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Greeks

January 02, 2023

For other uses, see Greeks (disambiguation).
"Grecian" redirects here. For other uses, see Grecian (disambiguation).

The Greeks or Hellenes (/ˈhɛliːnz/; Greek: Έλληνες, Éllines [ˈelines]) are an ethnic group and nation indigenous to the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea, namely Greece and Cyprus, but also in the broader Macedonian region, southern Albania, parts of Italy, Anatolia, Pontus and parts of Egypt, as well as, to a lesser extent, other countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. They also form a significant diaspora (omogenia), with Greek communities established around the world.[45]

Greeks
Hellenes
Έλληνες
Total population
c. 14–17 million[1][2]
Regions with significant populations
 Greece  9,903,268[3][4]
(2011 census)
 Cyprus 659,115[5][6][7]
(2011 census)
 United States1,279,000–3,000,000a (2016 estimate)[8][9]
 Germany443,000b (2016 estimate)[10]
 Australia424,750 (2021 census)[11]
 United Kingdom345,000–400,000 (2011 estimate)[12]
 Canada271,405c (2016 census)[13]
 Albania200,000 (c. 1990 estimate)[14]
 New Zealandest. 2,478 to 10,000, possibly up to 50,000 [15]
 South Africa138,000 (2011 estimate)[16]
 Italy110,000–200,000d (2013 estimate)[17][18][19]
 Egypt110,000[20][21]
 Chile100,000[22]
 Ukraine91,000 (2011 estimate)[23]
 Russia85,640 (2010 census)[24]
 Brazil50,000e[25]
 France35,000 (2013 estimate)[26]
 Belgium35,000 (2011 estimate)[27]
 Argentina30,000–50,000 (2013 estimate)[28]
 Netherlands28,856 (2021)[29][30]
 Bulgaria1,356 (2011 census)[31] up to 28,500 (estimate)[32]
 Uruguay25,000–28,000 (2011 census)[33]
 Sweden24,736 (2012 census)[34]
 Georgia15,000 (2011 estimate)[35]
 Czech Republic12,000[36]
 Kazakhstan8,846 (2011 estimate)[37]
 Switzerland11,000 (2015 estimate)[38]
 Romania10,000 (2013 estimate)[39]
 Uzbekistan9,500 (2000 estimate)[40]
 Austria5,261[41]
 Hungary4,454 (2016 census)[42]
 Turkey4,000–49,143f[43][44]
Languages
Greek
Religion
Primarily Greek Orthodox Church
a Includes those of ancestral descent.
b Includes people with "cultural roots".
c Those whose stated ethnic origins included "Greek" among others. The number of those whose stated ethnic origin is solely "Greek" is 145,250. An additional 3,395 Cypriots of undeclared ethnicity live in Canada.
dApprox. 60,000 Griko people and 30,000 post WW2 migrants.
e "Including descendants".
f Including Greek Muslims.

Greek colonies and communities have been historically established on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea, but the Greek people themselves have always been centered on the Aegean and Ionian seas, where the Greek language has been spoken since the Bronze Age.[46][47] Until the early 20th century, Greeks were distributed between the Greek peninsula, the western coast of Asia Minor, the Black Sea coast, Cappadocia in central Anatolia, Egypt, the Balkans, Cyprus, and Constantinople.[47] Many of these regions coincided to a large extent with the borders of the Byzantine Empire of the late 11th century and the Eastern Mediterranean areas of ancient Greek colonization.[48] The cultural centers of the Greeks have included Athens, Thessalonica, Alexandria, Smyrna, and Constantinople at various periods.

In recent times, most ethnic Greeks live within the borders of the modern Greek state or in Cyprus. The Greek genocide and population exchange between Greece and Turkey nearly ended the three millennia-old Greek presence in Asia Minor. Other longstanding Greek populations can be found from southern Italy to the Caucasus and southern Russia and Ukraine and in the Greek diaspora communities in a number of other countries. Today, most Greeks are officially registered as members of the Greek Orthodox Church.[49]

Greeks have greatly influenced and contributed to culture, visual arts, exploration, theatre, literature, philosophy, ethics, politics, architecture, music, mathematics,[50] medicine, science, technology, commerce, cuisine and sports. The Greek language is the oldest written language still in use and its vocabulary has been the basis of many languages, including English as well as international scientific nomenclature. Greek was by far the most widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and the New Testament of the Christian Bible was also originally written in Greek.[51][52]

History

Further information: History of Greece
 
Proto-Greek area of settlement (2200/2100–1900 BC) suggested by Katona (2000), Sakelariou (2016, 1980, 1975) and Phylaktopoulos (1975)
 
Mycenaean funeral mask known as "Mask of Agamemnon", 16th century BC

The Greeks speak the Greek language, which forms its own unique branch within the Indo-European family of languages, the Hellenic.[47] They are part of a group of classical ethnicities, described by Anthony D. Smith as an "archetypal diaspora people".[53][54]

Origins

Further information: Proto-Greek language, List of Ancient Greek tribes, and Ancient Greek religion

The Proto-Greeks probably arrived at the area now called Greece, in the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, at the end of the 3rd millennium BC between 2200 and 1900 BC.[55][56][a] The sequence of migrations into the Greek mainland during the 2nd millennium BC has to be reconstructed on the basis of the ancient Greek dialects, as they presented themselves centuries later and are therefore subject to some uncertainties. There were at least two migrations, the first being the Ionians and Achaeans, which resulted in Mycenaean Greece by the 16th century BC,[60][61] and the second, the Dorian invasion, around the 11th century BC, displacing the Arcadocypriot dialects, which descended from the Mycenaean period. Both migrations occur at incisive periods, the Mycenaean at the transition to the Late Bronze Age and the Doric at the Bronze Age collapse.

Mycenaean

Main article: Mycenaean Greece

In c. 1600 BC, the Mycenaean Greeks borrowed from the Minoan civilization its syllabic writing system (Linear A) and developed their own syllabic script known as Linear B,[62] providing the first and oldest written evidence of Greek.[62][63] The Mycenaeans quickly penetrated the Aegean Sea and, by the 15th century BC, had reached Rhodes, Crete, Cyprus and the shores of Asia Minor.[47][64]

Around 1200 BC, the Dorians, another Greek-speaking people, followed from Epirus.[65] Older historical research often proposed Dorian invasion caused the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization, but this narrative has been abandoned in all contemporary research. It is likely that one of the factors which contributed to the Mycenaean palatial collapse was linked to raids by groups known in historiography as the "Sea Peoples" who sailed into the eastern Mediterranean around 1180 BC.[66] The Dorian invasion was followed by a poorly attested period of migrations, appropriately called the Greek Dark Ages, but by 800 BC the landscape of Archaic and Classical Greece was discernible.[67]

The Greeks of classical antiquity idealized their Mycenaean ancestors and the Mycenaean period as a glorious era of heroes, closeness of the gods and material wealth.[68] The Homeric Epics (i.e. Iliad and Odyssey) were especially and generally accepted as part of the Greek past and it was not until the time of Euhemerism that scholars began to question Homer's historicity.[67] As part of the Mycenaean heritage that survived, the names of the gods and goddesses of Mycenaean Greece (e.g. Zeus, Poseidon and Hades) became major figures of the Olympian Pantheon of later antiquity.[69]

Classical

Main article: Classical Greece
 
 
 
The three great philosophers of the classical era: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle

The ethnogenesis of the Greek nation is linked to the development of Pan-Hellenism in the 8th century BC.[70] According to some scholars, the foundational event was the Olympic Games in 776 BC, when the idea of a common Hellenism among the Greek tribes was first translated into a shared cultural experience and Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture.[45] The works of Homer (i.e. Iliad and Odyssey) and Hesiod (i.e. Theogony) were written in the 8th century BC, becoming the basis of the national religion, ethos, history and mythology.[71] The Oracle of Apollo at Delphi was established in this period.[72]

The classical period of Greek civilization covers a time spanning from the early 5th century BC to the death of Alexander the Great, in 323 BC (some authors prefer to split this period into "Classical", from the end of the Greco-Persian Wars to the end of the Peloponnesian War, and "Fourth Century", up to the death of Alexander). It is so named because it set the standards by which Greek civilization would be judged in later eras.[73] The Classical period is also described as the "Golden Age" of Greek civilization, and its art, philosophy, architecture and literature would be instrumental in the formation and development of Western culture.

While the Greeks of the classical era understood themselves to belong to a common Hellenic genos,[74] their first loyalty was to their city and they saw nothing incongruous about warring, often brutally, with other Greek city-states.[75] The Peloponnesian War, the large scale civil war between the two most powerful Greek city-states Athens and Sparta and their allies, left both greatly weakened.[76]

 
Alexander the Great, whose conquests led to the Hellenistic Age

Most of the feuding Greek city-states were, in some scholars' opinions, united by force under the banner of Philip's and Alexander the Great's Pan-Hellenic ideals, though others might generally opt, rather, for an explanation of "Macedonian conquest for the sake of conquest" or at least conquest for the sake of riches, glory and power and view the "ideal" as useful propaganda directed towards the city-states.[77]

In any case, Alexander's toppling of the Achaemenid Empire, after his victories at the battles of the Granicus, Issus and Gaugamela, and his advance as far as modern-day Pakistan and Tajikistan,[78] provided an important outlet for Greek culture, via the creation of colonies and trade routes along the way.[79] While the Alexandrian empire did not survive its creator's death intact, the cultural implications of the spread of Hellenism across much of the Middle East and Asia were to prove long lived as Greek became the lingua franca, a position it retained even in Roman times.[80] Many Greeks settled in Hellenistic cities like Alexandria, Antioch and Seleucia.[81]

Hellenistic

Main articles: Hellenistic period and Hellenistic Greece
 
The Hellenistic realms c. 300 BC as divided by the Diadochi; the Μacedonian Kingdom of Cassander (green), the Ptolemaic Kingdom (dark blue), the Seleucid Empire (yellow), the areas controlled by Lysimachus (orange) and Epirus (red)
 
Bust of Cleopatra VII (Altes Museum, Berlin), the last ruler of a Hellenistic kingdom (apart from the Indo-Greek Kingdom)

The Hellenistic civilization was the next period of Greek civilization, the beginnings of which are usually placed at Alexander's death.[82] This Hellenistic age, so called because it saw the partial Hellenization of many non-Greek cultures, extending all the way into India and Bactria, both of which maintained Greek cultures and governments for centuries.[83] The end is often placed around conquest of Egypt by Rome in 30 BC,[82] although the Indo-Greek kingdoms lasted for a few more decades.

This age saw the Greeks move towards larger cities and a reduction in the importance of the city-state. These larger cities were parts of the still larger Kingdoms of the Diadochi.[84][85] Greeks, however, remained aware of their past, chiefly through the study of the works of Homer and the classical authors.[86] An important factor in maintaining Greek identity was contact with barbarian (non-Greek) peoples, which was deepened in the new cosmopolitan environment of the multi-ethnic Hellenistic kingdoms.[86] This led to a strong desire among Greeks to organize the transmission of the Hellenic paideia to the next generation.[86] Greek science, technology and mathematics are generally considered to have reached their peak during the Hellenistic period.[87]

In the Indo-Greek and Greco-Bactrian kingdoms, Greco-Buddhism was spreading and Greek missionaries would play an important role in propagating it to China.[88] Further east, the Greeks of Alexandria Eschate became known to the Chinese people as the Dayuan.[89]

Roman Empire

Further information: Roman Greece and Greco-Roman world

Between 168 BC and 30 BC, the entire Greek world was conquered by Rome, and almost all of the world's Greek speakers lived as citizens or subjects of the Roman Empire. Despite their military superiority, the Romans admired and became heavily influenced by the achievements of Greek culture, hence Horace's famous statement: Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit ("Greece, although captured, took its wild conqueror captive").[90] In the centuries following the Roman conquest of the Greek world, the Greek and Roman cultures merged into a single Greco-Roman culture.

In the religious sphere, this was a period of profound change. The spiritual revolution that took place, saw a waning of the old Greek religion, whose decline beginning in the 3rd century BC continued with the introduction of new religious movements from the East.[45] The cults of deities like Isis and Mithra were introduced into the Greek world.[85][91] Greek-speaking communities of the Hellenized East were instrumental in the spread of early Christianity in the 2nd and 3rd centuries,[92] and Christianity's early leaders and writers (notably Saint Paul) were generally Greek-speaking,[93] though none were from Greece proper. However, Greece itself had a tendency to cling to paganism and was not one of the influential centers of early Christianity: in fact, some ancient Greek religious practices remained in vogue until the end of the 4th century,[94] with some areas such as the southeastern Peloponnese remaining pagan until well into the mid-Byzantine 10th century AD.[95] The region of Tsakonia remained pagan until the ninth century and as such its inhabitants were referred to as Hellenes, in the sense of being pagan, by their Christianized Greek brethren in mainstream Byzantine society.[96]

While ethnic distinctions still existed in the Roman Empire, they became secondary to religious considerations, and the renewed empire used Christianity as a tool to support its cohesion and promote a robust Roman national identity.[97] From the early centuries of the Common Era, the Greeks self-identified as Romans (Greek: Ῥωμαῖοι Rhōmaîoi).[98] By that time, the name Hellenes denoted pagans but was revived as an ethnonym in the 11th century.[99]

Middle Ages

See also: Byzantine empire, Byzantine Greece, Byzantine Greeks, Fourth Crusade, and Frankokratia
 
Scenes of marriage and family life in Constantinople
 
Emperor Basil II (11th century) is credited with reviving the Byzantine Empire.
 
Gemistos Plethon, one of the most renowned philosophers of the late Byzantine era, a chief pioneer of the revival of Greek scholarship in Western Europe

During most of the Middle Ages, the Byzantine Greeks self-identified as Rhōmaîoi (Ῥωμαῖοι, "Romans", meaning citizens of the Roman Empire), a term which in the Greek language had become synonymous with Christian Greeks.[100][101] The Latinizing term Graikoí (Γραικοί, "Greeks") was also used,[102] though its use was less common, and nonexistent in official Byzantine political correspondence, prior to the Fourth Crusade of 1204.[103] The Eastern Roman Empire (today conventionally named the Byzantine Empire, a name not used during its own time[104]) became increasingly influenced by Greek culture after the 7th century when Emperor Heraclius (r.  610–641 AD) decided to make Greek the empire's official language.[105][106] Although the Catholic Church recognized the Eastern Empire's claim to the Roman legacy for several centuries, after Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne, king of the Franks, as the "Roman Emperor" on 25 December 800, an act which eventually led to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire, the Latin West started to favour the Franks and began to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire largely as the Empire of the Greeks (Imperium Graecorum).[107][108] While this Latin term for the ancient Hellenes could be used neutrally, its use by Westerners from the 9th century onwards in order to challenge Byzantine claims to ancient Roman heritage rendered it a derogatory exonym for the Byzantines who barely used it, mostly in contexts relating to the West, such as texts relating to the Council of Florence, to present the Western viewpoint.[109][110] Additionally, among the Germanic and the Slavic peoples, the Rhōmaîoi were just called Greeks. [111][112]

There are three schools of thought regarding this Byzantine Roman identity in contemporary Byzantine scholarship: The first considers "Romanity" the mode of self-identification of the subjects of a multi-ethnic empire at least up to the 12th century, where the average subject identified as Roman; a perennialist approach, which views Romanity as the medieval expression of a continuously existing Greek nation; while a third view considers the eastern Roman identity as a pre-modern national identity.[113] The Byzantine Greeks' essential values were drawn from both Christianity and the Homeric tradition of ancient Greece.[114][115]

A distinct Greek identity re-emerged in the 11th century in educated circles and became more forceful after the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade in 1204.[116] In the Empire of Nicaea, a small circle of the elite used the term "Hellene" as a term of self-identification.[117] For example, in a letter to Pope Gregory IX, the Nicaean emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes (r. 1221–1254) claimed to have received the gift of royalty from Constantine the Great, and put emphasis on his "Hellenic" descent, exalting the wisdom of the Greek people.[118] After the Byzantines recaptured Constantinople, however, in 1261, Rhomaioi became again dominant as a term for self-description and there are few traces of Hellene (Έλληνας), such as in the writings of George Gemistos Plethon,[119] who abandoned Christianity and in whose writings culminated the secular tendency in the interest in the classical past.[116] However, it was the combination of Orthodox Christianity with a specifically Greek identity that shaped the Greeks' notion of themselves in the empire's twilight years.[116] In the twilight years of the Byzantine Empire, prominent Byzantine personalities proposed referring to the Byzantine Emperor as the "Emperor of the Hellenes".[120][121] These largely rhetorical expressions of Hellenic identity were confined within intellectual circles, but were continued by Byzantine intellectuals who participated in the Italian Renaissance.[122]

The interest in the Classical Greek heritage was complemented by a renewed emphasis on Greek Orthodox identity, which was reinforced in the late Medieval and Ottoman Greeks' links with their fellow Orthodox Christians in the Russian Empire. These were further strengthened following the fall of the Empire of Trebizond in 1461, after which and until the second Russo-Turkish War of 1828–29 hundreds of thousands of Pontic Greeks fled or migrated from the Pontic Alps and Armenian Highlands to southern Russia and the Russian South Caucasus (see also Greeks in Russia, Greeks in Armenia, Greeks in Georgia, and Caucasian Greeks).[123]

These Byzantine Greeks were largely responsible for the preservation of the literature of the classical era.[115][124][125] Byzantine grammarians were those principally responsible for carrying, in person and in writing, ancient Greek grammatical and literary studies to the West during the 15th century, giving the Italian Renaissance a major boost.[126][127] The Aristotelian philosophical tradition was nearly unbroken in the Greek world for almost two thousand years, until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.[128]

To the Slavic world, the Byzantine Greeks contributed by the dissemination of literacy and Christianity. The most notable example of the later was the work of the two Byzantine Greek brothers, the monks Saints Cyril and Methodius from the port city of Thessalonica, capital of the theme of Thessalonica, who are credited today with formalizing the first Slavic alphabet.[129]

Ottoman Empire

Main articles: Ottoman Greeks and Phanariotes
 
The Byzantine scholar and cardinal Basilios Bessarion (1395/1403–1472) played a key role in transmitting classical knowledge to Western Europe, contributing to the Renaissance.

