slowing the growth of renewables.[143]

Permitting of wind farms can take years and some governments are trying to speed up - the wind industry says this will help limit climate change and increase energy security[144] - sometimes groups such as fishers resist this[145] but governments say that rules protecting biodiversity will still be followed.[146]

Public opinion

Surveys of public attitudes across Europe and in many other countries show strong public support for wind power.[147][148][149] In 2008, surveys found about 80% of EU citizens supported wind power.[150]

Bakker et al. (2012) found in their study that residents who did not want turbines built near them suffered significantly more stress than those who "benefited economically from wind turbines".[151]

Although wind power is a popular form of energy generation, onshore or near offshore wind farms are sometimes opposed for their impact on the landscape (especially scenic areas, heritage areas and archaeological landscapes), as well as noise, and impact on tourism.[152][153]

In a 2007 survey of wind power in Canada, 89% of respondents said that using renewable energy sources like wind or solar power was positive for Canada because these sources were better for the environment. Only 4 percent considered using renewable sources as negative since they could be unreliable and expensive.[154] Another 2007 survey concluded that wind power was the alternative energy source most likely to gain public support for future development in Canada, with only 16% opposed to this type of energy. By contrast, 3 out of 4 Canadians opposed nuclear power developments.[155]

In other cases, there is direct community ownership of wind farms. The hundreds of thousands of people who have become involved in Germany's small and medium-sized wind farms demonstrate such support there.[156]

A 2010 Harris Poll found strong support for wind power in Germany, other European countries, and the United States.[147][148][157]

Public support in the United States has decreased from 75% in 2020 to 62% in 2021, with the Democrat Party supporting the use of wind energy twice as much as the Republican Party.[158] President Biden has signed an executive order to begin building large scale wind farms.[159]

In China, Shen et al. (2019) found that Chinese city-dwellers may be resistant to building wind turbines in urban areas, with a surprisingly high proportion of people citing an unfounded fear of radiation as driving their concerns.[160] Also, the study finds that like their counterparts in OECD countries, urban Chinese respondents are sensitive to direct costs and wildlife externalities. Distributing relevant information about turbines to the public may alleviate resistance.

Community

See also: Community debate about wind farms
 
Wind turbines such as these, in Cumbria, England, have been opposed for a number of reasons, including aesthetics, by some sectors of the population.[161][162]

Many wind power companies work with local communities to reduce environmental and other concerns associated with particular wind farms.[163][164][165] In other cases there is direct community ownership of wind farm projects. Appropriate government consultation, planning and approval procedures also help to minimize environmental risks.[147][166][167] Some may still object to wind farms[168] but many say their concerns should be weighed against the need to address the threats posed by air pollution,[169][116] climate change[170] and the opinions of the broader community.[171]

In the US, wind power projects are reported to boost local tax bases, helping to pay for schools, roads, and hospitals, and to revitalize the economies of rural communities by providing steady income to farmers and other landowners.[102]

In the UK, both the National Trust and the Campaign to Protect Rural England have expressed concerns about the effects on the rural landscape caused by inappropriately sited wind turbines and wind farms.[172][173]

 
A panoramic view of the United Kingdom's Whitelee Wind Farm with Lochgoin Reservoir in the foreground.

Some wind farms have become tourist attractions. The Whitelee Wind Farm Visitor Centre has an exhibition room, a learning hub, a café with a viewing deck and also a shop. It is run by the Glasgow Science Centre.[174]

In Denmark, a loss-of-value scheme gives people the right to claim compensation for loss of value of their property if it is caused by proximity to a wind turbine. The loss must be at least 1% of the property's value.[175]

Despite this general support for the concept of wind power in the public at large, local opposition often exists and has delayed or aborted a number of projects.[176][177][178] As well as concerns about the landscape, there are concerns that some installations can produce excessive sound and vibration levels leading to a decrease in property values.[179] Potential broadcast-reception solutions include predictive interference modeling as a component of site selection.[180][181] A study of 50,000 home sales near wind turbines found no statistical evidence that prices were affected.[182]

While aesthetic issues are subjective and some find wind farms pleasant and optimistic, or symbols of energy independence and local prosperity, protest groups are often formed to attempt to block some wind power stations for various reasons.[168][183][184]

Some opposition to wind farms is dismissed as NIMBYism,[185] but research carried out in 2009 found that there is little evidence to support the belief that residents only object to wind farms because of a "Not in my Back Yard" attitude.[186]

Geopolitics

Wind cannot be cut off unlike oil and gas so can contribute to energy security.[187]

Turbine design

Main articles: Wind turbine and Wind turbine design
See also: Wind-turbine aerodynamics
 
Typical components of a wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly) being lifted into position

Wind turbines are devices that convert the wind's kinetic energy into electrical power. The result of over a millennium of windmill development and modern engineering, today's wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of horizontal axis and vertical axis types. The smallest turbines are used for applications such as battery charging for auxiliary power. Slightly larger turbines can be used for making small contributions to a domestic power supply while selling unused power back to the utility supplier via the electrical grid. Arrays of large turbines, known as wind farms, have become an increasingly important source of renewable energy and are used in many countries as part of a strategy to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels.

Wind turbine design is the process of defining the form and specifications of a wind turbine to extract energy from the wind.[188] A wind turbine installation consists of the necessary systems needed to capture the wind's energy, point the turbine into the wind, convert mechanical rotation into electrical power, and other systems to start, stop, and control the turbine.

