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Burundi

July 03, 2023

Burundi (/bəˈrʊndi/ (listen), /-ˈrʌn-/), officially the Republic of Burundi (Kirundi: Repuburika y’Uburundi[11] [u.βu.ɾǔː.ndi]; Swahili: Jamuhuri ya Burundi; French: République du Burundi [buʁundi, byʁyndi]), is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley at the junction between the African Great Lakes region and East Africa. It is bordered by Rwanda to the north, Tanzania to the east and southeast, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west; Lake Tanganyika lies along its southwestern border. The capital cities are Gitega and Bujumbura, the latter being the country's largest city.[12]

Republic of Burundi
  • Repuburika y’Uburundi (Kirundi)
  • République du Burundi (French)
Motto: 
  • "Ubumwe, Ibikorwa, Amajambere" (Kirundi)
  • "Unité, Travail, Progrès" (French)
  • "Union, Work, Progress" (English)
Anthem: Burundi Bwacu (Kirundi)
Our Burundi
CapitalGitega (political) Bujumbura (economic)[a]
3°30′S 30°00′E / 3.500°S 30.000°E / -3.500; 30.000
Largest cityBujumbura
Official languages
Ethnic groups
(2018[1])
Religion
(2020)[2]
Demonym(s)Burundian
GovernmentUnitary dominant-party presidential republic
• President
Evariste Ndayishimiye[3]
Prosper Bazombanza
Gervais Ndirakobuca
LegislatureParliament
• Upper house
Senate
• Lower house
National Assembly
Establishment history
1680–1966
• Part of German East Africa
1890–1916
• Part of Ruanda-Urundi
1916–1962
• Independence from Belgium
1 July 1962
• Republic
28 November 1966
17 May 2018
Area
• Total
27,834 km2 (10,747 sq mi)[5] (142nd)
• Water (%)
10[6]
Population
• 2023 estimate
13,162,952[7] (77th)
• Density
451.8/km2 (1,170.2/sq mi) (31st)
GDP (PPP)2022 estimate
• Total
$10.8 billion [8] (164th)
• Per capita
 $865 [8] (193rd)
GDP (nominal)2022 estimate
• Total
$3.6 billion [8] (173rd)
• Per capita
$292[8] (192nd)
Gini (2013)39.2[9]
medium
HDI (2021) 0.426[10]
low · 187th
CurrencyBurundian franc (FBu) (BIF)
Time zoneUTC+2 (CAT)
Date formatdd/mm/yyyy
Driving sideright
Calling code+257
ISO 3166 codeBI
Internet TLD.bi

The Twa, Hutu and Tutsi peoples have lived in Burundi for at least 500 years. For more than 200 of those years, Burundi was an independent kingdom, until the beginning of the 20th century, when it became a German colony.[13] After the First World War and Germany's defeat, the League of Nations "mandated" the territory to Belgium. After the Second World War, this transformed into a United Nations Trust Territory. Both Germans and Belgians ruled Burundi and Rwanda as a European colony known as Ruanda-Urundi.[14] Burundi and Rwanda had never been under common rule until the time of European colonization of Africa.[14]

Burundi gained independence in 1962 and initially had a monarchy, but a series of assassinations, coups and a general climate of regional instability culminated in the establishment of a republic and a one-party state in 1966. Bouts of ethnic cleansing and ultimately two civil wars and genocides during the 1970s and again in the 1990s resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths, leaving the economy undeveloped and the population one of the world's poorest.[15] The year 2015 witnessed large-scale political strife as President Pierre Nkurunziza opted to run for a third term in office, a coup attempt failed and the country's parliamentary and presidential elections were broadly criticised by members of the international community.

The sovereign state of Burundi's political system is that of a presidential representative democratic republic based upon a multi-party state. The president of Burundi is the head of state and head of government. There are currently 21 registered parties in Burundi.[16] On 13 March 1992, Tutsi coup leader Pierre Buyoya established a constitution,[17] which provided for a multi-party political process and reflected multi-party competition.[18] Six years later, on 6 June 1998, the constitution was changed, broadening the National Assembly's seats and making provisions for two vice-presidents. Because of the Arusha Accord, Burundi enacted a transitional government in 2000.[19] In October 2016, Burundi informed the UN of its intention to withdraw from the International Criminal Court.[20]

Burundi remains primarily a rural society, with just 13.4% of the population living in urban areas in 2019.[21] The population density of around 315 people per square kilometre (753 per sq mi) is the second highest in Sub-Saharan Africa.[16] Roughly 85% of the population are of Hutu ethnic origin, 15% are Tutsi, and fewer than 1% are indigenous Twa.[22] The official languages of Burundi are Kirundi, French, and English, Kirundi being recognised officially as the sole national language.[23]

One of the smallest countries in Africa, Burundi's land is used mostly for subsistence agriculture and grazing, which has led to deforestation, soil erosion and habitat loss.[24] As of 2005, the country was almost completely deforested, with less than 6% of its land covered by trees and over half of that being commercial plantations.[25]

Burundi is the poorest country in the world as per GDP per capita, and is one of the least developed countries, facing widespread poverty, corruption, instability, authoritarianism, and illiteracy.

Burundi is densely populated, and many young people emigrate in search of opportunities elsewhere. The World Happiness Report 2018 ranked the country as the world's least happy with a rank of 156.[26] Burundi is a member of the African Union, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, United Nations, East African Community (EAC) and the Non-Aligned Movement.

Etymology

Modern Burundi is named after the King of Burundi, who ruled the region starting in the 16th century. It may ultimately derive its name from the Ha people of the region, whose place of origin was known as Buha.[27]

History

Main articles: History of Burundi and Ruanda-Urundi

Burundi is one of the few countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, along with its neighbour Rwanda among others (such as Botswana, Lesotho, and Eswatini), to be a direct territorial continuation of a pre-colonial era African state. The early history of Burundi, and especially the role and nature of the country's three dominant ethnic groups, the Twa, Hutu and Tutsi, is highly debated amongst academics.[28]

Kingdom of Burundi

Main article: Kingdom of Burundi

The first evidence of the Burundian state dates back to the late 16th century where it emerged on the eastern foothills. Over the following centuries it expanded, annexing smaller neighbours. The Kingdom of Burundi, or Urundi, in the Great Lakes region was a polity ruled by a traditional monarch with several princes beneath him; succession struggles were common.[4] The king, known as the mwami (translated as ruler) headed a princely aristocracy (ganwa) which owned most of the land and required a tribute, or tax, from local farmers (mainly Hutu) and herders (mainly Tutsi). The Kingdom of Burundi was characterised by a hierarchical political authority and tributary economic exchange.[29]

In the mid-18th century, the Tutsi royalty consolidated authority over land, production, and distribution with the development of the ubugabire—a patron-client relationship in which the populace received royal protection in exchange for tribute and land tenure. By this time, the royal court was made up of the Tutsi-Banyaruguru. They had higher social status than other pastoralists such as the Tutsi-Hima. In the lower levels of this society were generally Hutu people, and at the very bottom of the pyramid were the Twa. The system had some fluidity, however. Some Hutu people belonged to the nobility and in this way also had a say in the functioning of the state.[30]

The classification of Hutu or Tutsi was not merely based on ethnic criteria alone. Hutu farmers that managed to acquire wealth and livestock were regularly granted the higher social status of Tutsi, some even made it to become close advisors of the Ganwa. On the other hand, there are also reports of Tutsi that lost all their cattle and subsequently lost their higher status and were called Hutu. Thus, the distinction between Hutu and Tutsi was also a socio-cultural concept, instead of a purely ethnic one.[31][32] There were also many reports of marriages between Hutu and Tutsi people.[33] In general, regional ties and power struggles played a far more determining role in Burundi's politics than ethnicity.[32]

Rule by Germany and Belgium

Main articles: German East Africa and Ruanda-Urundi

From 1884, the German East Africa Company was active in the African Great Lakes region. As a result of heightened tensions and border disputes between the German East Africa Company, the British Empire and the Sultanate of Zanzibar, the German Empire was called upon to put down the Abushiri revolts and protect the empire's interests in the region. The German East Africa Company transferred its rights to the German Empire in 1891, in this way establishing the German colony of German East Africa, which included Burundi (Urundi), Rwanda (Ruanda), and the mainland part of Tanzania (formerly known as Tanganyika).[14] The German Empire stationed armed forces in Rwanda and Burundi during the late 1880s. The location of the present-day city of Gitega served as an administrative centre for the Ruanda-Urundi region.[34]

During the First World War, the East African Campaign greatly affected the African Great Lakes region. The Belgian and British colonial forces of the allied powers launched a coordinated attack on the German colony. The German army stationed in Burundi was forced to retreat by the numerical superiority of the Belgian army and by 17 June 1916, Burundi and Rwanda were occupied. The Force Publique and the British Lake Force then started a thrust to capture Tabora, an administrative centre of central German East Africa. After the war, as outlined in the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was forced to cede "control" of the Western section of the former German East Africa to Belgium.[16][35]

On 20 October 1924, Ruanda-Urundi, which consisted of modern-day Rwanda and Burundi, became a Belgian League of Nations mandate territory, with Usumbura as its capital. In practical terms it was considered part of the Belgian colonial empire. Burundi, as part of Ruanda-Urundi, continued its kingship dynasty despite the presence of European authorities.[21][36]

The Belgians, however, preserved many of the kingdom's institutions; the Burundian monarchy succeeded in surviving into the post-colonial period.[4] Following the Second World War, Ruanda-Urundi was classified as a United Nations Trust Territory under Belgian administrative authority.[21] During the 1940s, a series of policies caused divisions throughout the country. On 4 October 1943, powers were split in the legislative division of Burundi's government between chiefdoms and lower chiefdoms. Chiefdoms were in charge of land, and lower sub-chiefdoms were established. Native authorities also had powers.[36] In 1948, Belgium allowed the region to form political parties.[16] These factions contributed to Burundi gaining its independence from Belgium, on 1 July 1962.

Independence

 
Flag of the Kingdom of Burundi (1962–1966).
 
Independence Square and monument in Bujumbura.

On 20 January 1959, King Mwami Mwambutsa IV requested Burundi's independence from Belgium and dissolution of the Ruanda-Urundi union.[37] In the following months, Burundian political parties began to advocate for the end of Belgian colonial rule and the separation of Rwanda and Burundi.[37] The first and largest of these political parties was the Union for National Progress (UPRONA).

Burundi's push for independence was influenced by the Rwandan Revolution and the accompanying instability and ethnic conflict that occurred there. As a result of the Rwandan Revolution, many Rwandan Tutsi refugees arrived in Burundi during the period from 1959 to 1961.[38][39][40]

Burundi's first elections took place on 8 September 1961 and UPRONA, a multi-ethnic unity party led by Prince Louis Rwagasore won just over 80% of the electorate's votes. In the wake of the elections, on 13 October, the 29-year-old Prince Rwagasore was assassinated, robbing Burundi of its most popular and well-known nationalists.[16][41]

The country claimed independence on 1 July 1962,[16] and legally changed its name from Ruanda-Urundi to Burundi.[42] Burundi became a constitutional monarchy with Mwami Mwambutsa IV, Prince Rwagasore's father, serving as the country's king.[39] On 18 September 1962 Burundi joined the United Nations.[43]

In 1963, King Mwambutsa appointed a Hutu prime minister, Pierre Ngendandumwe, but he was assassinated on 15 January 1965 by a Rwandan Tutsi employed by the US Embassy. The assassination occurred in the broader context of the Congo Crisis during which Western anti-communist countries were confronting the communist People's Republic of China as it attempted to make Burundi a logistics base for communist insurgents battling in Congo.[44] Parliamentary elections in May 1965 brought a majority of Hutu into the parliament, but when King Mwambutsa appointed a Tutsi prime minister, some Hutu felt this was unjust and ethnic tensions were further increased. In October 1965, an attempted coup d'état led by the Hutu-dominated police was carried out but failed. The Tutsi dominated army, then led by Tutsi officer Captain Michel Micombero[39] purged Hutu from their ranks and carried out reprisal attacks which ultimately claimed the lives of up to 5,000 people in a precursor to the 1972 Burundian Genocide.[45]

King Mwambutsa, who had fled the country during the October coup of 1965, was deposed by a coup in July 1966 and his teenage son, Prince Ntare V, claimed the throne. In November that same year, the Tutsi Prime Minister, then-Captain Michel Micombero, carried out another coup, this time deposing Ntare, abolishing the monarchy and declaring the nation a republic, though his one-party government was effectively a military dictatorship.[16] As president, Micombero became an advocate of African socialism and received support from the People's Republic of China. He imposed a staunch regime of law and order and sharply repressed Hutu militarism.

