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Mughal Empire

January 08, 2023

Not to be confused with the Mongol Empire or Moghulistan.
"Mughals" redirects here. For the ethnic groups, see Mughal people.

The Mughal Empire was an early-modern empire that controlled much of South Asia between the 16th and 19th centuries.[10] For some two hundred years, the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the Indus river basin in the west, northern Afghanistan in the northwest, and Kashmir in the north, to the highlands of present-day Assam and Bangladesh in the east, and the uplands of the Deccan Plateau in South India.[11]

Mughal Empire
1526–1857
The empire at its greatest extent in c. 1700 under Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707)
StatusEmpire
Capital
Common languages
Religion

Din-i Ilahi
(1582–1605)
GovernmentUnitary absolute monarchy under a federal structure
Emperor[a] (Padshah) 
• 1526–1530
Babur (first)
• 1837–1857
Bahadur Shah II (last)
Historical eraEarly modern
21 April 1526
• Empire interrupted by Sur Empire
1540–1555
5 November 1556
• Death of Aurangzeb
3 March 1707
1757
1765
21 September 1857
2 August 1858
Area
1690[6][7]4,000,000 km2 (1,500,000 sq mi)
Population
• 1700[8]
158,400,000
CurrencyRupee, Taka, dam[9]: 73–74 

The Mughal empire is conventionally said to have been founded in 1526 by Babur, a warrior chieftain from what is today Uzbekistan, who employed aid from the neighboring Safavid and Ottoman empires,[12] to defeat the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, in the First Battle of Panipat, and to sweep down the plains of North India. The Mughal imperial structure, however, is sometimes dated to 1600, to the rule of Babur's grandson, Akbar.[13] This imperial structure lasted until 1720, until shortly after the death of the last major emperor, Aurangzeb,[14][15] during whose reign the empire also achieved its maximum geographical extent. Reduced subsequently to the region in and around Old Delhi by 1760, the empire was formally dissolved by the British Raj after the Indian Rebellion of 1857.

Although the Mughal empire was created and sustained by military warfare,[16][17][18] it did not vigorously suppress the cultures and peoples it came to rule; rather it equalized and placated them through new administrative practices,[19][20] and diverse ruling elites, leading to more efficient, centralised, and standardized rule.[21] The base of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar.[22][23] These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator,[24] were paid in the well-regulated silver currency,[21] and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.[25]

The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion.[26] Burgeoning European presence in the Indian Ocean, and its increasing demand for Indian raw and finished products, created still greater wealth in the Mughal courts.[27] There was more conspicuous consumption among the Mughal elite,[28] resulting in greater patronage of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture, especially during the reign of Shah Jahan.[29] Among the Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites in South Asia are: Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri, Red Fort, Humayun's Tomb, Lahore Fort, Shalamar Gardens and the Taj Mahal, which is described as "the jewel of Muslim art in India, and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage."[30]

Name

Contemporaries referred to the empire founded by Babur as the Timurid Empire,[31] which reflected the heritage of his dynasty, and this was the term preferred by the Mughals themselves.[32]

The Mughal designation for their own dynasty was Gurkani (Persian: گورکانیان, romanized: Gūrkāniyān, lit. 'sons-in-law').[33] The use of "Mughal" and "Moghul" derived from the Arabic and Persian corruption of "Mongol", and it emphasised the Mongol origins of the Timurid dynasty.[34] The term gained currency during the 19th century, but remains disputed by Indologists.[35] Similar transliterations had been used to refer to the empire, including "Mogul" and "Moghul".[36][37] Nevertheless, Babur's ancestors were sharply distinguished from the classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards Persian rather than Turco-Mongol culture. The Mughals themselves claimed ultimate descent from Mongol Empire founder Genghis Khan.[38]

Another name for the empire was Hindustan, which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari, and which has been described as the closest to an official name for the empire.[39] In the west, the term "Mughal" was used for the emperor, and by extension, the empire as a whole.[40]

History

Main article: Mughal dynasty

Babur and Humayun (1526–1556)

Main articles: Babur and Humayun
 
 
Main South Asian polities circa 1525 CE, on the eve of the establishment of the Mughal Empire by Babur.[41]

The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur (reigned 1526–1530), a Central Asian ruler who was descended from the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur (the founder of the Timurid Empire) on his father's side, and from Genghis Khan on his mother's side.[42] Ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions.[43] He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass.[42] Babur's forces defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat. Before the battle, Babur sought divine favour by abjuring liquor, breaking the wine vessels and pouring the wine down a well. However, by this time Lodi's empire was already crumbling, and it was actually the Rajput Confederacy which was the strongest power of Northern India under the capable rule of Rana Sanga of Mewar. He defeated Babar in the Battle of Bayana.[44] However, in the decisive Battle of Khanwa which was fought near Agra, the Timurid forces of Babur defeated the Rajput army of Sanga. This battle was one of the most decisive and historic battles in Indian history, as it sealed the fate of Northern India for the next two centuries.

After the battle, the centre of Mughal power became Agra instead of Kabul. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India.[45] The instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun (reigned 1530–1556), who was forced into exile in Persia by rebels. The Sur Empire (1540–1555), founded by Sher Shah Suri (reigned 1540–1545), briefly interrupted Mughal rule.[42] Humayun's exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the later restored Mughal Empire.[citation needed] Humayun's triumphant return from Persia in 1555 restored Mughal rule in some parts of India, but he died in an accident the next year.[42]

Akbar to Aurangzeb (1556–1707)

Main articles: Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb
 
Akbar holds a religious assembly of different faiths in the Ibadat Khana in Fatehpur Sikri.

Akbar (reigned 1556–1605) was born Jalal-ud-din Muhammad[46] in the Rajput Umarkot Fort,[47] to Humayun and his wife Hamida Banu Begum, a Persian princess.[48] Akbar succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, who helped consolidate the Mughal Empire in India. Through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari River.[citation needed] He created a new ruling elite loyal to him, implemented a modern administration, and encouraged cultural developments. He increased trade with European trading companies.[42] India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and economic development.[citation needed] Akbar allowed freedom of religion at his court, and attempted to resolve socio-political and cultural differences in his empire by establishing a new religion, Din-i-Ilahi, with strong characteristics of a ruler cult.[42] He left his son an internally stable state, which was in the midst of its golden age, but before long signs of political weakness would emerge.[42]

Jahangir (born Salim,[49] reigned 1605–1627) was born to Akbar and his wife Mariam-uz-Zamani, an Indian Rajput princess.[50] Salim was named after the Indian Sufi saint, Salim Chishti and was raised by the daughter of Chishti.[51][52] He "was addicted to opium, neglected the affairs of the state, and came under the influence of rival court cliques".[42] Jahangir distinguished himself from Akbar by making substantial efforts to gain the support of the Islamic religious establishment. One way he did this was by bestowing many more madad-i-ma'ash (tax-free personal land revenue grants given to religiously learned or spiritually worthy individuals) than Akbar had.[53] In contrast to Akbar, Jahangir came into conflict with non-Muslim religious leaders, notably the Sikh guru Arjan, whose execution was the first of many conflicts between the Mughal empire and the Sikh community.[54][55][56]

 
Group portrait of Mughal rulers, from Babur to Aurangzeb, with the Mughal ancestor Timur seated in the middle. On the left: Shah Jahan, Akbar and Babur, with Abu Sa'id of Samarkand and Timur's son, Miran Shah. On the right: Aurangzeb, Jahangir and Humayun, and two of Timur's other offspring Umar Shaykh and Muhammad Sultan. Created c. 1707–12

Shah Jahan (reigned 1628–1658) was born to Jahangir and his wife Jagat Gosain, a Rajput princess.[49] His reign ushered in the golden age of Mughal architecture.[57] During the reign of Shah Jahan, the splendour of the Mughal court reached its peak, as exemplified by the Taj Mahal.The cost of maintaining the court, however, began to exceed the revenue coming in.[42] His reign was called as "The Golden Age of Mughal Architecture". Shah Jahan extended the Mughal empire to the Deccan by ending the Nizam Shahi dynasty, and forced the Adil Shahis and Qutb Shahis to pay tribute.[58]

Shah Jahan's eldest son, the liberal Dara Shikoh, became regent in 1658, as a result of his father's illness.[citation needed] Dara championed a syncretistic Hindu-Muslim culture, emulating his great-grandfather Akbar.[59] With the support of the Islamic orthodoxy, however, a younger son of Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), seized the throne. Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had him executed.[42] Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb kept Shah Jahan imprisoned until his death in 1666.[60]: 68  Aurangzeb oversaw an increase in the Islamicization of the Mughal state. He encouraged conversion to Islam, reinstated the jizya on non-Muslims, and compiled the Fatawa 'Alamgiri, a collection of Islamic law. Aurangzeb also ordered the execution of the Sikh guru Tegh Bahadur, leading to the militarization of the Sikh community.[61][55][56] From the imperial perspective, conversion to Islam integrated local elites into the king's vision of network of shared identity that would join disparate groups throughout the empire in obedience to the Mughal emperor.[62] He expanded the empire to include almost the whole of South Asia,[60]: 1  but at his death in 1707, "many parts of the empire were in open revolt".[42] Aurangzeb is considered India's most controversial king,[60] with some historians arguing his religious conservatism and intolerance undermined the stability of Mughal society,[42] while other historians question this, noting that he built Hindu temples,[63] employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors did, opposed bigotry against Hindus and Shia Muslims.[60]: 58 

Decline (1707–1857)

Further information: Bahadur Shah Zafar
 
Delhi under the puppet-king Farrukhsiyar
 
Shah Alam II on horseback

Aurangzeb's son, Bahadur Shah I, repealed the religious policies of his father and attempted to reform the administration. "However, after his death in 1712, the Mughal dynasty sank into chaos and violent feuds. In 1719 alone, four emperors successively ascended the throne",[42] as figureheads under the rule of the Sayyid king-makers.[64]

During the reign of Muhammad Shah (reigned 1719–1748), the empire began to break up, and vast tracts of central India passed from Mughal to Maratha hands. The far-off Indian campaign of Nader Shah, who had previously reestablished Iranian suzerainty over most of West Asia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, culminated with the Sack of Delhi and shattered the remnants of Mughal power and prestige. Many of the empire's elites now sought to control their own affairs, and broke away to form independent kingdoms.[citation needed] As the Mughals tried to suppress the independence of the Nizam in the Deccan, he encouraged the Marathas to invade central and northern India.[65][66][67] But, according to Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal, the Mughal Emperor continued to be the highest manifestation of sovereignty. Not only the Muslim gentry, but the Maratha, Hindu, and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial acknowledgments of the emperor as the sovereign of India.[68]

Meanwhile, some regional polities within the increasingly fragmented Mughal Empire, involved themselves and the state in global conflicts, leading only to defeat and loss of territory during the Carnatic Wars and the Bengal War.