In 1919, the German physicist Albert Betz showed that for a hypothetical ideal wind-energy extraction machine, the fundamental laws of conservation of mass and energy allowed no more than 16/27 (59%) of the kinetic energy of the wind to be captured. This Betz limit can be approached in modern turbine designs, which may reach 70 to 80% of the theoretical Betz limit.[189][190]

The aerodynamics of a wind turbine are not straightforward. The airflow at the blades is not the same as the airflow far away from the turbine. The very nature of how energy is extracted from the air also causes air to be deflected by the turbine. This affects the objects or other turbines downstream, which is known as "wake effect". Also, the aerodynamics of a wind turbine at the rotor surface exhibit phenomena that are rarely seen in other aerodynamic fields. The shape and dimensions of the blades of the wind turbine are determined by the aerodynamic performance required to efficiently extract energy from the wind, and by the strength required to resist the forces on the blade.[191]

In addition to the aerodynamic design of the blades, the design of a complete wind power system must also address the design of the installation's rotor hub, nacelle, tower structure, generator, controls, and foundation.[192]

History

Main article: History of wind power
 
Charles F. Brush's windmill of 1888, used for generating electric power.
See also: Renewable energy commercialization § Wind_power

Wind power has been used as long as humans have put sails into the wind. King Hammurabi's Codex (reign 1792 - 1750 BC) already mentioned windmills for generating mechanical energy.[193] Wind-powered machines used to grind grain and pump water, the windmill and wind pump, were developed in what is now Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan by the 9th century.[194][195] Wind power was widely available and not confined to the banks of fast-flowing streams, or later, requiring sources of fuel. Wind-powered pumps drained the polders of the Netherlands, and in arid regions such as the American mid-west or the Australian outback, wind pumps provided water for livestock and steam engines.

The first windmill used for the production of electric power was built in Scotland in July 1887 by Prof James Blyth of Anderson's College, Glasgow (the precursor of Strathclyde University).[196] Blyth's 10 metres (33 ft) high cloth-sailed wind turbine was installed in the garden of his holiday cottage at Marykirk in Kincardineshire, and was used to charge accumulators developed by the Frenchman Camille Alphonse Faure, to power the lighting in the cottage,[196] thus making it the first house in the world to have its electric power supplied by wind power.[197] Blyth offered the surplus electric power to the people of Marykirk for lighting the main street, however, they turned down the offer as they thought electric power was "the work of the devil."[196] Although he later built a wind turbine to supply emergency power to the local Lunatic Asylum, Infirmary, and Dispensary of Montrose, the invention never really caught on as the technology was not considered to be economically viable.[196]

Across the Atlantic, in Cleveland, Ohio, a larger and heavily engineered machine was designed and constructed in the winter of 1887–1888 by Charles F. Brush.[198] This was built by his engineering company at his home and operated from 1886 until 1900.[199] The Brush wind turbine had a rotor 17 metres (56 ft) in diameter and was mounted on an 18 metres (59 ft) tower. Although large by today's standards, the machine was only rated at 12 kW. The connected dynamo was used either to charge a bank of batteries or to operate up to 100 incandescent light bulbs, three arc lamps, and various motors in Brush's laboratory.[200]

With the development of electric power, wind power found new applications in lighting buildings remote from centrally generated power. Throughout the 20th century parallel paths developed small wind stations suitable for farms or residences. The 1973 oil crisis triggered the investigation in Denmark and the United States that led to larger utility-scale wind generators that could be connected to electric power grids for remote use of power. By 2008, the U.S. installed capacity had reached 25.4 gigawatts, and by 2012 the installed capacity was 60 gigawatts.[201] Today, wind-powered generators operate in every size range between tiny stations for battery charging at isolated residences, up to gigawatt-sized offshore wind farms that provide electric power to national electrical networks.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ California is an exception

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External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wind power.
  • Official website of Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC)
  • Wind from Project Regeneration
  • Official website of World Wind Energy Association (WWEA)
  • Dynamic Data Dashboard from the International Energy Agency
  • Current global map of wind power density