Civil war and genocides

Further information: Burundian genocide (1972) and Burundian genocide (1993)

In late April 1972, two events led to the outbreak of the First Burundian Genocide. On 27 April 1972, a rebellion led by Hutu members of the gendarmerie broke out in the lakeside towns of Rumonge and Nyanza-Lac and the rebels declared the short-lived Martyazo Republic.[46][47] The rebels attacked both Tutsi and any Hutu who refused to join their rebellion.[48][49] During this initial Hutu outbreak, anywhere from 800 to 1200 people were killed.[50] At the same time, King Ntare V of Burundi returned from exile, heightening political tension in the country. On 29 April 1972, the 24-year-old Ntare V was murdered. In subsequent months, the Tutsi-dominated government of Michel Micombero used the army to combat Hutu rebels and commit genocide, murdering targeted members of the Hutu majority. The total number of casualties was never established, but contemporary estimates put the number of people killed between 80,000 and 210,000.[51][52] In addition, several hundred thousand Hutu were estimated to have fled the killings into Zaïre, Rwanda and Tanzania.[52][53]

Following the civil war and genocide, Micombero became mentally distraught and withdrawn. In 1976, Colonel Jean-Baptiste Bagaza, a Tutsi, led a bloodless coup to topple Micombero and set about promoting reform. His administration drafted a new constitution in 1981, which maintained Burundi's status as a one-party state.[39] In August 1984, Bagaza was elected head of state. During his tenure, Bagaza suppressed political opponents and religious freedoms.

Major Pierre Buyoya (Tutsi) overthrew Bagaza in 1987, suspended the constitution and dissolved political parties. He reinstated military rule by a Military Committee for National Salvation (CSMN).[39] Anti-Tutsi ethnic propaganda disseminated by the remnants of the 1972 UBU, which had re-organized as PALIPEHUTU in 1981, led to killings of Tutsi peasants in the northern communes of Ntega and Marangara in August 1988. The government put the death toll at 5,000[citation needed]; some international NGOs believed this understated the deaths.

The new regime did not unleash the harsh reprisals of 1972. Its effort to gain public trust was eroded when it decreed an amnesty for those who had called for, carried out, and taken credit for the killings. Analysts have called this period the beginning of the "culture of impunity." Other analysts put the origins of the "culture of impunity" earlier, in 1965 and 1972, when a small number of identifiable Hutus unleashed massive killings of Tutsis.[citation needed]

In the aftermath of the killings, a group of Hutu intellectuals wrote an open letter to Pierre Buyoya, asking for more representation of the Hutu in the administration. They were arrested and jailed. A few weeks later, Buyoya appointed a new government, with an equal number of Hutu and Tutsi ministers. He appointed Adrien Sibomana (Hutu) as Prime Minister. Buyoya also created a commission to address issues of national unity.[39] In 1992, the government created a new constitution that provided for a multi-party system,[39] but a civil war broke out.

An estimated total of 250,000 people died in Burundi from the various conflicts between 1962 and 1993.[54] Since Burundi's independence in 1962, two genocides have taken place in the country: the 1972 mass killings of Hutus by the Tutsi-dominated army,[55] and the mass killings of Tutsis in 1993 by the Hutu majority. Both were described as genocides in the final report of the International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi presented in 2002 to the United Nations Security Council.[56]

First attempt at democracy and war between Tutsi National Army and Hutu population

In June 1993, Melchior Ndadaye, leader of the Hutu-dominated Front for Democracy in Burundi (FRODEBU), won the first democratic election. He became the first Hutu head of state, leading a pro-Hutu government. Though he attempted to smooth the country's bitter ethnic divide, his reforms antagonised soldiers in the Tutsi-dominated army, and he was assassinated amidst a failed military coup in October 1993, after only three months in office. The ensuing Burundian Civil War (1993–2005) saw persistent violence between Hutu rebels and the Tutsi majority army. It is estimated that some 300,000 people, mostly civilians, were killed in the years following the assassination.[57]

In early 1994, the parliament elected Cyprien Ntaryamira (Hutu) to the office of president. He and Juvénal Habyarimana, the president of Rwanda, both Hutus, died together when their airplane was shot down in April 1994. More refugees started fleeing to Rwanda. Speaker of Parliament, Sylvestre Ntibantunganya (Hutu), was appointed as president in October 1994. A coalition government involving 12 of the 13 parties was formed. A feared general massacre was averted, but violence broke out. A number of Hutu refugees in Bujumbura,[citation needed] the then-capital, were killed. The mainly Tutsi Union for National Progress withdrew from the government and parliament.

In 1996, Pierre Buyoya (Tutsi) again took power through a coup d'état. He suspended the constitution and was sworn in as president in 1998. This was the start of his second term as president, after his first term from 1987 to 1993. In response to rebel attacks, the government forced much of the population to move to refugee camps.[citation needed] Under Buyoya's rule, long peace talks started, mediated by South Africa. Both parties signed agreements in Arusha, Tanzania and Pretoria, South Africa, to share power in Burundi. The agreements took four years to plan.

 
Belligerents of the Second Congo War. Burundi backed the rebels.

On 28 August 2000, a transitional government for Burundi was planned as a part of the Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement. The transitional government was placed on a trial basis for five years. After several aborted cease-fires, a 2001 peace plan and power-sharing agreement has been relatively successful. A cease-fire was signed in 2003 between the Tutsi-controlled Burundian government and the largest Hutu rebel group, CNDD-FDD (National Council for the Defense of Democracy-Forces for the Defense of Democracy).[58]

In 2003, FRODEBU leader Domitien Ndayizeye (Hutu) was elected president.[citation needed] In early 2005, ethnic quotas were formed for determining positions in Burundi's government. Throughout the year, elections for parliament and president occurred.[59]

Pierre Nkurunziza (Hutu), once a leader of a rebel group, was elected president in 2005. As of 2008, the Burundian government was talking with the Hutu-led Palipehutu-National Liberation Forces (NLF)[60] to bring peace to the country.[61]

Peace agreements

African leaders began a series of peace talks between the warring factions following a request by the United Nations Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali for them to intervene in the humanitarian crisis. Talks were initiated under the aegis of former Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere in 1995; following his death, South African President Nelson Mandela took the helm. As the talks progressed, South African President Thabo Mbeki and United States President Bill Clinton also lent their respective weight.

The peace talks took the form of Track I mediations. This method of negotiation can be defined as a form of diplomacy involving governmental or intergovernmental representatives, who may use their positive reputations, mediation, or the "carrot and stick" method as a means of obtaining or forcing an outcome, frequently along the lines of "bargaining" or "win-lose".[62]

The main objective was to transform the Burundian government and military structurally in order to bridge the ethnic gap between the Tutsi and Hutu. It was to take place in two major steps. First, a transitional power-sharing government would be established, with the presidents holding office for three-year terms. The second objective involved a restructuring of the armed forces, where the two groups would be represented equally.

As the protracted nature of the peace talks demonstrated, the mediators and negotiating parties confronted several obstacles. First, the Burundian officials perceived the goals as "unrealistic" and viewed the treaty as ambiguous, contradictory and confusing. Second, and perhaps most importantly, the Burundians believed the treaty would be irrelevant without an accompanying cease fire. This would require separate and direct talks with the rebel groups. The main Hutu party was skeptical of the offer of a power-sharing government; they alleged that they had been deceived by the Tutsi in past agreements.

In 2000,[63] the Burundian President signed the treaty, as well as 13 of the 19 warring Hutu and Tutsi factions. Disagreements persisted over which group would preside over the nascent government, and when the ceasefire would begin. The spoilers of the peace talks were the hardliner Tutsi and Hutu groups who refused to sign the accord; as a result, violence intensified. Three years later at a summit of African leaders in Tanzania, the Burundian president and the main opposition Hutu group signed an accord to end the conflict; the signatory members were granted ministerial posts within the government. However, smaller militant Hutu groups – such as the Forces for National Liberation – remained active.

UN involvement

Between 1993 and 2003, many rounds of peace talks, overseen by regional leaders in Tanzania, South Africa and Uganda, gradually established power-sharing agreements to satisfy the majority of the contending groups. Initially the South African Protection Support Detachment was deployed to protect Burundian leaders returning from exile. These forces became part of the African Union Mission to Burundi, deployed to help oversee the installation of a transitional government. In June 2004, the UN stepped in and took over peacekeeping responsibilities as a signal of growing international support for the already markedly advanced peace process in Burundi.[64]

The mission's mandate, under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, has been to monitor cease-fire, carry out disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration of former military personnel, support humanitarian assistance and refugee and IDP return, assist with elections, protect international staff and Burundian civilians, monitor Burundi's troublesome borders, including halting illicit arms flows, and assist in carrying out institutional reforms including those of the Constitution, judiciary, armed forces and police. The mission has been allotted 5,650 military personnel, 120 civilian police and about 1,000 international and local civilian personnel. The mission has been functioning well. It has greatly benefited from the transitional government, which has functioned and is in the process of transitioning to one that will be popularly elected.[64]

The main difficulty in the early stages was continued resistance to the peace process by the last Hutu nationalist rebel group. This organisation continued its violent conflict on the outskirts of the capital despite the UN's presence. By June 2005, the group had stopped fighting and its representatives were brought back into the political process. All political parties have accepted a formula for inter-ethnic power-sharing: no political party can gain access to government offices unless it is ethnically integrated.[64]

The focus of the UN's mission had been to enshrine the power-sharing arrangements in a popularly voted constitution, so that elections may be held and a new government installed. Disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration were done in tandem with elections preparations. In February 2005, the constitution was approved with over 90% of the popular vote. In May, June and August 2005, three separate elections were also held at the local level for the Parliament and the presidency.

While there are still some difficulties with refugee returns and securing adequate food supplies for the war-weary population, the mission managed to win the trust and confidence of a majority of the formerly warring leaders, as well as the population at large.[64] It was involved with several "quick effect" projects, including rehabilitating and building schools, orphanages, health clinics and rebuilding infrastructure such as water lines.

2006 to 2018

 
View of the capital city Bujumbura in 2006.

Reconstruction efforts in Burundi started to practically take effect after 2006. The UN shut down its peacekeeping mission and re-focused on helping with reconstruction.[65] Toward achieving economic reconstruction, Rwanda, D.R.Congo and Burundi relaunched the regional Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries.[65] In addition, Burundi, along with Rwanda, joined the East African Community in 2007.

However, the terms of the September 2006 Ceasefire between the government and the last remaining armed opposition group, the FLN (Forces for National Liberation, also called NLF or FROLINA), were not totally implemented, and senior FLN members subsequently left the truce monitoring team, claiming that their security was threatened.[66] In September 2007, rival FLN factions clashed in the capital, killing 20 fighters and causing residents to begin fleeing. Rebel raids were reported in other parts of the country.[65] The rebel factions disagreed with the government over disarmament and the release of political prisoners.[67] In late 2007 and early 2008, FLN combatants attacked government-protected camps where former combatants were living. The homes of rural residents were also pillaged.[67]

The 2007 report[67] of Amnesty International mentions many areas where improvement is required. Civilians are victims of repeated acts of violence done by the FLN. The latter also recruits child soldiers. The rate of violence against women is high. Perpetrators regularly escape prosecution and punishment by the state. There is an urgent need for reform of the judicial system. Genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity continued to go unpunished.[citation needed]

In late March 2008, the FLN sought for the parliament to adopt a law guaranteeing them 'provisional immunity' from arrest. This would cover ordinary crimes, but not grave violations of international humanitarian law like war crimes or crimes against humanity .[67] Even though the government has granted this in the past to people, the FLN has been unable to obtain the provisional immunity.

On 17 April 2008, the FLN bombarded Bujumbura. The Burundian army fought back and the FLN suffered heavy losses. A new ceasefire was signed on 26 May 2008. In August 2008, President Nkurunziza met with the FLN leader Agathon Rwasa, with the mediation of Charles Nqakula, South Africa's Minister for Safety and Security. This was the first direct meeting since June 2007. Both agreed to meet twice a week to establish a commission to resolve any disputes that might arise during the peace negotiations.[68]

The UN has attempted to evaluate the impact of its peace-building initiatives. In the early 2010s, the UN peacekeeping mission in Burundi sought to assess the success of its Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration program by counting the number of arms that had been collected, given the prevalence of arms in the country. However, these evaluations failed to include date from local populations, which are significant in impact evaluations of peacebuilding initiatives.[69]

As of 2012, Burundi was participating in African Union peacekeeping missions, including the mission to Somalia against Al-Shabaab militants.[70] In 2014, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission was established, initially for four years and then extended for another four in 2018.[71][72]

2015 unrest

Main article: Burundian unrest (2015–2018)

In April 2015 protests broke out after the ruling party announced President Pierre Nkurunziza would seek a third term in office.[73] Protestors claimed Nkurunziza could not run for a third term in office but the country's constitutional court agreed with Nkurunziza (although some of its members had fled the country at the time of its vote).[74]

An attempted coup d'état on 13 May failed to depose Nkurunziza. [75][76] He returned to Burundi, began purging his government, and arrested several of the coup leaders.[77][78][79][80][81] Following the attempted coup, protests however continued and over 100,000 people had fled the country by 20 May causing a humanitarian emergency. There are reports of continued and widespread abuses of human rights, including unlawful killings, torture, disappearances, and restrictions on freedom of expression.[82][83]

Despite calls by the United Nations, the African Union, the United States, France, South Africa, Belgium, and various other governments to refrain, the ruling party held parliamentary elections on 29 June, but these were boycotted by the opposition.