 
The remnants of the empire in 1751

The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II (1759–1806) made futile attempts to reverse the Mughal decline but ultimately had to seek the protection of the Emir of Afghanistan, Ahmed Shah Abdali, which led to the Third Battle of Panipat between the Maratha Empire and the Afghans (led by Abdali) in 1761. In 1771, the Marathas recaptured Delhi from Afghan control and in 1784 they officially became the protectors of the emperor in Delhi,[69] a state of affairs that continued until the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Thereafter, the British East India Company became the protectors of the Mughal dynasty in Delhi.[68] The British East India Company took control of the former Mughal province of Bengal-Bihar in 1793 after it abolished local rule (Nizamat) that lasted until 1858, marking the beginning of British colonial era over the Indian subcontinent. By 1857 a considerable part of former Mughal India was under the East India Company's control. After a crushing defeat in the war of 1857–1858 which he nominally led, the last Mughal, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was deposed by the British East India Company and exiled in 1858. Through the Government of India Act 1858 the British Crown assumed direct control of East India Company-held territories in India in the form of the new British Raj. In 1876 the British Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India.

 
Portrait of Bahadur Shah II

Causes of decline

Historians have offered numerous explanations for the rapid collapse of the Mughal Empire between 1707 and 1720, after a century of growth and prosperity. In fiscal terms, the throne lost the revenues needed to pay its chief officers, the emirs (nobles) and their entourages. The emperor lost authority, as the widely scattered imperial officers lost confidence in the central authorities, and made their own deals with local men of influence. The imperial army, bogged down in long, futile wars against the more aggressive Marathas, lost its fighting spirit. Finally came a series of violent political feuds over control of the throne. After the execution of Emperor Farrukhsiyar in 1719, local Mughal successor states took power in region after region.[70]

Contemporary chroniclers bewailed the decay they witnessed, a theme picked up by the first British historians who wanted to underscore the need for a British-led rejuvenation.[71]

Modern views on the decline

Since the 1970s historians have taken multiple approaches to the decline, with little consensus on which factor was dominant. The psychological interpretations emphasise depravity in high places, excessive luxury, and increasingly narrow views that left the rulers unprepared for an external challenge. A Marxist school (led by Irfan Habib and based at Aligarh Muslim University) emphasises excessive exploitation of the peasantry by the rich, which stripped away the will and the means to support the regime.[72] Karen Leonard has focused on the failure of the regime to work with Hindu bankers, whose financial support was increasingly needed; the bankers then helped the Maratha and the British.[73] In a religious interpretation, some scholars argue that the Hindu powers revolted against the rule of a Muslim dynasty.[74] Finally, other scholars argue that the very prosperity of the Empire inspired the provinces to achieve a high degree of independence, thus weakening the imperial court.[75]

Jeffrey G. Williamson has argued that the Indian economy went through deindustrialization in the latter half of the 18th century as an indirect outcome of the collapse of the Mughal Empire, with British rule later causing further deindustrialization.[76] According to Williamson, the decline of the Mughal Empire led to a decline in agricultural productivity, which drove up food prices, then nominal wages, and then textile prices, which led to India losing a share of the world textile market to Britain even before it had superior factory technology.[77] Indian textiles, however, still maintained a competitive advantage over British textiles up until the 19th century.[78]

Administration and state

Main article: Government of the Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire had a highly centralised, bureaucratic government, most of which was instituted during the rule of the third Mughal emperor Akbar.[79][80] The central government was headed by the Mughal emperor; immediately beneath him were four ministries. The finance/revenue ministry was responsible for controlling revenues from the empire's territories, calculating tax revenues, and using this information to distribute assignments. The ministry of the military (army/intelligence) was headed by an official titled mir bakhshi, who was in charge of military organisation, messenger service, and the mansabdari system. The ministry in charge of law/religious patronage was the responsibility of the sadr as-sudr, who appointed judges and managed charities and stipends. Another ministry was dedicated to the imperial household and public works.[81][79]

The empire was divided into suba (provinces), each of which were headed by a provincial governor called a subadar. The structure of the central government was mirrored at the provincial level; each suba had its own bakhshi, sadr as-sudr, and finance minister that reported directly to the central government rather than the subahdar. Subas were subdivided into administrative units known as sarkars, which were further divided into groups of villages known as parganas. Mughal government in the pargana consisted of a Muslim judge and local tax collector.[81][79]

Capitals

The Mughals had multiple imperial capitals, established over the course of their rule. These were the cities of Agra, Delhi, Lahore, and Fatehpur Sikri. Power often shifted back and forth between these capitals.[82] Sometimes this was necessitated by political and military demands, but shifts also occurred for ideological reasons (for example, Akbar's establishment of Fatehpur Sikri), or even simply because the cost of establishing a new capital was marginal.[83] Situations where there were two simultaneous capitals happened multiple times in Mughal history. Certain cities also served as short-term, provincial capitals, as was the case with Aurangzeb's shift to Aurangabad in the Deccan.[82] Kabul was the summer capital of mughals from 1526 to 1681.[84]

The imperial camp, used for military expeditions and royal tours, also served as a kind of mobile, "de-facto" administrative capital. From the time of Akbar, Mughal camps were huge in scale, accompanied by numerous personages associated with the royal court, as well as soldiers and labourers. All administration and governance was carried out within them. The Mughal Emperors spent a significant portion of their ruling period within these camps.[85]

After Aurangzeb, the Mughal capital definitively became the walled city of Shahjahanabad (today Old Delhi).[86]

Law

 
Police in Delhi under Bahadur Shah II, 1842

The Mughal Empire's legal system was context-specific and evolved over the course of the empire's rule. Being a Muslim state, the empire employed fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and therefore the fundamental institutions of Islamic law such as those of the qadi (judge), mufti (jurisconsult), and muhtasib (censor and market supervisor) were well-established in the Mughal Empire. However, the dispensation of justice also depended on other factors, such as administrative rules, local customs, and political convenience. This was due to Persianate influences on Mughal ideology, and the fact that the Mughal Empire governed a non-Muslim majority.[87]

Legal ideology

The Mughal Empire followed the Sunni Hanafi system of jurisprudence. In its early years, the empire relied on Hanafi legal references inherited from its predecessor, the Delhi Sultanate. These included the al-Hidayah (the best guidance) and the Fatawa al-Tatarkhaniyya (religious decisions of the Emire Tatarkhan). During the Mughal Empire's peak, the Fatawa 'Alamgiri was commissioned by Emperor Aurangzeb. This compendium of Hanafi law sought to serve as a central reference for the Mughal state that dealt with the specifics of the South Asian context.[88]

The Mughal Empire also drew on Persianate notions of kingship. Particularly, this meant that the Mughal emperor was considered the supreme authority on legal affairs.[87]

Courts of law

Various kinds of courts existed in the Mughal empire. One such court was that of the qadi. The Mughal qadi was responsible for dispensing justice; this included settling disputes, judging people for crimes, and dealing with inheritances and orphans. The qadi also had additional importance with regards to documents, as the seal of the qadi was required to validate deeds and tax records. Qadis did not constitute a single position, but made up a hierarchy. For example, the most basic kind was the pargana (district) qadi. More prestigious positions were those of the qadi al-quddat (judge of judges) who accompanied the mobile imperial camp, and the qadi-yi lashkar (judge of the army).[87] Qadis were usually appointed by the emperor or the sadr-us-sudr (chief of charities).[87][89] The jurisdiction of the qadi was availed by Muslims and non-Muslims alike.[90]

The jagirdar (local tax collector) was another kind of official approached, especially for high-stakes cases. Subjects of the Mughal Empire also took their grievances to the courts of superior officials who held more authority and punitive power than the local qadi. Such officials included the kotwal (local police), the faujdar (an officer controlling multiple districts and troops of soldiers), and the most powerful, the subahdar (provincial governor). In some cases, the emperor themself dispensed justice directly.[87] Jahangir was known to have installed a "chain of justice" in the Agra fort that any aggrieved subject could shake to get the attention of the emperor and bypass the inefficacy of officials.[91]

Self-regulating tribunals operating at the community or village level were common, but sparse documentation of them exists. For example, it is unclear how panchayats (village councils) operated in the Mughal era.[87]

Economy

Main article: Economy of the Mughal Empire

The Mughal economy was large and prosperous.[92] During the Mughal era, the gross domestic product (GDP) of India in 1600 was estimated at 22% of the world economy, the second largest in the world, behind only China (Ming era) but larger than Europe. By 1700, the GDP of India had risen to 24% of the world economy, the largest in the world, larger than both China (Qing era) and Western Europe.[93] India was producing 24.5% of the world's manufacturing output up until 1750.[94] India's GDP growth increased over the 1500-1820 period, having grown faster than over the 1-1000 and 1000-1500 periods.[93] India's economy has been described as a form of proto-industrialization, like that of 18th-century Western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution.[95]