January 09, 2023
wind, power, wind, energy, redirects, here, academic, journal, wind, energy, journal, wind, energy, mostly, wind, turbines, generate, electricity, popular, sustainable, renewable, energy, source, that, much, smaller, impact, environment, than, burning, fossil,. wind energy redirects here For the academic journal see Wind Energy journal Wind power or wind energy is mostly the use of wind turbines to generate electricity Wind power is a popular sustainable renewable energy source that has a much smaller impact on the environment than burning fossil fuels Historically wind power has been used in sails windmills and windpumps but today it is mostly used to generate electricity Wind farms consist of many individual wind turbines which are connected to the electric power transmission network New onshore on land wind farms are cheaper than new coal or gas plants 1 but expansion of wind power is being hindered by fossil fuel subsidies 2 3 4 Onshore wind farms have a greater visual impact on the landscape than some other power stations 5 6 Small onshore wind farms can feed some energy into the grid or provide power to isolated off grid locations Offshore wind farms deliver more energy per installed capacity with less fluctuations and have less visual impact Although there is less offshore wind power at present and construction and maintenance costs are higher it is expanding 7 Offshore wind power currently has a share of about 10 of new installations 8 Wind farm in Xinjiang China Electricity production by source Wind power is variable renewable energy so power management techniques are used to match supply and demand such as wind hybrid power systems hydroelectric power or other dispatchable power sources excess capacity geographically distributed turbines exporting and importing power to neighboring areas or grid storage As the proportion of wind power in a region increases the grid may need to be upgraded 9 10 Weather forecasting allows the electric power network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur In 2021 wind supplied over 1800 TWh of electricity which was over 6 of world electricity 11 and about 2 of world energy 12 13 With about 100 GW added during 2021 mostly in China and the United States global installed wind power capacity exceeded 800 GW 7 13 14 To help meet the Paris Agreement goals to limit climate change analysts say it should expand much faster by over 1 of electricity generation per year 15 Regions in the higher northern and southern latitudes have the highest potential for wind power 16 In most regions wind power generation is higher in nighttime and in winter when PV output is low For this reason combinations of wind and solar power are suitable in many countries 17 Contents 1 Wind energy 2 Wind farms 2 1 Generator characteristics and stability 2 2 Offshore wind power 2 3 Collection and transmission network 3 Wind power capacity and production 3 1 Growth trends 3 2 Capacity factor 3 3 Penetration 3 4 Variability 3 5 Predictability 3 6 Energy storage 3 7 Fuel savings and energy payback 4 Economics 4 1 Electric power cost and trends 4 2 Incentives and community benefits 5 Small scale wind power 6 Impact on environment and landscape 7 Politics 7 1 Central government 7 2 Public opinion 7 3 Community 7 4 Geopolitics 8 Turbine design 9 History 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 External linksWind energy Global map of wind speed at 100 m above surface level 18 Distribution of wind speed red and energy blue for all of 2002 at the Lee Ranch facility in Colorado The histogram shows measured data while the curve is the Rayleigh model distribution for the same average wind speed Wind energy is the kinetic energy of air in motion also called wind Total wind energy flowing through an imaginary surface with area A during the time t is E 1 2 m v 2 1 2 A v t r v 2 1 2 A t r v 3 displaystyle E frac 1 2 mv 2 frac 1 2 Avt rho v 2 frac 1 2 At rho v 3 19 where r is the density of air v is the wind speed Avt is the volume of air passing through A which is considered perpendicular to the direction of the wind Avtr is therefore the mass m passing through A 1 2 rv2 is the kinetic energy of the moving air per unit volume Power is energy per unit time so the wind power incident on A e g equal to the rotor area of a wind turbine is P E t 1 2 A r v 3 displaystyle P frac E t frac 1 2 A rho v 3 19 Wind power in an open air stream is thus proportional to the third power of the wind speed the available power increases eightfold when the wind speed doubles Wind is the movement of air across the surface of the Earth driven by areas of high and low pressure 20 The global wind kinetic energy averaged approximately 1 50 MJ m2 over the period from 1979 to 2010 1 31 MJ m2 in the Northern Hemisphere with 1 70 MJ m2 in the Southern Hemisphere The atmosphere acts as a thermal engine absorbing heat at higher temperatures releasing heat at lower temperatures The process is responsible for the production of wind kinetic energy at a rate of 2 46 W m2 thus sustaining the circulation of the atmosphere against friction 21 Through wind resource assessment it is possible to estimate wind power potential globally by country or region or for a specific site The Global Wind Atlas provided by the Technical University of Denmark in partnership with the World Bank provides a global assessment of wind power potential 18 22 23 Unlike static wind resource atlases which average estimates of wind speed and power density across multiple years tools such as Renewables ninja provide time varying simulations of wind speed and power output from different wind turbine models at an hourly resolution 24 More detailed site specific assessments of wind resource potential can be obtained from specialist commercial providers and many of the larger wind developers have in house modeling capabilities The total amount of economically extractable power available from the wind is considerably more than present human power use from all sources 25 The strength of wind varies and an average value for a given location does not alone indicate the amount of energy a wind turbine could produce there To assess prospective wind power sites a probability distribution function is often fit to the observed wind speed data 26 Different locations will have different wind speed distributions The Weibull model closely mirrors the actual distribution of hourly ten minute wind speeds at many locations The Weibull factor is often close to 2 and therefore a Rayleigh distribution can be used as a less accurate but simpler model 27 Wind farmsMain articles Wind farm and List of onshore wind farms Large onshore wind farms Wind farm Capacity MW Country RefsGansu Wind Farm 7 965 China 28 Muppandal wind farm 1 500 India 29 Alta Oak Creek Mojave 1 320 United States 30 Jaisalmer Wind Park 1 064 India 31 A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines distributed over an extended area The land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes For example Gansu Wind Farm the largest wind farm in the world has several thousand turbines A wind farm may also be located offshore Almost all large wind turbines have the same design a horizontal axis wind turbine having an upwind rotor with 3 blades attached to a nacelle on top of a tall tubular tower In a wind farm individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage often 34 5 kV power collection system 32 and communications