Following the Fall of Constantinople on 29 May 1453, many Greeks sought better employment and education opportunities by leaving for the West, particularly Italy, Central Europe, Germany and Russia.[126] Greeks are greatly credited for the European cultural revolution, later called, the Renaissance. In Greek-inhabited territory itself, Greeks came to play a leading role in the Ottoman Empire, due in part to the fact that the central hub of the empire, politically, culturally, and socially, was based on Western Thrace and Greek Macedonia, both in Northern Greece, and of course was centred on the mainly Greek-populated, former Byzantine capital, Constantinople. As a direct consequence of this situation, Greek-speakers came to play a hugely important role in the Ottoman trading and diplomatic establishment, as well as in the church. Added to this, in the first half of the Ottoman period men of Greek origin made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman army, navy, and state bureaucracy, having been levied as adolescents (along with especially Albanians and Serbs) into Ottoman service through the devshirme. Many Ottomans of Greek (or Albanian or Serb) origin were therefore to be found within the Ottoman forces which governed the provinces, from Ottoman Egypt, to Ottomans occupied Yemen and Algeria, frequently as provincial governors.

For those that remained under the Ottoman Empire's millet system, religion was the defining characteristic of national groups (milletler), so the exonym "Greeks" (Rumlar from the name Rhomaioi) was applied by the Ottomans to all members of the Orthodox Church, regardless of their language or ethnic origin.[130] The Greek speakers were the only ethnic group to actually call themselves Romioi,[131] (as opposed to being so named by others) and, at least those educated, considered their ethnicity (genos) to be Hellenic.[132] There were, however, many Greeks who escaped the second-class status of Christians inherent in the Ottoman millet system, according to which Muslims were explicitly awarded senior status and preferential treatment. These Greeks either emigrated, particularly to their fellow Orthodox Christian protector, the Russian Empire, or simply converted to Islam, often only very superficially and whilst remaining crypto-Christian. The most notable examples of large-scale conversion to Turkish Islam among those today defined as Greek Muslims—excluding those who had to convert as a matter of course on being recruited through the devshirme—were to be found in Crete (Cretan Turks), Greek Macedonia (for example among the Vallahades of western Macedonia), and among Pontic Greeks in the Pontic Alps and Armenian Highlands. Several Ottoman sultans and princes were also of part Greek origin, with mothers who were either Greek concubines or princesses from Byzantine noble families, one famous example being sultan Selim the Grim (r.  1517–1520), whose mother Gülbahar Hatun was a Pontic Greek.

The roots of Greek success in the Ottoman Empire can be traced to the Greek tradition of education and commerce exemplified in the Phanariotes.[133] It was the wealth of the extensive merchant class that provided the material basis for the intellectual revival that was the prominent feature of Greek life in the half century and more leading to the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence in 1821.[134] Not coincidentally, on the eve of 1821, the three most important centres of Greek learning were situated in Chios, Smyrna and Aivali, all three major centres of Greek commerce.[134] Greek success was also favoured by Greek domination in the leadership of the Eastern Orthodox church.

Modern

See also: Modern Greek Enlightenment and Greek War of Independence

The movement of the Greek enlightenment, the Greek expression of the Age of Enlightenment, contributed not only in the promotion of education, culture and printing among the Greeks, but also in the case of independence from the Ottomans, and the restoration of the term "Hellene". Adamantios Korais, probably the most important intellectual of the movement, advocated the use of the term "Hellene" (Έλληνας) or "Graikos" (Γραικός) in the place of Romiós, that was seen negatively by him.

The relationship between ethnic Greek identity and Greek Orthodox religion continued after the creation of the modern Greek nation-state in 1830. According to the second article of the first Greek constitution of 1822, a Greek was defined as any native Christian resident of the Kingdom of Greece, a clause removed by 1840.[135] A century later, when the Treaty of Lausanne was signed between Greece and Turkey in 1923, the two countries agreed to use religion as the determinant for ethnic identity for the purposes of population exchange, although most of the Greeks displaced (over a million of the total 1.5 million) had already been driven out by the time the agreement was signed.[b][136] The Greek genocide, in particular the harsh removal of Pontian Greeks from the southern shore area of the Black Sea, contemporaneous with and following the failed Greek Asia Minor Campaign, was part of this process of Turkification of the Ottoman Empire and the placement of its economy and trade, then largely in Greek hands under ethnic Turkish control.[137]

Identity

 
The cover of Hermes o Logios, a Greek literary publication of the late 18th and early 19th centuries in Vienna with major contribution to the Modern Greek Enlightenment

The terms used to define Greekness have varied throughout history but were never limited or completely identified with membership to a Greek state.[138] Herodotus gave a famous account of what defined Greek (Hellenic) ethnic identity in his day, enumerating

  1. shared descent (ὅμαιμον – homaimon, "of the same blood"),[139]
  2. shared language (ὁμόγλωσσον – homoglōsson, "speaking the same language")[140]
  3. shared sanctuaries and sacrifices (θεῶν ἱδρύματά τε κοινὰ καὶ θυσίαι – theōn hidrumata te koina kai thusiai)[141]
  4. shared customs (ἤθεα ὁμότροπα – ēthea homotropa, "customs of like fashion").[142][143][144]

By Western standards, the term Greeks has traditionally referred to any native speakers of the Greek language, whether Mycenaean, Byzantine or modern Greek.[130][145] Byzantine Greeks self-identified as Romaioi ("Romans"), Graikoi ("Greeks") and Christianoi ("Christians") since they were the political heirs of imperial Rome, the descendants of their classical Greek forebears and followers of the Apostles;[146] during the mid-to-late Byzantine period (11th–13th century), a growing number of Byzantine Greek intellectuals deemed themselves Hellenes although for most Greek-speakers, "Hellene" still meant pagan.[99][147] On the eve of the Fall of Constantinople the Last Emperor urged his soldiers to remember that they were the descendants of Greeks and Romans.[148]

Before the establishment of the modern Greek nation-state, the link between ancient and modern Greeks was emphasized by the scholars of Greek Enlightenment especially by Rigas Feraios. In his "Political Constitution", he addresses to the nation as "the people descendant of the Greeks".[149] The modern Greek state was created in 1829, when the Greeks liberated a part of their historic homelands, Peloponnese, from the Ottoman Empire.[150] The large Greek diaspora and merchant class were instrumental in transmitting the ideas of western romantic nationalism and philhellenism,[134] which together with the conception of Hellenism, formulated during the last centuries of the Byzantine Empire, formed the basis of the Diafotismos and the current conception of Hellenism.[116][130][151]

The Greeks today are a nation in the meaning of an ethnos, defined by possessing Greek culture and having a Greek mother tongue, not by citizenship, race, and religion or by being subjects of any particular state.[152] In ancient and medieval times and to some extent today the Greek term was genos, which also indicates a common ancestry.[153][154]

Names

Main articles: Achaeans (Homer) and Names of the Greeks
 
Map showing the major regions of mainland ancient Greece, and adjacent "barbarian" lands

Greeks and Greek-speakers have used different names to refer to themselves collectively. The term Achaeans (Ἀχαιοί) is one of the collective names for the Greeks in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey (the Homeric "long-haired Achaeans" would have been a part of the Mycenaean civilization that dominated Greece from c. 1600 BC until 1100 BC). The other common names are Danaans (Δαναοί) and Argives (Ἀργεῖοι) while Panhellenes (Πανέλληνες) and Hellenes (Ἕλληνες) both appear only once in the Iliad;[155] all of these terms were used, synonymously, to denote a common Greek identity.[156][157] In the historical period, Herodotus identified the Achaeans of the northern Peloponnese as descendants of the earlier, Homeric Achaeans.[158]

Homer refers to the "Hellenes" (/ˈhɛliːnz/) as a relatively small tribe settled in Thessalic Phthia, with its warriors under the command of Achilleus.[159] The Parian Chronicle says that Phthia was the homeland of the Hellenes and that this name was given to those previously called Greeks (Γραικοί).[160] In Greek mythology, Hellen, the patriarch of the Hellenes who ruled around Phthia, was the son of Pyrrha and Deucalion, the only survivors after the Great Deluge.[161] The Greek philosopher Aristotle names ancient Hellas as an area in Epirus between Dodona and the Achelous river, the location of the Great Deluge of Deucalion, a land occupied by the Selloi and the "Greeks" who later came to be known as "Hellenes".[162] In the Homeric tradition, the Selloi were the priests of Dodonian Zeus.[163]

In the Hesiodic Catalogue of Women, Graecus is presented as the son of Zeus and Pandora II, sister of Hellen the patriarch of the Hellenes.[164] According to the Parian Chronicle, when Deucalion became king of Phthia, the Graikoi (Γραικοί) were named Hellenes.[160] Aristotle notes in his Meteorologica that the Hellenes were related to the Graikoi.[162]

Continuity

 
Alexander the Great in Byzantine Emperor's clothes, by a manuscript depicting scenes from his life (between 1204 and 1453)

The most obvious link between modern and ancient Greeks is their language, which has a documented tradition from at least the 14th century BC to the present day, albeit with a break during the Greek Dark Ages from which written records are absent (11th- 8th cent. BC, though the Cypriot syllabary was in use during this period).[165] Scholars compare its continuity of tradition to Chinese alone.[165][166] Since its inception, Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture and the national continuity of the Greek world is a lot more certain than its demographic.[45][167] Yet, Hellenism also embodied an ancestral dimension through aspects of Athenian literature that developed and influenced ideas of descent based on autochthony.[168] During the later years of the Eastern Roman Empire, areas such as Ionia and Constantinople experienced a Hellenic revival in language, philosophy, and literature and on classical models of thought and scholarship.[167] This revival provided a powerful impetus to the sense of cultural affinity with ancient Greece and its classical heritage.[167] Throughout their history, the Greeks have retained their language and alphabet, certain values and cultural traditions, customs, a sense of religious and cultural difference and exclusion (the word barbarian was used by 12th-century historian Anna Komnene to describe non-Greek speakers),[169] a sense of Greek identity and common sense of ethnicity despite the undeniable socio-political changes of the past two millennia.[167] In recent anthropological studies, both ancient and modern Greek osteological samples were analyzed demonstrating a bio-genetic affinity and continuity shared between both groups.[170][171] There is also a direct genetic link between ancient Greeks and modern Greeks.[172][173]

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Greece and Demographics of Cyprus

Today, Greeks are the majority ethnic group in the Hellenic Republic,[174] where they constitute 93% of the country's population,[175] and the Republic of Cyprus where they make up 78% of the island's population (excluding Turkish settlers in the occupied part of the country).[176] Greek populations have not traditionally exhibited high rates of growth; a large percentage of Greek population growth since Greece's foundation in 1832 was attributed to annexation of new territories, as well as the influx of 1.5 million Greek refugees after the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey.[177] About 80% of the population of Greece is urban, with 28% concentrated in the city of Athens.[178]

Greeks from Cyprus have a similar history of emigration, usually to the English-speaking world because of the island's colonization by the British Empire. Waves of emigration followed the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974, while the population decreased between mid-1974 and 1977 as a result of emigration, war losses, and a temporary decline in fertility.[179] After the ethnic cleansing of a third of the Greek population of the island in 1974,[180][181] there was also an increase in the number of Greek Cypriots leaving, especially for the Middle East, which contributed to a decrease in population that tapered off in the 1990s.[179] Today more than two-thirds of the Greek population in Cyprus is urban.[179]

Around 1990, most Western estimates of the number of ethnic Greeks in Albania were around 200,000 but in the 1990s, a majority of them migrated to Greece.[14][182] The Greek minority of Turkey, which numbered upwards of 200,000 people after the 1923 exchange, has now dwindled to a few thousand, after the 1955 Constantinople Pogrom and other state sponsored violence and discrimination.[183] This effectively ended, though not entirely, the three-thousand-year-old presence of Hellenism in Asia Minor.[184][185] There are smaller Greek minorities in the rest of the Balkan countries, the Levant and the Black Sea states, remnants of the Old Greek Diaspora (pre-19th century).[186]

Diaspora

Main article: Greek diaspora
 
Greek diaspora (20th century)

The total number of Greeks living outside Greece and Cyprus today is a contentious issue. Where census figures are available, they show around 3 million Greeks outside Greece and Cyprus. Estimates provided by the SAE - World Council of Hellenes Abroad put the figure at around 7 million worldwide.[187] According to George Prevelakis of Sorbonne University, the number is closer to just below 5 million.[186] Integration, intermarriage, and loss of the Greek language, influence the self-identification of the Greek diaspora (Omogenia); important centres include New York, Melbourne, London and Toronto.[186] In 2010, the Hellenic Parliament introduced a law that allowed members of the diaspora to vote in the Greek elections;[188] this law was later repealed in early 2014.[189]

Ancient

See also: Colonies in antiquity
 
Greek colonization in antiquity

In ancient times, the trading and colonizing activities of the Greek tribes and city states spread the Greek culture, religion and language around the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins, especially in Sicily and southern Italy (also known as Magna Grecia), Spain, the south of France and the Black sea coasts.[190] Under Alexander the Great's empire and successor states, Greek and Hellenizing ruling classes were established in the Middle East, India and in Egypt.[190] The Hellenistic period is characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization that established Greek cities and kingdoms in Asia and Africa.[191] Under the Roman Empire, easier movement of people spread Greeks across the Empire and in the eastern territories, Greek became the lingua franca rather than Latin.[105] The modern-day Griko community of southern Italy, numbering about 60,000,[18][19] may represent a living remnant of the ancient Greek populations of Italy.

Modern

 
Distribution of ethnic groups in 1918, National Geographic
 
Poet Constantine P. Cavafy, a native of Alexandria, Egypt

During and after the Greek War of Independence, Greeks of the diaspora were important in establishing the fledgling state, raising funds and awareness abroad.[192] Greek merchant families already had contacts in other countries and during the disturbances many set up home around the Mediterranean (notably Marseilles in France, Livorno in Italy, Alexandria in Egypt), Russia (Odesa and Saint Petersburg), and Britain (London and Liverpool) from where they traded, typically in textiles and grain.[193] Businesses frequently comprised the extended family, and with them they brought schools teaching Greek and the Greek Orthodox Church.[193]

As markets changed and they became more established, some families grew their operations to become shippers, financed through the local Greek community, notably with the aid of the Ralli or Vagliano Brothers.[194] With economic success, the Diaspora expanded further across the Levant, North Africa, India and the USA.[194][195]

In the 20th century, many Greeks left their traditional homelands for economic reasons resulting in large migrations from Greece and Cyprus to the United States, Great Britain, Australia, Canada, Germany, and South Africa, especially after the Second World War (1939–1945), the Greek Civil War (1946–1949), and the Turkish Invasion of Cyprus in 1974.[196]

While official figures remain scarce, polls and anecdotal evidence point to renewed Greek emigration as a result of the Greek financial crisis.[197] According to data published by the Federal Statistical Office of Germany in 2011, 23,800 Greeks emigrated to Germany, a significant increase over the previous year. By comparison, about 9,000 Greeks emigrated to Germany in 2009 and 12,000 in 2010.[198][199]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Greece

Greek culture has evolved over thousands of years, with its beginning in the Mycenaean civilization, continuing through the classical era, the Hellenistic period, the Roman and Byzantine periods and was profoundly affected by Christianity, which it in turn influenced and shaped.[200] Ottoman Greeks had to endure through several centuries of adversity that culminated in genocide in the 20th century.[201][202] The Diafotismos is credited with revitalizing Greek culture and giving birth to the synthesis of ancient and medieval elements that characterize it today.[116][130]

Language

Main articles: Greek language and Greek language question
 
Early Greek alphabet, c. 8th century BC
A Greek speaker

Most Greeks speak the Greek language, an independent branch of the Indo-European languages, with its closest relations possibly being Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian) or the Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan).[165] It has the longest documented history of any living language and Greek literature has a continuous history of over 2,500 years.[203] The oldest inscriptions in Greek are in the Linear B script, dated as far back as 1450 BC.[204] Following the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent, the Greek alphabet appears in the 9th–8th century BC. The Greek alphabet derived from the Phoenician alphabet, and in turn became the parent alphabet of the Latin, Cyrillic, and several other alphabets. The earliest Greek literary works are the Homeric epics, variously dated from the 8th to the 6th century BC. Notable scientific and mathematical works include Euclid's Elements, Ptolemy's Almagest, and others. The New Testament was originally written in Koine Greek.

Greek demonstrates several linguistic features that are shared with other Balkan languages, such as Albanian, Bulgarian and Eastern Romance languages (see Balkan sprachbund), and has absorbed many foreign words, primarily of Western European and Turkish origin.[205] Because of the movements of Philhellenism and the Diafotismos in the 19th century, which emphasized the modern Greeks' ancient heritage, these foreign influences were excluded from official use via the creation of Katharevousa, a somewhat artificial form of Greek purged of all foreign influence and words, as the official language of the Greek state. In 1976, however, the Hellenic Parliament voted to make the spoken Dimotiki the official language, making Katharevousa obsolete.[206]

Modern Greek has, in addition to Standard Modern Greek or Dimotiki, a wide variety of dialects of varying levels of mutual intelligibility, including Cypriot, Pontic, Cappadocian, Griko and Tsakonian (the only surviving representative of ancient Doric Greek).[207] Yevanic is the language of the Romaniotes, and survives in small communities in Greece, New York and Israel. In addition to Greek, many Greek citizens in Greece and the diaspora are bilingual in other languages such as English, Arvanitika/Albanian, Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian, Macedonian Slavic, Russian and Turkish.[165][208]

Religion

Main articles: Religion in ancient Greece and Greek Orthodox Church

Most Greeks are Christians, belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church.[209] During the first centuries after Jesus Christ, the New Testament was originally written in Koine Greek, which remains the liturgical language of the Greek Orthodox Church, and most of the early Christians and Church Fathers were Greek-speaking.[200] There are small groups of ethnic Greeks adhering to other Christian denominations like Greek Catholics, Greek Evangelicals, Pentecostals, and groups adhering to other religions including Romaniot and Sephardic Jews and Greek Muslims. About 2,000 Greeks are members of Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism congregations.[210][211][212]

Greek-speaking Muslims live mainly outside Greece in the contemporary era. There are both Christian and Muslim Greek-speaking communities in Lebanon and Syria, while in the Pontus region of Turkey there is a large community of indeterminate size who were spared from the population exchange because of their religious affiliation.[213]

Arts

Further information: Greek art, Music of Greece, Ancient Greek architecture, Ancient Greek theatre, Modern Greek theatre, Cinema of Greece, Modern Greek architecture, and Modern Greek literature
See also: Greco-Buddhist art
 
Renowned Greek soprano Maria Callas

Greek art has a long and varied history. Greeks have contributed to the visual, literary and performing arts.[214] In the West, classical Greek art was influential in shaping the Roman and later the modern Western artistic heritage. Following the Renaissance in Europe, the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists.[214] Well into the 19th century, the classical tradition derived from Greece played an important role in the art of the Western world.[215] In the East, Alexander the Great's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek, Central Asian and Indian cultures, resulting in Indo-Greek and Greco-Buddhist art, whose influence reached as far as Japan.[216]

Byzantine Greek art, which grew from the Hellenistic classical art and adapted the pagan motifs in the service of Christianity, provided a stimulus to the art of many nations.[217] Its influences can be traced from Venice in the West to Kazakhstan in the East.[217][218] In turn, Greek art was influenced by eastern civilizations (i.e. Egypt, Persia, etc.) during various periods of its history.[219]

Notable modern Greek artists include the major Renaissance painter Dominikos Theotokopoulos (El Greco), Nikolaos Gyzis, Nikiphoros Lytras, Konstantinos Volanakis, Theodoros Vryzakis, Georgios Jakobides, Thalia Flora-Karavia, Yannis Tsarouchis, Nikos Engonopoulos, Périclès Pantazis, Theophilos, Kostas Andreou, Jannis Kounellis, sculptors such as Leonidas Drosis, Georgios Bonanos, Yannoulis Chalepas, Athanasios Apartis, Konstantinos Dimitriadis and Joannis Avramidis, conductor Dimitri Mitropoulos, soprano Maria Callas, composers such as Mikis Theodorakis, Nikos Skalkottas, Nikolaos Mantzaros, Spyridon Samaras, Manolis Kalomiris, Iannis Xenakis, Manos Hatzidakis, Manos Loïzos, Yanni and Vangelis, the masters of rebetiko Markos Vamvakaris and Vassilis Tsitsanis, and singers such as Giorgos Dalaras, Haris Alexiou, Sotiria Bellou, Nana Mouskouri, Vicky Leandros and Demis Roussos. Poets such as Andreas Kalvos, Athanasios Christopoulos, Kostis Palamas, the writer of Hymn to Liberty Dionysios Solomos, Angelos Sikelianos, Kostas Karyotakis, Maria Polydouri, Yannis Ritsos, Kostas Varnalis, Nikos Kavvadias, Andreas Embirikos and Kiki Dimoula. Constantine P. Cavafy and Nobel laureates Giorgos Seferis and Odysseas Elytis are among the most important poets of the 20th century. Novel is also represented by Alexandros Papadiamantis, Emmanuel Rhoides, Ion Dragoumis, Nikos Kazantzakis, Penelope Delta, Stratis Myrivilis, Vassilis Vassilikos and Petros Markaris, while notable playwrights include the Cretan Renaissance poets Georgios Chortatzis and Vincenzos Cornaros, such as Gregorios Xenopoulos and Iakovos Kambanellis.