The Mughals were responsible for building an extensive road system, creating a uniform currency, and the unification of the country.[9]: 185–204  The empire had an extensive road network, which was vital to the economic infrastructure, built by a public works department set up by the Mughals which designed, constructed and maintained roads linking towns and cities across the empire, making trade easier to conduct.[92]

The main base of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar.[22][23] These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator,[24] were paid in the well-regulated silver currency,[21] and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.[25]

Coinage

 
Coin of Aurangzeb, minted in Kabul, dated 1691/2

The Mughals adopted and standardised the rupee (rupiya, or silver) and dam (copper) currencies introduced by Sur Emperor Sher Shah Suri during his brief rule.[96] The currency was initially 48 dams to a single rupee in the beginning of Akbar's reign, before it later became 38 dams to a rupee in the 1580s, with the dam's value rising further in the 17th century as a result of new industrial uses for copper, such as in bronze cannons and brass utensils. The dam was initially the most common coin in Akbar's time, before being replaced by the rupee as the most common coin in succeeding reigns.[9] The dam's value was later worth 30 to a rupee towards the end of Jahangir's reign, and then 16 to a rupee by the 1660s.[97] The Mughals minted coins with high purity, never dropping below 96%, and without debasement until the 1720s.[98]

Despite India having its own stocks of gold and silver, the Mughals produced minimal gold of their own, but mostly minted coins from imported bullion, as a result of the empire's strong export-driven economy, with global demand for Indian agricultural and industrial products drawing a steady stream of precious metals into India.[9] Around 80% of Mughal India's imports were bullion, mostly silver,[99] with major sources of imported bullion including the New World and Japan,[98] which in turn imported large quantities of textiles and silk from the Bengal Subah province.[9]

Labour

The historian Shireen Moosvi estimates that in terms of contributions to the Mughal economy, in the late 16th century, the primary sector contributed 52%, the secondary sector 18% and the tertiary sector 29%; the secondary sector contributed a higher percentage than in early 20th-century British India, where the secondary sector only contributed 11% to the economy.[100] In terms of urban-rural divide, 18% of Mughal India's labour force were urban and 82% were rural, contributing 52% and 48% to the economy, respectively.[101]

According to Stephen Broadberry and Bishnupriya Gupta, grain wages in India were comparable to England in the 16th and 17th centuries, but diverged in the 18th century when they fell to 20-40% of England's wages.[102][103] This, however, is disputed by Parthasarathi and Sivramkrishna. Parthasarathi cites his estimates that grain wages for weaving and spinning in mid-18 century Bengal and South India was comparable to Britain.[104] Similarly, Sivramkrishna analyzed agricultural surveys conducted in Mysore by Francis Buchanan during 1800–1801, arrived at estimates using a "subsistence basket" that aggregated millet income could be almost five times subsistence level, while corresponding rice income was three times that much.[105] That could be comparable to advance part of Europe.[106] Due to the scarcity of data, however, more research is needed before drawing any conclusion.[107][108]

According to Moosvi, Mughal India had a per-capita income, in terms of wheat, 1.24% higher in the late 16th century than British India did in the early 20th century.[109] This income, however, would have to be revised downwards if manufactured goods, like clothing, would be considered. Compared to food per-capita, expenditure on clothing was much smaller though, so relative income between 1595 and 1596 should be comparable to 1901–1910.[110] However, in a system where wealth was hoarded by elites, wages were depressed for manual labour.[111] In Mughal India, there was a generally tolerant attitude towards manual labourers, with some religious cults in northern India proudly asserting a high status for manual labour. While slavery also existed, it was limited largely to household servants.[111]

Agriculture

Indian agricultural production increased under the Mughal Empire.[92] A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and barley, and non-food cash crops such as cotton, indigo and opium. By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators begun to extensively grow two new crops from the Americas, maize and tobacco.[92]

The Mughal administration emphasised agrarian reform, which began under the non-Mughal emperor Sher Shah Suri, the work of which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms. The civil administration was organised in a hierarchical manner on the basis of merit, with promotions based on performance.[112] The Mughal government funded the building of irrigation systems across the empire, which produced much higher crop yields and increased the net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production.[92]

A major Mughal reform introduced by Akbar was a new land revenue system called zabt. He replaced the tribute system, previously common in India and used by Tokugawa Japan at the time, with a monetary tax system based on a uniform currency.[98] The revenue system was biased in favour of higher value cash crops such as cotton, indigo, sugar cane, tree-crops, and opium, providing state incentives to grow cash crops, in addition to rising market demand.[9] Under the zabt system, the Mughals also conducted extensive cadastral surveying to assess the area of land under plow cultivation, with the Mughal state encouraging greater land cultivation by offering tax-free periods to those who brought new land under cultivation.[98] The expansion of agriculture and cultivation continued under later Mughal emperors including Aurangzeb, whose 1665 firman edict stated: "the entire elevated attention and desires of the Emperor are devoted to the increase in the population and cultivation of the Empire and the welfare of the whole peasantry and the entire people."[113]

Mughal agriculture was in some ways advanced compared to European agriculture at the time, exemplified by the common use of the seed drill among Indian peasants before its adoption in Europe.[114] While the average peasant across the world was only skilled in growing very few crops, the average Indian peasant was skilled in growing a wide variety of food and non-food crops, increasing their productivity.[115] Indian peasants were also quick to adapt to profitable new crops, such as maize and tobacco from the New World being rapidly adopted and widely cultivated across Mughal India between 1600 and 1650. Bengali farmers rapidly learned techniques of mulberry cultivation and sericulture, establishing Bengal Subah as a major silk-producing region of the world.[9] Sugar mills appeared in India shortly before the Mughal era. Evidence for the use of a draw bar for sugar-milling appears at Delhi in 1540, but may also date back earlier, and was mainly used in the northern Indian subcontinent. Geared sugar rolling mills first appeared in Mughal India, using the principle of rollers as well as worm gearing, by the 17th century.[116]

According to economic historian Immanuel Wallerstein, citing evidence from Irfan Habib, Percival Spear, and Ashok Desai, per-capita agricultural output and standards of consumption in 17th-century Mughal India were probably higher than in 17th-century Europe and certainly higher than early 20th-century British India.[117] The increased agricultural productivity led to lower food prices. In turn, this benefited the Indian textile industry. Compared to Britain, the price of grain was about one-half in South India and one-third in Bengal, in terms of silver coinage. This resulted in lower silver coin prices for Indian textiles, giving them a price advantage in global markets.[118]

Industrial manufacturing

Up until 1750, India produced about 25% of the world's industrial output.[76] Manufactured goods and cash crops from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world. Key industries included textiles, shipbuilding, and steel. Processed products included cotton textiles, yarns, thread, silk, jute products, metalware, and foods such as sugar, oils and butter.[92] The growth of manufacturing industries in the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal era in the 17th–18th centuries has been referred to as a form of proto-industrialization, similar to 18th-century Western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution.[95]

In early modern Europe, there was significant demand for products from Mughal India, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, indigo, silks, and saltpeter (for use in munitions).[92] European fashion, for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. From the late 17th century to the early 18th century, Mughal India accounted for 95% of British imports from Asia, and the Bengal Subah province alone accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia.[119] In contrast, there was very little demand for European goods in Mughal India, which was largely self-sufficient, thus Europeans had very little to offer, except for some woolens, unprocessed metals and a few luxury items. The trade imbalance caused Europeans to export large quantities of gold and silver to Mughal India in order to pay for South Asian imports.[92] Indian goods, especially those from Bengal, were also exported in large quantities to other Asian markets, such as Indonesia and Japan.[9]

Textile industry

See also: Muslin trade in Bengal and Mughal clothing
 
Miniature painting - Portrait of an Old Mughal Courtier Wearing Muslin
 
Muslim Lady Reclining or An Indian Girl with a Hookah, painted in Dacca, 18th century

The largest manufacturing industry in the Mughal Empire was textile manufacturing, particularly cotton textile manufacturing, which included the production of piece goods, calicos, and muslins, available unbleached and in a variety of colours. The cotton textile industry was responsible for a large part of the empire's international trade.[92] India had a 25% share of the global textile trade in the early 18th century.[120] Indian cotton textiles were the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century, consumed across the world from the Americas to Japan.[121] By the early 18th century, Mughal Indian textiles were clothing people across the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Europe, the Americas, Africa, and the Middle East.[77] The most important centre of cotton production was the Bengal province, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka.[122]

Bengal accounted for more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks imported by the Dutch from Asia,[119] Bengali silk and cotton textiles were exported in large quantities to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan,[9]: 202  and Bengali muslin textiles from Dhaka were sold in Central Asia, where they were known as "Dhaka textiles".[122] Indian textiles dominated the Indian Ocean trade for centuries, were sold in the Atlantic Ocean trade, and had a 38% share of the West African trade in the early 18th century, while Indian calicos were a major force in Europe, and Indian textiles accounted for 20% of total English trade with Southern Europe in the early 18th century.[76]

The worm gear roller cotton gin, which was invented in India during the early Delhi Sultanate era of the 13th–14th centuries, came into use in the Mughal Empire sometime around the 16th century,[116] and is still used in India through to the present day.[123] Another innovation, the incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin, first appeared in India sometime during the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire.[124] The production of cotton, which may have largely been spun in the villages and then taken to towns in the form of yarn to be woven into cloth textiles, was advanced by the diffusion of the spinning wheel across India shortly before the Mughal era, lowering the costs of yarn and helping to increase demand for cotton. The diffusion of the spinning wheel, and the incorporation of the worm gear and crank handle into the roller cotton gin led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production during the Mughal era.[125]

Once, the Mughal emperor Akbar asked his courtiers, which was the most beautiful flower. Some said rose, from whose petals were distilled the precious ittar, others, the lotus, glory of every Indian village. But Birbal said, “The cotton boll”. There was a scornful laughter and Akbar asked for an explanation. Birbal said, “Your Majesty, from the cotton boll comes the fine fabric prized by merchants across the seas that has made your empire famous throughout the world. The perfume of your fame far exceeds the scent of roses and jasmine. That is why I say the cotton boll is the most beautiful flower.[126]

Shipbuilding industry

Mughal India had a large shipbuilding industry, which was also largely centred in the Bengal province. Economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223,250 tons annually, compared with 23,061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771.[127] He also assesses ship repairing as very advanced in Bengal.[127]

Indian shipbuilding, particularly in Bengal, was advanced compared to European shipbuilding at the time, with Indians selling ships to European firms. An important innovation in shipbuilding was the introduction of a flushed deck design in Bengal rice ships, resulting in hulls that were stronger and less prone to leak than the structurally weak hulls of traditional European ships built with a stepped deck design. The British East India Company later duplicated the flushed deck and hull designs of Bengal rice ships in the 1760s, leading to significant improvements in seaworthiness and navigation for European ships during the Industrial Revolution.[128]

Bengal Subah

Main article: Bengal Subah
See also: Muslin trade in Bengal
 
Ruins of the Great Caravanserai in Dhaka.