On 30 September 2016, the United Nations Human Rights Council established the Commission of Inquiry on Burundi through resolution 33/24. Its mandate is to "conduct a thorough investigation into human rights violations and abuses committed in Burundi since April 2015, to identify alleged perpetrators and to formulate recommendations."[84] On 29 September 2017 the Commission of Inquiry on Burundi called on Burundian government to put an end to serious human rights violations. It further stressed that, "The Burundian government has so far refused to cooperate with the Commission of Inquiry, despite the Commission's repeated requests and initiatives."[85] The violations the Commission documented include arbitrary arrests and detentions, acts of torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, extrajudicial executions, enforced disappearances, rape and other forms of sexual violence."[85]

2018 to present

In a constitutional referendum in May 2018, Burundians voted by 79.08% to approve an amended constitution that ensured that Nkurunziza could remain in power until 2034.[86][87] However, much to the surprise of most observers, Nkurunziza later announced that he did not intend to serve another term, paving the way for a new president to be elected in the 2020 general election.[88]

On 20 May 2020, Evariste Ndayishimiye, a candidate who was hand-picked as Nkurunziza's successor by the CNDD-FDD, won the election with 71.45% of the vote.[89] Shortly after, on 9 June 2020, Nkurunziza died of a cardiac arrest, at the age of 55.[88] There was some speculation that his death was COVID-19 related, though this is unconfirmed.[90] As per the constitution, Pascal Nyabenda, the president of the national assembly, led the government until Ndayishimiye's inauguration on 18 June 2020.[88][89]

In December 2021, a large prison fire killed dozens in the capital city of Gitega.[91]

In November 2022, in challenges to the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Burundi's economic growth increased slightly to 3 percent, according to an assessment of the International Monetary Fund.

Currently, Burundi remains as one of the poorest nations on Earth after Haiti, based on a Gross National Income (GNI) of $270 per capita.[92]

Government

Main article: Politics of Burundi
 
Pierre Nkurunziza, President of Burundi from 2005 to 2020.

Burundi's political system is that of a presidential representative democratic republic based upon a multi-party state. The president of Burundi is the head of state and head of government. There are currently 21 registered parties in Burundi.[16] On 13 March 1992, Tutsi coup leader Pierre Buyoya established a constitution,[17] which provided for a multi-party political process and reflected multi-party competition.[18] Six years later, on 6 June 1998, the constitution was changed, broadening National Assembly's seats and making provisions for two vice-presidents. Because of the Arusha Accord, Burundi enacted a transitional government in 2000.[19]

Burundi's legislative branch is a bicameral assembly, consisting of the Transitional National Assembly and the Transitional Senate. As of 2004, the Transitional National Assembly consisted of 170 members, with the Front for Democracy in Burundi holding 38% of seats, and 10% of the assembly controlled by UPRONA. Fifty-two seats were controlled by other parties. Burundi's constitution mandates representation in the Transitional National Assembly to be consistent with 60% Hutu, 40% Tutsi, and 30% female members, as well as three Batwa members.[16] Members of the National Assembly are elected by popular vote and serve five-year terms.[93]

The Transitional Senate has fifty-one members, and three seats are reserved for former presidents. Due to stipulations in Burundi's constitution, 30% of Senate members must be female. Members of the Senate are elected by electoral colleges, which consist of members from each of Burundi's provinces and communes.[16] For each of Burundi's eighteen provinces, one Hutu and one Tutsi senator are chosen. One term for the Transitional Senate is five years.[93]

Together, Burundi's legislative branch elect the president to a five-year term.[93] Burundi's president appoints officials to his Council of Ministers, which is also part of the executive branch.[19] The president can also pick fourteen members of the Transitional Senate to serve on the Council of Ministers.[16] Members of the Council of Ministers must be approved by two-thirds of Burundi's legislature. The president also chooses two vice-presidents.[93] Following the 2015 election, the president of Burundi was Pierre Nkurunziza. The first vice-president was Therence Sinunguruza, and the Second Vice-president was Gervais Rufyikiri.[94]

On 20 May 2020, Evariste Ndayishimiye, a candidate who was hand-picked as Nkurunziza's successor by the CNDD-FDD, won the election with 71.45% of the vote. Shortly after, on 9 June 2020, Nkurunziza died of a cardiac arrest, at the age of 55. As per the constitution, Pascal Nyabenda, the president of the national assembly, led the government until Ndayishimiye's inauguration on 18 June 2020.[95][96]

The Cour Suprême (Supreme Court) is Burundi's highest court. There are three Courts of Appeals directly below the Supreme Court. Tribunals of First Instance are used as judicial courts in each of Burundi's provinces as well as 123 local tribunals.[19]

 
Embassy of Burundi in Brussels

Human rights

See also: Human rights in Burundi and LGBT rights in Burundi

Burundi's government has been repeatedly criticised by human rights organisations including Human Rights Watch[97] for the multiple arrests and trials of journalist Jean-Claude Kavumbagu for issues related to his reporting. Amnesty International (AI) named him a prisoner of conscience and called for his "immediate and unconditional release."

In April 2009, the government of Burundi changed the law to criminalise homosexuality. Persons found guilty of consensual same-sex relations risk two to three years in prison and a fine of 50,000 to 100,000 Burundian francs.[98] Amnesty International has condemned the action, calling it a violation of Burundi's obligations under international and regional human rights law, and against the constitution, which guarantees the right to privacy.[99]

Burundi officially left the International Criminal Court (ICC) on 27 October 2017, the first country in the world to do so.[100] The move came after the UN accused the country of various crimes and human rights violations, such as extrajudicial killings, torture and sexual violence, in a September 2017 report.[100] The ICC announced on 9 November 2017 that human rights violations from the time Burundi was a member would still be prosecuted.[101][102]

Subdivisions

Main articles: Provinces of Burundi, Communes of Burundi, and Collines of Burundi

Burundi is divided into 18 provinces,[103] 119 communes,[16] and 2,638 collines (hills).[104] Provincial governments are structured upon these boundaries.

Burundi's provinces and communes were created on Christmas Day in 1959 by a Belgian colonial decree. They replaced the pre-existing system of chieftains.[105]

In 2000, the province encompassing Bujumbura was separated into two provinces, Bujumbura Rural and Bujumbura Mairie.[15] The newest province, Rumonge, was created on 26 March 2015 from portions of Bujumbura Rural and Bururi.[106]

In July 2022, the government of Burundi announced a complete overhaul of the country's territorial subdivisions. The proposed change would reduce the amounts of provinces from 18 to 5, and reduce the amount of communes from 119 to 42. The change needs the approval of the parliament of Burundi to take effect.[105]


Geography

 
Map of Burundi.
 
Hippos at Kibira National Park in northwest Burundi
Main articles: Geography of Burundi and Climate of Burundi

One of the smallest countries in Africa, Burundi is landlocked and has an equatorial climate. Burundi is a part of the Albertine Rift, the western extension of the East African Rift. The country lies on a rolling plateau in the centre of Africa. Burundi is bordered by Rwanda to the north, Tanzania to the east and southeast, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west. It lies within the Albertine Rift montane forests, Central Zambezian miombo woodlands, and Victoria Basin forest-savanna mosaic ecoregions.[108]

The average elevation of the central plateau is 1,707 m (5,600 ft), with lower elevations at the borders. The highest peak, Mount Heha at 2,685 m (8,810 ft),[109] lies to the southeast of the largest city and economic capital, Bujumbura. The source of the Nile River is in Bururi province, and is linked from Lake Victoria to its headwaters via the Ruvyironza River.[110][clarification needed] Lake Victoria is also an important water source, which serves as a fork to the Kagera River.[111][112] Another major lake is Lake Tanganyika, located in much of Burundi's southwestern corner.[113]

There are two national parks: Kibira National Park to the northwest (a small region of rainforest, adjacent to Nyungwe Forest National Park in Rwanda), and Ruvubu National Park to the northeast (along the Rurubu River, also known as Ruvubu or Ruvuvu). Both were established in 1982 to conserve wildlife populations.[114]

Wildlife

Main article: Wildlife of Burundi

Economy

Main article: Economy of Burundi
See also: List of companies based in Burundi
 
Historical development of GDP per capita

Burundi is a landlocked, resource-poor country with an underdeveloped manufacturing sector. The economy is predominantly agricultural, accounting for 50% of GDP in 2017[115] and employing more than 90% of the population. Subsistence agriculture accounts for 90% of agriculture.[116] Burundi's primary exports are coffee and tea, which account for 90% of foreign exchange earnings, though exports are a relatively small share of GDP. Other agricultural products include cotton, tea, maize, sorghum, sweet potatoes, bananas, manioc (tapioca); beef, milk and hides. Even though subsistence farming is highly relied upon, many people do not have the resources to sustain themselves. This is due to large population growth and no coherent policies governing land ownership. In 2014, the average farm size was about one acre.

Burundi is one of the world's poorest countries, owing in part to its landlocked geography,[21] lack of access to education and the proliferation of HIV/AIDS. Approximately 80% of Burundi's population lives in poverty.[117] Famines and food shortages have occurred throughout Burundi, most notably in the 20th century,[36] and according to the World Food Programme, 56.8% of children under age five suffer from chronic malnutrition.[118] Burundi's export earnings – and its ability to pay for imports – rests primarily on weather conditions and international coffee and tea prices.

 
Graphical depiction of Burundi's product exports in 28 colour-coded categories in 2009.

The purchasing power of most Burundians has decreased as wage increases have not kept up with inflation. As a result of deepening poverty, Burundi will remain heavily dependent on aid from bilateral and multilateral donors. Foreign aid represents 42% of Burundis national income, the second highest rate in Sub-Saharan Africa. Burundi joined the East African Community in 2009, which should boost its regional trade ties, and also in 2009 received $700 million in debt relief. Government corruption is hindering the development of a healthy private sector as companies seek to navigate an environment with ever-changing rules.[21]

Studies since 2007 have shown Burundians to have extremely poor levels of satisfaction with life; the World Happiness Report 2018 rated them the world's least happy in 2018.[26][119]

 
Fishermen on Lake Tanganyika.

Some of Burundi's natural resources include uranium, nickel, cobalt, copper and platinum.[120] Besides agriculture, other industries include: assembly of imported components; public works construction; food processing and light consumer goods such as blankets, shoes and soap.

In regards to telecommunications infrastructure, Burundi is ranked second to last in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. Burundi ranked number 147 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking, down from 144 in 2013.[121]

Lack of access to financial services is a serious problem for the majority of the population, particularly in the densely populated rural areas: only 2% of the total population holds bank accounts, and fewer than 0.5% use bank lending services. Microfinance, however, plays a larger role, with 4% of Burundians being members of microfinance institutions – a larger share of the population than that reached by banking and postal services combined. 26 licensed microfinance institutions (MFIs) offer savings, deposits and short- to medium-term credit. Dependence of the sector on donor assistance is limited.[122]

Burundi is part of the East African Community and a potential member of the planned East African Federation. Economic growth in Burundi is relatively steady but Burundi is still behind neighbouring countries.[123]

Currency

Main article: Burundian franc

Burundi's currency is the Burundian franc (ISO 4217 code BIF). It is nominally subdivided into 100 centimes, though coins have never been issued in centimes in independent Burundi; centime coins were circulated only when Burundi used the Belgian Congo franc.

Monetary policy is controlled by the central bank, Bank of the Republic of Burundi.

Current BIF exchange rates
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Transport

Main article: Transport in Burundi
 
Bujumbura International Airport terminal in Bujumbura
 
Bicycles are a popular means of transport in Burundi

Burundi's transport network is limited and underdeveloped. According to a 2012 DHL Global Connectedness Index, Burundi is the least globalised of 140 surveyed countries.[124] Bujumbura International Airport is the only airport with a paved runway and as of May 2017 it was serviced by four airlines (Brussels Airlines, Ethiopian Airlines, Kenya Airways and RwandAir). Kigali is the city with the most daily flight connections to Bujumbura. The country has a road network but as of 2005 less than 10% of the country's roads were paved and as of 2012 private bus companies were the main operators of buses on the international route to Kigali; however, there were no bus connections to the other neighbouring countries (Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of Congo).[125] Bujumbura is connected by a passenger and cargo ferry (the MV Mwongozo) to Kigoma in Tanzania.[126] There is a long-term plan to link the country via rail to Kigali and then onward to Kampala and Kenya.

Demographics

 
 
Largest cities or towns in Burundi
Source:[127]
Rank Name Province Pop.
 