 
Renowned Greek actress, singer, socialist, activist and politician Melina Mercouri

Notable cinema or theatre actors include Marika Kotopouli, Melina Mercouri, Ellie Lambeti, Academy Award winner Katina Paxinou, Alexis Minotis, Dimitris Horn, Thanasis Veggos, Manos Katrakis and Irene Papas. Alekos Sakellarios, Karolos Koun, Vasilis Georgiadis, Kostas Gavras, Michael Cacoyannis, Giannis Dalianidis, Nikos Koundouros and Theo Angelopoulos are among the most important directors.

Among the most significant modern-era architects are Stamatios Kleanthis, Lysandros Kaftanzoglou, Anastasios Metaxas, Panagis Kalkos, Anastasios Orlandos, the naturalized Greek Ernst Ziller, Dimitris Pikionis and urban planners Stamatis Voulgaris and George Candilis.

Science

See also: Ancient Greek philosophy, Greek mathematics, Ancient Greek medicine, Byzantine science, Greek scholars in the Renaissance, and List of Greek inventions and discoveries
 
Aristarchus of Samos was the first known individual to propose a heliocentric system, in the 3rd century BC.

The Greeks of the Classical and Hellenistic eras made seminal contributions to science and philosophy, laying the foundations of several western scientific traditions, such as astronomy, geography, historiography, mathematics, medicine, philosophy and political science. The scholarly tradition of the Greek academies was maintained during Roman times with several academic institutions in Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria and other centers of Greek learning, while Byzantine science was essentially a continuation of classical science.[220] Greeks have a long tradition of valuing and investing in paideia (education).[86] Paideia was one of the highest societal values in the Greek and Hellenistic world while the first European institution described as a university was founded in 5th century Constantinople and operated in various incarnations until the city's fall to the Ottomans in 1453.[221] The University of Constantinople was Christian Europe's first secular institution of higher learning since no theological subjects were taught,[222] and considering the original meaning of the world university as a corporation of students, the world's first university as well.[221]

As of 2007, Greece had the eighth highest percentage of tertiary enrollment in the world (with the percentages for female students being higher than for male) while Greeks of the Diaspora are equally active in the field of education.[178] Hundreds of thousands of Greek students attend western universities every year while the faculty lists of leading Western universities contain a striking number of Greek names.[223] Notable Greek scientists of modern times include: physician Georgios Papanicolaou (pioneer in cytopathology, inventor of the Pap test); mathematician Constantin Carathéodory (acclaimed contributor to real and complex analysis and the calculus of variations); archaeologists Manolis Andronikos (unearthed the tomb of Philip II), Valerios Stais (recognised the Antikythera mechanism), Spyridon Marinatos (specialised in Mycenaean sites) and Ioannis Svoronos; chemists Leonidas Zervas (of Bergmann-Zervas synthesis and Z-group discovery fame), K. C. Nicolaou (first total synthesis of taxol) and Panayotis Katsoyannis (first chemical synthesis of insulin); computer scientists Michael Dertouzos and Nicholas Negroponte (known for their early work with the World Wide Web), John Argyris (co-creator of the FEM), Joseph Sifakis (2007 Turing Award), Christos Papadimitriou (2002 Knuth Prize) and Mihalis Yannakakis (2005 Knuth Prize); physicist-mathematician Demetrios Christodoulou (renowned for work on Minkowski spacetime) and physicists Achilles Papapetrou (known for solutions of general relativity), Dimitri Nanopoulos (extensive work on particle physics and cosmology), and John Iliopoulos (2007 Dirac Prize for work on the charm quark); astronomer Eugenios Antoniadis; biologist Fotis Kafatos (contributor to cDNA cloning technology); botanist Theodoros Orphanides; economist Xenophon Zolotas (held various senior posts in international organisations such as the IMF); Indologist Dimitrios Galanos; linguist Yiannis Psycharis (promoter of Demotic Greek); historians Constantine Paparrigopoulos (founder of modern Greek historiography) and Helene Glykatzi Ahrweiler (excelled in Byzantine studies); and political scientists Nicos Poulantzas (a leading Structural Marxist) and Cornelius Castoriadis (philosopher of history and ontologist, social critic, economist, psychoanalyst).

Significant engineers and automobile designers include Nikolas Tombazis, Alec Issigonis and Andreas Zapatinas.

Symbols

See also: Flag of Greece
 
The national flag of Greece is commonly used as a symbol for Greeks worldwide.
 
The flag of the Greek Orthodox Church is based on the coat of arms of the Palaiologoi, the last dynasty of the Byzantine Empire.

The most widely used symbol is the flag of Greece, which features nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white representing the nine syllables of the Greek national motto Eleftheria i Thanatos (Freedom or Death), which was the motto of the Greek War of Independence.[224] The blue square in the upper hoist-side corner bears a white cross, which represents Greek Orthodoxy. The Greek flag is widely used by the Greek Cypriots, although Cyprus has officially adopted a neutral flag to ease ethnic tensions with the Turkish Cypriot minority (see flag of Cyprus).[225]

The pre-1978 (and first) flag of Greece, which features a Greek cross (crux immissa quadrata) on a blue background, is widely used as an alternative to the official flag, and they are often flown together. The national emblem of Greece features a blue escutcheon with a white cross surrounded by two laurel branches. A common design involves the current flag of Greece and the pre-1978 flag of Greece with crossed flagpoles and the national emblem placed in front.[226]

Another highly recognizable and popular Greek symbol is the double-headed eagle, the imperial emblem of the last dynasty of the Eastern Roman Empire and a common symbol in Asia Minor and, later, Eastern Europe.[227] It is not part of the modern Greek flag or coat-of-arms, although it is officially the insignia of the Greek Army and the flag of the Church of Greece. It had been incorporated in the Greek coat of arms between 1925 and 1926.[228]

Politics

See also: Politics in Greece

Classical Athens is considered the birthplace of Democracy. The term appeared in the 5th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens, to mean "rule of the people", in contrast to aristocracy (ἀριστοκρατία, aristokratía), meaning "rule by an excellent elite", and to oligarchy. While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically.[229] Led by Cleisthenes, Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508–507 BC,[230] which took gradually the form of a direct democracy. The democratic form of government declined during the Hellenistic and Roman eras, only to be revived as an interest in Western Europe during the early modern period.

The European enlightenment and the democratic, liberal and nationalistic ideas of the French Revolution was a crucial factor to the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence and the establishment of the modern Greek state.[231][232]

Notable modern Greek politicians include Ioannis Kapodistrias, founder of the First Hellenic Republic, reformist Charilaos Trikoupis, Eleftherios Venizelos, who marked the shape of modern Greece, social democrats Georgios Papandreou and Alexandros Papanastasiou, Konstantinos Karamanlis, founder of the Third Hellenic Republic, and socialist Andreas Papandreou.

Surnames and personal names

See also: Greek name and Ancient Greek personal names

Greek surnames began to appear in the 9th and 10th century, at first among ruling families, eventually supplanting the ancient tradition of using the father's name as disambiguator.[233][234] Nevertheless, Greek surnames are most commonly patronymics,[233] such those ending in the suffix -opoulos or -ides, while others derive from trade professions, physical characteristics, or a location such as a town, village, or monastery.[234] Commonly, Greek male surnames end in -s, which is the common ending for Greek masculine proper nouns in the nominative case. Occasionally (especially in Cyprus), some surnames end in -ou, indicating the genitive case of a patronymic name.[235] Many surnames end in suffixes that are associated with a particular region, such as -akis (Crete), -eas or -akos (Mani Peninsula), -atos (island of Cephalonia), -ellis (island of Lesbos) and so forth.[234] In addition to a Greek origin, some surnames have Turkish or Latin/Italian origin, especially among Greeks from Asia Minor and the Ionian Islands, respectively.[236] Female surnames end in a vowel and are usually the genitive form of the corresponding males surname, although this usage is not followed in the diaspora, where the male version of the surname is generally used.

With respect to personal names, the two main influences are Christianity and classical Hellenism; ancient Greek nomenclatures were never forgotten but have become more widely bestowed from the 18th century onwards.[234] As in antiquity, children are customarily named after their grandparents, with the first born male child named after the paternal grandfather, the second male child after the maternal grandfather, and similarly for female children.[237] Personal names are often familiarized by a diminutive suffix, such as -akis for male names and -itsa or -oula for female names.[234] Greeks generally do not use middle names, instead using the genitive of the father's first name as a middle name. This usage has been passed on to the Russians and other East Slavs (otchestvo).

Sea: exploring and commerce

Main article: Greek shipping
 
Aristotle Onassis, the best-known Greek shipping magnate worldwide

The traditional Greek homelands have been the Greek peninsula and the Aegean Sea, Southern Italy (Magna Graecia), the Black Sea, the Ionian coasts of Asia Minor and the islands of Cyprus and Sicily. In Plato's Phaidon, Socrates remarks, "we (Greeks) live around a sea like frogs around a pond" when describing to his friends the Greek cities of the Aegean.[238][239] This image is attested by the map of the Old Greek Diaspora, which corresponded to the Greek world until the creation of the Greek state in 1832. The sea and trade were natural outlets for Greeks since the Greek peninsula is mostly rocky and does not offer good prospects for agriculture.[45]

Notable Greek seafarers include people such as Pytheas of Massalia who sailed to Great Britain, Euthymenes who sailed to Africa, Scylax of Caryanda who sailed to India, the navarch of Alexander the Great Nearchus, Megasthenes, explorer of India, later the 6th century merchant and monk Cosmas Indicopleustes (Cosmas who sailed to India), and the explorer of the Northwestern Passage Ioannis Fokas also known as Juan de Fuca.[240] In later times, the Byzantine Greeks plied the sea-lanes of the Mediterranean and controlled trade until an embargo imposed by the Byzantine emperor on trade with the Caliphate opened the door for the later Italian pre-eminence in trade.[241] Panayotis Potagos was another explorer of modern times who was the first to reach Mbomu and Uele River from the north.

The Greek shipping tradition recovered during the late Ottoman rule (especially after the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca and during the Napoleonic Wars), when a substantial merchant middle class developed, which played an important part in the Greek War of Independence.[116] Today, Greek shipping continues to prosper to the extent that Greece has one of the largest merchant fleets in the world, while many more ships under Greek ownership fly flags of convenience.[178] The most notable shipping magnate of the 20th century was Aristotle Onassis, others being Yiannis Latsis, Stavros G. Livanos, and Stavros Niarchos.[242][243]

Genetics

See also: Genetic history of Europe
 
Admixture analysis of autosomal SNPs of the Balkan region in a global context on the resolution level of 7 assumed ancestral populations: African (brown), South/West European (light blue), Asian (yellow), Middle Eastern (orange), South Asian (green), North/East European (dark blue) and Caucasian/Anatolian component (beige).
 
Factor correspondence analysis comparing different individuals from European ancestry groups

Genetic studies using multiple autosomal gene markers, Y chromosomal DNA haplogroup analysis and mitochondrial gene markers (mtDNA) show that Greeks share similar backgrounds as the rest of the Europeans and especially Southern Europeans (Italians and southern Balkan populations such as Albanians, Slavic Macedonians and Romanians). According to the studies using multiple autosomal gene markers, Greeks are some of the earliest contributors of genetic material to the rest of the Europeans as they are one of the oldest populations in Europe.[244] A study in 2008 showed that Greeks are genetically closest to Italians and Romanians[245] and another 2008 study showed that they are close to Italians, Albanians, Romanians and southern Balkan Slavs.[246] A 2003 study showed that Greeks cluster with other South European (mainly Italians) and North-European populations and are close to the Basques,[247] and FST distances showed that they group with other European and Mediterranean populations,[244][248] especially with Italians (−0.0001) and Tuscans (0.0005).[249]

Y DNA studies show that Greeks cluster with other Europeans[c] and that they carry some of the oldest Y haplogroups in Europe, in particular the J2 haplogroup (and other J subhaplogroups) and E haplogroups, which are genetic markers denoting early farmers.[250][254][255][256] The Y-chromosome lineage E-V13 appears to have originated in Greece or the southern Balkans and is high in Greeks as well as in Albanians, southern Italians and southern Slavs. E-V13 is also found in Corsicans and Provencals, where an admixture analysis estimated that 17% of the Y-chromosomes of Provence may be attributed to Greek colonization, and is also found at low frequencies on the Anatolian mainland. These results suggest that E-V13 may trace the demographic and socio-cultural impact of Greek colonization in Mediterranean Europe, a contribution that appears to be considerably larger than that of a Neolithic pioneer colonization.[257][258][259] A study in 2008 showed that Greek regional samples from the mainland cluster with those from the Balkans, principally Albanians while Cretan Greeks cluster with the central Mediterranean and Eastern Mediterranean samples.[251] Greek signature DNA influence can be seen in Southern Italy and Sicily, where the genetic contribution of Greek chromosomes to the Sicilian gene pool is estimated to be about 37%, and the Southern Balkans, primarily Albania.[254][255] Di Gaetano et al. also note that the genetic links analysed in their findings "shows that Sicily and southeastern Europe, especially Greece and Albania, share a common background."[260]

Studies using mitochondrial DNA gene markers (mtDNA) showed that Greeks group with other Mediterranean European populations[261][262][263] and principal component analysis (PCA) confirmed the low genetic distance between Greeks and Italians[264] and also revealed a cline of genes with highest frequencies in the Balkans and Southern Italy, spreading to lowest levels in Britain and the Basque country, which Cavalli-Sforza associates it with "the Greek expansion, which reached its peak in historical times around 1000 and 500 BC but which certainly began earlier".[265]

A 2017 study on the genetic origins of the Minoans and Mycenaeans showed that modern Greeks resemble the Mycenaeans, but with some additional dilution of the early neolithic ancestry. The results of the study support the idea of genetic continuity between these civilizations and modern Greeks but not isolation in the history of populations of the Aegean, before and after the time of its earliest civilizations.[266][267][268] In an interview, the study's author, Harvard University geneticist Iosif Lazaridis, precised "that all three Bronze Age groups (Minoans, Mycenaeans, and Bronze Age southwestern Anatolians) trace most of their ancestry from the earlier Neolithic populations that were very similar in Greece and western Anatolia. But, they also had some ancestry from the 'east', related to populations of the Caucasus and Iran" as well as "some ancestry from the "north", related to hunter-gatherers of eastern Europe and Siberia and also to the Bronze Age people of the steppe. We could also compare the Mycenaeans—again, the first speakers of the Greek language—to modern people from Greece who are very similar to them, but with lower early Neolithic ancestry", and argues that "some had theorized that the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations were influenced both culturally and genetically by the old civilizations of the Levant and Egypt, but there is no quantifiable genetic influence".[269]

A 2021 study on the genomic history of the Aegean palatial civilizations showed that modern Greeks are genetically similar to northern Aegeans resident in the third millennium BC.[270]

Physical appearance

 
 
 
Greek warriors, details from painted sarcophagus found in Italy, 350–325 BC

A study from 2013 for prediction of hair and eye colour from DNA of the Greek people showed that the self-reported phenotype frequencies according to hair and eye colour categories was as follows: 119 individuals – hair colour, 11 blond, 45 dark blond/light brown, 49 dark brown, 3 brown red/auburn and 11 had black hair; eye colour, 13 with blue, 15 with intermediate (green, heterochromia) and 91 had brown eye colour.[271]

Another study from 2012 included 150 dental school students from the University of Athens, and the results of the study showed that light hair colour (blonde/light ash brown) was predominant in 10.7% of the students. 36% had medium hair colour (light brown/medium darkest brown), 32% had darkest brown and 21% black (15.3 off black, 6% midnight black). In conclusion, the hair colour of young Greeks are mostly brown, ranging from light to dark brown with significant minorities having black and blonde hair. The same study also showed that the eye colour of the students was 14.6% blue/green, 28% medium (light brown) and 57.4% dark brown.[272]

Timeline

The history of the Greek people is closely associated with the history of Greece, Cyprus, Southern Italy, Constantinople, Asia Minor and the Black Sea. During the Ottoman rule of Greece, a number of Greek enclaves around the Mediterranean were cut off from the core, notably in Southern Italy, the Caucasus, Syria and Egypt. By the early 20th century, over half of the overall Greek-speaking population was settled in Asia Minor (now Turkey), while later that century a huge wave of migration to the United States, Australia, Canada and elsewhere created the modern Greek diaspora.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ There is a range of interpretations: Carl Blegen dates the arrival of the Greeks around 1900 BC, John Caskey believes that there were two waves of immigrants and Robert Drews places the event as late as 1600 BC.[57][58] Numerous other theories have also been supported,[59] but there is a general consensus that the Greek tribes arrived around 2100 BC.
  2. ^ While Greek authorities signed the agreement legalizing the population exchange this was done on the insistence of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and after a million Greeks had already been expelled from Asia Minor (Gilbar 1997, p. 8).
  3. ^ See:[250][251][252][253][254]