The Bengal Subah province was especially prosperous from the time of its takeover by the Mughals in 1590 until the British East India Company seized control in 1757.[129] It was the Mughal Empire's wealthiest province.[130] Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks, and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks.[119] From Bengal, saltpeter was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, and cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia and Japan.[9] Akbar played a key role in establishing Bengal as a leading economic centre, as he began transforming many of the jungles there into farms. As soon as he conquered the region, he brought tools and men to clear jungles in order to expand cultivation and brought Sufis to open the jungles to farming.[113] Bengal was later described as the Paradise of Nations by Mughal emperors.[131] The Mughals introduced agrarian reforms, including the modern Bengali calendar.[132] The calendar played a vital role in developing and organising harvests, tax collection and Bengali culture in general, including the New Year and Autumn festivals. The province was a leading producer of grains, salt, fruits, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments.[133][page needed] Its handloom industry flourished under royal warrants, making the region a hub of the worldwide muslin trade, which peaked in the 17th and 18th centuries. The provincial capital Dhaka became the commercial capital of the empire. The Mughals expanded cultivated land in the Bengal delta under the leadership of Sufis, which consolidated the foundation of Bengali Muslim society.[134][page needed]

After 150 years of rule by Mughal viceroys, Bengal gained semi-independence as a dominion under the Nawab of Bengal in 1717. The Nawabs permitted European companies to set up trading posts across the region, including firms from Britain, France, the Netherlands, Denmark, Portugal and Austria. An Armenian community dominated banking and shipping in major cities and towns. The Europeans regarded Bengal as the richest place for trade.[133] By the late 18th century, the British displaced the Mughal ruling class in Bengal.

Demographics

See also: Demographics of India: History

Population

India's population growth accelerated under the Mughal Empire, with an unprecedented economic and demographic upsurge which boosted the Indian population by 60%[135] to 253% in 200 years during 1500–1700.[136] The Indian population had a faster growth during the Mughal era than at any known point in Indian history prior to the Mughal era.[93][135] By the time of Aurangzeb's reign, there were a total of 455,698 villages in the Mughal Empire.[137]

The following table gives population estimates for the Mughal Empire, compared to the total population of India, including the regions of modern Pakistan and Bangladesh, and compared to the world population:

Year Mughal Empire
population 		Total Indian
population 		% of Indian
population 		World
population 		% of world
population
1500 — 100,000,000[135] — 425,000,000[138] —
1600 115,000,000[137] 130,000,000[135] 89 579,000,000[138] 20
1700 158,400,000[8] 160,000,000[135] 99 679,000,000[138] 23

Urbanization

According to Irfan Habib Cities and towns boomed under the Mughal Empire, which had a relatively high degree of urbanization for its time, with 15% of its population living in urban centres.[139] This was higher than the percentage of the urban population in contemporary Europe at the time and higher than that of British India in the 19th century;[139] the level of urbanization in Europe did not reach 15% until the 19th century.[140]

Under Akbar's reign in 1600, the Mughal Empire's urban population was up to 17 million people, 15% of the empire's total population. This was larger than the entire urban population in Europe at the time, and even a century later in 1700, the urban population of England, Scotland and Wales did not exceed 13% of its total population,[137] while British India had an urban population that was under 13% of its total population in 1800 and 9% in 1881, a decline from the earlier Mughal era.[141] By 1700, Mughal India had an urban population of 23 million people, larger than British India's urban population of 22.3 million in 1871.[142]

Those estimates were criticised by Tim Dyson, who consider them exaggerations. According to Dyson urbanization of Mughal empire was less than 9%.[143]

The historian Nizamuddin Ahmad (1551–1621) reported that, under Akbar's reign, there were 120 large cities and 3200 townships.[139] A number of cities in India had a population between a quarter-million and half-million people,[139] with larger cities including Agra (in Agra Subah) with up to 800,000 people, Lahore (in Lahore Subah) with up to 700,000 people,[144] Dhaka (in Bengal Subah) with over 1 million people,[145][full citation needed] and Delhi (in Delhi Subah) with over 600,000 people.[146]

Cities acted as markets for the sale of goods, and provided homes for a variety of merchants, traders, shopkeepers, artisans, moneylenders, weavers, craftspeople, officials, and religious figures.[92] However, a number of cities were military and political centres, rather than manufacturing or commerce centres.[147]

Culture

See also: Indo-Persian culture
 
Ghulam Hamdani Mushafi, the poet first believed to have coined the name "Urdu" around 1780 AD for a language that went by a multiplicity of names before his time.[148]

The Mughal Empire was definitive in the early-modern and modern periods of South Asian history, with its legacy in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan seen in cultural contributions such as:

 
Mir Taqi Mir, an Urdu poet of the 18th century Mughal Empire
 
The Taj Mahal in the 1870s
 
Badshahi Mosque, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
 
Buland Darwaza in Fatehpur Sikiri, Agra, India

Architecture

Main articles: Indo-Islamic architecture, Mughal architecture, and Mughal garden

The Mughals made a major contribution to the Indian subcontinent with the development of their unique Indo-Persian architecture. Many monuments were built during the Mughal era by the Muslim emperors, especially Shah Jahan, including the Taj Mahal—a UNESCO World Heritage Site considered "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage",[30] attracting 7–8 million unique visitors a year. The palaces, tombs, gardens and forts built by the dynasty stand today in Agra, Aurangabad, Delhi, Dhaka, Fatehpur Sikri, Jaipur, Lahore, Kabul, Sheikhupura, and many other cities of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh,[157] such as:

 
Lalbagh Fort aerial view in Dhaka, Bangladesh
 
Shalimar Bagh in Srinagar, Kashmir, India
India Pakistan Bangladesh Afghanistan
  • Bagh-e-Babur in Kabul, Afghanistan
  • Shahjahani Mosque in Kabul, Afghanistan

Art and literature

 
Illustration by the 17th-century Mughal artist Ustad Mansur
 
"Alexander Visits the Sage Plato in His Mountain Cave"; illustration by the 16th-century Indian artist Basawan, in a folio from a quintet of the 13th-century Indian poet Amir Khusrau Dihlavi
Main articles: Mughal painting and Mughal clothing

The Mughal artistic tradition, mainly expressed in painted miniatures, as well as small luxury objects, was eclectic, borrowing from Iranian, Indian, Chinese and Renaissance European stylistic and thematic elements.[158] Mughal emperors often took in Iranian bookbinders, illustrators, painters and calligraphers from the Safavid court due to the commonalities of their Timurid styles, and due to the Mughal affinity for Iranian art and calligraphy.[159] Miniatures commissioned by the Mughal emperors initially focused on large projects illustrating books with eventful historical scenes and court life, but later included more single images for albums, with portraits and animal paintings displaying a profound appreciation for the serenity and beauty of the natural world.[160] For example, Emperor Jahangir commissioned brilliant artists such as Ustad Mansur to realistically portray unusual flora and fauna throughout the empire.

The literary works Akbar and Jahangir ordered to be illustrated ranged from epics like the Razmnama (a Persian translation of the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata) to historical memoirs or biographies of the dynasty such as the Baburnama and Akbarnama, and Tuzk-e-Jahangiri. Richly-finished albums (muraqqa) decorated with calligraphy and artistic scenes were mounted onto pages with decorative borders and then bound with covers of stamped and gilded or painted and lacquered leather.[161] Aurangzeb (1658–1707) was never an enthusiastic patron of painting, largely for religious reasons, and took a turn away from the pomp and ceremonial of the court around 1668, after which he probably commissioned no more paintings.[162]

Language

 
Folio from Farhang-i-Jahangiri, a Persian dictionary compiled during the Mughal era.
Main articles: Persian language in the Indian subcontinent, Persian and Urdu, and Hindustani language

Though the Mughals were of Turko-Mongol origin, their reign enacted the revival and height of the Persian language in the Indian subcontinent. Accompanied by literary patronage was the institutionalisation of Persian as official and courtly language; this led to Persian reaching nearly the status of a first language for many inhabitants of Mughal India.[163][164] Muzaffar Alam argues that the Mughals used Persian purposefully as the vehicle of an overarching Indo-Persian political culture, to unite their diverse empire.[165] Persian had a profound impact on the languages of South Asia; one such language, today known as Urdu, developed in the imperial capital of Delhi in the late Mughal era. It began to be used as a literary language in the Mughal court from the reign of Shah Alam II, who described it as the language of his dastans,[166] and replaced Persian as the language of the Muslim elite.[167][168] According to Qazvini, by the time of Shah Jahan, the emperor was only familiar with a few Turki words and showed little interest in the study of the language as a child.[169]