network In general a distance of 7D 7 times the rotor diameter of the wind turbine is set between each turbine in a fully developed wind farm 33 At a substation this medium voltage electric current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high voltage electric power transmission system 34 Generator characteristics and stability Induction generators are not used in current turbines Instead most turbines use variable speed generators combined with either a partial or full scale power converter between the turbine generator and the collector system which generally have more desirable properties for grid interconnection and have low voltage ride through capabilities 35 Modern turbines use either doubly fed electric machines with partial scale converters or squirrel cage induction generators or synchronous generators both permanently and electrically excited with full scale converters 36 Black start is possible 37 and is being further developed for places such as Iowa which generate most of their electricity from wind 38 Transmission systems operators will supply a wind farm developer with a grid code to specify the requirements for interconnection to the transmission grid This will include the power factor the constancy of frequency and the dynamic behaviour of the wind farm turbines during a system fault 39 40 Offshore wind power The world s second full scale floating wind turbine and first to be installed without the use of heavy lift vessels WindFloat operating at rated capacity 2 MW approximately 5 km offshore of Povoa de Varzim Portugal Offshore windfarms including floating windfarms provide a small but growing fraction of total windfarm power generation Such power generation capacity must grow substantially to help meet the IEA s Net Zero by 2050 pathway to combat climate change 41 Main articles Offshore wind power and List of offshore wind farms Offshore wind power is wind farms in large bodies of water usually the sea These installations can use the more frequent and powerful winds that are available in these locations and have less visual impact on the landscape than land based projects However the construction and maintenance costs are considerably higher 42 43 Siemens and Vestas are the leading turbine suppliers for offshore wind power Orsted Vattenfall and RWE are the leading offshore operators 44 better source needed As of November 2021 the Hornsea Wind Farm in the United Kingdom is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 1 218 MW 45 Collection and transmission network In a wind farm individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage usually 34 5 kV power collection system and communications network At a substation this medium voltage electric current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high voltage electric power transmission system A transmission line is required to bring the generated power to often remote markets For an offshore station this may require a submarine cable Construction of a new high voltage line may be too costly for the wind resource alone but wind sites may take advantage of lines already installed for conventional fuel generation citation needed Wind power resources are not always located near to high population density As transmission lines become longer the losses associated with power transmission increase as modes of losses at lower lengths are exacerbated and new modes of losses are no longer negligible as the length is increased making it harder to transport large loads over large distances 46 When the transmission capacity does not meet the generation capacity wind farms are forced to produce below their full potential or stop running altogether in a process known as curtailment While this leads to potential renewable generation left untapped it prevents possible grid overload or risk to reliable service 47 One of the biggest current challenges to wind power grid integration in some countries is the necessity of developing new transmission lines to carry power from wind farms usually in remote lowly populated areas due to availability of wind to high load locations usually on the coasts where population density is higher 48 Any existing transmission lines in remote locations may not have been designed for the transport of large amounts of energy 49 In particular geographic regions peak wind speeds may not coincide with peak demand for electrical power whether offshore or onshore A possible future option may be to interconnect widely dispersed geographic areas with an HVDC super grid 50 Wind power capacity and productionMain articles Wind power by country and Wind power industry Growth trends Log graph of global wind power cumulative capacity Data GWEC 51 Wind energy generation by region over time 52 In 2020 wind supplied almost 1600 TWh of electricity which was over 5 of worldwide electrical generation and about 2 of energy consumption 12 13 With over 100 GW added during 2020 mostly in China global installed wind power capacity reached more than 730 GW 7 13 But to help meet the Paris Agreement s goals to limit climate change analysts say it should expand much faster by over 1 of electricity generation per year 15 Expansion of wind power is being hindered by fossil fuel subsidies 2 3 4 The actual amount of electric power that wind can generate is calculated by multiplying the nameplate capacity by the capacity factor which varies according to equipment and location Estimates of the capacity factors for wind installations are in the range of 35 to 44 53 Wind generation by country Number of countries with wind capacities in the gigawatt scale 10 20 30 40 2005 2010 2015 2019Growing number of wind gigawatt markets Countries above the 1 GW mark 2018 2017 2016 2015 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2006 2005 2004 1999 1997 1995 1986 Countries above the 10 GW mark 2018 2016 2015 2013 2009 2008 2006 2002 Countries above the 100 GW mark 2019 2014 Capacity factor Since wind speed is not constant a wind farm s annual energy production is never as much as the sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by the total hours in a year The ratio of actual productivity in a year to this theoretical maximum is called the capacity factor Online data is available for some locations and the capacity factor can be calculated from the yearly output 54 55 Unlike fueled generating plants the capacity factor is affected by several parameters including the variability of the wind at the site and the size of the generator relative to the turbine s swept area A small generator would be cheaper and achieve a higher capacity factor but would produce less electric power and thus less profit in high winds Conversely a large generator would cost more but generate little extra power and depending on the type may stall out at low wind speed Thus an optimum capacity factor of around 40 50 would be aimed for 56 57 better source needed Penetration Share of electricity production from wind 2021 In 2021 wind and solar power reached a record 10 of global electricity 58 Shown 20 leading countries 59 Wind energy penetration is the fraction of energy produced by wind compared with the total generation Wind power s share of worldwide electricity usage in 2021 was almost 7 60 up from 3 5 in 2015 61 62 There is no generally accepted maximum level of wind penetration The limit for a particular grid will depend on the existing generating plants pricing mechanisms capacity