Citations

  1. ^ Maratou-Alipranti 2013, p. 196: "The Greek diaspora remains large, consisting of up to 4 million people globally."
  2. ^ Clogg 2013, p. 228: "Greeks of the diaspora, settled in some 141 countries, were held to number 7 million although it is not clear how this figure was arrived at or what criteria were used to define Greek ethnicity, while the population of the homeland, according to the 1991 census, amounted to some 10.25 million."
  3. ^ . Hellenic Statistical Authority. 12 September 2014. Archived from the original on 16 July 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2016. The Resident Population of Greece is 10.816.286, of which 5.303.223 male (49,0%) and 5.513.063 female (51,0%) ... The total number of permanent residents of Greece with foreign citizenship during the Census was 912.000. [See Graph 6: Resident Population by Citizenship]
  4. ^ "Statistical Data on Immigrants in Greece: An Analytic Study of Available Data and Recommendations for Conformity with European Union Standards" (PDF). Archive of European Integration (AEI). University of Pittsburgh. 15 November 2004. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2016. [p. 5] The Census recorded 762.191 persons normally resident in Greece and without Greek citizenship, constituting around 7% of total population. Of these, 48.560 are EU or EFTA nationals; there are also 17.426 Cypriots with privileged status.
  5. ^ . Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
  6. ^ Cole 2011, Yiannis Papadakis, "Cypriots, Greek", pp. 92–95
  7. ^ . themanews.com. Protothemanews.com. 2013. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
  8. ^ "Total ancestry categories tallied for people with one or more ancestry categories reported 2011–2013 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates". American FactFinder. U.S. Department of Commerce: United States Census Bureau. 2013. Archived from the original on 14 February 2020. Retrieved 23 May 2016.
  9. ^ "U.S. Relations with Greece". United States Department of State. 10 March 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2016. Today, an estimated three million Americans resident in the United States claim Greek descent. This large, well-organized community cultivates close political and cultural ties with Greece.
  10. ^ "Statistical Yearbook Germany Extract Chapter 2: Population, Families and Living Arrangements in Germany". Statistisches Bundesamt. 14 March 2013. p. 21.
  11. ^ https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/community-profiles/2021/AUS/download/GCP_AUS.xlsx[bare URL spreadsheet file]
  12. ^ "United Kingdom: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 9 July 2013. There are between 40 and 45 thousand Greeks residing permanently in the UK, and the Greek Orthodox Church has a strong presence in the Archdiocese of Thyateira and Great Britain ... There is a significant Greek presence of Greek students in tertiary education in the UK. A large Cypriot community – numbering 250–300 thousand – rallies round the National Federation of Cypriots in Great Britain and the Association of Greek Orthodox Communities of Great Britain.
  13. ^ "Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables". statcan.gc.ca.
  14. ^ a b Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (2007). The Balkans : a post-communist history. London: Routledge. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-203-96911-3. OCLC 85373407. It is difficult to know how many ethnic Greeks there were in Albania before the exodus of refugees during the early to mid-1990s. The Albanian government claimed there were only 60,000, based on the biased 1989 census, whereas the Greek government claimed there were upwards of 300,000. Most Western estimates were around the 200,000 mark
  15. ^ . AusGreekNet. Archived from the original on 19 June 2006.
  16. ^ . Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 4 February 2011. Archived from the original on 19 June 2006.
  17. ^ "Italy: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 9 July 2013. The Greek Italian community numbers some 30,000 and is concentrated mainly in central Italy. The age-old presence in Italy of Italians of Greek descent – dating back to Byzantine and Classical times – is attested to by the Griko dialect, which is still spoken in the Magna Graecia region. This historically Greek-speaking villages are Condofuri, Galliciano, Roccaforte del Greco, Roghudi, Bova and Bova Marina, which are in the Calabria region (the capital of which is Reggio). The Grecanic region, including Reggio, has a population of some 200,000, while speakers of the Griko dialect number fewer that 1,000 persons.
  18. ^ a b "Grecia Salentina" (in Italian). Unione dei Comuni della Grecìa Salentina. 2016. La popolazione complessiva dell'Unione è di 54278 residenti così distribuiti (Dati Istat al 31° dicembre 2005. Comune Popolazione Calimera 7351 Carpignano Salentino 3868 Castrignano dei Greci 4164 Corigliano d'Otranto 5762 Cutrofiano 9250 Martano 9588 Martignano 1784 Melpignano 2234 Soleto 5551 Sternatia 2583 Zollino 2143 Totale 54278).
  19. ^ a b Bellinello 1998, p. 53: "Le attuali colonie Greche calabresi; La Grecìa calabrese si inscrive nel massiccio aspromontano e si concentra nell'ampia e frastagliata valle dell'Amendolea e nelle balze più a oriente, dove sorgono le fiumare dette di S. Pasquale, di Palizzi e Sidèroni e che costituiscono la Bovesia vera e propria. Compresa nei territori di cinque comuni (Bova Superiore, Bova Marina, Roccaforte del Greco, Roghudi, Condofuri), la Grecia si estende per circa 233 km (145 mi)q. La popolazione anagrafica complessiva è di circa 14.000 unità."
  20. ^ "English version of Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs reports a few thousand and Greek version 3.800". MFA.gr.
  21. ^ Rippin, Andrew (2008). World Islam: Critical Concepts in Islamic Studies. Routledge. p. 77. ISBN 978-0415456531.
  22. ^ Parvex R. (2014). Le Chili et les mouvements migratoires, Hommes & migrations, Nº 1305, 2014. doi: 10.4000/hommesmigrations.2720.
  23. ^ "Ukraine: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 4 February 2011. There is a significant Greek presence in southern and eastern Ukraine, which can be traced back to ancient Greek and Byzantine settlers. Ukrainian citizens of Greek descent amount to 91,000 people, although their number is estimated to be much higher by the Federation of Greek communities of Mariupol.
  24. ^ "Итоги Всероссийской переписи населения 2010 года в отношении демографических и социально-экономических характеристик отдельных национальностей".
  25. ^ . Archived from the original on 13 June 2007.
  26. ^ "France: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 9 July 2013. Some 15,000 Greeks reside in the wider region of Paris, Lille and Lyon. In the region of Southern France, the Greek community numbers some 20,000.
  27. ^ "Belgium: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 28 January 2011. Some 35,000 Greeks reside in Belgium. Official Belgian data numbers Greeks in the country at 17,000, but does not take into account Greeks who have taken Belgian citizenship or work for international organizations and enterprises.
  28. ^ "Argentina: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 9 July 2013. It is estimated that some 20,000 to 30,000 persons of Greek origin currently reside in Argentina, and there are Greek communities in the wider region of Buenos Aires.
  29. ^ "CBS Statline".
  30. ^ "Bevolking; geslacht, leeftijd, generatie en migratieachtergrond, 1 januari" (in Dutch). Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). 22 July 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2022.
  31. ^ "Население по местоживеене, възраст и етническа група". censusresults.nsi.bg. Retrieved 15 October 2020.
  32. ^ "Bulgaria: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 28 January 2011. There are some 28,500 persons of Greek origin and citizenship residing in Bulgaria. This number includes approximately 15,000 Sarakatsani, 2,500 former political refugees, 8,000 "old Greeks", 2,000 university students and 1,000 professionals and their families.
  33. ^ (PDF) (in Spanish). INE. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2013. Retrieved 6 March 2013.
  34. ^ "Sweden: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 4 February 2011. The Greek community in Sweden consists of approximately 24,000 Greeks who are permanent inhabitants, included in Swedish society and active in various sectors: science, arts, literature, culture, media, education, business, and politics.
  35. ^ "Georgia: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 31 January 2011. The Greek community of Georgia is currently estimated at 15,000 people, mostly elderly people living in the Tsalkas area.
  36. ^ "Migranti z Řecka v Česku" [Migrants from Greece in the Czech Republic] (PDF). Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs (in Czech). 9 March 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 25 April 2019.
  37. ^ "Kazakhstan: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 3 February 2011. There are between 10,000 and 12,000 ethnic Greeks living in Kazakhstan, organized in several communities.
  38. ^ "Switzerland: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 10 December 2015. The Greek community in Switzerland is estimated to number some 11,000 persons (of a total of 1.5 million foreigners residing in the country.
  39. ^ "Romania: Cultural Relations and Greek Community". Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 6 December 2013. The Greek Romanian community numbers some 10,000, and there are many Greeks working in established Greek enterprises in Romania.
  40. ^ "Greeks in Uzbekistan". Central Asia-Caucasus Analyst. The Central Asia-Caucasus Institute. 21 June 2000. Currently there are about 9,500 Greeks living in Uzbekistan, with 6,500 living in Tashkent.
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  48. ^ Beaton 1996, pp. 1–25.
  49. ^ CIA World Factbook on Greece: Greek Orthodox 98%, Greek Muslim 1.3%, other 0.7%.
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  53. ^ Guibernau & Hutchinson 2004, p. 23: "Indeed, Smith emphasizes that the myth of divine election sustains the continuity of cultural identity, and, in that regard, has enabled certain pre-modern communities such as the Jews, Armenians, and Greeks to survive and persist over centuries and millennia (Smith 1993: 15–20)."
  54. ^ Smith 1999, p. 21: "It emphasizes the role of myths, memories and symbols of ethnic chosenness, trauma, and the 'golden age' of saints, sages, and heroes in the rise of modern nationalism among the Jews, Armenians, and Greeks—the archetypal diaspora peoples."
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  76. ^ Burger 2008, pp. 57–58: "Poleis continued to go to war with each other. The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) made this painfully clear. The war (really two wars punctuated by a peace) was a duel between Greece's two leading cities, Athens and Sparta. Most other poleis, however, got sucked into the conflict as allies of one side or the other ... The fact that Greeks were willing to fight for their cities against other Greeks in conflicts like the Peloponnesian War showed the limits of the pull of Hellas compared with that of the polis."
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  87. ^ Lucore 2009, p. 51: "The Hellenistic period is commonly portrayed as the great age of Greek scientific discovery, above all in mathematics and astronomy."
  88. ^ Foltz 2010, pp. 43–46.
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  98. ^ Howatson 1989, p. 264: "From the fourth century AD onwards the Greeks of the eastern Roman empire called themselves Rhomaioi ('Romans') ..."
  99. ^ a b Cameron 2009, p. 7.
  100. ^ Harrison 2002, p. 268: "Roman, Greek (if not used in its sense of 'pagan') and Christian became synonymous terms, counterposed to 'foreigner', 'barbarian', 'infidel'. The citizens of the Empire, now predominantly of Greek ethnicity and language, were often called simply ό χριστώνυμος λαός ['the people who bear Christ's name']."
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  108. ^ Fouracre & Gerberding 1996, p. 345: "The Frankish court no longer regarded the Byzantine Empire as holding valid claims of universality; instead it was now termed the 'Empire of the Greeks'."
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  121. ^ Jane Perry Clark Carey; Andrew Galbraith Carey (1968). The Web of Modern Greek Politics. Columbia University Press. p. 33. ISBN 9780231031707. By the end of the fourteenth century the Byzantine emperor was often called "Emperor of the Hellenes"
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  125. ^ Harris 1999, Part II Medieval Libraries: Chapter 6 Byzantine and Moslem Libraries, pp. 71–88
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  156. ^ Cartledge 2011, Chapter 4: Argos, p. 23: "The Late Bronze Age in Greece is also called conventionally 'Mycenaean', as we saw in the last chapter. But it might in principle have been called 'Argive', 'Achaean', or 'Danaan', since the three names that Homer does apply to Greeks collectively were 'Argives', 'Achaeans', and 'Danaans'."
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January 02, 2023
greeks, other, uses, disambiguation, grecian, redirects, here, other, uses, grecian, disambiguation, hellenes, greek, Έλληνες, Éllines, ˈelines, ethnic, group, nation, indigenous, eastern, mediterranean, black, namely, greece, cyprus, also, broader, macedonian. For other uses see Greeks disambiguation Grecian redirects here For other uses see Grecian disambiguation The Greeks or Hellenes ˈ h ɛ l iː n z Greek Ellhnes Ellines ˈelines are an ethnic group and nation indigenous to the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea namely Greece and Cyprus but also in the broader Macedonian region southern Albania parts of Italy Anatolia Pontus and parts of Egypt as well as to a lesser extent other countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea They also form a significant diaspora omogenia with Greek communities established around the world 45 GreeksHellenesEllhnesTotal populationc 14 17 million 1 2 Regions with significant populations Greece 9 903 268 3 4 2011 census Cyprus 659 115 5 6 7 2011 census United States1 279 000 3 000 000a 2016 estimate 8 9 Germany443 000b 2016 estimate 10 Australia424 750 2021 census 11 United Kingdom345 000 400 000 2011 estimate 12 Canada271 405c 2016 census 13 Albania200 000 c 1990 estimate 14 New Zealandest 2 478 to 10 000 possibly up to 50 000 15 South Africa138 000 2011 estimate 16 Italy110 000 200 000d 2013 estimate 17 18 19 Egypt110 000 20 21 Chile100 000 22 Ukraine91 000 2011 estimate 23 Russia85 640 2010 census 24 Brazil50 000e 25 France35 000 2013 estimate 26 Belgium35 000 2011 estimate 27 Argentina30 000 50 000 2013 estimate 28 Netherlands28 856 2021 29 30 Bulgaria1 356 2011 census 31 up to 28 500 estimate 32 Uruguay25 000 28 000 2011 census 33 Sweden24 736 2012 census 34 Georgia15 000 2011 estimate 35 Czech Republic12 000 36 Kazakhstan8 846 2011 estimate 37 Switzerland11 000 2015 estimate 38 Romania10 000 2013 estimate 39 Uzbekistan9 500 2000 estimate 40 Austria5 261 41 Hungary4 454 2016 census 42 Turkey4 000 49 143f 43 44 LanguagesGreekReligionPrimarily Greek Orthodox Churcha Includes those of ancestral descent b Includes people with cultural roots c Those whose stated ethnic origins included Greek among others The number of those whose stated ethnic origin is solely Greek is 145 250 An additional 3 395 Cypriots of undeclared ethnicity live in Canada dApprox 60 000 Griko people and 30 000 post WW2 migrants e Including descendants f Including Greek Muslims Greek colonies and communities have been historically established on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea but the Greek people themselves have always been centered on the Aegean and Ionian seas where the Greek language has been spoken since the Bronze Age 46 47 Until the early 20th century Greeks were distributed between the Greek peninsula the western coast of Asia Minor the Black Sea coast Cappadocia in central Anatolia Egypt the Balkans Cyprus and Constantinople 47 Many of these regions coincided to a large extent with the borders of the Byzantine Empire of the late 11th century and the Eastern Mediterranean areas of ancient Greek colonization 48 The cultural centers of the Greeks have included Athens Thessalonica Alexandria Smyrna and Constantinople at various periods In recent times most ethnic Greeks live within the borders of the modern Greek state or in Cyprus The Greek genocide and population exchange between Greece and Turkey nearly ended the three millennia old Greek presence in Asia Minor Other longstanding Greek populations can be found from southern Italy to the Caucasus and southern Russia and Ukraine and in the Greek diaspora communities in a number of other countries Today most Greeks are officially registered as members of the Greek Orthodox Church 49 Greeks have greatly influenced and contributed to culture visual arts exploration theatre literature philosophy ethics politics architecture music mathematics 50 medicine science technology commerce cuisine and sports The Greek language is the oldest written language still in use and its vocabulary has been the basis of many languages including English as well as international scientific nomenclature Greek was by far the most widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and the New Testament of the Christian Bible was also originally written in Greek 51 52 Contents 1 History 1 1 Origins 1 2 Mycenaean 1 3 Classical 1 4 Hellenistic 1 5 Roman Empire 1 6 Middle Ages 1 7 Ottoman Empire 1 8 Modern 2 Identity 2 1 Names 2 2 Continuity 2 3 Demographics 2 4 Diaspora 2 4 1 Ancient 2 4 2 Modern 3 Culture 3 1 Language 3 2 Religion 3 3 Arts 3 4 Science 3 5 Symbols 3 6 Politics 3 7 Surnames and personal names 3 8 Sea exploring and commerce 4 Genetics 5 Physical appearance 6 Timeline 7 See also 8 Notes 9 Citations 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External linksHistoryFurther information History of Greece Proto Greek area of settlement 2200 2100 1900 BC suggested by Katona 2000 Sakelariou 2016 1980 1975 and Phylaktopoulos 1975 Mycenaean funeral mask known as Mask of Agamemnon 16th century BC The Greeks speak the Greek language which forms its own unique branch within the Indo European family of languages the Hellenic 47 They are part of a group of classical ethnicities described by Anthony D Smith as an archetypal diaspora people 53 54 Origins Further information Proto Greek language List of Ancient Greek tribes and Ancient Greek religion The Proto Greeks probably arrived at the area now called Greece in the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula at the end of the 3rd millennium BC between 2200 and 1900 BC 55 56 a The sequence of migrations into the Greek mainland during the 2nd millennium BC has to be reconstructed on the basis of the ancient Greek dialects as they presented themselves centuries later and are therefore subject to some uncertainties There were at least two migrations the first being the Ionians and Achaeans which resulted in Mycenaean Greece by the 16th century BC 60 61 and the second the Dorian invasion around the 11th century BC displacing the Arcadocypriot dialects which descended from the Mycenaean period Both migrations occur at incisive periods the Mycenaean at the transition to the Late Bronze Age and the Doric at the Bronze Age collapse Mycenaean Main article Mycenaean Greece In c 1600 BC the Mycenaean Greeks borrowed from the Minoan civilization its syllabic writing system Linear A and developed their own syllabic script known as Linear B 62 providing the first and oldest written evidence of Greek 62 63 The Mycenaeans quickly penetrated the Aegean Sea and by the 15th century BC had reached Rhodes Crete Cyprus and the shores of Asia Minor 47 64 Around 1200 BC the Dorians another Greek speaking people followed from Epirus 65 Older historical research often proposed Dorian invasion caused the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization but this narrative has been abandoned in all contemporary research It is likely that one of the factors which contributed to the Mycenaean palatial collapse was linked to raids by groups known in historiography as the Sea Peoples who sailed into the eastern Mediterranean around 1180 BC 66 The Dorian invasion was followed by a poorly attested period of migrations appropriately called the Greek Dark Ages but by 800 BC the landscape of Archaic and Classical Greece was discernible 67 The Greeks of classical antiquity idealized their Mycenaean ancestors and the Mycenaean period as a glorious era of heroes closeness of the gods and material wealth 68 The Homeric Epics i e Iliad and Odyssey were especially and generally accepted as part of the Greek past and it was not until the time of Euhemerism that scholars began to question Homer s historicity 67 As part of the Mycenaean heritage that survived the names of the gods and goddesses of Mycenaean Greece e g Zeus Poseidon and Hades became major figures of the Olympian Pantheon of later antiquity 69 Classical Main article Classical Greece The three great philosophers of the classical era Socrates Plato and Aristotle The ethnogenesis of the Greek nation is linked to the development of Pan Hellenism in the 8th century BC 70 According to some scholars the foundational event was the Olympic Games in 