Military

Further information: Army of the Mughal Empire, Mughal weapons, and Mughal artillery

Gunpowder warfare

 
Mughal matchlock rifle, 16th century.
See also: Gunpowder empires and History of gunpowder: India and the Mughal Empire

Mughal India was one of the three Islamic gunpowder empires, along with the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia.[34][170][171] By the time he was invited by Lodi governor of Lahore, Daulat Khan, to support his rebellion against Lodi Sultan Ibrahim Khan, Babur was familiar with gunpowder firearms and field artillery, and a method for deploying them. Babur had employed Ottoman expert Ustad Ali Quli, who showed Babur the standard Ottoman formation—artillery and firearm-equipped infantry protected by wagons in the centre and the mounted archers on both wings. Babur used this formation at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, where the Afghan and Rajput forces loyal to the Delhi Sultanate, though superior in numbers but without the gunpowder weapons, were defeated. The decisive victory of the Timurid forces is one reason opponents rarely met Mughal princes in pitched battle over the course of the empire's history.[172] In India, guns made of bronze were recovered from Calicut (1504) and Diu (1533).[173]Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar, developed an early multi gun shot. As opposed to the polybolos and repeating crossbows used earlier in ancient Greece and China, respectively, Shirazi's rapid-firing gun had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannons loaded with gunpowder. It may be considered a version of a volley gun.[174]

 
Mughal musketeer, 17th century.

By the 17th century, Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms; large guns in particular, became visible in Tanjore, Dacca, Bijapur and Murshidabad.[175]

Rocketry and explosives

See also: Mysorean rockets and Congreve rocket

In the sixteenth century, Akbar was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known as bans, particularly against war elephants, during the Battle of Sanbal.[176] In 1657, the Mughal Army used rockets during the Siege of Bidar.[177] Prince Aurangzeb's forces discharged rockets and grenades while scaling the walls. Sidi Marjan was mortally wounded when a rocket struck his large gunpowder depot, and after twenty-seven days of hard fighting Bidar was captured by the Mughals.[177]

In A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder, James Riddick Partington described Indian rockets and explosive mines:[173]

The Indian war rockets were formidable weapons before such rockets were used in Europe. They had bam-boo rods, a rocket-body lashed to the rod, and iron points. They were directed at the target and fired by lighting the fuse, but the trajectory was rather erratic. The use of mines and counter-mines with explosive charges of gunpowder is mentioned for the times of Akbar and Jahangir.

Later, the Mysorean rockets were upgraded versions of Mughal rockets used during the Siege of Jinji by the progeny of the Nawab of Arcot. Hyder Ali's father Fatah Muhammad the constable at Budikote, commanded a corps consisting of 50 rocketmen (Cushoon) for the Nawab of Arcot. Hyder Ali realised the importance of rockets and introduced advanced versions of metal cylinder rockets. These rockets turned fortunes in favour of the Sultanate of Mysore during the Second Anglo-Mysore War, particularly during the Battle of Pollilur. In turn, the Mysorean rockets were the basis for the Congreve rockets, which Britain deployed in the Napoleonic Wars against France and the War of 1812 against the United States.[178]

Science

Astronomy

See also: Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world and Indian astronomy

While there appears to have been little concern for theoretical astronomy, Mughal astronomers made advances in observational astronomy and produced nearly a hundred Zij treatises. Humayun built a personal observatory near Delhi; Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also intending to build observatories, but were unable to do so. The astronomical instruments and observational techniques used at the Mughal observatories were mainly derived from Islamic astronomy.[179][180] In the 17th century, the Mughal Empire saw a synthesis between Islamic and Hindu astronomy, where Islamic observational instruments were combined with Hindu computational techniques.[179][180]

During the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Hindu king Jai Singh II of Amber continued the work of Mughal astronomy. In the early 18th century, he built several large observatories called Yantra Mandirs, in order to rival Ulugh Beg's Samarkand observatory, and in order to improve on the earlier Hindu computations in the Siddhantas and Islamic observations in Zij-i-Sultani. The instruments he used were influenced by Islamic astronomy, while the computational techniques were derived from Hindu astronomy.[179][180]

Chemistry

See also: Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world

Sake Dean Mahomed had learned much of Mughal chemistry and understood the techniques used to produce various alkali and soaps to produce shampoo. He was also a notable writer who described the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and the cities of Allahabad and Delhi in rich detail and also made note of the glories of the Mughal Empire.

In Britain, Sake Dean Mahomed was appointed as shampooing surgeon to both Kings George IV and William IV.[181]

Metallurgy

See also: History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent

One of the most remarkable astronomical instruments invented in Mughal India is the lost-wax cast, hollow, seamless, celestial globe. It was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH (1589–90 CE), and twenty other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire. Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce hollow metal globes without any seams.[182] A 17th century celestial globe was also made by Diya’ ad-din Muhammad in Lahore, 1668 (now in Pakistan).[183] It is now housed at the National Museum of Scotland.

List of Mughal Emperors

Main article: Mughal emperors
Portrait Titular Name Birth Name Birth Reign Death Notes
  Bābur
بابر 		Zahir-ud-din Muhammad
ظہیر الدین محمد 		14 February 1483, Andijan 20 April 1526 – 26 December 1530 26 December 1530 (aged 47) Founded the Empire
  Humayun
ہمایوں 		Nasir-ud-din Muhammad Humayun
نصیر الدین محمد ہمایوں 		6 March 1508 26 December 1530 – 17 May 1540

9 years 4 months 21 days

22 February 1555 – 27 January 1556

27 January 1556 (aged 47) Humayun was overthrown in 1540 by Sher Shah Suri of the Suri dynasty but returned to the throne in 1555 after the death of Islam Shah Suri (Sher Shah Suri's son and successor).
  Akbar-i-Azam
اکبر اعظم 		Jalal-ud-din Muhammad
جلال الدین محمد اکبر 		14 October 1542 27 January 1556 – 27 October 1605

49 years 9 months 0 days

27 October 1605 (aged 63) His mother was Persian Hamida Banu Begum.[184]
  Jahangir
جہانگیر 		Nur-ud-din Muhammad Salim
نور الدین محمد سلیم 		20 September 1569 15 October 1605 – 8 October 1627

21 years 11 months 23 days

28 October 1627 (aged 58) His mother was Rajput princess Mariam-uz-Zamani.[185]
  Shah-Jahan
شاہ جہان 		Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Khurram
شہاب الدین محمد خرم 		5 January 1592 8 November 1627 – 2 August 1658

30 years 8 months 25 days

22 January 1666 (aged 74) His mother was Rajput princess Jagat Gosaini.[186] Built Taj Mahal.
  Alamgir I
عالمگیر 		Muhy-ud-din Muhammad Aurangzeb
محی الدین محمد اورنگزیب 		3 November 1618 31 July 1658 – 3 March 1707

48 years 7 months 0 days

3 March 1707 (aged 88) His mother was Persian Mumtaz Mahal. He was married to Safavid dynasty Princess Dilras Banu Begum. He established Islamic law throughout India. After his death, His younger Son Azam Shah became the King (for 3 months) .[187]
  Bahadur Shah
بہادر شاہ 		Qutb-ud-Din Muhammad Mu'azzam Shah Alam
قطب الدین محمد معزام 		14 October 1643 19 June 1707 – 27 February 1712

(3 years, 253 days)

27 February 1712 (aged 68) He made settlements with the Marathas, tranquillised the Rajputs, and became friendly with the Sikhs in the Punjab.
  Jahandar Shah
جہاندار شاہ 		Mu'izz-ud-Din Jahandar Shah Bahadur
معز الدین جہاندار شاہ بہادر 		9 May 1661 27 February 1712 – 11 February 1713

(0 years, 350 days)

12 February 1713 (aged 51) Highly influenced by his Grand Vizier Zulfikar Khan.
  Farrukhsiyar
فرخ سیر 		Farrukhsiyar
فرخ سیر 		20 August 1685 11 January 1713 – 28 February 1719

(6 years, 48 days)

29 April 1719 (aged 33) Granted a firman to the East India Company in 1717 granting them duty-free trading rights for Bengal, strengthening their posts on the east coast. The firman or decree helped British East India company to import goods into Bengal without paying customs duty to the government.
  Rafi ud-Darajat
رفیع الدرجات 		Rafi ud-Darajat
رفیع الدرجات 		30 November 1699 28 February – 6 June 1719

(0 years, 98 days)

9 June 1719 (aged 19) Rise of Syed Brothers as power brokers.
  Shah Jahan II
شاہ جہان دوم 		Rafi ud-Daulah
شاہ جہاں دوم 		June 1696 6 June 1719 – 19 September 1719

(0 years, 105 days)

19 September 1719 (aged 23) ----
  Muhammad Shah
محمد شاہ 		Roshan Akhtar Bahadur
روشن اختر بہادر 		17 August 1702 27 September 1719 – 26 April 1748

(28 years, 212 days)

26 April 1748 (aged 45) Got rid of the Syed Brothers. Fought a long war with the Marathas, losing Deccan and Malwa in the process. Suffered the invasion of Nader Shah of Persia in 1739. He was the last emperor to possess effective control over the empire.
  Ahmad Shah Bahadur
احمد شاہ بہادر 		Ahmad Shah Bahadur
احمد شاہ بہادر 		23 December 1725 26 April 1748 – 2 June 1754

(6 years, 37 days)

1 January 1775 (aged 49) Mughal forces defeated by the Marathas at the Battle of Sikandarabad.
  Alamgir II
عالمگیر دوم 		Aziz-ud-din
عزیز اُلدین 		6 June 1699 2 June 1754 – 29 November 1759