Bujumbura
 
Gitega 		1 Bujumbura Bujumbura Mairie 658,859  
Ngozi
 
Rumonge
2 Gitega Gitega 135,467
3 Ngozi Ngozi 39,884
4 Rumonge Bururi 35,931
5 Cibitoke Cibitoke 23,885
6 Kayanza Kayanza 21,767
7 Bubanza Bubanza 20,031
8 Karuzi Karuzi 10,705
9 Kirundo Kirundo 10,024
10 Muyinga Muyinga 9,609
 
Men in colourful clothing with drums
 
Children in Bujumbura, Burundi
Main articles: Demographics of Burundi and Languages of Burundi

As of October 2021, Burundi was estimated by the United Nations to have a population of 12,346,893 people,[128][129] compared to only 2,456,000 in 1950.[130] The population growth rate is 2.5 percent per year, more than double the average global pace, and a Burundian woman has on average 5.10 children, more than double the international fertility rate.[131] Burundi had the tenth highest total fertility rate in the world, just behind Somalia, in 2021.[21]

Many Burundians have migrated to other countries as a result of the civil war. In 2006, the United States accepted approximately 10,000 Burundian refugees.[132]

Burundi remains an overwhelmingly rural society, with just 13% of the population living in urban areas in 2013.[21] The population density of around 315 people per square kilometre (753 per sq mi) is the second highest in Sub-Saharan Africa.[16] Roughly 85% of the population are of Hutu ethnic origin, 15% are Tutsi and fewer than 1% are indigenous Twa.[22]

The official languages of Burundi are Kirundi, French, and English. English has been determined to the official languages in 2014.[133] Virtually the entire population speaks Kirundi, and just under 10% speak French.[134]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Burundi

Sources estimate the Christian population at 80–90%, with Roman Catholics representing the largest group at 60–65%. Protestant and Anglican practitioners constitute the remaining 15–25%. An estimated 5% of the population adheres to traditional indigenous religious beliefs. Muslims constitute 2–5%, the majority of whom are Sunnis and live in urban areas.[21][135][136]

Health

Main article: Health in Burundi

Burundi has the worst hunger and malnourishment rates of all 120 countries ranked in the Global Hunger Index.[131] The civil war in 1962 put a stop on the medical advancements in the country.[137] Burundi, again, went into a violent cycle in 2015, jeopardising the citizens of Burundi's medical care.[138] Like many Sub-Saharan Africa countries, Burundi uses indigenous medicine in addition to biomedicine. In the 1980s Burundi's health authorities asked the United Nations Development Program for support to develop quality control and begin new research on pharmaceuticals from medicinal plants.[137] At the same time, the Burundi Association of Traditional Practitioners (ATRADIBU) was founded, which teamed up with the governments agency to set up the Centre for Research and Promotion of Traditional Medicine in Burundi (CRPMT).[137] The recent influx of international aid has supported the work of biomedical health systems in Burundi. However, international aid workers have traditionally stayed away from indigenous medicine in Burundi.[137] As of 2015, roughly 1 out of 10 children in Burundi die before the age of 5 from preventable and treatable illnesses such as pneumonia, diarrhoea, and malaria.[138] The current violence in Burundi has limited the country's access to medication and hospital equipment. Burundi's life expectancy, as of 2015, was 60.1 years.[139] In 2013, Burundi spent 8% of their GDP on healthcare.[139] While Burundi's fertility rate is 6.1 children per women, the country's mortality rate is 61.9 deaths for every 1,000 live births.[139] According to the WHO, the average life expectancy in the country is 58/62 years.[140] Common diseases in Burundi include malaria and typhoid fever.[139]

Culture

 
Drums from Gitega.
Main articles: Culture of Burundi, Tourism in Burundi, and Music of Burundi

Burundi's culture is based on local tradition and the influence of neighbouring countries, though cultural prominence has been hindered by civil unrest. Since farming is the main industry, a typical Burundian meal consists of sweet potatoes, corn, rice and peas. Due to the expense, meat is eaten only a few times per month.

When several Burundians of close acquaintance meet for a gathering they drink impeke, a beer, together from a large container to symbolise unity.[141]

Notable Burundians include the footballer Mohammed Tchité and singer Jean-Pierre Nimbona, popularly known as Kidumu (who is based in Nairobi, Kenya).

Crafts are an important art form in Burundi and are attractive gifts to many tourists. Basket weaving is a popular craft for local artisans.[142] Other crafts such as masks, shields, statues and pottery are made in Burundi.[143]

Drumming is an important part of the cultural heritage. The world-famous Royal Drummers of Burundi, who have performed for over 40 years, are noted for traditional drumming using the karyenda, amashako, ibishikiso and ikiranya drums.[144] Dance often accompanies drumming performance, which is frequently seen in celebrations and family gatherings. The abatimbo, which is performed at official ceremonies and rituals and the fast-paced abanyagasimbo are some famous Burundian dances. Some musical instruments of note are the flute, zither, ikembe, indonongo, umuduri, inanga and the inyagara.[143]

 
Football in Burundi

The country's oral tradition is strong, relaying history and life lessons through storytelling, poetry and song. Imigani, indirimbo, amazina and ivyivugo are literary genres in Burundi.[145]

Basketball and track and field are noted sports. Martial arts are popular, as well. There are five major judo clubs: Club Judo de l'Entente Sportive, in Downtown, and four others throughout the city.[146] Association football is a popular pastime throughout the country, as are mancala games.

Most Christian holidays are celebrated, with Christmas being the largest.[147] Burundian Independence Day is celebrated annually on 1 July.[148] In 2005, the Burundian government declared Eid al-Fitr, an Islamic holiday, to be a public holiday.[149]

Media

See also: Mass media in Burundi

Education

 
Carolus Magnus School in Burundi. The school benefits from the campaign "Your Day for Africa" by Aktion Tagwerk.
Main article: Education in Burundi

In 2009, the adult literacy rate in Burundi was estimated to be 67% (73% male and 61% female), with a literacy rate of 77% and 76%, respectively, for men and women between the ages of 15 and 24.[150] By 2015, this had increased to 85.6% (88.2% male and 83.1% female).[151] Literacy among adult women has increased by 17% since 2002.[152] Burundi's literacy rate is relatively low due to low school attendance and because literacy in Kirundi only provides access to materials printed in that language, though it is higher than many other African countries. Ten percent of Burundian boys are allowed a secondary education.[153]

Burundi has one public university, University of Burundi. There are museums in the cities, such as the Burundi Geological Museum in Bujumbura and the Burundi National Museum and the Burundi Museum of Life in Gitega.

In 2010 a new elementary school was opened in the small village of Rwoga that is funded by the pupils of Westwood High School, Quebec, Canada.[154][155]

As of 2018, Burundi invested the equivalent of 5.1% of its GDP in education.[156]

Science and technology

Burundi's Strategic Plan for Science, Technology, Research and Innovation (2013) covers the following areas: food technology; medical sciences; energy, mining and transportation; water; desertification; environmental biotechnology and indigenous knowledge; materials science; engineering and industry; ICTs; space sciences; mathematical sciences; and social and human sciences.

With regard to material sciences, Burundi's publication intensity doubled from 0.6 to 1.2 articles per million inhabitants between 2012 and 2019, placing it in the top 15 for sub-Saharan Africa for this strategic technology.[156]

Medical sciences remain the main focus of research: medical researchers accounted for 4% of the country's scientists in 2018 but 41% of scientific publications between 2011 and 2019.[156]

The focus of the Strategic Plan for Science, Technology, Research and Innovation (2013) has been on developing an institutional framework and infrastructure, fostering greater regional and international co-operation and placing science in society. In October 2014, the EAC Secretariat designated the National Institute of Public Health a centre of excellence. Data are unavailable on output on nutritional sciences, the institute's area of specialization, but between 2011 and 2019, Burundi scientists produced seven articles on each of HIV and tropical communicable diseases and a further five on tuberculosis, all focus areas for the Sustainable Development Goals.[156]

The Strategic Plan has also focused on training researchers. Researcher density (in head counts) grew from 40 to 55 researchers per million inhabitants between 2011 and 2018. The amount of funding available to each researcher more than doubled from PPP$14,310 (constant 2005 values) to PPP$22,480, since the domestic research effort has also risen since 2012, from 0.11% to 0.21% of GDP.[156]

Burundi has almost tripled its scientific output since 2011 but the pace has not picked up since the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals in 2015. With six scientific publications per million inhabitants, Burundi still has one of the lowest publication rate in Central and East Africa.[156] Some 97.5% of publications involved foreign co-authorship between 2017 and 2019, with Ugandans figuring among the top five partners.[156]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ While Gitega has been established as the political capital, Bujumbura is still the seat of the government and economic capital.

References

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    • Michael Bowen, Passing By;: The United States and Genocide in Burundi, 1972, (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1973), 49 pp.
    • René Lemarchand, Selective genocide in Burundi (Report – Minority Rights Group; no. 20, 1974), 36 pp.
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Bibliography

  • Eggers, Ellen K. (2006). Historical Dictionary of Burundi (3rd ed.). Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-5302-7.
  • Lemarchand, Rene (1996). Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56623-0.

Further reading

  • Abdallah, Ahmedou Ould Burundi on the Brink, 1993–95: A UN Special Envoy Reflects on Preventive Diplomacy
  • Allen, J. A.; et al. (2003). Africa South of the Sahara 2004: South of the Sahara. New York, New York: Taylor and Francis Group. ISBN 1-85743-183-9.
  • Bentley, Kristina and Southall, Roger An African Peace Process: Mandela, South Africa, and Burundi
  • Chrétien, Jean-Pierre The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History
  • Daley, Patricia Gender and Genocide in Burundi: The Search for Spaces of Peace in the Great Lakes Region
  • Gates, Henry Lewis; Anthony Appiah (1999). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. New York, New York: Basic Civitas Books. ISBN 0-465-00071-1.
  • Ewusi, Kale and Akwanga, Ebenezer Burundi's Negative Peace: The Shadow of a Broken Continent in the Era of Nepad
  • Jennings, Christian Across the Red River: Rwanda, Burundi and the Heart of Darkness
  • Kayoya, Michel My Father's Footsteps (Sur les traces de mon père) East African Publishing House, 1973
  • Kayoya, Michel Entre deux mondes (Between two worlds) Lavigerie Éditeurs, Bujumbura: 1971. Kayoya was murdered during the 1972 genocide.
  • Kidder, Tracy, Strength in What Remains (A biography of a Burundian immigrant to the US)
  • Krueger, Robert; Kathleen Tobin Krueger (2007). From Bloodshed to Hope in Burundi: Our Embassy Years during Genocide. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-71486-1.
  • Melady, Thomas Patrick Burundi: The Tragic Years
  • Nivonzima, David and Fendell, Len Unlocking Horns: Forgiveness and Reconciliation in Burundi
  • Uvin, Peter Life After Violence: A People's Story of Burundi
  • Watt, Nigel Burundi: The Biography of a Small African Country
  • Weinstein, Warren (2006). Historical Dictionary of Burundi. Metuchen, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-0962-1. 1st. edition.

External links

 
Scholia has a country profile for Burundi.
  • Records of the United Nations International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi (UNICIB) (1995–1996) at the United Nations Archives
  • (in French) Official Burundi government website 20 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine
  • Official Website of the Ministry of Justice of Burundi
  • Burundi. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
  • from UCB Libraries GovPubs
  • Burundi at Curlie
  • Burundi from the BBC News
  •   Wikimedia Atlas of Burundi
  • Key Development Forecasts for Burundi from International Futures