776 BC when the idea of a common Hellenism among the Greek tribes was first translated into a shared cultural experience and Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture 45 The works of Homer i e Iliad and Odyssey and Hesiod i e Theogony were written in the 8th century BC becoming the basis of the national religion ethos history and mythology 71 The Oracle of Apollo at Delphi was established in this period 72 The classical period of Greek civilization covers a time spanning from the early 5th century BC to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC some authors prefer to split this period into Classical from the end of the Greco Persian Wars to the end of the Peloponnesian War and Fourth Century up to the death of Alexander It is so named because it set the standards by which Greek civilization would be judged in later eras 73 The Classical period is also described as the Golden Age of Greek civilization and its art philosophy architecture and literature would be instrumental in the formation and development of Western culture While the Greeks of the classical era understood themselves to belong to a common Hellenic genos 74 their first loyalty was to their city and they saw nothing incongruous about warring often brutally with other Greek city states 75 The Peloponnesian War the large scale civil war between the two most powerful Greek city states Athens and Sparta and their allies left both greatly weakened 76 Alexander the Great whose conquests led to the Hellenistic Age Most of the feuding Greek city states were in some scholars opinions united by force under the banner of Philip s and Alexander the Great s Pan Hellenic ideals though others might generally opt rather for an explanation of Macedonian conquest for the sake of conquest or at least conquest for the sake of riches glory and power and view the ideal as useful propaganda directed towards the city states 77 In any case Alexander s toppling of the Achaemenid Empire after his victories at the battles of the Granicus Issus and Gaugamela and his advance as far as modern day Pakistan and Tajikistan 78 provided an important outlet for Greek culture via the creation of colonies and trade routes along the way 79 While the Alexandrian empire did not survive its creator s death intact the cultural implications of the spread of Hellenism across much of the Middle East and Asia were to prove long lived as Greek became the lingua franca a position it retained even in Roman times 80 Many Greeks settled in Hellenistic cities like Alexandria Antioch and Seleucia 81 Hellenistic Main articles Hellenistic period and Hellenistic Greece The Hellenistic realms c 300 BC as divided by the Diadochi the Macedonian Kingdom of Cassander green the Ptolemaic Kingdom dark blue the Seleucid Empire yellow the areas controlled by Lysimachus orange and Epirus red Bust of Cleopatra VII Altes Museum Berlin the last ruler of a Hellenistic kingdom apart from the Indo Greek Kingdom The Hellenistic civilization was the next period of Greek civilization the beginnings of which are usually placed at Alexander s death 82 This Hellenistic age so called because it saw the partial Hellenization of many non Greek cultures extending all the way into India and Bactria both of which maintained Greek cultures and governments for centuries 83 The end is often placed around conquest of Egypt by Rome in 30 BC 82 although the Indo Greek kingdoms lasted for a few more decades This age saw the Greeks move towards larger cities and a reduction in the importance of the city state These larger cities were parts of the still larger Kingdoms of the Diadochi 84 85 Greeks however remained aware of their past chiefly through the study of the works of Homer and the classical authors 86 An important factor in maintaining Greek identity was contact with barbarian non Greek peoples which was deepened in the new cosmopolitan environment of the multi ethnic Hellenistic kingdoms 86 This led to a strong desire among Greeks to organize the transmission of the Hellenic paideia to the next generation 86 Greek science technology and mathematics are generally considered to have reached their peak during the Hellenistic period 87 In the Indo Greek and Greco Bactrian kingdoms Greco Buddhism was spreading and Greek missionaries would play an important role in propagating it to China 88 Further east the Greeks of Alexandria Eschate became known to the Chinese people as the Dayuan 89 Roman Empire Further information Roman Greece and Greco Roman world Between 168 BC and 30 BC the entire Greek world was conquered by Rome and almost all of the world s Greek speakers lived as citizens or subjects of the Roman Empire Despite their military superiority the Romans admired and became heavily influenced by the achievements of Greek culture hence Horace s famous statement Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit Greece although captured took its wild conqueror captive 90 In the centuries following the Roman conquest of the Greek world the Greek and Roman cultures merged into a single Greco Roman culture In the religious sphere this was a period of profound change The spiritual revolution that took place saw a waning of the old Greek religion whose decline beginning in the 3rd century BC continued with the introduction of new religious movements from the East 45 The cults of deities like Isis and Mithra were introduced into the Greek world 85 91 Greek speaking communities of the Hellenized East were instrumental in the spread of early Christianity in the 2nd and 3rd centuries 92 and Christianity s early leaders and writers notably Saint Paul were generally Greek speaking 93 though none were from Greece proper However Greece itself had a tendency to cling to paganism and was not one of the influential centers of early Christianity in fact some ancient Greek religious practices remained in vogue until the end of the 4th century 94 with some areas such as the southeastern Peloponnese remaining pagan until well into the mid Byzantine 10th century AD 95 The region of Tsakonia remained pagan until the ninth century and as such its inhabitants were referred to as Hellenes in the sense of being pagan by their Christianized Greek brethren in mainstream Byzantine society 96 While ethnic distinctions still existed in the Roman Empire they became secondary to religious considerations and the renewed empire used Christianity as a tool to support its cohesion and promote a robust Roman national identity 97 From the early centuries of the Common Era the Greeks self identified as Romans Greek Ῥwmaῖoi Rhōmaioi 98 By that time the name Hellenes denoted pagans but was revived as an ethnonym in the 11th century 99 Middle Ages See also Byzantine empire Byzantine Greece Byzantine Greeks Fourth Crusade and Frankokratia Scenes of marriage and family life in Constantinople Emperor Basil II 11th century is credited with reviving the Byzantine Empire Gemistos Plethon one of the most renowned philosophers of the late Byzantine era a chief pioneer of the revival of Greek scholarship in Western Europe During most of the Middle Ages the Byzantine Greeks self identified as Rhōmaioi Ῥwmaῖoi Romans meaning citizens of the Roman Empire a term which in the Greek language had become synonymous with Christian Greeks 100 101 The Latinizing term Graikoi Graikoi Greeks was also used 102 though its use was less common and nonexistent in official Byzantine political correspondence prior to the Fourth Crusade of 1204 103 The Eastern Roman Empire today conventionally named the Byzantine Empire a name not used during its own time 104 became increasingly influenced by Greek culture after the 7th century when Emperor Heraclius r 610 641 AD decided to make Greek the empire s official language 105 106 Although the Catholic Church recognized the Eastern Empire s claim to the Roman legacy for several centuries after Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne king of the Franks as the Roman Emperor on 25 December 800 an act which eventually led to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire the Latin West started to favour the Franks and began to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire largely as the Empire of the Greeks Imperium Graecorum 107 108 While this Latin term for the ancient Hellenes could be used neutrally its use by Westerners from the 9th century onwards in order to challenge Byzantine claims to ancient Roman heritage rendered it a derogatory exonym for the Byzantines who barely used it mostly in contexts relating to the West such as texts relating to the Council of Florence to present the Western viewpoint 109 110 Additionally among the Germanic and the Slavic peoples the Rhōmaioi were just called Greeks 111 112 There are three schools of thought regarding this Byzantine Roman identity in contemporary Byzantine scholarship The first considers Romanity the mode of self identification of the subjects of a multi ethnic empire at least up to the 12th century where the average subject identified as Roman a perennialist approach which views Romanity as the medieval expression of a continuously existing Greek nation while a third view considers the eastern Roman identity as a pre modern national identity 113 The Byzantine Greeks essential values were drawn from both Christianity and the Homeric tradition of ancient Greece 114 115 A distinct Greek identity re emerged in the 11th century in educated circles and became more forceful after the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade in 1204 116 In the Empire of Nicaea a small circle of the elite used the term Hellene as a term of self identification 117 For example in a letter to Pope Gregory IX the Nicaean emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes r 1221 1254 claimed to have received the gift of royalty from Constantine the Great and put emphasis on his Hellenic descent exalting the wisdom of the Greek people 118 After the Byzantines recaptured Constantinople however in 1261 Rhomaioi became again dominant as a term for self description and there are few traces of Hellene Ellhnas such as in the writings of George Gemistos Plethon 119 who abandoned Christianity and in whose writings culminated the secular tendency in the interest in the classical past 116 However it was the combination of Orthodox Christianity with a specifically Greek identity that shaped the Greeks notion of themselves in the empire s twilight years 116 In the twilight years of the Byzantine Empire prominent Byzantine personalities proposed referring to the Byzantine Emperor as the Emperor of the Hellenes 120 121 These largely rhetorical expressions of Hellenic identity were confined within intellectual circles but were continued by Byzantine intellectuals who participated in the Italian Renaissance 122 The interest in the Classical Greek heritage was complemented by a renewed emphasis on Greek Orthodox identity which was reinforced in the late Medieval and Ottoman Greeks links with their fellow Orthodox Christians in the Russian Empire These were further strengthened following the fall of the Empire of Trebizond in 1461 after which and until the second Russo Turkish War of 1828 29 hundreds of thousands of Pontic Greeks fled or migrated from the Pontic Alps and Armenian Highlands to southern Russia and the Russian South Caucasus see also Greeks in Russia Greeks in Armenia Greeks in Georgia and Caucasian Greeks 123 These Byzantine Greeks were largely responsible for the preservation of the literature of the classical era 115 124 125 Byzantine grammarians were those principally responsible for carrying in person and in writing ancient Greek grammatical and literary studies to the West during the 15th century giving the Italian Renaissance a major boost 126 127 The Aristotelian philosophical tradition was nearly unbroken in the Greek world for almost two thousand years until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 128 To the Slavic world the Byzantine Greeks contributed by the dissemination of literacy and Christianity The most notable example of the later was the work of the two Byzantine Greek brothers the monks Saints Cyril and Methodius from the port city of Thessalonica capital of the theme of Thessalonica who are credited today with formalizing the first Slavic alphabet 129 Ottoman Empire Main articles Ottoman Greeks and Phanariotes The Byzantine scholar and cardinal Basilios Bessarion 1395 1403 1472 played a key role in transmitting classical knowledge to Western Europe contributing to the Renaissance Following the Fall of Constantinople on 29 May 1453 many Greeks sought better employment and education opportunities by leaving for the West particularly Italy Central Europe Germany and Russia 126 Greeks are greatly credited for the European cultural revolution later called the Renaissance In Greek inhabited territory itself Greeks came to play a leading role in the Ottoman Empire due in part to the fact that the central hub of the empire politically culturally and socially was based on Western Thrace and Greek Macedonia both in Northern Greece and of course was centred on the mainly Greek populated former Byzantine capital Constantinople As a direct consequence of this situation Greek speakers came to play a hugely important role in the Ottoman trading and diplomatic establishment as well as in the church Added to this in the first half of the Ottoman period men of Greek origin made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman army navy and state bureaucracy having been levied as adolescents along with especially Albanians and Serbs into Ottoman service through the devshirme Many Ottomans of Greek or Albanian or Serb origin were therefore to be found within the Ottoman forces which governed the provinces from Ottoman Egypt to Ottomans occupied Yemen and Algeria frequently as provincial governors For those that remained under the Ottoman Empire s millet system religion was the defining characteristic of national groups milletler so the exonym Greeks Rumlar from the name Rhomaioi was applied by the Ottomans to all members of the Orthodox Church regardless of their language or ethnic origin 130 The Greek speakers were the only ethnic group to actually call themselves Romioi 131 as opposed to being so named by others and at least those educated considered their ethnicity genos to be Hellenic 132 There were however many Greeks who escaped the second class status of Christians inherent in the Ottoman millet system according to which Muslims were explicitly awarded senior status and preferential treatment These Greeks either emigrated particularly to their fellow Orthodox Christian protector the Russian Empire or simply converted to Islam often only very superficially and whilst remaining crypto Christian The most notable examples of large scale conversion to Turkish Islam among those today defined as Greek Muslims excluding those who had to convert as a matter of course on being recruited through the devshirme were to be found in Crete Cretan Turks Greek Macedonia for example among the Vallahades of western Macedonia and among Pontic Greeks in the Pontic Alps and Armenian Highlands Several Ottoman sultans and princes were also of part Greek origin with mothers who were either Greek concubines or princesses from Byzantine noble families one famous example being sultan Selim the Grim r 1517 1520 whose mother Gulbahar Hatun was a Pontic Greek Adamantios Korais leading figure of the Modern Greek Enlightenment The roots of Greek success in the Ottoman Empire can be traced to the Greek tradition of education and commerce exemplified in the Phanariotes 133 It was the wealth of the extensive merchant class that provided the material basis for the intellectual revival that was the prominent feature of Greek life in the half century and more leading to the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence in 1821 134 Not coincidentally on the eve of 1821 the three most important centres of Greek learning were situated in Chios Smyrna and Aivali all three major centres of Greek commerce 134 Greek success was also favoured by Greek domination in the leadership of the Eastern Orthodox church Modern See also Modern Greek Enlightenment and Greek War of Independence The movement of the Greek enlightenment the Greek expression of the Age of Enlightenment contributed not only in the promotion of education culture and printing among the Greeks but also in the case of independence from the Ottomans and the restoration of the term Hellene Adamantios Korais probably the most important intellectual of the movement advocated the use of the term Hellene Ellhnas or Graikos Graikos in the place of Romios that was seen negatively by him The relationship between ethnic Greek identity and Greek Orthodox religion continued after the creation of the modern Greek nation state in 1830 According to the second article of the first Greek constitution of 1822 a Greek was defined as any native Christian resident of the Kingdom of Greece a clause removed by 1840 135 A century later when the Treaty of Lausanne was signed between Greece and Turkey in 1923 the two countries agreed to use religion as the determinant for ethnic identity for the purposes of population exchange although most of the Greeks displaced over a million of the total 1 5 million had already been driven out by the time the agreement was signed b 136 The Greek genocide in particular the harsh removal of Pontian Greeks from the southern shore area of the Black Sea contemporaneous with and following the failed Greek Asia Minor Campaign was part of this process of Turkification of the Ottoman Empire and the placement of its economy and trade then largely in Greek hands under ethnic Turkish control 137 Identity The cover of Hermes o Logios a Greek literary publication of the late 18th and early 19th centuries in Vienna with major contribution to the Modern Greek Enlightenment The terms used to define Greekness have varied throughout history but were never limited or completely identified with membership to a Greek state 138 Herodotus gave a famous account of what defined Greek Hellenic ethnic identity in his day enumerating shared descent ὅmaimon homaimon of the same blood 139 shared language ὁmoglwsson homoglōsson speaking the same language 140 shared sanctuaries and sacrifices 8eῶn ἱdrymata te koinὰ kaὶ 8ysiai theōn hidrumata te koina kai thusiai 141 shared customs ἤ8ea ὁmotropa ethea homotropa customs of like fashion 142 143 144 By Western standards the term Greeks has traditionally referred to any native speakers of the Greek language whether Mycenaean Byzantine or modern Greek 130 145 Byzantine Greeks self identified as Romaioi Romans Graikoi Greeks and Christianoi Christians since they were the political heirs of imperial Rome the descendants of their classical Greek forebears and followers of the Apostles 146 during the mid to late Byzantine period 11th 13th century a growing number of Byzantine Greek intellectuals deemed themselves Hellenes although for most Greek speakers Hellene still meant pagan 99 147 On the eve of the Fall of Constantinople the Last Emperor urged his soldiers to remember that they were the descendants of Greeks and Romans 148 Before the establishment of the modern Greek nation state the link between ancient and modern Greeks was emphasized by the scholars of Greek Enlightenment especially by Rigas Feraios In his Political Constitution he addresses to the nation as the people descendant of the Greeks 149 The modern Greek state was created in 1829 when the Greeks liberated a part of their historic homelands Peloponnese from the Ottoman Empire 150 The large Greek diaspora and merchant class were instrumental in transmitting the ideas of western romantic nationalism and philhellenism 134 which together with the conception of Hellenism formulated during the last centuries of the Byzantine Empire formed the basis of the Diafotismos and the current conception of Hellenism 116 130 151 The Greeks today are a nation in the meaning of an ethnos defined by possessing Greek culture and having a Greek mother tongue not by citizenship race and religion or by being subjects of any particular state 152 In ancient and medieval times and to some extent today the Greek term was genos which also indicates a common ancestry 153 154 Names Main articles Achaeans Homer and Names of the Greeks Map showing the major regions of mainland ancient Greece and adjacent barbarian lands Greeks and Greek speakers have used different names to refer to themselves collectively The term Achaeans Ἀxaioi is one of the collective names for the Greeks in Homer s Iliad and Odyssey the Homeric long haired Achaeans would have been a part of the Mycenaean civilization that dominated Greece from c 1600 BC until 1100 BC The other common names are Danaans Danaoi and Argives Ἀrgeῖoi while Panhellenes Panellhnes and Hellenes Ἕllhnes both appear only once in the Iliad 155 all of these terms were used synonymously to denote a common Greek identity 156 157 In the historical period Herodotus identified the Achaeans of the northern Peloponnese as descendants of the earlier Homeric Achaeans 158 Homer refers to the Hellenes ˈ h ɛ l iː n z as a relatively small tribe settled in Thessalic Phthia with its warriors under the command of Achilleus 159 The Parian Chronicle says that Phthia was the homeland of the Hellenes and that this name was given to those previously called Greeks Graikoi 160 In Greek mythology Hellen the patriarch of the Hellenes who ruled around Phthia was the son of Pyrrha and Deucalion the only survivors