(5 years, 180 days)

29 November 1759 (aged 60) Domination of Vizier Imad-ul-Mulk.
  Shah Jahan III
شاہ جہان سوم 		Muhi-ul-millat
محی اُلملت 		1711 10 December 1759 – 10 October 1760

(282 days)

1772 (aged 60–61) Consolidation of power by the Nawab of Bengal-Bihar-Odisha.
  Shah Alam II
شاہ عالم دوم 		Ali Gauhar
علی گوہر 		25 June 1728 10 October 1760 – 19 November 1806 (46 years, 330 days) 19 November 1806 (aged 78) Defeat in the Battle of Buxar.
  Muhammad Shah Bahadur Jahan IV
شاہ جہان محمد شاه بهادر 		Bidar Bakht
 بیدار بخت  		1749 31 July 1788 – by 2 October 1788 (63 days) 1790 (aged 40–41) Enthroned as a puppet Emperor by the Rohilla Ghulam Kadir, following the temporary overthrow of Shah Alam II.[188]
  Akbar Shah II
اکبر شاہ دوم 		Mirza Akbar
میرزا اکبر 		22 April 1760 19 November 1806 – 28 September 1837 (30 years, 321 days) 28 September 1837 (aged 77) Titular figurehead under British protection.
  Bahadur Shah II
بہادر شاہ دوم 		Abu Zafar Sirajuddin Muhammad Bahadur Shah Zafar
ابو ظفر سراج اُلدین محمد بہادر شاہ ظفر 		24 October 1775 28 September 1837 – 23 September 1857 (19 years, 360 days) 7 November 1862 (aged 87) Last Mughal Emperor. Deposed by the British and was exiled to Burma after the Indian Rebellion of 1857.

See also

References

Footnotes

  1. ^ The title (Mirza) descends to all the sons of the family, without exception. In the royal family it is placed after the name instead of before it, thus, Abbas Mirza and Hosfiein Mirza. Mirza is a civil title, and Khan is a military one. The title of Khan is creative, but not hereditary.[5]

Citations

  1. ^ Sinopoli, Carla M. (1994). "Monumentality and Mobility in Mughal Capitals". Asian Perspectives. 33 (2): 294. ISSN 0066-8435. JSTOR 42928323.
  2. ^ Conan 2007, p. 235.
  3. ^ "Islam: Mughal Empire (1500s, 1600s)". BBC. 7 September 2009. Retrieved 13 June 2019.
  4. ^ Pagaza & Argyriades 2009, p. 129.
  5. ^ Morier 1812, p. 601.
  6. ^ Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (2006). "East–West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States". Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 219–229. doi:10.5195/JWSR.2006.369. ISSN 1076-156X.
  7. ^ Rein Taagepera (September 1997). "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia". International Studies Quarterly. 41 (3): 475–504. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053. JSTOR 2600793.
  8. ^ a b József Böröcz (2009). The European Union and Global Social Change. Routledge. p. 21. ISBN 978-1135255800. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Richards, John F. (1995). The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56603-2.
  10. ^ Richards, John F. (1995), The Mughal Empire, Cambridge University Press, p. 2, ISBN 978-0-521-56603-2 Quote: "Although the first two Timurid emperors and many of their noblemen were recent migrants to the subcontinent, the dynasty and the empire itself became indisputably Indian. The interests and futures of all concerned were in India, not in ancestral homelands in the Middle East or Central Asia. Furthermore, the Mughal empire emerged from the Indian historical experience. It was the end product of a millennium of Muslim conquest, colonization, and state-building in the Indian subcontinent."
  11. ^ Stein, Burton (2010), A History of India, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 159–, ISBN 978-1-4443-2351-1 Quote: "The realm so defined and governed was a vast territory of some 750,000 square miles [1,900,000 km2], ranging from the frontier with Central Asia in northern Afghanistan to the northern uplands of the Deccan plateau, and from the Indus basin on the west to the Assamese highlands in the east."
  12. ^ Gilbert, Marc Jason (2017), South Asia in World History, Oxford University Press, pp. 75–, ISBN 978-0-19-066137-3 Quote: "Babur then adroitly gave the Ottomans his promise not to attack them in return for their military aid, which he received in the form of the newest of battlefield inventions, the matchlock gun and cast cannons, as well as instructors to train his men to use them."
  13. ^ Stein, Burton (2010), A History of India, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 159–, ISBN 978-1-4443-2351-1 Quote: "Another possible date for the beginning of the Mughal regime is 1600, when the institutions that defined the regime were set firmly in place and when the heartland of the empire was defined; both of these were the accomplishment of Babur’s grandson Akbar."
  14. ^ Stein, Burton (2010), A History of India, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 159–, ISBN 978-1-4443-2351-1 Quote: "The imperial career of the Mughal house is conventionally reckoned to have ended in 1707 when the emperor Aurangzeb, a fifth-generation descendant of Babur, died. His fifty-year reign began in 1658 with the Mughal state seeming as strong as ever or even stronger. But in Aurangzeb’s later years the state was brought to the brink of destruction, over which it toppled within a decade and a half after his death; by 1720 imperial Mughal rule was largely finished and an epoch of two imperial centuries had closed."
  15. ^ Richards, John F. (1995), The Mughal Empire, Cambridge University Press, p. xv, ISBN 978-0-521-56603-2 Quote: "By the latter date (1720) the essential structure of the centralized state was disintegrated beyond repair."
  16. ^ Stein, Burton (2010), A History of India, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 159–, ISBN 978-1-4443-2351-1 Quote: "The vaunting of such progenitors pointed up the central character of the Mughal regime as a warrior state: it was born in war and it was sustained by war until the eighteenth century, when warfare destroyed it."
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Further reading

  • Alam, Muzaffar. Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India: Awadh & the Punjab, 1707–48 (1988)
  • Ali, M. Athar (1975), "The Passing of Empire: The Mughal Case", Modern Asian Studies, 9 (3): 385–396, doi:10.1017/s0026749x00005825, JSTOR 311728, S2CID 143861682, on the causes of its collapse
  • Asher, C.B.; Talbot, C (2008), India Before Europe (1st ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-51750-8
  • Black, Jeremy. "The Mughals Strike Twice", History Today (April 2012) 62#4 pp. 22–26. full text online
  • Blake, Stephen P. (November 1979), "The Patrimonial-Bureaucratic Empire of the Mughals", Journal of Asian Studies, 39 (1): 77–94, doi:10.2307/2053505, JSTOR 2053505, S2CID 154527305
  • Conan, Michel (2007). Middle East Garden Traditions: Unity and Diversity : Questions, Methods and Resources in a Multicultural Perspective. Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-88402-329-6.
  • Dale, Stephen F. The Muslim Empires of the Ottomans, Safavids and Mughals (Cambridge U.P. 2009)
  • Dalrymple, William (2007). The Last Mughal: The Fall of a Dynasty : Delhi, 1857. Random House Digital, Inc. ISBN 9780307267399.
  • Faruqui, Munis D. (2005), "The Forgotten Prince: Mirza Hakim and the Formation of the Mughal Empire in India", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 48 (4): 487–523, doi:10.1163/156852005774918813, JSTOR 25165118, on Akbar and his brother
  • Gommans; Jos. Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire, 1500–1700 (Routledge, 2002) online edition
  • Gordon, S. The New Cambridge History of India, II, 4: The Marathas 1600–1818 (Cambridge, 1993).
  • Habib, Irfan. Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps (1982).
  • Markovits, Claude, ed. (2004) [First published 1994 as Histoire de l'Inde Moderne]. A History of Modern India, 1480–1950 (2nd ed.). London: Anthem Press. ISBN 978-1-84331-004-4.
  • Metcalf, B.; Metcalf, T.R. (2006), A Concise History of Modern India (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-68225-1
  • Moosvi, Shireen (2015) [First published 1987]. The economy of the Mughal Empire, c. 1595: a statistical study (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-908549-1.
  • Morier, James (1812). "A journey through Persia, Armenia and Asia Minor". The Monthly Magazine. Vol. 34. R. Phillips.
  • Richards, John F. (1996). The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521566032.
  • Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1974). The Mughul Empire. B.V. Bhavan.
  • Richards, J.F. (April 1981), "Mughal State Finance and the Premodern World Economy", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 23 (2): 285–308, doi:10.1017/s0010417500013311, JSTOR 178737, S2CID 154809724
  • Robb, P. (2001), A History of India, London: Palgrave, ISBN 978-0-333-69129-8
  • Srivastava, Ashirbadi Lal. The Mughul Empire, 1526–1803 (1952) online.
  • Rutherford, Alex (2010). Empire of the Moghul: Brothers at War: Brothers at War. Headline. ISBN 978-0-7553-8326-9.
  • Stein, B. (1998), A History of India (1st ed.), Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-631-20546-3
  • Stein, B. (2010), Arnold, D. (ed.), A History of India (2nd ed.), Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-4051-9509-6

Culture

  • Berinstain, V. Mughal India: Splendour of the Peacock Throne (London, 1998).
  • Busch, Allison. Poetry of Kings: The Classical Hindi Literature of Mughal India (2011) excerpt and text search
  • Parodi, Laura E. (2021). "Kabul, a Forgotten Mughal Capital: Gardens, City, and Court at the Turn of the Sixteenth Century". Muqarnas Online. 38 (1): 113–153. doi:10.1163/22118993-00381P05. S2CID 245040517.
  • Diana Preston; Michael Preston (2007). Taj Mahal: Passion and Genius at the Heart of the Moghul Empire. Walker & Company. ISBN 978-0-8027-1673-6.
  • Schimmel, Annemarie. The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture (Reaktion 2006)
  • Welch, S.C.; et al. (1987). The Emperors' album: images of Mughal India. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-87099-499-9.