for energy storage demand management and other factors An interconnected electric power grid will already include reserve generating and transmission capacity to allow for equipment failures This reserve capacity can also serve to compensate for the varying power generation produced by wind stations Studies have indicated that 20 of the total annual electrical energy consumption may be incorporated with minimal difficulty 63 These studies have been for locations with geographically dispersed wind farms some degree of dispatchable energy or hydropower with storage capacity demand management and interconnected to a large grid area enabling the export of electric power when needed Beyond the 20 level there are few technical limits but the economic implications become more significant citation needed Electrical utilities continue to study the effects of large scale penetration of wind generation on system stability 64 A wind energy penetration figure can be specified for different duration of time but is often quoted annually To obtain 100 from wind annually requires substantial long term storage or substantial interconnection to other systems that may already have substantial storage On a monthly weekly daily or hourly basis or less wind might supply as much as or more than 100 of current use with the rest stored exported or curtailed The seasonal industry might then take advantage of high wind and low usage times such as at night when wind output can exceed normal demand Such industry might include the production of silicon aluminum 65 steel or natural gas and hydrogen and using future long term storage to facilitate 100 energy from variable renewable energy 66 67 Homes can also be programmed to accept extra electric power on demand for example by remotely turning up water heater thermostats 68 Variability Main article Variable renewable energy Further information Grid balancing Wind turbines are typically installed in windy locations In the image wind power generators in Spain near an Osborne bull Roscoe Wind Farm an onshore wind farm in West Texas near Roscoe Wind power is variable and during low wind periods it may need to be replaced by other power sources Transmission networks presently cope with outages of other generation plants and daily changes in electrical demand but the variability of intermittent power sources such as wind power is more frequent than those of conventional power generation plants which when scheduled to be operating may be able to deliver their nameplate capacity around 95 of the time Electric power generated from wind power can be highly variable at several different timescales hourly daily or seasonally Annual variation also exists but is not as significant citation needed Because instantaneous electrical generation and consumption must remain in balance to maintain grid stability this variability can present substantial challenges to incorporating large amounts of wind power into a grid system Intermittency and the non dispatchable nature of wind energy production can raise costs for regulation incremental operating reserve and at high penetration levels could require an increase in the already existing energy demand management load shedding storage solutions or system interconnection with HVDC cables Fluctuations in load and allowance for the failure of large fossil fuel generating units require operating reserve capacity which can be increased to compensate for the variability of wind generation Utility scale batteries are often used to balance hourly and shorter timescale variation 69 70 but car batteries may gain ground from the mid 2020s 71 Wind power advocates argue that periods of low wind can be dealt with by simply restarting existing power stations that have been held in readiness or interlinking with HVDC 72 The combination of diversifying variable renewables by type and location forecasting their variation and integrating them with dispatchable renewables flexible fueled generators and demand response can create a power system that has the potential to meet power supply needs reliably Integrating ever higher levels of renewables is being successfully demonstrated in the real world In 2009 eight American and three European authorities writing in the leading electrical engineers professional journal didn t find a credible and firm technical limit to the amount of wind energy that can be accommodated by electric power grids In fact not one of more than 200 international studies nor official studies for the eastern and western U S regions nor the International Energy Agency has found major costs or technical barriers to reliably integrating up to 30 variable renewable supplies into the grid and in some studies much more 73 Seasonal cycle of capacity factors for wind and photovoltaics in Europe under idealized assumptions The figure illustrates the balancing effects of wind and solar energy at the seasonal scale Kaspar et al 2019 74 Solar power tends to be complementary to wind 75 76 On daily to weekly timescales high pressure areas tend to bring clear skies and low surface winds whereas low pressure areas tend to be windier and cloudier On seasonal timescales solar energy peaks in summer whereas in many areas wind energy is lower in summer and higher in winter A 77 Thus the seasonal variation of wind and solar power tend to cancel each other somewhat 74 Wind hybrid power systems are becoming more popular 78 Predictability Main article Wind power forecasting For any particular generator there is an 80 chance that wind output will change less than 10 in an hour and a 40 chance that it will change 10 or more in 5 hours 79 In summer 2021 wind power in the United Kingdom fell due to the lowest winds in seventy years 80 In the future smoothing peaks by producing green hydrogen may help when wind has a larger share of generation 81 While the output from a single turbine can vary greatly and rapidly as local wind speeds vary as more turbines are connected over larger and larger areas the average power output becomes less variable and more predictable 35 82 Weather forecasting permits the electric power network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur 83 It is thought that the most reliable low carbon electricity systems will include a large share of wind power 84 Energy storage Main article Grid energy storage See also List of energy storage projects Typically conventional hydroelectricity complements wind power very well When the wind is blowing strongly nearby hydroelectric stations can temporarily hold back their water When the wind drops they can provided they have the generation capacity rapidly increase production to compensate This gives a very even overall power supply and virtually no loss of energy and uses no more water Alternatively where a suitable head of water is not available pumped storage hydroelectricity or other forms of grid energy storage such as compressed air energy storage and thermal energy storage can store energy developed by high wind periods and release it when needed The type of storage needed depends on the wind penetration level low penetration requires daily storage and high penetration requires both short and long term storage as long as a month or more citation needed Stored energy increases the economic value of wind energy since it can be shifted to displace higher cost generation during peak demand periods The potential revenue from this arbitrage can offset