after the Great Deluge 161 The Greek philosopher Aristotle names ancient Hellas as an area in Epirus between Dodona and the Achelous river the location of the Great Deluge of Deucalion a land occupied by the Selloi and the Greeks who later came to be known as Hellenes 162 In the Homeric tradition the Selloi were the priests of Dodonian Zeus 163 In the Hesiodic Catalogue of Women Graecus is presented as the son of Zeus and Pandora II sister of Hellen the patriarch of the Hellenes 164 According to the Parian Chronicle when Deucalion became king of Phthia the Graikoi Graikoi were named Hellenes 160 Aristotle notes in his Meteorologica that the Hellenes were related to the Graikoi 162 Continuity Alexander the Great in Byzantine Emperor s clothes by a manuscript depicting scenes from his life between 1204 and 1453 The most obvious link between modern and ancient Greeks is their language which has a documented tradition from at least the 14th century BC to the present day albeit with a break during the Greek Dark Ages from which written records are absent 11th 8th cent BC though the Cypriot syllabary was in use during this period 165 Scholars compare its continuity of tradition to Chinese alone 165 166 Since its inception Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture and the national continuity of the Greek world is a lot more certain than its demographic 45 167 Yet Hellenism also embodied an ancestral dimension through aspects of Athenian literature that developed and influenced ideas of descent based on autochthony 168 During the later years of the Eastern Roman Empire areas such as Ionia and Constantinople experienced a Hellenic revival in language philosophy and literature and on classical models of thought and scholarship 167 This revival provided a powerful impetus to the sense of cultural affinity with ancient Greece and its classical heritage 167 Throughout their history the Greeks have retained their language and alphabet certain values and cultural traditions customs a sense of religious and cultural difference and exclusion the word barbarian was used by 12th century historian Anna Komnene to describe non Greek speakers 169 a sense of Greek identity and common sense of ethnicity despite the undeniable socio political changes of the past two millennia 167 In recent anthropological studies both ancient and modern Greek osteological samples were analyzed demonstrating a bio genetic affinity and continuity shared between both groups 170 171 There is also a direct genetic link between ancient Greeks and modern Greeks 172 173 Demographics Main articles Demographics of Greece and Demographics of Cyprus Today Greeks are the majority ethnic group in the Hellenic Republic 174 where they constitute 93 of the country s population 175 and the Republic of Cyprus where they make up 78 of the island s population excluding Turkish settlers in the occupied part of the country 176 Greek populations have not traditionally exhibited high rates of growth a large percentage of Greek population growth since Greece s foundation in 1832 was attributed to annexation of new territories as well as the influx of 1 5 million Greek refugees after the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey 177 About 80 of the population of Greece is urban with 28 concentrated in the city of Athens 178 Greeks from Cyprus have a similar history of emigration usually to the English speaking world because of the island s colonization by the British Empire Waves of emigration followed the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974 while the population decreased between mid 1974 and 1977 as a result of emigration war losses and a temporary decline in fertility 179 After the ethnic cleansing of a third of the Greek population of the island in 1974 180 181 there was also an increase in the number of Greek Cypriots leaving especially for the Middle East which contributed to a decrease in population that tapered off in the 1990s 179 Today more than two thirds of the Greek population in Cyprus is urban 179 Around 1990 most Western estimates of the number of ethnic Greeks in Albania were around 200 000 but in the 1990s a majority of them migrated to Greece 14 182 The Greek minority of Turkey which numbered upwards of 200 000 people after the 1923 exchange has now dwindled to a few thousand after the 1955 Constantinople Pogrom and other state sponsored violence and discrimination 183 This effectively ended though not entirely the three thousand year old presence of Hellenism in Asia Minor 184 185 There are smaller Greek minorities in the rest of the Balkan countries the Levant and the Black Sea states remnants of the Old Greek Diaspora pre 19th century 186 Diaspora Main article Greek diaspora Greek diaspora 20th century The total number of Greeks living outside Greece and Cyprus today is a contentious issue Where census figures are available they show around 3 million Greeks outside Greece and Cyprus Estimates provided by the SAE World Council of Hellenes Abroad put the figure at around 7 million worldwide 187 According to George Prevelakis of Sorbonne University the number is closer to just below 5 million 186 Integration intermarriage and loss of the Greek language influence the self identification of the Greek diaspora Omogenia important centres include New York Melbourne London and Toronto 186 In 2010 the Hellenic Parliament introduced a law that allowed members of the diaspora to vote in the Greek elections 188 this law was later repealed in early 2014 189 Ancient See also Colonies in antiquity Greek colonization in antiquity In ancient times the trading and colonizing activities of the Greek tribes and city states spread the Greek culture religion and language around the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins especially in Sicily and southern Italy also known as Magna Grecia Spain the south of France and the Black sea coasts 190 Under Alexander the Great s empire and successor states Greek and Hellenizing ruling classes were established in the Middle East India and in Egypt 190 The Hellenistic period is characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization that established Greek cities and kingdoms in Asia and Africa 191 Under the Roman Empire easier movement of people spread Greeks across the Empire and in the eastern territories Greek became the lingua franca rather than Latin 105 The modern day Griko community of southern Italy numbering about 60 000 18 19 may represent a living remnant of the ancient Greek populations of Italy Modern Distribution of ethnic groups in 1918 National Geographic Poet Constantine P Cavafy a native of Alexandria Egypt During and after the Greek War of Independence Greeks of the diaspora were important in establishing the fledgling state raising funds and awareness abroad 192 Greek merchant families already had contacts in other countries and during the disturbances many set up home around the Mediterranean notably Marseilles in France Livorno in Italy Alexandria in Egypt Russia Odesa and Saint Petersburg and Britain London and Liverpool from where they traded typically in textiles and grain 193 Businesses frequently comprised the extended family and with them they brought schools teaching Greek and the Greek Orthodox Church 193 As markets changed and they became more established some families grew their operations to become shippers financed through the local Greek community notably with the aid of the Ralli or Vagliano Brothers 194 With economic success the Diaspora expanded further across the Levant North Africa India and the USA 194 195 In the 20th century many Greeks left their traditional homelands for economic reasons resulting in large migrations from Greece and Cyprus to the United States Great Britain Australia Canada Germany and South Africa especially after the Second World War 1939 1945 the Greek Civil War 1946 1949 and the Turkish Invasion of Cyprus in 1974 196 While official figures remain scarce polls and anecdotal evidence point to renewed Greek emigration as a result of the Greek financial crisis 197 According to data published by the Federal Statistical Office of Germany in 2011 23 800 Greeks emigrated to Germany a significant increase over the previous year By comparison about 9 000 Greeks emigrated to Germany in 2009 and 12 000 in 2010 198 199 CultureMain article Culture of Greece Greek culture has evolved over thousands of years with its beginning in the Mycenaean civilization continuing through the classical era the Hellenistic period the Roman and Byzantine periods and was profoundly affected by Christianity which it in turn influenced and shaped 200 Ottoman Greeks had to endure through several centuries of adversity that culminated in genocide in the 20th century 201 202 The Diafotismos is credited with revitalizing Greek culture and giving birth to the synthesis of ancient and medieval elements that characterize it today 116 130 Language Main articles Greek language and Greek language question Early Greek alphabet c 8th century BC source source source source source source source source source source source source source source A Greek speaker Most Greeks speak the Greek language an independent branch of the Indo European languages with its closest relations possibly being Armenian see Graeco Armenian or the Indo Iranian languages see Graeco Aryan 165 It has the longest documented history of any living language and Greek literature has a continuous history of over 2 500 years 203 The oldest inscriptions in Greek are in the Linear B script dated as far back as 1450 BC 204 Following the Greek Dark Ages from which written records are absent the Greek alphabet appears in the 9th 8th century BC The Greek alphabet derived from the Phoenician alphabet and in turn became the parent alphabet of the Latin Cyrillic and several other alphabets The earliest Greek literary works are the Homeric epics variously dated from the 8th to the 6th century BC Notable scientific and mathematical works include Euclid s Elements Ptolemy s Almagest and others The New Testament was originally written in Koine Greek Greek demonstrates several linguistic features that are shared with other Balkan languages such as Albanian Bulgarian and Eastern Romance languages see Balkan sprachbund and has absorbed many foreign words primarily of Western European and Turkish origin 205 Because of the movements of Philhellenism and the Diafotismos in the 19th century which emphasized the modern Greeks ancient heritage these foreign influences were excluded from official use via the creation of Katharevousa a somewhat artificial form of Greek purged of all foreign influence and words as the official language of the Greek state In 1976 however the Hellenic Parliament voted to make the spoken Dimotiki the official language making Katharevousa obsolete 206 Modern Greek has in addition to Standard Modern Greek or Dimotiki a wide variety of dialects of varying levels of mutual intelligibility including Cypriot Pontic Cappadocian Griko and Tsakonian the only surviving representative of ancient Doric Greek 207 Yevanic is the language of the Romaniotes and survives in small communities in Greece New York and Israel In addition to Greek many Greek citizens in Greece and the diaspora are bilingual in other languages such as English Arvanitika Albanian Aromanian Megleno Romanian Macedonian Slavic Russian and Turkish 165 208 Religion Main articles Religion in ancient Greece and Greek Orthodox Church Christ Pantocrator mosaic in Hagia Sophia Istanbul Most Greeks are Christians belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church 209 During the first centuries after Jesus Christ the New Testament was originally written in Koine Greek which remains the liturgical language of the Greek Orthodox Church and most of the early Christians and Church Fathers were Greek speaking 200 There are small groups of ethnic Greeks adhering to other Christian denominations like Greek Catholics Greek Evangelicals Pentecostals and groups adhering to other religions including Romaniot and Sephardic Jews and Greek Muslims About 2 000 Greeks are members of Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism congregations 210 211 212 Greek speaking Muslims live mainly outside Greece in the contemporary era There are both Christian and Muslim Greek speaking communities in Lebanon and Syria while in the Pontus region of Turkey there is a large community of indeterminate size who were spared from the population exchange because of their religious affiliation 213 Arts Further information Greek art Music of Greece Ancient Greek architecture Ancient Greek theatre Modern Greek theatre Cinema of Greece Modern Greek architecture and Modern Greek literature See also Greco Buddhist art Renowned Greek soprano Maria Callas Greek art has a long and varied history Greeks have contributed to the visual literary and performing arts 214 In the West classical Greek art was influential in shaping the Roman and later the modern Western artistic heritage Following the Renaissance in Europe the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists 214 Well into the 19th century the classical tradition derived from Greece played an important role in the art of the Western world 215 In the East Alexander the Great s conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek Central Asian and Indian cultures resulting in Indo Greek and Greco Buddhist art whose influence reached as far as Japan 216 Byzantine Greek art which grew from the Hellenistic classical art and adapted the pagan motifs in the service of Christianity provided a stimulus to the art of many nations 217 Its influences can be traced from Venice in the West to Kazakhstan in the East 217 218 In turn Greek art was influenced by eastern civilizations i e Egypt Persia etc during various periods of its history 219 Notable modern Greek artists include the major Renaissance painter Dominikos Theotokopoulos El Greco Nikolaos Gyzis Nikiphoros Lytras Konstantinos Volanakis Theodoros Vryzakis Georgios Jakobides Thalia Flora Karavia Yannis Tsarouchis Nikos Engonopoulos Pericles Pantazis Theophilos Kostas Andreou Jannis Kounellis sculptors such as Leonidas Drosis Georgios Bonanos Yannoulis Chalepas Athanasios Apartis Konstantinos Dimitriadis and Joannis Avramidis conductor Dimitri Mitropoulos soprano Maria Callas composers such as Mikis Theodorakis Nikos Skalkottas Nikolaos Mantzaros Spyridon Samaras Manolis Kalomiris Iannis Xenakis Manos Hatzidakis Manos Loizos Yanni and Vangelis the masters of rebetiko Markos Vamvakaris and Vassilis Tsitsanis and singers such as Giorgos Dalaras Haris Alexiou Sotiria Bellou Nana Mouskouri Vicky Leandros and Demis Roussos Poets such as Andreas Kalvos Athanasios Christopoulos Kostis Palamas the writer of Hymn to Liberty Dionysios Solomos Angelos Sikelianos Kostas Karyotakis Maria Polydouri Yannis Ritsos Kostas Varnalis Nikos Kavvadias Andreas Embirikos and Kiki Dimoula Constantine P Cavafy and Nobel laureates Giorgos Seferis and Odysseas Elytis are among the most important poets of the 20th century Novel is also represented by Alexandros Papadiamantis Emmanuel Rhoides Ion Dragoumis Nikos Kazantzakis Penelope Delta Stratis Myrivilis Vassilis Vassilikos and Petros Markaris while notable playwrights include the Cretan Renaissance poets Georgios Chortatzis and Vincenzos Cornaros such as Gregorios Xenopoulos and Iakovos Kambanellis Renowned Greek actress singer socialist activist and politician Melina Mercouri Notable cinema or theatre actors include Marika Kotopouli Melina Mercouri Ellie Lambeti Academy Award winner Katina Paxinou Alexis Minotis Dimitris Horn Thanasis Veggos Manos Katrakis and Irene Papas Alekos Sakellarios Karolos Koun Vasilis Georgiadis Kostas Gavras Michael Cacoyannis Giannis Dalianidis Nikos Koundouros and Theo Angelopoulos are among the most important directors Among the most significant modern era architects are Stamatios Kleanthis Lysandros Kaftanzoglou Anastasios Metaxas Panagis Kalkos Anastasios Orlandos the naturalized Greek Ernst Ziller Dimitris Pikionis and urban planners Stamatis Voulgaris and George Candilis Science See also Ancient Greek philosophy Greek mathematics Ancient Greek medicine Byzantine science Greek scholars in the Renaissance and List of Greek inventions and discoveries Aristarchus of Samos was the first known individual to propose a heliocentric system in the 3rd century BC The Greeks of the Classical and Hellenistic eras made seminal contributions to science and philosophy laying the foundations of several western scientific traditions such as astronomy geography historiography mathematics medicine philosophy and political science The scholarly tradition of the Greek academies was maintained during Roman times with several academic institutions in Constantinople Antioch Alexandria and other centers of Greek learning while Byzantine science was essentially a continuation of classical science 220 Greeks have a long tradition of valuing and investing in paideia education 86 Paideia was one of the highest societal values in the Greek and Hellenistic world while the first European institution described as a university was founded in 5th century Constantinople and operated in various incarnations until the city s fall to the Ottomans in 1453 221 The University of Constantinople was Christian Europe s first secular institution of higher learning since no theological subjects were taught 222 and considering the original meaning of the world university as a corporation of students the world s first university as well 221 As of 2007 Greece had the eighth highest percentage of tertiary enrollment in the world with the percentages for female students being higher than for male while Greeks of the Diaspora are equally active in the field of education 178 Hundreds of thousands of Greek students attend western universities every year while the faculty lists of leading Western universities contain a striking number of Greek names 223 Notable Greek scientists of modern times include physician Georgios Papanicolaou pioneer in cytopathology inventor of the Pap test mathematician Constantin Caratheodory acclaimed contributor to real and complex analysis and the calculus of variations archaeologists Manolis Andronikos unearthed the tomb of Philip II Valerios Stais recognised the Antikythera mechanism Spyridon Marinatos specialised in Mycenaean sites and Ioannis Svoronos chemists Leonidas Zervas of Bergmann Zervas synthesis and Z group discovery fame K C Nicolaou first total synthesis of taxol and Panayotis Katsoyannis first chemical synthesis of insulin computer scientists Michael Dertouzos and Nicholas Negroponte known for their early work with the World Wide Web John Argyris co creator of the FEM Joseph Sifakis 2007 Turing Award Christos Papadimitriou 2002 Knuth Prize and Mihalis Yannakakis 2005 Knuth Prize physicist mathematician Demetrios Christodoulou renowned for work on Minkowski spacetime and physicists Achilles Papapetrou known for solutions of general relativity Dimitri Nanopoulos extensive work on particle physics and cosmology and John Iliopoulos 2007 Dirac Prize for work on the charm quark astronomer Eugenios Antoniadis biologist Fotis Kafatos contributor to cDNA cloning technology botanist Theodoros Orphanides economist Xenophon Zolotas held various senior posts in international organisations such as the IMF Indologist Dimitrios Galanos linguist Yiannis Psycharis promoter of Demotic Greek historians Constantine Paparrigopoulos founder of modern Greek historiography and Helene Glykatzi Ahrweiler excelled in Byzantine studies and political scientists Nicos Poulantzas a leading Structural Marxist and Cornelius Castoriadis philosopher of history and ontologist social critic economist psychoanalyst Significant engineers and automobile designers include Nikolas Tombazis Alec Issigonis and Andreas Zapatinas Symbols See also Flag of Greece The national flag of Greece is commonly used as a symbol for Greeks worldwide The flag of the Greek Orthodox Church is based on the coat of arms of the Palaiologoi the last dynasty of the Byzantine Empire The most widely used symbol is the flag of Greece which features nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white representing the nine syllables of the Greek national motto Eleftheria i Thanatos Freedom or Death which was the motto of the Greek War of Independence 224 The blue square in the upper hoist side corner bears a white cross which represents Greek Orthodoxy The Greek flag is widely used by the Greek Cypriots although Cyprus has officially adopted a neutral flag to ease ethnic tensions with the Turkish Cypriot minority see flag of Cyprus 225 The pre 1978 and first flag of Greece which features a Greek cross crux immissa quadrata on a blue background is widely used as an alternative to the official flag and they are often flown together The national emblem of Greece features a blue escutcheon with a white cross surrounded by two laurel branches A common design involves the current flag of Greece and the pre 1978 flag of Greece with crossed flagpoles and the national emblem placed in front 226 Another highly recognizable and popular Greek symbol is the double headed eagle the imperial emblem of the last dynasty of the Eastern Roman Empire and a common symbol in Asia Minor and later Eastern Europe 227 It is not part of the modern Greek flag or coat of arms although it is officially the insignia of the Greek Army and the flag of the Church of Greece It had been incorporated in the Greek coat of arms between 1925 and 1926 228 Politics See also Politics