Society and economy

  • Chaudhuri, K.N. (1978), "Some Reflections on the Town and Country in Mughal India", Modern Asian Studies, 12 (1): 77–96, doi:10.1017/s0026749x00008155, JSTOR 311823, S2CID 146558617
  • Habib, Irfan. Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps (1982).
  • Habib, Irfan. Agrarian System of Mughal India (1963, revised edition 1999).
  • Heesterman, J.C. (2004), "The Social Dynamics of the Mughal Empire: A Brief Introduction", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 47 (3): 292–297, doi:10.1163/1568520041974729, JSTOR 25165051
  • Khan, Iqtidar Alam (1976), "The Middle Classes in the Mughal Empire", Social Scientist, 5 (1): 28–49, doi:10.2307/3516601, JSTOR 3516601
  • Rothermund, Dietmar. An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991 (1993)

Primary sources

  • Bernier, Francois (1891). Travels in the Mogul Empire, A.D. 1656–1668. Archibald Constable, London.
  • Hiro, Dilip, ed, Journal of Emperor Babur (Penguin Classics 2007)
    • The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor ed. by W.M. Thackston Jr. (2002); this was the first autobiography in Islamic literature
  • Jackson, A.V. et al., eds. History of India (1907) v. 9. Historic accounts of India by foreign travellers, classic, oriental, and occidental, by A.V.W. Jackson online edition
  • Jouher (1832). The Tezkereh al vakiat or Private Memoirs of the Moghul Emperor Humayun Written in the Persian language by Jouher A confidential domestic of His Majesty. Translated by Major Charles Stewart. John Murray, London.

Older histories

  • Elliot, Sir H.M., Edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy at Packard Humanities Institute – Other Persian Texts in Translation; historical books: Author List and Title List)
  • Adams, W.H. Davenport (1893). Warriors of the Crescent. London: Hutchinson.
  • Holden, Edward Singleton (1895). The Mogul emperors of Hindustan, A.D. 1398–A.D. 1707. New York : C. Scribner's Sons.
  • Malleson, G.B. (1896). Akbar and the rise of the Mughal empire. Oxford : Clarendon Press.
  • Manucci, Niccolao; tr. from French by François Catrou (1826). History of the Mogul dynasty in India, 1399–1657. London : J.M. Richardson.
  • Lane-Poole, Stanley (1906). History of India: From Reign of Akbar the Great to the Fall of Moghul Empire (Vol. 4). London, Grolier society.
  • Manucci, Niccolao; tr. by William Irvine (1907). Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul India 1653–1708, Vol. 1. London, J. Murray.
  • Manucci, Niccolao; tr. by William Irvine (1907). Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul India 1653–1708, Vol. 2. London, J. Murray.
  • Manucci, Niccolao; tr. by William Irvine (1907). Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul India 1653–1708, Vol. 3. London, J. Murray.
  • Owen, Sidney J (1912). The Fall of the Mogul Empire. London, J. Murray.

External links

  • Mughal India an interactive experience from the British Museum
  • The Mughal Empire, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Susan Stronge & Chandrika Kaul (In Our Time, 26 February 2004)
  • Sunil Khilnani's "Akbar," From BBC Radio 4's Incarnations: India in 50 Lives.