the cost and losses of storage Although pumped storage power systems are only about 75 efficient and have high installation costs their low running costs and ability to reduce the required electrical base load can save both fuel and total electrical generation costs 85 86 Fuel savings and energy payback According to the American Wind Energy Association production of wind power in the United States in 2015 avoided consumption of 280 million cubic metres 73 billion US gallons of water and reduced CO2 emissions by 132 million metric tons while providing US 7 3 bn in public health savings 87 88 The energy needed to build a wind farm divided into the total output over its life Energy Return on Energy Invested of wind power varies but averages about 20 25 89 90 Thus the energy payback time is typically around a year Economics Onshore wind cost per kilowatt hour between 1983 and 2017 91 Onshore wind is an inexpensive source of electric power cheaper than coal plants and new gas plants 1 According to BusinessGreen wind turbines reached grid parity the point at which the cost of wind power matches traditional sources in some areas of Europe in the mid 2000s and in the US around the same time Falling prices continue to drive the Levelized cost down and it has been suggested that it has reached general grid parity in Europe in 2010 and will reach the same point in the US around 2016 due to an expected reduction in capital costs of about 12 92 needs update In 2021 the CEO of Siemens Gamesa warned that increased demand for low cost wind turbines combined with high input costs and high costs of steel result in increased pressure on the manufacturers and decreasing profit margins 93 Northern Eurasia Canada some parts of the United States and Patagonia in Argentina are the best areas for onshore wind whereas in other parts of the world solar power or a combination of wind and solar tend to be cheaper 94 8 Electric power cost and trends A turbine blade convoy passing through Edenfield in the U K 2008 Even longer 2 piece blades are now manufactured and then assembled on site to reduce difficulties in transportation See also Cost of electricity by source Wind power is capital intensive but has no fuel costs 95 The price of wind power is therefore much more stable than the volatile prices of fossil fuel sources 96 However the estimated average cost per unit of electric power must incorporate the cost of construction of the turbine and transmission facilities borrowed funds return to investors including the cost of risk estimated annual production and other components averaged over the projected useful life of the equipment which may be more than 20 years Energy cost estimates are highly dependent on these assumptions so published cost figures can differ substantially The presence of wind energy even when subsidized can reduce costs for consumers 5 billion yr in Germany by reducing the marginal price by minimizing the use of expensive peaking power plants 97 The cost has decreased as wind turbine technology has improved There are now longer and lighter wind turbine blades improvements in turbine performance and increased power generation efficiency Also wind project capital expenditure costs and maintenance costs have continued to decline 98 In 2021 a Lazard study of unsubsidized electricity said that wind power levelized cost of electricity continues to fall but more slowly than before The study estimated new wind generated electricity cost from 26 to 50 MWh compared to new gas power from 45 to 74 MWh The median cost of fully deprecated existing coal power was 42 MWh nuclear 29 MWh and gas 24 MWh The study estimated offshore wind at around 83 MWh Compound annual growth rate was 4 per year from 2016 to 2021 compared to 10 per year from 2009 to 2021 1 Incentives and community benefits Turbine prices have fallen significantly in recent years due to tougher competitive conditions such as the increased use of energy auctions and the elimination of subsidies in many markets 99 As of 2021 subsidies are still often given to offshore wind But they are generally no longer necessary for onshore wind in countries with even a very low carbon price such as China provided there are no competing fossil fuel subsidies 100 Secondary market forces provide incentives for businesses to use wind generated power even if there is a premium price for the electricity For example socially responsible manufacturers pay utility companies a premium that goes to subsidize and build new wind power infrastructure Companies use wind generated power and in return they can claim that they are undertaking strong green efforts 101 Wind projects provide local taxes or payments in place of taxes and strengthen the economy of rural communities by providing income to farmers with wind turbines on their land 102 103 The wind energy sector can also produce jobs during the construction and operating phase 104 Jobs include the manufacturing of wind turbines and the construction process which includes transporting installing and then maintaining the turbines An estimated 1 25 million people were employed in wind power in 2020 105 Small scale wind powerMain article Small wind turbine Further information Microgeneration A small Quietrevolution QR5 Gorlov type vertical axis wind turbine on the roof of Colston Hall in Bristol England Measuring 3 m in diameter and 5 m high it has a nameplate rating of 6 5 kW Small scale wind power is the name given to wind generation systems with the capacity to produce up to 50 kW of electrical power 106 Isolated communities that may otherwise rely on diesel generators may use wind turbines as an alternative Individuals may purchase these systems to reduce or eliminate their dependence on grid electric power for economic reasons or to reduce their carbon footprint Wind turbines have been used for household electric power generation in conjunction with battery storage over many decades in remote areas 107 Examples of small scale wind power projects in an urban setting can be found in New York City where since 2009 several building projects have capped their roofs with Gorlov type helical wind turbines Although the energy they generate is small compared to the buildings overall consumption they help to reinforce the building s green credentials in ways that showing people your high tech boiler cannot with some of the projects also receiving the direct support of the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority 108 Grid connected domestic wind turbines may use grid energy storage thus replacing purchased electric power with locally produced power when available The surplus power produced by domestic microgenerators can in some jurisdictions be fed into the network and sold to the utility company producing a retail credit for the microgenerators owners to offset their energy costs 109 Off grid system users can either adapt to intermittent power or use batteries photovoltaic or diesel systems to supplement the wind turbine 110 Equipment such as parking meters traffic warning signs street lighting or wireless Internet gateways may be powered by a small wind turbine possibly combined with a photovoltaic system that charges a small battery replacing the need for a connection to the power grid 111 Distributed generation from renewable resources is increasing as a consequence of the increased awareness of climate change The electronic interfaces required to connect renewable