in Greece Classical Athens is considered the birthplace of Democracy The term appeared in the 5th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city states notably Athens to mean rule of the people in contrast to aristocracy ἀristokratia aristokratia meaning rule by an excellent elite and to oligarchy While theoretically these definitions are in opposition in practice the distinction has been blurred historically 229 Led by Cleisthenes Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508 507 BC 230 which took gradually the form of a direct democracy The democratic form of government declined during the Hellenistic and Roman eras only to be revived as an interest in Western Europe during the early modern period The European enlightenment and the democratic liberal and nationalistic ideas of the French Revolution was a crucial factor to the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence and the establishment of the modern Greek state 231 232 Notable modern Greek politicians include Ioannis Kapodistrias founder of the First Hellenic Republic reformist Charilaos Trikoupis Eleftherios Venizelos who marked the shape of modern Greece social democrats Georgios Papandreou and Alexandros Papanastasiou Konstantinos Karamanlis founder of the Third Hellenic Republic and socialist Andreas Papandreou Surnames and personal names See also Greek name and Ancient Greek personal names Greek surnames began to appear in the 9th and 10th century at first among ruling families eventually supplanting the ancient tradition of using the father s name as disambiguator 233 234 Nevertheless Greek surnames are most commonly patronymics 233 such those ending in the suffix opoulos or ides while others derive from trade professions physical characteristics or a location such as a town village or monastery 234 Commonly Greek male surnames end in s which is the common ending for Greek masculine proper nouns in the nominative case Occasionally especially in Cyprus some surnames end in ou indicating the genitive case of a patronymic name 235 Many surnames end in suffixes that are associated with a particular region such as akis Crete eas or akos Mani Peninsula atos island of Cephalonia ellis island of Lesbos and so forth 234 In addition to a Greek origin some surnames have Turkish or Latin Italian origin especially among Greeks from Asia Minor and the Ionian Islands respectively 236 Female surnames end in a vowel and are usually the genitive form of the corresponding males surname although this usage is not followed in the diaspora where the male version of the surname is generally used With respect to personal names the two main influences are Christianity and classical Hellenism ancient Greek nomenclatures were never forgotten but have become more widely bestowed from the 18th century onwards 234 As in antiquity children are customarily named after their grandparents with the first born male child named after the paternal grandfather the second male child after the maternal grandfather and similarly for female children 237 Personal names are often familiarized by a diminutive suffix such as akis for male names and itsa or oula for female names 234 Greeks generally do not use middle names instead using the genitive of the father s first name as a middle name This usage has been passed on to the Russians and other East Slavs otchestvo Sea exploring and commerce Main article Greek shipping Aristotle Onassis the best known Greek shipping magnate worldwide The traditional Greek homelands have been the Greek peninsula and the Aegean Sea Southern Italy Magna Graecia the Black Sea the Ionian coasts of Asia Minor and the islands of Cyprus and Sicily In Plato s Phaidon Socrates remarks we Greeks live around a sea like frogs around a pond when describing to his friends the Greek cities of the Aegean 238 239 This image is attested by the map of the Old Greek Diaspora which corresponded to the Greek world until the creation of the Greek state in 1832 The sea and trade were natural outlets for Greeks since the Greek peninsula is mostly rocky and does not offer good prospects for agriculture 45 Notable Greek seafarers include people such as Pytheas of Massalia who sailed to Great Britain Euthymenes who sailed to Africa Scylax of Caryanda who sailed to India the navarch of Alexander the Great Nearchus Megasthenes explorer of India later the 6th century merchant and monk Cosmas Indicopleustes Cosmas who sailed to India and the explorer of the Northwestern Passage Ioannis Fokas also known as Juan de Fuca 240 In later times the Byzantine Greeks plied the sea lanes of the Mediterranean and controlled trade until an embargo imposed by the Byzantine emperor on trade with the Caliphate opened the door for the later Italian pre eminence in trade 241 Panayotis Potagos was another explorer of modern times who was the first to reach Mbomu and Uele River from the north The Greek shipping tradition recovered during the late Ottoman rule especially after the Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca and during the Napoleonic Wars when a substantial merchant middle class developed which played an important part in the Greek War of Independence 116 Today Greek shipping continues to prosper to the extent that Greece has one of the largest merchant fleets in the world while many more ships under Greek ownership fly flags of convenience 178 The most notable shipping magnate of the 20th century was Aristotle Onassis others being Yiannis Latsis Stavros G Livanos and Stavros Niarchos 242 243 GeneticsSee also Genetic history of Europe Admixture analysis of autosomal SNPs of the Balkan region in a global context on the resolution level of 7 assumed ancestral populations African brown South West European light blue Asian yellow Middle Eastern orange South Asian green North East European dark blue and Caucasian Anatolian component beige Factor correspondence analysis comparing different individuals from European ancestry groups Genetic studies using multiple autosomal gene markers Y chromosomal DNA haplogroup analysis and mitochondrial gene markers mtDNA show that Greeks share similar backgrounds as the rest of the Europeans and especially Southern Europeans Italians and southern Balkan populations such as Albanians Slavic Macedonians and Romanians According to the studies using multiple autosomal gene markers Greeks are some of the earliest contributors of genetic material to the rest of the Europeans as they are one of the oldest populations in Europe 244 A study in 2008 showed that Greeks are genetically closest to Italians and Romanians 245 and another 2008 study showed that they are close to Italians Albanians Romanians and southern Balkan Slavs 246 A 2003 study showed that Greeks cluster with other South European mainly Italians and North European populations and are close to the Basques 247 and FST distances showed that they group with other European and Mediterranean populations 244 248 especially with Italians 0 0001 and Tuscans 0 0005 249 Y DNA studies show that Greeks cluster with other Europeans c and that they carry some of the oldest Y haplogroups in Europe in particular the J2 haplogroup and other J subhaplogroups and E haplogroups which are genetic markers denoting early farmers 250 254 255 256 The Y chromosome lineage E V13 appears to have originated in Greece or the southern Balkans and is high in Greeks as well as in Albanians southern Italians and southern Slavs E V13 is also found in Corsicans and Provencals where an admixture analysis estimated that 17 of the Y chromosomes of Provence may be attributed to Greek colonization and is also found at low frequencies on the Anatolian mainland These results suggest that E V13 may trace the demographic and socio cultural impact of Greek colonization in Mediterranean Europe a contribution that appears to be considerably larger than that of a Neolithic pioneer colonization 257 258 259 A study in 2008 showed that Greek regional samples from the mainland cluster with those from the Balkans principally Albanians while Cretan Greeks cluster with the central Mediterranean and Eastern Mediterranean samples 251 Greek signature DNA influence can be seen in Southern Italy and Sicily where the genetic contribution of Greek chromosomes to the Sicilian gene pool is estimated to be about 37 and the Southern Balkans primarily Albania 254 255 Di Gaetano et al also note that the genetic links analysed in their findings shows that Sicily and southeastern Europe especially Greece and Albania share a common background 260 Studies using mitochondrial DNA gene markers mtDNA showed that Greeks group with other Mediterranean European populations 261 262 263 and principal component analysis PCA confirmed the low genetic distance between Greeks and Italians 264 and also revealed a cline of genes with highest frequencies in the Balkans and Southern Italy spreading to lowest levels in Britain and the Basque country which Cavalli Sforza associates it with the Greek expansion which reached its peak in historical times around 1000 and 500 BC but which certainly began earlier 265 A 2017 study on the genetic origins of the Minoans and Mycenaeans showed that modern Greeks resemble the Mycenaeans but with some additional dilution of the early neolithic ancestry The results of the study support the idea of genetic continuity between these civilizations and modern Greeks but not isolation in the history of populations of the Aegean before and after the time of its earliest civilizations 266 267 268 In an interview the study s author Harvard University geneticist Iosif Lazaridis precised that all three Bronze Age groups Minoans Mycenaeans and Bronze Age southwestern Anatolians trace most of their ancestry from the earlier Neolithic populations that were very similar in Greece and western Anatolia But they also had some ancestry from the east related to populations of the Caucasus and Iran as well as some ancestry from the north related to hunter gatherers of eastern Europe and Siberia and also to the Bronze Age people of the steppe We could also compare the Mycenaeans again the first speakers of the Greek language to modern people from Greece who are very similar to them but with lower early Neolithic ancestry and argues that some had theorized that the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations were influenced both culturally and genetically by the old civilizations of the Levant and Egypt but there is no quantifiable genetic influence 269 A 2021 study on the genomic history of the Aegean palatial civilizations showed that modern Greeks are genetically similar to northern Aegeans resident in the third millennium BC 270 Physical appearance Greek warriors details from painted sarcophagus found in Italy 350 325 BC A study from 2013 for prediction of hair and eye colour from DNA of the Greek people showed that the self reported phenotype frequencies according to hair and eye colour categories was as follows 119 individuals hair colour 11 blond 45 dark blond light brown 49 dark brown 3 brown red auburn and 11 had black hair eye colour 13 with blue 15 with intermediate green heterochromia and 91 had brown eye colour 271 Another study from 2012 included 150 dental school students from the University of Athens and the results of the study showed that light hair colour blonde light ash brown was predominant in 10 7 of the students 36 had medium hair colour light brown medium darkest brown 32 had darkest brown and 21 black 15 3 off black 6 midnight black In conclusion the hair colour of young Greeks are mostly brown ranging from light to dark brown with significant minorities having black and blonde hair The same study also showed that the eye colour of the students was 14 6 blue green 28 medium light brown and 57 4 dark brown 272 TimelineThe history of the Greek people is closely associated with the history of Greece Cyprus Southern Italy Constantinople Asia Minor and the Black Sea During the Ottoman rule of Greece a number of Greek enclaves around the Mediterranean were cut off from the core notably in Southern Italy the Caucasus Syria and Egypt By the early 20th century over half of the overall Greek speaking population was settled in Asia Minor now Turkey while later that century a huge wave of migration to the United States Australia Canada and elsewhere created the modern Greek diaspora Time Eventsc 3rd millennium BC Proto Greek tribes from around the Southern Balkans Aegean are generally thought to have arrived in the Greek mainland 16th century BC Decline of the Minoan civilization possibly because of the eruption of Thera Emergence of the Achaeans and formation of the Mycenaean civilization which produced the earliest textual evidence of the Greek language 13th century BC First colonies established in Asia Minor 11th century BC The Mycenaean civilization ends in the presumed Dorian invasion The Greek Dark Ages begin Dorians move into peninsular Greece Achaeans flee to Aegean Islands Asia Minor and Cyprus 9th century BC Major colonization of Asia Minor and Cyprus by the Greek tribes 8th century BC First major colonies established in Sicily and Southern Italy The first Pan Hellenic festival the Olympic games is held in 776 BC The emergence of Pan Hellenism marks the ethnogenesis of the Greek nation 6th century BC Colonies established across the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea 5th century BC Defeat of the Persians and emergence of the Delian League in Ionia the Black Sea and Aegean perimeter culminates in Athenian Empire and the Classical Age of Greece ends with Athens defeat by Sparta at the close of the Peloponnesian War4th century BC Rise of Theban power and defeat of the Spartans Rise of Macedon Campaign of Alexander the Great Greek colonies established in newly founded cities of Ptolemaic Egypt and Asia 2nd century BC Conquest of Greece by the Roman Empire Migrations of Greeks to Rome 4th century AD Eastern Roman Empire Migrations of Greeks throughout the Empire mainly towards Constantinople 7th century Slavic conquest of several parts of Greece Greek migrations to Southern Italy Roman emperors capture main Slavic bodies and transfer them to Cappadocia The Bosporus is re populated by Macedonian and Cypriot Greeks 8th century Roman dissolution of surviving Slavic settlements in Greece and full recovery of the Greek peninsula 9th century Retro migrations of Greeks from all parts of the Empire mainly from Southern Italy and Sicily into parts of Greece that were depopulated by the Slavic Invasions mainly western Peloponnesus and Thessaly 13th century Roman Empire dissolves Constantinople taken by the Fourth Crusade becoming the capital of the Latin Empire Liberated after a long struggle by the Empire of Nicaea but fragments remain separated Migrations between Asia Minor Constantinople and mainland Greece take place 15th century 19th century Conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Empire Greek diaspora into Europe begins Ottoman settlements in Greece Phanariot Greeks occupy high posts in Eastern European millets Time Events1830s Creation of the modern Greek state Immigration to the New World begins Large scale migrations from Constantinople and Asia Minor to Greece take place 1913 European Ottoman lands partitioned unorganized migrations of Greeks Bulgarians and Turks towards their respective states 1914 1923 Greek genocide hundreds of thousands of Ottoman Greeks are estimated to have died during this period 273 1919 Treaty of Neuilly Greece and Bulgaria exchange populations with some exceptions 1922 The Destruction of Smyrna modern day Izmir more than 40 thousand Greeks killed end of significant Greek presence in Asia Minor 1923 Treaty of Lausanne Greece and Turkey agree to exchange populations with limited exceptions of the Greeks in Constantinople Imbros Tenedos and the Muslim minority of Western Thrace 1 5 million of Asia Minor and Pontic Greeks settle in Greece and some 450 thousands of Muslims settle in Turkey 1940s Hundreds of thousands of Greeks die of starvation during the Great Famine caused by the Axis occupation 1947 Communist Romania begins evictions of the Greek community approx 75 000 migrate 1948 Greek Civil War tens of thousands of communists and their families flee to Eastern Bloc nations Thousands settle in Tashkent 1950s Massive emigration of Greeks to West Germany the United States Australia Canada and other countries 1955 Istanbul pogrom against the city s Greeks Exodus of Greeks accelerates fewer than 2 000 remain today 1958 Large Greek community in Alexandria flees Nasser s Arab socialist regime in Egypt 1960s Republic of Cyprus created as a sovereign state under Greek Turkish and British protection Economic emigration continues 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus Almost all Greeks living in northern Cyprus flee to the south or the United Kingdom 1980s Many civil war refugees allowed to return to Greece Retro migration of Greeks from Germany begins 1990s Dissolution of the Soviet Union Approximately 340 000 ethnic Greeks migrate from Georgia Armenia southern Russia and Albania to Greece early 2000s Some statistics show the beginning of a trend of reverse migration of Greeks from the United States and Australia 2010s Over 200 000 people 274 particularly young skilled individuals 275 emigrate to other EU states due to high unemployment see also Greek government debt crisis 276 See also Ancient Greece portal Greece portalAntiochian Greeks Arvanites Cappadocian Greeks Caucasian Greeks Greek Cypriots Greek Diaspora Griko people Karamanlides Macedonians Greeks Maniots Greek Muslims Northern Epirotes Pelasgians Pontic Greeks Romaniotes Sarakatsani Tsakones Lists List of ancient Greeks List of Greeks List of Greek AmericansNotes There is a range of interpretations Carl Blegen dates the arrival of the Greeks around 1900 BC John Caskey believes that there were two waves of immigrants and Robert Drews places the event as late as 1600 BC 57 58 Numerous other theories have also been supported 59 but there is a general consensus that the Greek tribes arrived around 2100 BC While Greek authorities signed the agreement legalizing the population exchange this was done on the insistence of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk and after a million Greeks had already been expelled from Asia Minor Gilbar 1997 p 8 See 250 251 252 253 254 Citations Maratou Alipranti 2013 p 196 The Greek diaspora remains large consisting of up to 4 million people globally Clogg 2013 p 228 Greeks of the diaspora settled in some 141 countries were held to number 7 million although it is not clear how this figure was arrived at or what criteria were used to define Greek ethnicity while the population of the homeland according to the 1991 census amounted to some 10 25 million 2011 Population and Housing Census Hellenic Statistical Authority 12 September 2014 Archived from the original on 16 July 2016 Retrieved 18 May 2016 The Resident Population of Greece is 10 816 286 of which 5 303 223 male 49 0 and 5 513 063 female 51 0 The total number of permanent residents of Greece with foreign citizenship during the Census was 912 000 See Graph 6 Resident Population by Citizenship Statistical Data on Immigrants in Greece An Analytic Study of Available Data and Recommendations for Conformity with European Union Standards PDF Archive of European Integration AEI University of Pittsburgh 15 November 2004 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 18 May 2016 p 5 The Census recorded 762 191 persons normally resident in Greece and without Greek citizenship constituting around 7 of total population Of these 48 560 are EU or EFTA nationals there are also 17 426 Cypriots with privileged status Population Country of Birth Citizenship Category Country of Citizenship Language Religion Ethnic Religious Group 2011 Archived from the original on 12 June 2018 Retrieved 12 May 2018 Cole 2011 Yiannis Papadakis Cypriots Greek pp 92 95 Where are the Greek communities of the world themanews com Protothemanews com 2013 Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 Retrieved 14 August 2015 Total ancestry categories tallied for people with one or more ancestry categories reported 2011 2013 American Community Survey 3 Year Estimates American FactFinder U S Department of Commerce United States Census Bureau 2013 Archived from the original on 14 February 2020 Retrieved 23 May 2016 U S Relations with Greece United States Department of State 10 March 2016 Retrieved 18 May 2016 Today an estimated three million Americans resident in the United States claim Greek descent This large well organized community cultivates close political and cultural ties with Greece Statistical Yearbook Germany Extract Chapter 2 Population Families and Living Arrangements in Germany Statistisches Bundesamt 14 March 2013 p 21 https www abs gov au census find census data community profiles 2021 AUS download GCP AUS xlsx bare URL spreadsheet file United Kingdom Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 9 July 2013 There are between 40 and 45 thousand Greeks residing permanently in the UK and the Greek Orthodox Church has a strong presence in the Archdiocese of Thyateira and Great Britain There is a significant Greek presence of Greek students in tertiary education in the UK A large Cypriot community numbering 250 300 thousand rallies round the National Federation of Cypriots in Great Britain and the Association of Greek Orthodox Communities of Great Britain Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables statcan gc ca a b Bideleux Robert Jeffries Ian 2007 The Balkans a