3°30′S 30°00′E / 3.500°S 30.000°E / -3.500; 30.000

July 03, 2023
burundi, listen, officially, republic, kirundi, repuburika, uburundi, ɾǔː, swahili, jamuhuri, french, république, buʁundi, byʁyndi, landlocked, country, great, rift, valley, junction, between, african, great, lakes, region, east, africa, bordered, rwanda, nort. Burundi b e ˈ r ʊ n d i listen ˈ r ʌ n officially the Republic of Burundi Kirundi Repuburika y Uburundi 11 u bu ɾǔː ndi Swahili Jamuhuri ya Burundi French Republique du Burundi buʁundi byʁyndi is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley at the junction between the African Great Lakes region and East Africa It is bordered by Rwanda to the north Tanzania to the east and southeast and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west Lake Tanganyika lies along its southwestern border The capital cities are Gitega and Bujumbura the latter being the country s largest city 12 Republic of BurundiRepuburika y Uburundi Kirundi Republique du Burundi French Flag Coat of armsMotto Ubumwe Ibikorwa Amajambere Kirundi Unite Travail Progres French Union Work Progress English Anthem Burundi Bwacu Kirundi Our Burundi source source track Show globeShow map of AfricaCapitalGitega political Bujumbura economic a 3 30 S 30 00 E 3 500 S 30 000 E 3 500 30 000Largest cityBujumburaOfficial languagesKirundiFrenchEnglishEthnic groups 2018 1 85 Hutu14 Tutsi1 Twa 3 000 Europeans 2 000 South AsiansReligion 2020 2 73 4 Christianity 63 7 Roman Catholic 25 2 Protestant 4 5 Other Christian4 3 Traditional faiths22 1 Islam0 2 Others NoneDemonym s BurundianGovernmentUnitary dominant party presidential republic PresidentEvariste Ndayishimiye 3 Vice PresidentProsper Bazombanza Prime MinisterGervais NdirakobucaLegislatureParliament Upper houseSenate Lower houseNational AssemblyEstablishment history Kingdom 4 1680 1966 Part of German East Africa1890 1916 Part of Ruanda Urundi1916 1962 Independence from Belgium1 July 1962 Republic28 November 1966 Current constitution17 May 2018Area Total27 834 km2 10 747 sq mi 5 142nd Water 10 6 Population 2023 estimate13 162 952 7 77th Density451 8 km2 1 170 2 sq mi 31st GDP PPP 2022 estimate Total 10 8 billion 8 164th Per capita 865 8 193rd GDP nominal 2022 estimate Total 3 6 billion 8 173rd Per capita 292 8 192nd Gini 2013 39 2 9 mediumHDI 2021 0 426 10 low 187thCurrencyBurundian franc FBu BIF Time zoneUTC 2 CAT Date formatdd mm yyyyDriving siderightCalling code 257ISO 3166 codeBIInternet TLD biThe Twa Hutu and Tutsi peoples have lived in Burundi for at least 500 years For more than 200 of those years Burundi was an independent kingdom until the beginning of the 20th century when it became a German colony 13 After the First World War and Germany s defeat the League of Nations mandated the territory to Belgium After the Second World War this transformed into a United Nations Trust Territory Both Germans and Belgians ruled Burundi and Rwanda as a European colony known as Ruanda Urundi 14 Burundi and Rwanda had never been under common rule until the time of European colonization of Africa 14 Burundi gained independence in 1962 and initially had a monarchy but a series of assassinations coups and a general climate of regional instability culminated in the establishment of a republic and a one party state in 1966 Bouts of ethnic cleansing and ultimately two civil wars and genocides during the 1970s and again in the 1990s resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths leaving the economy undeveloped and the population one of the world s poorest 15 The year 2015 witnessed large scale political strife as President Pierre Nkurunziza opted to run for a third term in office a coup attempt failed and the country s parliamentary and presidential elections were broadly criticised by members of the international community The sovereign state of Burundi s political system is that of a presidential representative democratic republic based upon a multi party state The president of Burundi is the head of state and head of government There are currently 21 registered parties in Burundi 16 On 13 March 1992 Tutsi coup leader Pierre Buyoya established a constitution 17 which provided for a multi party political process and reflected multi party competition 18 Six years later on 6 June 1998 the constitution was changed broadening the National Assembly s seats and making provisions for two vice presidents Because of the Arusha Accord Burundi enacted a transitional government in 2000 19 In October 2016 Burundi informed the UN of its intention to withdraw from the International Criminal Court 20 Burundi remains primarily a rural society with just 13 4 of the population living in urban areas in 2019 21 The population density of around 315 people per square kilometre 753 per sq mi is the second highest in Sub Saharan Africa 16 Roughly 85 of the population are of Hutu ethnic origin 15 are Tutsi and fewer than 1 are indigenous Twa 22 The official languages of Burundi are Kirundi French and English Kirundi being recognised officially as the sole national language 23 One of the smallest countries in Africa Burundi s land is used mostly for subsistence agriculture and grazing which has led to deforestation soil erosion and habitat loss 24 As of 2005 update the country was almost completely deforested with less than 6 of its land covered by trees and over half of that being commercial plantations 25 Burundi is the poorest country in the world as per GDP per capita and is one of the least developed countries facing widespread poverty corruption instability authoritarianism and illiteracy Burundi is densely populated and many young people emigrate in search of opportunities elsewhere The World Happiness Report 2018 ranked the country as the world s least happy with a rank of 156 26 Burundi is a member of the African Union Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa United Nations East African Community EAC and the Non Aligned Movement Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Kingdom of Burundi 2 2 Rule by Germany and Belgium 2 3 Independence 2 4 Civil war and genocides 2 5 First attempt at democracy and war between Tutsi National Army and Hutu population 2 6 Peace agreements 2 7 UN involvement 2 8 2006 to 2018 2 8 1 2015 unrest 2 9 2018 to present 3 Government 3 1 Human rights 3 2 Subdivisions 4 Geography 4 1 Wildlife 5 Economy 5 1 Currency 5 2 Transport 6 Demographics 6 1 Religion 6 2 Health 7 Culture 7 1 Media 7 2 Education 7 3 Science and technology 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 Further reading 13 External linksEtymology EditModern Burundi is named after the King of Burundi who ruled the region starting in the 16th century It may ultimately derive its name from the Ha people of the region whose place of origin was known as Buha 27 History EditMain articles History of Burundi and Ruanda Urundi Burundi is one of the few countries in Sub Saharan Africa along with its neighbour Rwanda among others such as Botswana Lesotho and Eswatini to be a direct territorial continuation of a pre colonial era African state The early history of Burundi and especially the role and nature of the country s three dominant ethnic groups the Twa Hutu and Tutsi is highly debated amongst academics 28 Kingdom of Burundi Edit Main article Kingdom of Burundi The first evidence of the Burundian state dates back to the late 16th century where it emerged on the eastern foothills Over the following centuries it expanded annexing smaller neighbours The Kingdom of Burundi or Urundi in the Great Lakes region was a polity ruled by a traditional monarch with several princes beneath him succession struggles were common 4 The king known as the mwami translated as ruler headed a princely aristocracy ganwa which owned most of the land and required a tribute or tax from local farmers mainly Hutu and herders mainly Tutsi The Kingdom of Burundi was characterised by a hierarchical political authority and tributary economic exchange 29 In the mid 18th century the Tutsi royalty consolidated authority over land production and distribution with the development of the ubugabire a patron client relationship in which the populace received royal protection in exchange for tribute and land tenure By this time the royal court was made up of the Tutsi Banyaruguru They had higher social status than other pastoralists such as the Tutsi Hima In the lower levels of this society were generally Hutu people and at the very bottom of the pyramid were the Twa The system had some fluidity however Some Hutu people belonged to the nobility and in this way also had a say in the functioning of the state 30 The classification of Hutu or Tutsi was not merely based on ethnic criteria alone Hutu farmers that managed to acquire wealth and livestock were regularly granted the higher social status of Tutsi some even made it to become close advisors of the Ganwa On the other hand there are also reports of Tutsi that lost all their cattle and subsequently lost their higher status and were called Hutu Thus the distinction between Hutu and Tutsi was also a socio cultural concept instead of a purely ethnic one 31 32 There were also many reports of marriages between Hutu and Tutsi people 33 In general regional ties and power struggles played a far more determining role in Burundi s politics than ethnicity 32 Rule by Germany and Belgium Edit Main articles German East Africa and Ruanda Urundi From 1884 the German East Africa Company was active in the African Great Lakes region As a result of heightened tensions and border disputes between the German East Africa Company the British Empire and the Sultanate of Zanzibar the German Empire was called upon to put down the Abushiri revolts and protect the empire s interests in the region The German East Africa Company transferred its rights to the German Empire in 1891 in this way establishing the German colony of German East Africa which included Burundi Urundi Rwanda Ruanda and the mainland part of Tanzania formerly known as Tanganyika 14 The German Empire stationed armed forces in Rwanda and Burundi during the late 1880s The location of the present day city of Gitega served as an administrative centre for the Ruanda Urundi region 34 During the First World War the East African Campaign greatly affected the African Great Lakes region The Belgian and British colonial forces of the allied powers launched a coordinated attack on the German colony The German army stationed in Burundi was forced to retreat by the numerical superiority of the Belgian army and by 17 June 1916 Burundi and Rwanda were occupied The Force Publique and the British Lake Force then started a thrust to capture Tabora an administrative centre of central German East Africa After the war as outlined in the Treaty of Versailles Germany was forced to cede control of the Western section of the former German East Africa to Belgium 16 35 On 20 October 1924 Ruanda Urundi which consisted of modern day Rwanda and Burundi became a Belgian League of Nations mandate territory with Usumbura as its capital In practical terms it was considered part of the Belgian colonial empire Burundi as part of Ruanda Urundi continued its kingship dynasty despite the presence of European authorities 21 36 The Belgians however preserved many of the kingdom s institutions the Burundian monarchy succeeded in surviving into the post colonial period 4 Following the Second World War Ruanda Urundi was classified as a United Nations Trust Territory under Belgian administrative authority 21 During the 1940s a series of policies caused divisions throughout the country On 4 October 1943 powers were split in the legislative division of Burundi s government between chiefdoms and lower chiefdoms Chiefdoms were in charge of land and lower sub chiefdoms were established Native authorities also had powers 36 In 1948 Belgium allowed the region to form political parties 16 These factions contributed to Burundi gaining its independence from Belgium on 1 July 1962 Independence Edit Flag of the Kingdom of Burundi 1962 1966 Independence Square and monument in Bujumbura On 20 January 1959 King Mwami Mwambutsa IV requested Burundi s independence from Belgium and dissolution of the Ruanda Urundi union 37 In the following months Burundian political parties began to advocate for the end of Belgian colonial rule and the separation of Rwanda and Burundi 37 The first and largest of these political parties was the Union for National Progress UPRONA Burundi s push for independence was influenced by the Rwandan Revolution and the accompanying instability and ethnic conflict that occurred there As a result of the Rwandan Revolution many Rwandan Tutsi refugees arrived in Burundi during the period from 1959 to 1961 38 39 40 Burundi s first elections took place on 8 September 1961 and UPRONA a multi ethnic unity party led by Prince Louis Rwagasore won just over 80 of the electorate s votes In the wake of the elections on 13 October the 29 year old Prince Rwagasore was assassinated robbing Burundi of its most popular and well known nationalists 16 41 The country claimed independence on 1 July 1962 16 and legally changed its name from Ruanda Urundi to Burundi 42 Burundi became a constitutional monarchy with Mwami Mwambutsa IV Prince Rwagasore s father serving as the country s king 39 On 18 September 1962 Burundi joined the United Nations 43 In 1963 King Mwambutsa appointed a Hutu prime minister Pierre Ngendandumwe but he was assassinated on 15 January 1965 by a Rwandan Tutsi employed by the US Embassy The assassination occurred in the broader context of the Congo Crisis during which Western anti communist countries were confronting the communist People s Republic of China as it attempted to make Burundi a logistics base for communist insurgents battling in Congo 44 Parliamentary elections in May 1965 brought a majority of Hutu into the parliament but when King Mwambutsa appointed a Tutsi prime minister some Hutu felt this was unjust and ethnic tensions were further increased In October 1965 an attempted coup d etat led by the Hutu dominated police was carried out but failed The Tutsi dominated army then led by Tutsi officer Captain Michel Micombero 39 purged Hutu from their ranks and carried out reprisal attacks which ultimately claimed the lives of up to 5 000 people in a precursor to the 1972 Burundian Genocide 45 King Mwambutsa who had fled the country during the October coup of 1965 was deposed by a coup in July 1966 and his teenage son Prince Ntare V claimed the throne In November that same year the Tutsi Prime Minister then Captain Michel Micombero carried out another coup this time deposing Ntare abolishing the monarchy and declaring the nation a republic though his one party government was effectively a military dictatorship 16 As president Micombero became an advocate of African socialism and received support from the People s Republic of China He imposed a staunch regime of law and order and sharply repressed Hutu militarism Civil war and genocides Edit Further information Burundian genocide 1972 and Burundian genocide 1993 In late April 1972 two events led to the outbreak of the First Burundian Genocide On 27 April 1972 a rebellion led by Hutu members of the gendarmerie broke out in the lakeside towns of Rumonge and Nyanza Lac and the rebels declared the short lived Martyazo Republic 46 47 The rebels attacked both Tutsi and any Hutu who refused to join their rebellion 48 49 During this initial Hutu outbreak anywhere from 800 to 1200 people were killed 50 At the same time King Ntare V of Burundi returned from exile heightening political tension in the country On 29 April 1972 the 24 year old Ntare V was murdered In subsequent months the Tutsi dominated government of Michel Micombero used the army to combat Hutu rebels and commit genocide murdering targeted members of the Hutu majority The total number of