generation units with the utility system can include additional functions such as active filtering to enhance the power quality 112 Airborne wind turbines such as kites can be used in places at risk of hurricanes as they can be taken down in advance 113 Impact on environment and landscapeMain article Environmental impact of wind power Livestock grazing near a wind turbine 114 The environmental impact of electricity generation from wind power is minor when compared to that of fossil fuel power 115 Wind turbines have some of the lowest life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources far less greenhouse gas is emitted than for the average unit of electricity so wind power helps limit climate change 116 Wind power consumes no fuel and emits no local air pollution unlike fossil fuel power sources Onshore wind farms can have a significant visual impact 117 Due to a very low surface power density and spacing requirements wind farms typically need to be spread over more land than other power stations 5 118 Their network of turbines access roads transmission lines and substations can result in energy sprawl 6 although land between the turbines and roads can still be used for agriculture 119 120 They also need to be built away from urban areas 121 which can lead to industrialization of the countryside 122 Some wind farms are opposed for potentially spoiling protected scenic areas archaeological landscapes and heritage sites 123 124 125 A report by the Mountaineering Council of Scotland concluded that wind farms harmed tourism in areas known for natural landscapes and panoramic views 126 Habitat loss and fragmentation are the greatest potential impacts on wildlife of onshore wind farms 6 but the worldwide ecological impact is minimal 115 Thousands of birds and bats including rare species have been killed by wind turbine blades 127 though wind turbines are responsible for far fewer bird deaths than fossil fueled power stations 128 This can be mitigated with proper wildlife monitoring 129 Many wind turbine blades are made of fiberglass and have a lifetime of 20 years 130 Blades are hollow some blades are crushed to reduce their volume and then landfilled 131 Blade end of life is complicated 132 and blades manufactured in the 2020s are more likely to be designed to be completely recyclable 133 Wind turbines also generate noise At a distance of 300 metres 980 ft this may be around 45 dB which is slightly louder than a refrigerator At 1 5 km 1 mi they become inaudible 134 135 There are anecdotal reports of negative health effects on people who live very close to wind turbines 136 Peer reviewed research has generally not supported these claims 137 138 139 PoliticsCentral government Wind turbine floating off France Although wind turbines with fixed bases are a mature technology and new installations are generally no longer subsidized 140 141 floating wind turbines are a relatively new technology so some governments subsidize them for example to use deeper waters 142 Fossil fuel subsidies by some governments are slowing the growth of renewables 143 Permitting of wind farms can take years and some governments are trying to speed up the wind industry says this will help limit climate change and increase energy security 144 sometimes groups such as fishers resist this 145 but governments say that rules protecting biodiversity will still be followed 146 Public opinion Surveys of public attitudes across Europe and in many other countries show strong public support for wind power 147 148 149 In 2008 surveys found about 80 of EU citizens supported wind power 150 Bakker et al 2012 found in their study that residents who did not want turbines built near them suffered significantly more stress than those who benefited economically from wind turbines 151 Although wind power is a popular form of energy generation onshore or near offshore wind farms are sometimes opposed for their impact on the landscape especially scenic areas heritage areas and archaeological landscapes as well as noise and impact on tourism 152 153 In a 2007 survey of wind power in Canada 89 of respondents said that using renewable energy sources like wind or solar power was positive for Canada because these sources were better for the environment Only 4 percent considered using renewable sources as negative since they could be unreliable and expensive 154 Another 2007 survey concluded that wind power was the alternative energy source most likely to gain public support for future development in Canada with only 16 opposed to this type of energy By contrast 3 out of 4 Canadians opposed nuclear power developments 155 In other cases there is direct community ownership of wind farms The hundreds of thousands of people who have become involved in Germany s small and medium sized wind farms demonstrate such support there 156 A 2010 Harris Poll found strong support for wind power in Germany other European countries and the United States 147 148 157 Public support in the United States has decreased from 75 in 2020 to 62 in 2021 with the Democrat Party supporting the use of wind energy twice as much as the Republican Party 158 President Biden has signed an executive order to begin building large scale wind farms 159 In China Shen et al 2019 found that Chinese city dwellers may be resistant to building wind turbines in urban areas with a surprisingly high proportion of people citing an unfounded fear of radiation as driving their concerns 160 Also the study finds that like their counterparts in OECD countries urban Chinese respondents are sensitive to direct costs and wildlife externalities Distributing relevant information about turbines to the public may alleviate resistance Community See also Community debate about wind farms Wind turbines such as these in Cumbria England have been opposed for a number of reasons including aesthetics by some sectors of the population 161 162 Many wind power companies work with local communities to reduce environmental and other concerns associated with particular wind farms 163 164 165 In other cases there is direct community ownership of wind farm projects Appropriate government consultation planning and approval procedures also help to minimize environmental risks 147 166 167 Some may still object to wind farms 168 but many say their concerns should be weighed against the need to address the threats posed by air pollution 169 116 climate change 170 and the opinions of the broader community 171 In the US wind power projects are reported to boost local tax bases helping to pay for schools roads and hospitals and to revitalize the economies of rural communities by providing steady income to farmers and other landowners 102 In the UK both the National Trust and the Campaign to Protect Rural England have expressed concerns about the effects on the rural landscape caused by inappropriately sited wind turbines and wind farms 172 173 A panoramic view of the United Kingdom s Whitelee Wind Farm with Lochgoin Reservoir in the foreground Some wind farms have become tourist attractions The Whitelee Wind Farm Visitor Centre has an exhibition room a learning hub a cafe with a viewing deck and also a shop It is run by the Glasgow Science Centre 174 In Denmark a loss of value scheme gives people the right to claim compensation for loss of value of their property if it is caused by proximity to a wind turbine The loss must be at least 1 of the property s value 175 Despite this general