post communist history London Routledge p 49 ISBN 978 0 203 96911 3 OCLC 85373407 It is difficult to know how many ethnic Greeks there were in Albania before the exodus of refugees during the early to mid 1990s The Albanian government claimed there were only 60 000 based on the biased 1989 census whereas the Greek government claimed there were upwards of 300 000 Most Western estimates were around the 200 000 mark Greeks Around the Globe AusGreekNet Archived from the original on 19 June 2006 South Africa Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 4 February 2011 Archived from the original on 19 June 2006 Italy Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 9 July 2013 The Greek Italian community numbers some 30 000 and is concentrated mainly in central Italy The age old presence in Italy of Italians of Greek descent dating back to Byzantine and Classical times is attested to by the Griko dialect which is still spoken in the Magna Graecia region This historically Greek speaking villages are Condofuri Galliciano Roccaforte del Greco Roghudi Bova and Bova Marina which are in the Calabria region the capital of which is Reggio The Grecanic region including Reggio has a population of some 200 000 while speakers of the Griko dialect number fewer that 1 000 persons a b Grecia Salentina in Italian Unione dei Comuni della Grecia Salentina 2016 La popolazione complessiva dell Unione e di 54278 residenti cosi distribuiti Dati Istat al 31 dicembre 2005 Comune Popolazione Calimera 7351 Carpignano Salentino 3868 Castrignano dei Greci 4164 Corigliano d Otranto 5762 Cutrofiano 9250 Martano 9588 Martignano 1784 Melpignano 2234 Soleto 5551 Sternatia 2583 Zollino 2143 Totale 54278 a b Bellinello 1998 p 53 Le attuali colonie Greche calabresi La Grecia calabrese si inscrive nel massiccio aspromontano e si concentra nell ampia e frastagliata valle dell Amendolea e nelle balze piu a oriente dove sorgono le fiumare dette di S Pasquale di Palizzi e Sideroni e che costituiscono la Bovesia vera e propria Compresa nei territori di cinque comuni Bova Superiore Bova Marina Roccaforte del Greco Roghudi Condofuri la Grecia si estende per circa 233 km 145 mi q La popolazione anagrafica complessiva e di circa 14 000 unita English version of Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs reports a few thousand and Greek version 3 800 MFA gr Rippin Andrew 2008 World Islam Critical Concepts in Islamic Studies Routledge p 77 ISBN 978 0415456531 Parvex R 2014 Le Chili et les mouvements migratoires Hommes amp migrations Nº 1305 2014 doi 10 4000 hommesmigrations 2720 Ukraine Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 4 February 2011 There is a significant Greek presence in southern and eastern Ukraine which can be traced back to ancient Greek and Byzantine settlers Ukrainian citizens of Greek descent amount to 91 000 people although their number is estimated to be much higher by the Federation of Greek communities of Mariupol Itogi Vserossijskoj perepisi naseleniya 2010 goda v otnoshenii demograficheskih i socialno ekonomicheskih harakteristik otdelnyh nacionalnostej The Greek Community Archived from the original on 13 June 2007 France Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 9 July 2013 Some 15 000 Greeks reside in the wider region of Paris Lille and Lyon In the region of Southern France the Greek community numbers some 20 000 Belgium Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 28 January 2011 Some 35 000 Greeks reside in Belgium Official Belgian data numbers Greeks in the country at 17 000 but does not take into account Greeks who have taken Belgian citizenship or work for international organizations and enterprises Argentina Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 9 July 2013 It is estimated that some 20 000 to 30 000 persons of Greek origin currently reside in Argentina and there are Greek communities in the wider region of Buenos Aires CBS Statline Bevolking geslacht leeftijd generatie en migratieachtergrond 1 januari in Dutch Central Bureau of Statistics CBS 22 July 2021 Retrieved 16 January 2022 Naselenie po mestozhiveene vzrast i etnicheska grupa censusresults nsi bg Retrieved 15 October 2020 Bulgaria Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 28 January 2011 There are some 28 500 persons of Greek origin and citizenship residing in Bulgaria This number includes approximately 15 000 Sarakatsani 2 500 former political refugees 8 000 old Greeks 2 000 university students and 1 000 professionals and their families Immigration to Uruguay PDF in Spanish INE Archived from the original PDF on 16 August 2013 Retrieved 6 March 2013 Sweden Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 4 February 2011 The Greek community in Sweden consists of approximately 24 000 Greeks who are permanent inhabitants included in Swedish society and active in various sectors science arts literature culture media education business and politics Georgia Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 31 January 2011 The Greek community of Georgia is currently estimated at 15 000 people mostly elderly people living in the Tsalkas area Migranti z Recka v Cesku Migrants from Greece in the Czech Republic PDF Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Czech 9 March 2011 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 25 April 2019 Kazakhstan Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 3 February 2011 There are between 10 000 and 12 000 ethnic Greeks living in Kazakhstan organized in several communities Switzerland Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 10 December 2015 The Greek community in Switzerland is estimated to number some 11 000 persons of a total of 1 5 million foreigners residing in the country Romania Cultural Relations and Greek Community Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs 6 December 2013 The Greek Romanian community numbers some 10 000 and there are many Greeks working in established Greek enterprises in Romania Greeks in Uzbekistan Central Asia Caucasus Analyst The Central Asia Caucasus Institute 21 June 2000 Currently there are about 9 500 Greeks living in Uzbekistan with 6 500 living in Tashkent Bevolkerung nach Staatsangehorigkeit und Geburtsland Vukovich Gabriella 2018 Mikrocenzus 2016 12 Nemzetisegi adatok 2016 microcensus 12 Ethnic data PDF Hungarian Central Statistical Office in Hungarian Budapest ISBN 978 963 235 542 9 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 9 January 2019 World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples Turkey Rum Orthodox Christians Minority Rights Group MRG 2005 Archived from the original on 29 March 2014 Retrieved 1 March 2014 Pontic Ethnologue Languages of the World SIL International 2016 Retrieved 13 May 2016 a b c d e Roberts 2007 pp 171 172 222 Latacz 2004 pp 159 165 166 a b c d Sutton 1996 Beaton 1996 pp 1 25 CIA World Factbook on Greece Greek Orthodox 98 Greek Muslim 1 3 other 0 7 Thomas Heath 1981 A History of Greek Mathematics Courier Dover Publications p 1 ISBN 978 0 486 24073 2 Retrieved 19 August 2013 Kurt Aland Barbara Aland The text of the New Testament an introduction to the critical 1995 p52 Archibald Macbride Hunter Introducing the New Testament 1972 p9 Guibernau amp Hutchinson 2004 p 23 Indeed Smith emphasizes that the myth of divine election sustains the continuity of cultural identity and in that regard has enabled certain pre modern communities such as the Jews Armenians and Greeks to survive and persist over centuries and millennia Smith 1993 15 20 Smith 1999 p 21 It emphasizes the role of myths memories and symbols of ethnic chosenness trauma and the golden age of saints sages and heroes in the rise of modern nationalism among the Jews Armenians and Greeks the archetypal diaspora peoples Bryce 2006 p 91 Cadogan 1986 p 125 Bryce 2006 p 92 Drews 1994 p 21 Mallory amp Adams 1997 p 243 The Greeks Encyclopaedia Britannica US Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 2008 Online Edition Chadwick 1976 p 2 a b Linear A and Linear B Encyclopaedia Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc Retrieved 3 March 2016 Castleden 2005 p 228 Tartaron 2013 p 28 Schofield 2006 pp 71 72 Panayotou 2007 pp 417 426 Hall 2014 p 43 Chadwick 1976 p 176 a b Castleden 2005 p 2 Hansen 2004 p 7 Podzuweit 1982 pp 65 88 Castleden 2005 p 235 Dietrich 1974 p 156 Burckhardt 1999 p 168 The establishment of these Panhellenic sites which yet remained exclusively Hellenic was a very important element in the growth and self consciousness of Hellenic nationalism it was uniquely decisive in breaking down enmity between tribes and remained the most powerful obstacle to fragmentation into mutually hostile poleis Zuwiyya 2011 pp 142 143 Budin 2009 pp 66 67 Morgan 1990 pp 1 25 148 190 Ancient Greek Civilization Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 18 February 2016 Online Edition Konstan 2001 pp 29 50 Steinberger 2000 p 17 Burger 2008 pp 57 58 Burger 2008 pp 57 58 Poleis continued to go to war with each other The Peloponnesian War 431 404 BC made this painfully clear The war really two wars punctuated by a peace was a duel between Greece s two leading cities Athens and Sparta Most other poleis however got sucked into the conflict as allies of one side or the other The fact that Greeks were willing to fight for their cities against other Greeks in conflicts like the Peloponnesian War showed the limits of the pull of Hellas compared with that of the polis Fox Robin Lane 2004 Riding with Alexander Archaeology The Archaeological Institute of America Alexander inherited the idea of an invasion of the Persian Empire from his father Philip whose advance force was already out in Asia in 336 BC Philips campaign had the slogan of freeing the Greeks in Asia and punishing the Persians for their past sacrileges during their own invasion a century and a half earlier of Greece No doubt Philip wanted glory and plunder Brice 2012 pp 281 286 Alexander the Great Columbia Encyclopedia United States Columbia University Press 2008 Online Edition Green 2008 p xiii Morris Ian December 2005 Growth of the Greek Colonies in the First Millennium BC PDF Princeton Stanford Working Papers in Classics Princeton Stanford University Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 a b Boardman Griffin amp Murray 1991 p 364 Arun Neil 7 August 2007 Alexander s Gulf outpost uncovered BBC News Grant 1990 Introduction a b Hellenistic age Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 27 May 2015 Online Edition a b c d Harris 1991 pp 137 138 Lucore 2009 p 51 The Hellenistic period is commonly portrayed as the great age of Greek scientific discovery above all in mathematics and astronomy Foltz 2010 pp 43 46 Burton 1993 pp 244 245 Zoch 2000 p 136 Hellenistic religion Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 13 May 2015 Online Edition Ferguson 2003 pp 617 618 Dunstan 2011 p 500 Milburn 1988 p 158 Makrides 2009 p 206 Nicholas Nick 2019 A critical lexicostatistical examination of Ancient and Modern Greek and Tsakonian Journal of Applied Linguistics and Lexicography 1 1 19 doi 10 33910 2687 0215 2019 1 1 18 68 Kaldellis 2007 pp 35 40 Howatson 1989 p 264 From the fourth century AD onwards the Greeks of the eastern Roman empire called themselves Rhomaioi Romans a b Cameron 2009 p 7 Harrison 2002 p 268 Roman Greek if not used in its sense of pagan and Christian became synonymous terms counterposed to foreigner barbarian infidel The citizens of the Empire now predominantly of Greek ethnicity and language were often called simply o xristwnymos laos the people who bear Christ s name Earl 1968 p 148 Paul the Silentiary Descriptio S Sophiae et Ambonis 425 Line 12 xῶros ὅde Graikoῖsi Theodore the Studite Epistulae 419 Line 30 ἐn Graikoῖs Angelov 2007 p 96 Makrides 2009 Chapter 2 Christian Monotheism Orthodox Christianity Greek Orthodoxy p 74 Magdalino 1991 Chapter XIV Hellenism and Nationalism in Byzantium p 10 Byzantine Empire Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 23 December 2015 Online Edition a b Haldon 1997 p 50 Shahid 1972 pp 295 296 305 Klein 2004 p 290 Note 39 Annales Fuldenses 389 Mense lanuario c epiphaniam Basilii Graecorum imperatoris legati cum muneribus et epistolis ad Hludowicum regem Radasbonam venerunt Fouracre amp Gerberding 1996 p 345 The Frankish court no longer regarded the Byzantine Empire as holding valid claims of universality instead it was now termed the Empire of the Greeks Page 2008 pp 66 87 256 Kaplanis 2014 pp 86 7 Jakobsson Sverrir 1 January 2016 The Varangian legend testimony from the Old Norse sources Academia edu Retrieved 1 December 2021 Herrin Judith Saint Guillain Guillaume 2011 Identities and Allegiances in the Eastern Mediterranean After 1204 Ashgate Publishing Ltd p 111 ISBN 9781409410980 Stouraitis 2014 pp 176 177 Finkelberg 2012 p 20 a b Burstein 1988 pp 47 49 a b c d e f Greece during the Byzantine period c AD 300 c 1453 Population and languages Emerging Greek identity Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 2008 Online Edition Angold 1975 p 65 Page 2008 p 127 Byzantium 1220 To 1330 PDF Byzantine Empire Constantinople Scribd 5 August 2021 Retrieved 1 December 2021 Kaplanis 2014 p 92 Vasiliev Alexander A 1964 History of the Byzantine Empire 324 1453 University of Wisconsin Press p 582 ISBN 9780299809256 Jane Perry Clark Carey Andrew Galbraith Carey 1968 The Web of Modern Greek Politics Columbia University Press p 33 ISBN 9780231031707 By the end of the fourteenth century the Byzantine emperor was often called Emperor of the Hellenes Mango 1965 p 33 See for example Anthony Bryer The Empire of Trebizond and the Pontus Variourum 1980 and his Migration and Settlement in the Caucasus and Anatolia Variourum 1988 and other works listed in Caucasian Greeks and Pontic Greeks Norwich 1998 p xxi Harris 1999 Part II Medieval Libraries Chapter 6 Byzantine and Moslem Libraries pp 71 88 a b Renaissance Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 30 March 2016 Online Edition Robins 1993 p 8 Aristotelianism Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 2016 Online Edition Cyril and Methodius Saints The Columbia Encyclopedia United States Columbia University Press 2016 Online Edition a b c d Mazower 2000 pp 105 107 History of Europe The Romans Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 2008 Online Edition Mavrocordatos Nicholaos 1800 Philotheou Parerga Gregorios Kōnstantas Original from Harvard University Library Genos men hmin twn agan Ellhnwn Phanariote Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 2016 Online Edition a b c History of Greece Ottoman Empire The merchant middle class Encyclopaedia Britannica United States Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 2008 Online Edition Greek Constitution of 1822 Epidaurus PDF in Greek 1822 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Barutciski 2003 p 28 Clark 2006 pp xi xv Hershlag 1980 p 177 Ozkirimli amp Sofos 2008 pp 116 117 Ungor 2008 pp 15 39 Broome 1996 Greek Identity pp 22 27 ὅmaimos Henry George Liddell Robert Scott A Greek English Lexicon on Perseus ὁmoglwssos Henry George Liddell Robert Scott A Greek English Lexicon on Perseus I Polinskaya Shared sanctuaries and the gods of others On the meaning Of common in Herodotus 8 144 in R Rosen amp I Sluiter eds Valuing others in Classical Antiquity LEiden Brill 2010 43 70 ὁmotropos Henry George Liddell Robert Scott A Greek English Lexicon on Perseus Herodotus 8 144 2 The kinship of all Greeks in blood and speech and the shrines of gods and the sacrifices that we have in common and the likeness of our way of life Athena S Leoussi Steven Grosby Nationalism and Ethnosymbolism History Culture and Ethnicity in the Formation of Nations Edinburgh University Press 2006 p 115 Adrados 2005 p xii Finkelberg 2012 p 20 Harrison 2002 p 268 Kazhdan amp Constable 1982 p 12 Runciman 1970 p 14 Sevcenko 2002 p 284 Sphrantzes George 1477 The Chronicle of the Fall Feraios Rigas New Political Constitution of the Inhabitants of Rumeli Asia Minor the Islands of the Aegean and the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia Koliopoulos amp Veremis 2002 p 277 Smith 2003 p 98 After the Ottoman conquest in 1453 recognition by the Turks of the Greek millet under its Patriarch and Church helped to ensure the persistence of a separate ethnic identity which even if it did not produce a precocious nationalism among the Greeks provided the later Greek enlighteners and nationalists with a cultural constituency fed by political dreams and apocalyptic prophecies of the recapture of Constantinople and the restoration of Greek Byzantium and its Orthodox emperor in all his glory Tonkin Chapman amp McDonald 1989 Patterson 1998 pp 18 19 Psellos Michael 1994 Michaelis Pselli Orationes Panegyricae Stuttgart Leipzig Walter de Gruyter p 33 ISBN 978 0 297 82057 4 See Iliad II 2 530 for Panhellenes and Iliad II 2 653 for Hellenes Cartledge 2011 Chapter 4 Argos p 23 The Late Bronze Age in Greece is also called conventionally Mycenaean as we saw in the last chapter But it might in principle have been called Argive Achaean or Danaan since the three names that Homer does apply to Greeks collectively were Argives Achaeans and Danaans Nagy 2014 Texts and Commentaries Introduction 2 Panhellenism is the least common denominator of ancient Greek civilization The impulse of Panhellenism is already at work in Homeric and Hesiodic poetry In the Iliad the names Achaeans and Danaans and Argives are used synonymously in the sense of Panhellenes all Hellenes all Greeks Herodotus Histories 7 94 and 8 73 Homer Iliad 2 681 685 a b The Parian Marble Entry 6 From when Hellen son of Deuc alion became king of Phthi otis and those previously called Graekoi were named Hellenes Pseudo Apollodorus Bibliotheca a b Aristotle Meteorologica 1 14 The deluge in the time of Deucalion for instance took place chiefly in the Greek world and in it especially about ancient Hellas the country about Dodona and the Achelous Homer Iliad 16 233 16 235 King Zeus lord of Dodona you who hold wintry Dodona in your sway where your prophets the Selloi dwell around you Hesiod Catalogue of Women Fragment 5 a b c d Adrados 2005 pp xii 3 5 Browning 1983 p vii The Homeric poems were first written down in more or less their present form in the seventh century B C Since then Greek has enjoyed a continuous tradition down to the present day Change there has certainly been But there has been no break like that between Latin and Romance languages Ancient Greek is not a foreign language to the Greek of today as Anglo Saxon is to the modern Englishman The only other language which enjoys comparable continuity of tradition is Chinese a b c d Smith 1991 pp 29 32 Isaac 2004 p 504 Autochthony being an Athenian idea and represented in many Athenian texts is likely to have influenced a broad public of readers wherever Greek literature was read Anna Comnena Alexiad Books 1 15 Papagrigorakis Kousoulis amp Synodinos 2014 p 237 Interpreted with caution the craniofacial morphology in modern and ancient Greeks indicates elements of ethnic group continuation within the unavoidable multicultural mixtures Argyropoulos Sassouni amp Xeniotou 1989 p 200 An overall view of the finding obtained from these cephalometric analyses indicates that the Greek ethnic group has remained genetically stable in its cephalic and facial morphology for the last 4 000 years Gibbons Ann 2 August 2017 The Greeks really do have near mythical origins ancient DNA reveals Science doi 10 1126 science aan7200 Lazaridis Iosif Mittnik Alissa Patterson Nick Mallick Swapan Rohland Nadin Pfrengle Saskia Furtwangler Anja Peltzer Alexander Posth Cosimo Vasilakis Andonis McGeorge P J P Konsolaki Yannopoulou Eleni Korres George Martlew Holley Michalodimitrakis Manolis Ozsait Mehmet Ozsait Nesrin Papathanasiou Anastasia Richards Michael Roodenberg Songul Alpaslan Tzedakis Yannis Arnott Robert Fernandes Daniel M Hughey Jeffery R Lotakis Dimitra M Navas Patrick A Maniatis Yannis Stamatoyannopoulos John A Stewardson Kristin Stockhammer Philipp Pinhasi Ron Reich David Krause Johannes Stamatoyannopoulos George August 2017 Genetic origins of the Minoans and Mycenaeans Nature 548 7666 214 218 Bibcode 2017Natur 548 214L doi 10 1038 nature23310 PMC 5565772 PMID 28783727 Pinakas 9 Plh8ysmos kata yphkoothta kai fylo PDF in Greek Hellenic Statistical Authority 2001 Archived from the original PDF on 6 February 2009 Retrieved 7 January 2009 CIA Factbook Central Intelligence Agency United States Government 2007 Retrieved 19 December 2008 Census of Population 2001 Grafeio Typoy kai Plhroforiwn Ypoyrgeio Eswterikwn Kypriakh Dhmokratia Archived from the original on 3 February 2017 Retrieved 11 June 2016 Greece Demographic trends Encyclopaedia Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 2016 Online Edition a b c Merchant Marine Tertiary enrollment by age group Pocket World in Figures Economist London Economist Books 2006 p 150 ISBN 978 1 86197 825 7 a b c Cyprus Demographic trends Encyclopaedia Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 2016 Online Edition Papadakis Peristianis amp Welz 2006 pp 2 3 Borowiec 2000 p 2 Rezun 2001 p 6 Brown 2004 p 48 Yotopoulos Marangopoulos 2001 p 24 In occupied Cyprus on the other hand where heavy ethnic cleansing took place only 300 Greek Cypriots remain from the original 200 000 Georgiou Myria 2004 Mapping Minorities and their Media The National Context Greece PDF London School of Economics The long and adventurous 20th century history of migration in Greece can be drawn by period 1990 s The vast majority of the 200 000 ethnic Greeks from 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