casualties was never established but contemporary estimates put the number of people killed between 80 000 and 210 000 51 52 In addition several hundred thousand Hutu were estimated to have fled the killings into Zaire Rwanda and Tanzania 52 53 Following the civil war and genocide Micombero became mentally distraught and withdrawn In 1976 Colonel Jean Baptiste Bagaza a Tutsi led a bloodless coup to topple Micombero and set about promoting reform His administration drafted a new constitution in 1981 which maintained Burundi s status as a one party state 39 In August 1984 Bagaza was elected head of state During his tenure Bagaza suppressed political opponents and religious freedoms Major Pierre Buyoya Tutsi overthrew Bagaza in 1987 suspended the constitution and dissolved political parties He reinstated military rule by a Military Committee for National Salvation CSMN 39 Anti Tutsi ethnic propaganda disseminated by the remnants of the 1972 UBU which had re organized as PALIPEHUTU in 1981 led to killings of Tutsi peasants in the northern communes of Ntega and Marangara in August 1988 The government put the death toll at 5 000 citation needed some international NGOs believed this understated the deaths The new regime did not unleash the harsh reprisals of 1972 Its effort to gain public trust was eroded when it decreed an amnesty for those who had called for carried out and taken credit for the killings Analysts have called this period the beginning of the culture of impunity Other analysts put the origins of the culture of impunity earlier in 1965 and 1972 when a small number of identifiable Hutus unleashed massive killings of Tutsis citation needed In the aftermath of the killings a group of Hutu intellectuals wrote an open letter to Pierre Buyoya asking for more representation of the Hutu in the administration They were arrested and jailed A few weeks later Buyoya appointed a new government with an equal number of Hutu and Tutsi ministers He appointed Adrien Sibomana Hutu as Prime Minister Buyoya also created a commission to address issues of national unity 39 In 1992 the government created a new constitution that provided for a multi party system 39 but a civil war broke out An estimated total of 250 000 people died in Burundi from the various conflicts between 1962 and 1993 54 Since Burundi s independence in 1962 two genocides have taken place in the country the 1972 mass killings of Hutus by the Tutsi dominated army 55 and the mass killings of Tutsis in 1993 by the Hutu majority Both were described as genocides in the final report of the International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi presented in 2002 to the United Nations Security Council 56 First attempt at democracy and war between Tutsi National Army and Hutu population Edit In June 1993 Melchior Ndadaye leader of the Hutu dominated Front for Democracy in Burundi FRODEBU won the first democratic election He became the first Hutu head of state leading a pro Hutu government Though he attempted to smooth the country s bitter ethnic divide his reforms antagonised soldiers in the Tutsi dominated army and he was assassinated amidst a failed military coup in October 1993 after only three months in office The ensuing Burundian Civil War 1993 2005 saw persistent violence between Hutu rebels and the Tutsi majority army It is estimated that some 300 000 people mostly civilians were killed in the years following the assassination 57 In early 1994 the parliament elected Cyprien Ntaryamira Hutu to the office of president He and Juvenal Habyarimana the president of Rwanda both Hutus died together when their airplane was shot down in April 1994 More refugees started fleeing to Rwanda Speaker of Parliament Sylvestre Ntibantunganya Hutu was appointed as president in October 1994 A coalition government involving 12 of the 13 parties was formed A feared general massacre was averted but violence broke out A number of Hutu refugees in Bujumbura citation needed the then capital were killed The mainly Tutsi Union for National Progress withdrew from the government and parliament In 1996 Pierre Buyoya Tutsi again took power through a coup d etat He suspended the constitution and was sworn in as president in 1998 This was the start of his second term as president after his first term from 1987 to 1993 In response to rebel attacks the government forced much of the population to move to refugee camps citation needed Under Buyoya s rule long peace talks started mediated by South Africa Both parties signed agreements in Arusha Tanzania and Pretoria South Africa to share power in Burundi The agreements took four years to plan Belligerents of the Second Congo War Burundi backed the rebels On 28 August 2000 a transitional government for Burundi was planned as a part of the Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement The transitional government was placed on a trial basis for five years After several aborted cease fires a 2001 peace plan and power sharing agreement has been relatively successful A cease fire was signed in 2003 between the Tutsi controlled Burundian government and the largest Hutu rebel group CNDD FDD National Council for the Defense of Democracy Forces for the Defense of Democracy 58 In 2003 FRODEBU leader Domitien Ndayizeye Hutu was elected president citation needed In early 2005 ethnic quotas were formed for determining positions in Burundi s government Throughout the year elections for parliament and president occurred 59 Pierre Nkurunziza Hutu once a leader of a rebel group was elected president in 2005 As of 2008 update the Burundian government was talking with the Hutu led Palipehutu National Liberation Forces NLF 60 to bring peace to the country 61 Peace agreements Edit African leaders began a series of peace talks between the warring factions following a request by the United Nations Secretary General Boutros Boutros Ghali for them to intervene in the humanitarian crisis Talks were initiated under the aegis of former Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere in 1995 following his death South African President Nelson Mandela took the helm As the talks progressed South African President Thabo Mbeki and United States President Bill Clinton also lent their respective weight The peace talks took the form of Track I mediations This method of negotiation can be defined as a form of diplomacy involving governmental or intergovernmental representatives who may use their positive reputations mediation or the carrot and stick method as a means of obtaining or forcing an outcome frequently along the lines of bargaining or win lose 62 The main objective was to transform the Burundian government and military structurally in order to bridge the ethnic gap between the Tutsi and Hutu It was to take place in two major steps First a transitional power sharing government would be established with the presidents holding office for three year terms The second objective involved a restructuring of the armed forces where the two groups would be represented equally As the protracted nature of the peace talks demonstrated the mediators and negotiating parties confronted several obstacles First the Burundian officials perceived the goals as unrealistic and viewed the treaty as ambiguous contradictory and confusing Second and perhaps most importantly the Burundians believed the treaty would be irrelevant without an accompanying cease fire This would require separate and direct talks with the rebel groups The main Hutu party was skeptical of the offer of a power sharing government they alleged that they had been deceived by the Tutsi in past agreements In 2000 63 the Burundian President signed the treaty as well as 13 of the 19 warring Hutu and Tutsi factions Disagreements persisted over which group would preside over the nascent government and when the ceasefire would begin The spoilers of the peace talks were the hardliner Tutsi and Hutu groups who refused to sign the accord as a result violence intensified Three years later at a summit of African leaders in Tanzania the Burundian president and the main opposition Hutu group signed an accord to end the conflict the signatory members were granted ministerial posts within the government However smaller militant Hutu groups such as the Forces for National Liberation remained active UN involvement Edit This section has multiple issues Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page Learn how and when to remove these template messages This section relies largely or entirely on a single source Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources Find sources Burundi news newspapers books scholar JSTOR March 2018 This section needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information March 2018 Learn how and when to remove this template message Between 1993 and 2003 many rounds of peace talks overseen by regional leaders in Tanzania South Africa and Uganda gradually established power sharing agreements to satisfy the majority of the contending groups Initially the South African Protection Support Detachment was deployed to protect Burundian leaders returning from exile These forces became part of the African Union Mission to Burundi deployed to help oversee the installation of a transitional government In June 2004 the UN stepped in and took over peacekeeping responsibilities as a signal of growing international support for the already markedly advanced peace process in Burundi 64 The mission s mandate under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter has been to monitor cease fire carry out disarmament demobilisation and reintegration of former military personnel support humanitarian assistance and refugee and IDP return assist with elections protect international staff and Burundian civilians monitor Burundi s troublesome borders including halting illicit arms flows and assist in carrying out institutional reforms including those of the Constitution judiciary armed forces and police The mission has been allotted 5 650 military personnel 120 civilian police and about 1 000 international and local civilian personnel The mission has been functioning well It has greatly benefited from the transitional government which has functioned and is in the process of transitioning to one that will be popularly elected 64 The main difficulty in the early stages was continued resistance to the peace process by the last Hutu nationalist rebel group This organisation continued its violent conflict on the outskirts of the capital despite the UN s presence By June 2005 the group had stopped fighting and its representatives were brought back into the political process All political parties have accepted a formula for inter ethnic power sharing no political party can gain access to government offices unless it is ethnically integrated 64 The focus of the UN s mission had been to enshrine the power sharing arrangements in a popularly voted constitution so that elections may be held and a new government installed Disarmament demobilisation and reintegration were done in tandem with elections preparations In February 2005 the constitution was approved with over 90 of the popular vote In May June and August 2005 three separate elections were also held at the local level for the Parliament and the presidency While there are still some difficulties with refugee returns and securing adequate food supplies for the war weary population the mission managed to win the trust and confidence of a majority of the formerly warring leaders as well as the population at large 64 It was involved with several quick effect projects including rehabilitating and building schools orphanages health clinics and rebuilding infrastructure such as water lines 2006 to 2018 Edit View of the capital city Bujumbura in 2006 Reconstruction efforts in Burundi started to practically take effect after 2006 The UN shut down its peacekeeping mission and re focused on helping with reconstruction 65 Toward achieving economic reconstruction Rwanda D R Congo and Burundi relaunched the regional Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries 65 In addition Burundi along with Rwanda joined the East African Community in 2007 However the terms of the September 2006 Ceasefire between the government and the last remaining armed opposition group the FLN Forces for National Liberation also called NLF or FROLINA were not totally implemented and senior FLN members subsequently left the truce monitoring team claiming that their security was threatened 66 In September 2007 rival FLN factions clashed in the capital killing 20 fighters and causing residents to begin fleeing Rebel raids were reported in other parts of the country 65 The rebel factions disagreed with the government over disarmament and the release of political prisoners 67 In late 2007 and early 2008 FLN combatants attacked government protected camps where former combatants were living The homes of rural residents were also pillaged 67 The 2007 report 67 of Amnesty International mentions many areas where improvement is required Civilians are victims of repeated acts of violence done by the FLN The latter also recruits child soldiers The rate of violence against women is high Perpetrators regularly escape prosecution and punishment by the state There is an urgent need for reform of the judicial system Genocide war crimes and crimes against humanity continued to go unpunished citation needed In late March 2008 the FLN sought for the parliament to adopt a law guaranteeing them provisional immunity from arrest This would cover ordinary crimes but not grave violations of international humanitarian law like war crimes or crimes against humanity 67 Even though the government has granted this in the past to people the FLN has been unable to obtain the provisional immunity On 17 April 2008 the FLN bombarded Bujumbura The Burundian army fought back and the FLN suffered heavy losses A new ceasefire was signed on 26 May 2008 In August 2008 President Nkurunziza met with the FLN leader Agathon Rwasa with the mediation of Charles Nqakula South Africa s Minister for Safety and Security This was the first direct meeting since June 2007 Both agreed to meet twice a week to establish a commission to resolve any disputes that might arise during the peace negotiations 68 The UN has attempted to evaluate the impact of its peace building initiatives In the early 2010s the UN peacekeeping mission in Burundi sought to assess the success of its Disarmament Demobilization and Reintegration program by counting the number of arms that had been collected given the prevalence of arms in the country However these evaluations failed to include date from local populations which are significant in impact evaluations of peacebuilding initiatives 69 As of 2012 Burundi was participating in African Union peacekeeping missions including the mission to Somalia against Al Shabaab militants 70 In 2014 the Truth and Reconciliation Commission was established initially for four years and then extended for another four in 2018 71 72 2015 unrest Edit Main article Burundian unrest 2015 2018 In April 2015 protests broke out after the ruling party announced President Pierre Nkurunziza would seek a third term in office 73 Protestors claimed Nkurunziza could not run for a third term in office but the country s constitutional court agreed with Nkurunziza although some of its members had fled the country at the time of its vote 74 An attempted coup d etat on 13 May failed to depose Nkurunziza 75 76 He returned to Burundi began purging his government and arrested several of the coup leaders 77 78 79 80 81 Following the attempted coup protests however continued and over 100 000 people had fled the country by 20 May causing a humanitarian emergency There are reports of continued and widespread abuses of human rights including unlawful killings