support for the concept of wind power in the public at large local opposition often exists and has delayed or aborted a number of projects 176 177 178 As well as concerns about the landscape there are concerns that some installations can produce excessive sound and vibration levels leading to a decrease in property values 179 Potential broadcast reception solutions include predictive interference modeling as a component of site selection 180 181 A study of 50 000 home sales near wind turbines found no statistical evidence that prices were affected 182 While aesthetic issues are subjective and some find wind farms pleasant and optimistic or symbols of energy independence and local prosperity protest groups are often formed to attempt to block some wind power stations for various reasons 168 183 184 Some opposition to wind farms is dismissed as NIMBYism 185 but research carried out in 2009 found that there is little evidence to support the belief that residents only object to wind farms because of a Not in my Back Yard attitude 186 Geopolitics Wind cannot be cut off unlike oil and gas so can contribute to energy security 187 Turbine designMain articles Wind turbine and Wind turbine design See also Wind turbine aerodynamics Typical wind turbine components FoundationConnection to the electric gridTowerAccess ladderWind orientation control Yaw control NacelleGeneratorAnemometerElectric or Mechanical BrakeGearboxRotor bladeBlade pitch controlRotor hub Typical components of a wind turbine gearbox rotor shaft and brake assembly being lifted into position Wind turbines are devices that convert the wind s kinetic energy into electrical power The result of over a millennium of windmill development and modern engineering today s wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of horizontal axis and vertical axis types The smallest turbines are used for applications such as battery charging for auxiliary power Slightly larger turbines can be used for making small contributions to a domestic power supply while selling unused power back to the utility supplier via the electrical grid Arrays of large turbines known as wind farms have become an increasingly important source of renewable energy and are used in many countries as part of a strategy to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels Wind turbine design is the process of defining the form and specifications of a wind turbine to extract energy from the wind 188 A wind turbine installation consists of the necessary systems needed to capture the wind s energy point the turbine into the wind convert mechanical rotation into electrical power and other systems to start stop and control the turbine In 1919 the German physicist Albert Betz showed that for a hypothetical ideal wind energy extraction machine the fundamental laws of conservation of mass and energy allowed no more than 16 27 59 of the kinetic energy of the wind to be captured This Betz limit can be approached in modern turbine designs which may reach 70 to 80 of the theoretical Betz limit 189 190 The aerodynamics of a wind turbine are not straightforward The airflow at the blades is not the same as the airflow far away from the turbine The very nature of how energy is extracted from the air also causes air to be deflected by the turbine This affects the objects or other turbines downstream which is known as wake effect Also the aerodynamics of a wind turbine at the rotor surface exhibit phenomena that are rarely seen in other aerodynamic fields The shape and dimensions of the blades of the wind turbine are determined by the aerodynamic performance required to efficiently extract energy from the wind and by the strength required to resist the forces on the blade 191 In addition to the aerodynamic design of the blades the design of a complete wind power system must also address the design of the installation s rotor hub nacelle tower structure generator controls and foundation 192 HistoryMain article History of wind power Charles F Brush s windmill of 1888 used for generating electric power See also Renewable energy commercialization Wind power Wind power has been used as long as humans have put sails into the wind King Hammurabi s Codex reign 1792 1750 BC already mentioned windmills for generating mechanical energy 193 Wind powered machines used to grind grain and pump water the windmill and wind pump were developed in what is now Iran Afghanistan and Pakistan by the 9th century 194 195 Wind power was widely available and not confined to the banks of fast flowing streams or later requiring sources of fuel Wind powered pumps drained the polders of the Netherlands and in arid regions such as the American mid west or the Australian outback wind pumps provided water for livestock and steam engines The first windmill used for the production of electric power was built in Scotland in July 1887 by Prof James Blyth of Anderson s College Glasgow the precursor of Strathclyde University 196 Blyth s 10 metres 33 ft high cloth sailed wind turbine was installed in the garden of his holiday cottage at Marykirk in Kincardineshire and was used to charge accumulators developed by the Frenchman Camille Alphonse Faure to power the lighting in the cottage 196 thus making it the first house in the world to have its electric power supplied by wind power 197 Blyth offered the surplus electric power to the people of Marykirk for lighting the main street however they turned down the offer as they thought electric power was the work of the devil 196 Although he later built a wind turbine to supply emergency power to the local Lunatic Asylum Infirmary and Dispensary of Montrose the invention never really caught on as the technology was not considered to be economically viable 196 Across the Atlantic in Cleveland Ohio a larger and heavily engineered machine was designed and constructed in the winter of 1887 1888 by Charles F Brush 198 This was built by his engineering company at his home and operated from 1886 until 1900 199 The Brush wind turbine had a rotor 17 metres 56 ft in diameter and was mounted on an 18 metres 59 ft tower Although large by today s standards the machine was only rated at 12 kW The connected dynamo was used either to charge a bank of batteries or to operate up to 100 incandescent light bulbs three arc lamps and various motors in Brush s laboratory 200 With the development of electric power wind power found new applications in lighting buildings remote from centrally generated power Throughout the 20th century parallel paths developed small wind stations suitable for farms or residences The 1973 oil crisis triggered the investigation in Denmark and the United States that led to larger utility scale wind generators that could be connected to electric power grids for remote use of power By 2008 the U S installed capacity had reached 25 4 gigawatts and by 2012 the installed capacity was 60 gigawatts 201 Today wind powered generators operate in every size range between tiny stations for battery charging at isolated residences up to gigawatt sized offshore wind farms that provide electric power to national electrical networks See also Wind power portal Renewable energy portal Energy portal 100 renewable energy Airborne wind turbine Global Wind Day Hydrogen economy List of countries by electricity production from renewable sources List of wind turbine manufacturers Lists of offshore wind 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