torture disappearances and restrictions on freedom of expression 82 83 Despite calls by the United Nations the African Union the United States France South Africa Belgium and various other governments to refrain the ruling party held parliamentary elections on 29 June but these were boycotted by the opposition On 30 September 2016 the United Nations Human Rights Council established the Commission of Inquiry on Burundi through resolution 33 24 Its mandate is to conduct a thorough investigation into human rights violations and abuses committed in Burundi since April 2015 to identify alleged perpetrators and to formulate recommendations 84 On 29 September 2017 the Commission of Inquiry on Burundi called on Burundian government to put an end to serious human rights violations It further stressed that The Burundian government has so far refused to cooperate with the Commission of Inquiry despite the Commission s repeated requests and initiatives 85 The violations the Commission documented include arbitrary arrests and detentions acts of torture and cruel inhuman or degrading treatment extrajudicial executions enforced disappearances rape and other forms of sexual violence 85 2018 to present Edit In a constitutional referendum in May 2018 Burundians voted by 79 08 to approve an amended constitution that ensured that Nkurunziza could remain in power until 2034 86 87 However much to the surprise of most observers Nkurunziza later announced that he did not intend to serve another term paving the way for a new president to be elected in the 2020 general election 88 On 20 May 2020 Evariste Ndayishimiye a candidate who was hand picked as Nkurunziza s successor by the CNDD FDD won the election with 71 45 of the vote 89 Shortly after on 9 June 2020 Nkurunziza died of a cardiac arrest at the age of 55 88 There was some speculation that his death was COVID 19 related though this is unconfirmed 90 As per the constitution Pascal Nyabenda the president of the national assembly led the government until Ndayishimiye s inauguration on 18 June 2020 88 89 In December 2021 a large prison fire killed dozens in the capital city of Gitega 91 In November 2022 in challenges to the COVID 19 pandemic and the Russian invasion of Ukraine Burundi s economic growth increased slightly to 3 percent according to an assessment of the International Monetary Fund Currently Burundi remains as one of the poorest nations on Earth after Haiti based on a Gross National Income GNI of 270 per capita 92 Government EditMain article Politics of Burundi Pierre Nkurunziza President of Burundi from 2005 to 2020 Burundi s political system is that of a presidential representative democratic republic based upon a multi party state The president of Burundi is the head of state and head of government There are currently 21 registered parties in Burundi 16 On 13 March 1992 Tutsi coup leader Pierre Buyoya established a constitution 17 which provided for a multi party political process and reflected multi party competition 18 Six years later on 6 June 1998 the constitution was changed broadening National Assembly s seats and making provisions for two vice presidents Because of the Arusha Accord Burundi enacted a transitional government in 2000 19 Burundi s legislative branch is a bicameral assembly consisting of the Transitional National Assembly and the Transitional Senate As of 2004 update the Transitional National Assembly consisted of 170 members with the Front for Democracy in Burundi holding 38 of seats and 10 of the assembly controlled by UPRONA Fifty two seats were controlled by other parties Burundi s constitution mandates representation in the Transitional National Assembly to be consistent with 60 Hutu 40 Tutsi and 30 female members as well as three Batwa members 16 Members of the National Assembly are elected by popular vote and serve five year terms 93 The Transitional Senate has fifty one members and three seats are reserved for former presidents Due to stipulations in Burundi s constitution 30 of Senate members must be female Members of the Senate are elected by electoral colleges which consist of members from each of Burundi s provinces and communes 16 For each of Burundi s eighteen provinces one Hutu and one Tutsi senator are chosen One term for the Transitional Senate is five years 93 Together Burundi s legislative branch elect the president to a five year term 93 Burundi s president appoints officials to his Council of Ministers which is also part of the executive branch 19 The president can also pick fourteen members of the Transitional Senate to serve on the Council of Ministers 16 Members of the Council of Ministers must be approved by two thirds of Burundi s legislature The president also chooses two vice presidents 93 Following the 2015 election the president of Burundi was Pierre Nkurunziza The first vice president was Therence Sinunguruza and the Second Vice president was Gervais Rufyikiri 94 On 20 May 2020 Evariste Ndayishimiye a candidate who was hand picked as Nkurunziza s successor by the CNDD FDD won the election with 71 45 of the vote Shortly after on 9 June 2020 Nkurunziza died of a cardiac arrest at the age of 55 As per the constitution Pascal Nyabenda the president of the national assembly led the government until Ndayishimiye s inauguration on 18 June 2020 95 96 The Cour Supreme Supreme Court is Burundi s highest court There are three Courts of Appeals directly below the Supreme Court Tribunals of First Instance are used as judicial courts in each of Burundi s provinces as well as 123 local tribunals 19 Embassy of Burundi in Brussels Human rights Edit See also Human rights in Burundi and LGBT rights in Burundi Burundi s government has been repeatedly criticised by human rights organisations including Human Rights Watch 97 for the multiple arrests and trials of journalist Jean Claude Kavumbagu for issues related to his reporting Amnesty International AI named him a prisoner of conscience and called for his immediate and unconditional release In April 2009 the government of Burundi changed the law to criminalise homosexuality Persons found guilty of consensual same sex relations risk two to three years in prison and a fine of 50 000 to 100 000 Burundian francs 98 Amnesty International has condemned the action calling it a violation of Burundi s obligations under international and regional human rights law and against the constitution which guarantees the right to privacy 99 Burundi officially left the International Criminal Court ICC on 27 October 2017 the first country in the world to do so 100 The move came after the UN accused the country of various crimes and human rights violations such as extrajudicial killings torture and sexual violence in a September 2017 report 100 The ICC announced on 9 November 2017 that human rights violations from the time Burundi was a member would still be prosecuted 101 102 Subdivisions Edit Main articles Provinces of Burundi Communes of Burundi and Collines of Burundi This section needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information June 2023 Burundi is divided into 18 provinces 103 119 communes 16 and 2 638 collines hills 104 Provincial governments are structured upon these boundaries Burundi s provinces and communes were created on Christmas Day in 1959 by a Belgian colonial decree They replaced the pre existing system of chieftains 105 In 2000 the province encompassing Bujumbura was separated into two provinces Bujumbura Rural and Bujumbura Mairie 15 The newest province Rumonge was created on 26 March 2015 from portions of Bujumbura Rural and Bururi 106 In July 2022 the government of Burundi announced a complete overhaul of the country s territorial subdivisions The proposed change would reduce the amounts of provinces from 18 to 5 and reduce the amount of communes from 119 to 42 The change needs the approval of the parliament of Burundi to take effect 105 Province Capital Area km2 107 Population 2008 census 103 Density per km2 CommunesEastern BurundiCankuzo Cankuzo 1 964 54 228 873 116 5 5Gitega Gitega 1 978 96 725 223 366 5 11Rutana Rutana 1 959 45 333 510 170 2 6Ruyigi Ruyigi 2 338 88 400 530 171 2 7Northern BurundiKaruzi Karuzi 1 457 40 436 443 299 5 7Kayanza Kayanza 1 233 24 585 412 474 7 9Kirundo Kirundo 1 703 34 628 256 368 8 7Muyinga Muyinga 1 836 26 632 409 344 4 7Ngozi Ngozi 1 473 86 660 717 448 3 9Southern BurundiBururi Bururi 1 644 68 313 102 190 4 6Makamba Makamba 1 959 60 430 899 219 9 6Rumonge Rumonge 1 079 72 352 026 326 0 5Western BurundiBubanza Bubanza 1 089 04 338 023 310 4 5Bujumbura Mairie Bujumbura 86 52 497 166 5746 3 13Bujumbura Rural Isale 1 059 84 464 818 438 6 9Cibitoke Cibitoke 1 635 53 460 435 281 5 6Muramvya Muramvya 695 52 292 589 420 7 5Mwaro Mwaro 839 60 273 143 325 3 6 Geography Edit Map of Burundi Hippos at Kibira National Park in northwest Burundi Main articles Geography of Burundi and Climate of Burundi One of the smallest countries in Africa Burundi is landlocked and has an equatorial climate Burundi is a part of the Albertine Rift the western extension of the East African Rift The country lies on a rolling plateau in the centre of Africa Burundi is bordered by Rwanda to the north Tanzania to the east and southeast and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west It lies within the Albertine Rift montane forests Central Zambezian miombo woodlands and Victoria Basin forest savanna mosaic ecoregions 108 The average elevation of the central plateau is 1 707 m 5 600 ft with lower elevations at the borders The highest peak Mount Heha at 2 685 m 8 810 ft 109 lies to the southeast of the largest city and economic capital Bujumbura The source of the Nile River is in Bururi province and is linked from Lake Victoria to its headwaters via the Ruvyironza River 110 clarification needed Lake Victoria is also an important water source which serves as a fork to the Kagera River 111 112 Another major lake is Lake Tanganyika located in much of Burundi s southwestern corner 113 There are two national parks Kibira National Park to the northwest a small region of rainforest adjacent to Nyungwe Forest National Park in Rwanda and Ruvubu National Park to the northeast along the Rurubu River also known as Ruvubu or Ruvuvu Both were established in 1982 to conserve wildlife populations 114 Wildlife Edit Main article Wildlife of BurundiEconomy EditMain article Economy of Burundi See also List of companies based in Burundi Historical development of GDP per capita Burundi is a landlocked resource poor country with an underdeveloped manufacturing sector The economy is predominantly agricultural accounting for 50 of GDP in 2017 115 and employing more than 90 of the population Subsistence agriculture accounts for 90 of agriculture 116 Burundi s primary exports are coffee and tea which account for 90 of foreign exchange earnings though exports are a relatively small share of GDP Other agricultural products include cotton tea maize sorghum sweet potatoes bananas manioc tapioca beef milk and hides Even though subsistence farming is highly relied upon many people do not have the resources to sustain themselves This is due to large population growth and no coherent policies governing land ownership In 2014 the average farm size was about one acre Burundi is one of the world s poorest countries owing in part to its landlocked geography 21 lack of access to education and the proliferation of HIV AIDS Approximately 80 of Burundi s population lives in poverty 117 Famines and food shortages have occurred throughout Burundi most notably in the 20th century 36 and according to the World Food Programme 56 8 of children under age five suffer from chronic malnutrition 118 Burundi s export earnings and its ability to pay for imports rests primarily on weather conditions and international coffee and tea prices Graphical depiction of Burundi s product exports in 28 colour coded categories in 2009 The purchasing power of most Burundians has decreased as wage increases have not kept up with inflation As a result of deepening poverty Burundi will remain heavily dependent on aid from bilateral and multilateral donors Foreign aid represents 42 of Burundis national income the second highest rate in Sub Saharan Africa Burundi joined the East African Community in 2009 which should boost its regional trade ties and also in 2009 received 700 million in debt relief Government corruption is hindering the development of a healthy private sector as companies seek to navigate an environment with ever changing rules 21 Studies since 2007 have shown Burundians to have extremely poor levels of satisfaction with life the World Happiness Report 2018 rated them the world s least happy in 2018 26 119 Fishermen on Lake Tanganyika Some of Burundi s natural resources include uranium nickel cobalt copper and platinum 120 Besides agriculture other industries include assembly of imported components public works construction food processing and light consumer goods such as blankets shoes and soap In regards to telecommunications infrastructure Burundi is ranked second to last in the World Economic Forum s Network Readiness Index NRI an indicator for determining the development level of a country s information and communication technologies Burundi ranked number 147 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking down from 144 in 2013 121 Lack of access to financial services is a serious problem for the majority of the population particularly in the densely populated rural areas only 2 of the total population holds bank accounts and fewer than 0 5 use bank lending services Microfinance however plays a larger role with 4 of Burundians being members of microfinance institutions a larger share of the population than that reached by banking and postal services combined 26 licensed microfinance institutions MFIs offer savings deposits and short to medium term credit Dependence of the sector on donor assistance is limited 122 Burundi is part of the East African Community and a potential member of the planned East African Federation Economic growth in Burundi is relatively steady but Burundi is still behind neighbouring countries 123 Currency Edit Main article Burundian franc Burundi s currency is the Burundian franc ISO 4217 code BIF It is nominally subdivided into 100 centimes though coins have never been issued in centimes in independent Burundi centime coins were circulated only when Burundi used the Belgian Congo franc Monetary policy is controlled by the central bank Bank of the Republic of Burundi Current BIF exchange ratesFrom Google Finance AUD CAD CHF CNY EUR GBP HKD JPY USDFrom Yahoo Finance AUD CAD CHF CNY EUR GBP HKD JPY USDFrom XE com AUD CAD CHF CNY EUR GBP HKD JPY USDFrom OANDA AUD CAD CHF CNY EUR GBP HKD JPY USDTransport Edit Main article Transport in Burundi Bujumbura International Airport terminal in Bujumbura Bicycles are a popular means of transport in Burundi Burundi s transport network is limited and underdeveloped According to a 2012 DHL Global Connectedness Index Burundi is the least globalised of 140 surveyed countries 124 Bujumbura International Airport is the only airport with a paved runway and as of May 2017 it was serviced by four airlines Brussels Airlines Ethiopian Airlines Kenya Airways and RwandAir Kigali is the city with the most daily flight connections to Bujumbura The country has a road network but as of 2005 update less than 10 of the country s roads were paved and as of 2012 update private bus companies were the main operators of buses on the international route to Kigali however there were no bus connections to the other neighbouring countries Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of Congo 125 Bujumbura is connected by a passenger and cargo ferry the MV Mwongozo to Kigoma in Tanzania 126 There is a long term plan to link the country via rail to Kigali and then onward to Kampala and Kenya Demographics Edit Largest cities or towns in Burundi Source 127 Rank Name Province Pop Bujumbura Gitega 1 Bujumbura Bujumbura Mairie 658 859 Ngozi Rumonge2 Gitega Gitega 135 4673 Ngozi Ngozi 39 8844 Rumonge Bururi 35 9315 Cibitoke Cibitoke 23 8856 Kayanza Kayanza 21 7677 Bubanza Bubanza 20 0318 Karuzi Karuzi 10 7059 Kirundo Kirundo 10 02410 Muyinga Muyinga 9 609 Men in colourful clothing with drums Children in Bujumbura Burundi Main articles Demographics of Burundi and Languages of Burundi As of October 2021 Burundi was estimated by the United Nations to have a population of 12 346 893 people 128 129 compared to only 2 456 000 in 1950 130 The population growth rate is 2 5 percent per year more than double the average global pace and a Burundian woman has on average 5 10 children more than double the international fertility rate 131 Burundi had the tenth highest total fertility rate in the world just behind Somalia in 2021 21 Many Burundians have migrated to other countries as a result of the civil war In 2006 the United States accepted approximately 10 000 Burundian refugees 132 Burundi remains an overwhelmingly rural society with just 13 of the population living in urban areas in 2013 21 The population density of around 315 people per square kilometre 753 per sq mi is the second highest in Sub Saharan Africa 16 Roughly 85 of the population are of Hutu ethnic origin 15 are Tutsi and fewer than 1 are indigenous Twa 22 The official languages of Burundi are Kirundi French and English English has been determined to the official languages in 2014 133 Virtually the entire population speaks Kirundi and just under 10 speak French 134 Religion Edit Main article Religion in Burundi Sources estimate the Christian population at 80 90 with Roman Catholics representing the largest group at 60 65 Protestant and Anglican practitioners constitute the remaining 15 25 An estimated 5 of the population adheres to traditional indigenous religious beliefs Muslims constitute 2 5 the majority of whom are Sunnis and live in urban areas 21 135 136 Health Edit Main article Health in Burundi Burundi has the worst hunger and malnourishment rates of all 120 countries ranked in the Global Hunger Index 131 The civil war in 1962 put a stop on the medical advancements in the country 137 Burundi again went into a violent cycle in 2015 jeopardising the citizens of Burundi s medical care 138 Like many Sub Saharan Africa countries Burundi uses indigenous medicine in addition to biomedicine In the 1980s Burundi s health authorities asked the United Nations Development Program for support to develop quality control and begin new research on pharmaceuticals from medicinal plants 137 At the same time the Burundi Association of Traditional Practitioners ATRADIBU was founded which teamed up with the governments agency to set up the Centre for Research and Promotion of Traditional Medicine in Burundi CRPMT 137 The recent influx of international aid has supported the work of biomedical health systems in Burundi However international aid workers have traditionally stayed away from indigenous medicine in Burundi 137 As of 2015 roughly 1 out of 10 children in Burundi die before the age of 5 from preventable and treatable illnesses such as pneumonia diarrhoea and malaria 138 The current violence in Burundi has limited the country s access to medication and hospital equipment Burundi s life expectancy as of 2015 was 60 1 years 139 In 2013 Burundi spent 8 of their GDP on healthcare 139 While Burundi s fertility rate is 6 1 children per women the country s mortality rate is 61 9 deaths for every 1 000 live births 139 According to the WHO the average life expectancy in the country is 58 62 years 140 Common diseases in Burundi include malaria and typhoid fever 139 Culture Edit Drums from Gitega Main articles Culture of Burundi Tourism in Burundi and Music of Burundi Burundi s culture is based on local tradition and the influence of neighbouring countries though cultural prominence has been hindered by civil unrest Since farming is the main industry a typical Burundian meal consists of sweet potatoes corn rice and peas Due to the expense meat is eaten only a few times per month When several Burundians of close acquaintance meet for a gathering they drink impeke a beer together from a large container to symbolise unity 141 Notable Burundians include the footballer Mohammed Tchite and singer Jean Pierre Nimbona popularly known as Kidumu who is based in Nairobi Kenya Crafts are an important art form in Burundi and are attractive gifts to many tourists Basket weaving is a popular craft for local artisans 142 Other crafts such as masks shields statues and pottery are made in Burundi 143 Drumming is an important part of the cultural heritage The world famous Royal Drummers of Burundi who have performed for over 40 years are noted for traditional drumming using the karyenda amashako ibishikiso and ikiranya drums 144 Dance often accompanies drumming performance which is frequently seen in celebrations and family gatherings The abatimbo which is performed at official ceremonies and rituals and the fast paced abanyagasimbo are some famous Burundian dances Some musical instruments of note are the flute zither ikembe indonongo umuduri inanga and the inyagara 143 Football in Burundi The country s oral tradition is strong relaying history and life lessons through storytelling poetry and song Imigani indirimbo amazina and ivyivugo are literary genres in Burundi 145 Basketball and track and field are noted sports Martial arts are popular as well There are five major judo clubs Club Judo de l Entente Sportive in Downtown and four others throughout the city 146 Association football is a popular pastime throughout the country as are mancala games Most Christian holidays are celebrated with Christmas being the largest 147 Burundian Independence Day is celebrated annually on 1 July 148 In 2005 the Burundian government declared Eid al Fitr an Islamic holiday to be a public holiday 149 Media Edit See also Mass media in Burundi Education Edit This section needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information June 2018 Carolus Magnus School in Burundi The school benefits from the campaign Your Day for Africa by Aktion Tagwerk Main article Education in Burundi In 2009 the adult literacy rate in Burundi was estimated to be 67 73 male and 61 female with a literacy rate of 77 and 76 respectively for men and women between the ages of 15 and 24 150 By 2015 this had increased to 85 6 88 2 male and 83 1 female 151 Literacy among adult women has increased by 17 since 2002 152 Burundi s literacy rate is relatively low due to low school attendance and because literacy in Kirundi only provides access to materials printed in that language though it is higher than many other African countries Ten percent of Burundian boys are allowed a secondary education 153 Burundi has one public university University of Burundi There are museums in the cities such as the Burundi Geological Museum in Bujumbura and the Burundi National Museum and the Burundi Museum of Life in Gitega In 2010 a new elementary school was opened in the small village of Rwoga that is funded by the pupils of Westwood High School Quebec Canada 154 155 As of 2018 Burundi invested the equivalent of 5 1 of its GDP in education 156 Science and technology Edit Burundi s Strategic Plan for Science Technology Research and Innovation 2013 covers the following areas food technology medical sciences energy mining and transportation water desertification environmental biotechnology and indigenous knowledge materials science engineering and industry ICTs space sciences mathematical sciences and social and human sciences With regard to material sciences Burundi s publication intensity doubled from 0 6 to 1 2 articles per million inhabitants between 2012 and 2019 placing it in the top 15 for sub Saharan Africa for this strategic technology 156 Medical sciences remain the main focus of research medical researchers accounted for 4 of the country s scientists in 2018 but 41 of scientific publications between 2011 and 2019 156 The focus of the Strategic Plan for Science Technology Research and Innovation 2013 has been on developing an institutional framework and infrastructure fostering greater regional and international co operation and placing science in society In October 2014 the EAC Secretariat designated the National Institute of Public Health a centre of excellence Data are unavailable on output on nutritional sciences the institute s area of specialization but between 2011 and 2019 Burundi scientists produced seven articles on each of HIV and tropical communicable diseases and a further five on tuberculosis all focus areas for the Sustainable Development Goals 156 The Strategic Plan has also focused on training researchers Researcher density in head counts grew from 40 to 55 researchers per million inhabitants between 2011 and 2018 The amount of funding available to each researcher more than doubled from PPP 14 310 constant 2005 values to PPP 22 480 since the domestic research effort has also risen since 2012 from 0 11 to 0 21 of GDP 156 Burundi has almost tripled its scientific output since 2011 but the pace has not picked up since the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals in 2015 With six scientific publications per million inhabitants Burundi still has one of the lowest publication rate in Central and East Africa 156 Some 97 5 of publications involved foreign co authorship between 2017 and 2019 with Ugandans figuring among the top five partners 156 See also Edit Burundi portalOutline of Burundi Index of Burundi related articles Wildlife of Burundi National Defence Force Burundi Notes Edit While Gitega has been established as the political capital Bujumbura is still the seat of the government and economic capital References Edit The World Factbook Burundi Central Intelligence Agency 7 August 2018 Retrieved 13 August 2018 National Profiles https www reuters com article uk burundi election idUKKBN2320HF a b c Kingdom of Burundi Encyclopaedia Britannica Online ed Retrieved 15 October 2016 Quelques donnees pour le Burundi in French ISTEEBU Archived from the original on 28 July 2017 Retrieved 17 December 2015 Annuaire statistique du Burundi PDF Report in French ISTEEBU July 2015 p 105 Archived from the 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Shopping Cape Town South Africa Struik p 36 ISBN 978 1 77007 070 7 a b Burundi Arts and Literature Archived from the original on 1 October 2006 Retrieved 21 July 2008 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Cultural Profiles Project Citizenship and Immigration Canada Retrieved 30 June 2008 Center for the Arts Presents the Royal Drummers of Burundi Archived 3 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine The Mason Gazette 14 September 2006 George Mason University Retrieved on 20 July 2008 Vansina Jan 1985 Oral Tradition as History Madison Wisconsin University of Wisconsin Press p 114 ISBN 0 299 10214 9 Sports and Recreation Archived from the original on 16 June 2006 Retrieved 24 November 2012 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Cultural Profiles Project Citizenship and Immigration Canada Retrieved 20 July 2008 Burundi Holidays Archived from the original on 1 October 2006 Retrieved 21 July 2008 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Cultural Profiles Project Citizenship and Immigration Canada Retrieved 30 June 2008 Trawicky Bernard and Gregory Ruth Wilhelme 2000 Anniversaries and Holidays Chicago Illinois American Library Association p 110 ISBN 0 8389 0695 8 Burundi celebrates Muslim holiday Archived 17 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine BBC 3 November 2005 Retrieved on 30 June 2008 Table 4a Literacy Archived 26 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine un org UIS Education data uis unesco org Archived from the original on 5 September 2017 Retrieved 22 October 2017 Macauley C M Onyango Niragira E Spring 2012 Peer support Training for Nonliterate and Semiliterate Female Ex combatants Experience in Burundi Archived 8 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine Journal of ERW and Mine Action Issue 16 1 Maic jmu edu Retrieved on 24 November 2012 Learning in Burundi Archived from the original on 1 October 2006 Retrieved 21 July 2008 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Cultural Profiles Project Citizenship and Immigration Canada cp pc ca Bridge To Burundi Archived 26 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 4 April 2014 Westwood Bridge to Burundi Archived 26 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine Facebook Retrieved on 4 April 2014 a b c d e f g Njoki Kingiri Awono Onana 11 June 2021 Schneegans S Straza T Lewis J eds Central and East Africa In UNESCO Science Report the Race Against Time for Smarter Development Paris UNESCO pp 496 533 ISBN 978 92 3 100450 6 Bibliography EditEggers Ellen K 2006 Historical Dictionary of Burundi 3rd ed Lanham Maryland Scarecrow Press ISBN 0 8108 5302 7 Lemarchand Rene 1996 Burundi Ethnic Conflict and Genocide Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 56623 0 Further reading EditAbdallah Ahmedou Ould Burundi on the Brink 1993 95 A UN Special Envoy Reflects on Preventive Diplomacy Allen J A et al 2003 Africa South of the Sahara 2004 South of the Sahara New York New York Taylor and Francis Group ISBN 1 85743 183 9 Bentley Kristina and Southall Roger An African Peace Process Mandela South Africa and Burundi Chretien Jean Pierre The Great Lakes of Africa Two Thousand Years of History Daley Patricia Gender and Genocide in Burundi The Search for Spaces of Peace in the Great Lakes Region Gates Henry Lewis Anthony Appiah 1999 Africana The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience New York New York Basic Civitas Books ISBN 0 465 00071 1 Ewusi Kale and Akwanga Ebenezer Burundi s Negative Peace The Shadow of a Broken Continent in the Era of Nepad Jennings Christian Across the Red River Rwanda Burundi and the Heart of Darkness Kayoya Michel My Father s Footsteps Sur les traces de mon pere East African Publishing House 1973 Kayoya Michel Entre deux mondes Between two worlds Lavigerie Editeurs Bujumbura 1971 Kayoya was murdered during the 1972 genocide Kidder Tracy Strength in What Remains A biography of a Burundian immigrant to the US Krueger Robert Kathleen Tobin Krueger 2007 From Bloodshed to Hope in Burundi Our Embassy Years during Genocide Austin Texas University of Texas Press ISBN 978 0 292 71486 1 Melady Thomas Patrick Burundi The Tragic Years Nivonzima David and Fendell Len Unlocking Horns Forgiveness and Reconciliation in Burundi Uvin Peter Life After Violence A People s Story of Burundi Watt Nigel Burundi The Biography of a Small African Country Weinstein Warren 2006 Historical Dictionary of Burundi Metuchen New Jersey Scarecrow Press ISBN 0 8108 0962 1 1st edition External links EditBurundi at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage Scholia has a country profile for Burundi Records of the United Nations International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi UNICIB 1995 1996 at the United Nations Archives in French Official Burundi government website Archived 20 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine Official Website of the Ministry of Justice of Burundi Chief of State and Cabinet Members Burundi The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency Burundi from UCB Libraries GovPubs Burundi at Curlie Burundi from the BBC News Wikimedia Atlas of Burundi Key Development Forecasts for Burundi from International Futures 3 30 S 30 00 E 3 500 S 30 000 E 3 500 30 000 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Burundi amp oldid 1163027482, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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