January 08, 2023
mughal, empire, confused, with, mongol, empire, moghulistan, mughals, redirects, here, ethnic, groups, mughal, people, early, modern, empire, that, controlled, much, south, asia, between, 16th, 19th, centuries, some, hundred, years, empire, stretched, from, ou. Not to be confused with the Mongol Empire or Moghulistan Mughals redirects here For the ethnic groups see Mughal people The Mughal Empire was an early modern empire that controlled much of South Asia between the 16th and 19th centuries 10 For some two hundred years the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the Indus river basin in the west northern Afghanistan in the northwest and Kashmir in the north to the highlands of present day Assam and Bangladesh in the east and the uplands of the Deccan Plateau in South India 11 Mughal Empire1526 1857The empire at its greatest extent in c 1700 under Aurangzeb r 1658 1707 StatusEmpireCapitalAgra 1526 1530 1560 1571 1598 1648 Delhi 1530 1540 1554 1556 1639 1857 Lahore 1586 1598 1 Fatehpur Sikri 1571 1585 Common languagesPersian official and court language 2 Urdu language of the ruling classes later given official status 3 Hindustani lingua franca Arabic for religious ceremonies Other Indian languagesReligionSunni Islam state School Hanafi Creed Maturidi Din i Ilahi 1582 1605 GovernmentUnitary absolute monarchy under a federal structure Centralized autocracy 4 1526 1719 Oligarchic constitutional monarchy 1719 1857 Emperor a Padshah 1526 1530Babur first 1837 1857Bahadur Shah II last Historical eraEarly modern First Battle of Panipat21 April 1526 Empire interrupted by Sur Empire1540 1555 Second Battle of Panipat5 November 1556 Death of Aurangzeb3 March 1707 Battle of Plassey1757 Battle of Buxar1765 Fall of the Mughal Empire21 September 1857 Government of India Act2 August 1858Area1690 6 7 4 000 000 km2 1 500 000 sq mi Population 1700 8 158 400 000CurrencyRupee Taka dam 9 73 74 Preceded by Succeeded byDelhi SultanateSur Empire Maratha EmpireSikh MislCompany rule in IndiaBritish RajThe Mughal empire is conventionally said to have been founded in 1526 by Babur a warrior chieftain from what is today Uzbekistan who employed aid from the neighboring Safavid and Ottoman empires 12 to defeat the Sultan of Delhi Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat and to sweep down the plains of North India The Mughal imperial structure however is sometimes dated to 1600 to the rule of Babur s grandson Akbar 13 This imperial structure lasted until 1720 until shortly after the death of the last major emperor Aurangzeb 14 15 during whose reign the empire also achieved its maximum geographical extent Reduced subsequently to the region in and around Old Delhi by 1760 the empire was formally dissolved by the British Raj after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 Although the Mughal empire was created and sustained by military warfare 16 17 18 it did not vigorously suppress the cultures and peoples it came to rule rather it equalized and placated them through new administrative practices 19 20 and diverse ruling elites leading to more efficient centralised and standardized rule 21 The base of the empire s collective wealth was agricultural taxes instituted by the third Mughal emperor Akbar 22 23 These taxes which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator 24 were paid in the well regulated silver currency 21 and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets 25 The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India s economic expansion 26 Burgeoning European presence in the Indian Ocean and its increasing demand for Indian raw and finished products created still greater wealth in the Mughal courts 27 There was more conspicuous consumption among the Mughal elite 28 resulting in greater patronage of painting literary forms textiles and architecture especially during the reign of Shah Jahan 29 Among the Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites in South Asia are Agra Fort Fatehpur Sikri Red Fort Humayun s Tomb Lahore Fort Shalamar Gardens and the Taj Mahal which is described as the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world s heritage 30 Contents 1 Name 2 History 2 1 Babur and Humayun 1526 1556 2 2 Akbar to Aurangzeb 1556 1707 2 3 Decline 1707 1857 2 4 Causes of decline 2 4 1 Modern views on the decline 3 Administration and state 3 1 Capitals 3 2 Law 3 2 1 Legal ideology 3 2 2 Courts of law 4 Economy 4 1 Coinage 4 2 Labour 4 3 Agriculture 4 4 Industrial manufacturing 4 4 1 Textile industry 4 4 2 Shipbuilding industry 4 5 Bengal Subah 5 Demographics 5 1 Population 5 2 Urbanization 6 Culture 6 1 Architecture 6 2 Art and literature 6 3 Language 7 Military 7 1 Gunpowder warfare 7 2 Rocketry and explosives 8 Science 8 1 Astronomy 8 2 Chemistry 8 3 Metallurgy 9 List of Mughal Emperors 10 See also 11 References 11 1 Footnotes 11 2 Citations 12 Further reading 12 1 Culture 12 2 Society and economy 12 3 Primary sources 12 4 Older histories 13 External linksNameContemporaries referred to the empire founded by Babur as the Timurid Empire 31 which reflected the heritage of his dynasty and this was the term preferred by the Mughals themselves 32 The Mughal designation for their own dynasty was Gurkani Persian گورکانیان romanized Gurkaniyan lit sons in law 33 The use of Mughal and Moghul derived from the Arabic and Persian corruption of Mongol and it emphasised the Mongol origins of the Timurid dynasty 34 The term gained currency during the 19th century but remains disputed by Indologists 35 Similar transliterations had been used to refer to the empire including Mogul and Moghul 36 37 Nevertheless Babur s ancestors were sharply distinguished from the classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards Persian rather than Turco Mongol culture The Mughals themselves claimed ultimate descent from Mongol Empire founder Genghis Khan 38 Another name for the empire was Hindustan which was documented in the Ain i Akbari and which has been described as the closest to an official name for the empire 39 In the west the term Mughal was used for the emperor and by extension the empire as a whole 40 HistoryMain article Mughal dynasty Babur and Humayun 1526 1556 Main articles Babur and Humayun South Asia1525 CE DELHI SULTANATE LODIS TIMURID EMPIRE Babur SHAH MIRSULTANATE PHAGMODRUPAS KHANDESHSULTANATE BERARSULTANATE MALWASULTANATE ARGHUNS KALMAT LANGAHSULTANATE GUJARATSULTANATERAJPUTANA DIMASA TRIPWA AHOM KAMATAS CHEROS BENGALSULTANATE GAJAPATIEMPIREGONDWANAAHMADNAGARSULTANATE VIJAYANAGARAEMPIRE BIJAPURSULTANATE BIDARSULTANATE GOLKONDASULTANATE MAPS 500 15012535050060080010001175125014001525 Main South Asian polities circa 1525 CE on the eve of the establishment of the Mughal Empire by Babur 41 The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur reigned 1526 1530 a Central Asian ruler who was descended from the Turco Mongol conqueror Timur the founder of the Timurid Empire on his father s side and from Genghis Khan on his mother s side 42 Ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions 43 He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass 42 Babur s forces defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat Before the battle Babur sought divine favour by abjuring liquor breaking the wine vessels and pouring the wine down a well However by this time Lodi s empire was already crumbling and it was actually the Rajput Confederacy which was the strongest power of Northern India under the capable rule of Rana Sanga of Mewar He defeated Babar in the Battle of Bayana 44 However in the decisive Battle of Khanwa which was fought near Agra the Timurid forces of Babur defeated the Rajput army of Sanga This battle was one of the most decisive and historic battles in Indian history as it sealed the fate of Northern India for the next two centuries After the battle the centre of Mughal power became Agra instead of Kabul The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns however did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India 45 The instability of the empire became evident under his son Humayun reigned 1530 1556 who was forced into exile in Persia by rebels The Sur Empire 1540 1555 founded by Sher Shah Suri reigned 1540 1545 briefly interrupted Mughal rule 42 Humayun s exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the later restored Mughal Empire citation needed Humayun s triumphant return from Persia in 1555 restored Mughal rule in some parts of India but he died in an accident the next year 42 Akbar to Aurangzeb 1556 1707 Main articles Akbar Jahangir Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb Akbar holds a religious assembly of different faiths in the Ibadat Khana in Fatehpur Sikri Akbar reigned 1556 1605 was born Jalal ud din Muhammad 46 in the Rajput Umarkot Fort 47 to Humayun and his wife Hamida Banu Begum a Persian princess 48 Akbar succeeded to the throne under a regent Bairam Khan who helped consolidate the Mughal Empire in India Through warfare and diplomacy Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari River citation needed He created a new ruling elite loyal to him implemented a modern administration and encouraged cultural developments He increased trade with European trading companies 42 India developed a strong and stable economy leading to commercial expansion and economic development citation needed Akbar allowed freedom of religion at his court and attempted to resolve socio political and cultural differences in his empire by establishing a new religion Din i Ilahi with strong characteristics of a ruler cult 42 He left his son an internally stable state which was in the midst of its golden age but before long signs of political weakness would emerge 42 Jahangir born Salim 49 reigned 1605 1627 was born to Akbar and his wife Mariam uz Zamani an Indian Rajput princess 50 Salim was named after the Indian Sufi saint Salim Chishti and was raised by the daughter of Chishti 51 52 He was addicted to opium neglected the affairs of the state and came under the influence of rival court cliques 42 Jahangir distinguished himself from Akbar by making substantial efforts to gain the support of the Islamic religious establishment One way he did this was by bestowing many more madad i ma ash tax free personal land revenue grants given to religiously learned or spiritually worthy individuals than Akbar had 53 In contrast to Akbar Jahangir came into conflict with non Muslim religious leaders notably the Sikh guru Arjan whose execution was the first of many conflicts between the Mughal empire and the Sikh community 54 55 56 Group portrait of Mughal rulers from Babur to Aurangzeb with the Mughal ancestor Timur seated in the middle On the left Shah Jahan Akbar and Babur with Abu Sa id of Samarkand and Timur s son Miran Shah On the right Aurangzeb Jahangir and Humayun and two of Timur s other offspring Umar Shaykh and Muhammad Sultan Created c 1707 12 Shah Jahan reigned 1628 1658 was born to Jahangir and his wife Jagat Gosain a Rajput princess 49 His reign ushered in the golden age of Mughal architecture 57 During the reign of Shah Jahan the splendour of the Mughal court reached its peak as exemplified by the Taj Mahal The cost of maintaining the court however began to exceed the revenue coming in 42 His reign was called as The Golden Age of Mughal Architecture Shah Jahan extended the Mughal empire to the Deccan by ending the Nizam Shahi dynasty and forced the Adil Shahis and Qutb Shahis to pay tribute 58 Shah Jahan s eldest son the liberal Dara Shikoh became regent in 1658 as a result of his father s illness citation needed Dara championed a syncretistic Hindu Muslim culture emulating his great grandfather Akbar 59 With the support of the Islamic orthodoxy however a younger son of Shah Jahan Aurangzeb r 1658 1707 seized the throne Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had him executed 42 Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness Aurangzeb kept Shah Jahan imprisoned until his death in 1666 60 68 Aurangzeb oversaw an increase in the Islamicization of the Mughal state He encouraged conversion to Islam reinstated the jizya on non Muslims and compiled the Fatawa Alamgiri a collection of Islamic law Aurangzeb also ordered the execution of the Sikh guru Tegh Bahadur leading to the militarization of the Sikh community 61 55 56 From the imperial perspective conversion to Islam integrated local elites into the king s vision of network of shared identity that would join disparate groups throughout the empire in obedience to the Mughal emperor 62 He expanded the empire to include almost the whole of South Asia 60 1 but at his death in 1707 many parts of the empire were in open revolt 42 Aurangzeb is considered India s most controversial king 60 with some historians arguing his religious conservatism and intolerance undermined the stability of Mughal society 42 while other historians question this noting that he built Hindu temples 63 employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors did opposed bigotry against Hindus and Shia Muslims 60 58 Decline 1707 1857 Further information Bahadur Shah Zafar Delhi under the puppet king Farrukhsiyar Shah Alam II on horseback Aurangzeb s son Bahadur Shah I repealed the religious policies of his father and attempted to reform the administration However after his death in 1712 the Mughal dynasty sank into chaos and violent feuds In 1719 alone four emperors successively ascended the throne 42 as figureheads under the rule of the Sayyid king makers 64 During the reign of Muhammad Shah reigned 1719 1748 the empire began to break up and vast tracts of central India passed from Mughal to Maratha hands The far off Indian campaign of Nader Shah who had previously reestablished Iranian suzerainty over most of West Asia the Caucasus and Central Asia culminated with the Sack of Delhi and shattered the remnants of Mughal power and prestige Many of the empire s elites now sought to control their own affairs and broke away to form independent kingdoms citation needed As the Mughals tried to suppress the independence of the Nizam in the Deccan he encouraged the Marathas to invade central and northern India 65 66 67 But according to Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal the Mughal Emperor continued to be the highest manifestation of sovereignty Not only the Muslim gentry but the Maratha Hindu and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial acknowledgments of the emperor as the sovereign of India 68 Meanwhile some regional polities within the increasingly fragmented Mughal Empire involved themselves and the state in global conflicts leading only to defeat and loss of territory during the Carnatic Wars and the Bengal War The remnants of the empire in 1751 The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II 1759 1806 made futile attempts to reverse the Mughal decline but ultimately had to seek the protection of the Emir of Afghanistan Ahmed Shah Abdali which led to the Third Battle of Panipat between the Maratha Empire and the Afghans led by Abdali in 1761 In 1771 the Marathas recaptured Delhi from Afghan control and in 1784 they officially became the protectors of the emperor in Delhi 69 a state of affairs that continued until the Second Anglo Maratha War Thereafter the British East India Company became the protectors of the Mughal dynasty in Delhi 68 The British East India Company took control of the former Mughal province of Bengal Bihar in 1793 after it abolished local rule Nizamat that lasted until 1858 marking the beginning of British colonial era over the Indian subcontinent By 1857 a considerable part of former Mughal India was under the East India Company s control After a crushing defeat in the war of 1857 1858 which he nominally led the last Mughal Bahadur Shah Zafar was deposed by the British East India Company and exiled in 1858 Through the Government of India Act 1858 the British Crown assumed direct control of East India Company held territories in India in the form of the new British Raj In 1876 the British Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India Portrait of Bahadur Shah II Causes of decline Historians have offered numerous explanations for the rapid collapse of the Mughal Empire between 1707 and 1720 after a century of growth and prosperity In fiscal terms the throne lost the revenues needed to pay its chief officers the emirs nobles and their entourages The emperor lost authority as the widely scattered imperial officers lost confidence in the central authorities and made their own deals with local men of influence The imperial army bogged down in long futile wars against the more aggressive Marathas lost its fighting spirit Finally came a series of violent political feuds over control of the throne After the execution of Emperor Farrukhsiyar in 1719 local Mughal successor states took power in region after region 70 Contemporary chroniclers bewailed the decay they witnessed a theme picked up by the first British historians who wanted to underscore the need for a British led rejuvenation 71 Modern views on the decline Since the 1970s historians have taken multiple approaches to the decline with little consensus on which factor was dominant The psychological interpretations emphasise depravity in high places excessive luxury and increasingly narrow views that left the rulers unprepared for an external challenge A Marxist school led by Irfan Habib and based at Aligarh Muslim University emphasises excessive exploitation of the peasantry by the rich which stripped away the will and the means to support the regime 72 Karen Leonard has focused on the failure of the regime to work with Hindu bankers whose financial support was increasingly needed the bankers then helped the Maratha and the British 73 In a religious interpretation some scholars argue that the Hindu powers revolted against the rule of a Muslim dynasty 74 Finally other scholars argue that the very prosperity of the Empire inspired the provinces to achieve a high degree of independence thus weakening the imperial court 75 Jeffrey G Williamson has argued that the Indian economy went through deindustrialization in the latter half of the 18th century as an indirect outcome of the collapse of the Mughal Empire with British rule later causing further deindustrialization 76 According to Williamson the decline of the Mughal Empire led to a decline in agricultural productivity which drove up food prices then nominal wages and then textile prices which led to India losing a share of the world textile market to Britain even before it had superior factory technology 77 Indian textiles however still maintained a competitive advantage over British textiles up until the 19th century 78 Administration and stateMain article Government of the Mughal Empire The Mughal Empire had a highly centralised bureaucratic government most of which was instituted during the rule of the third Mughal emperor Akbar 79 80 The central government was headed by the Mughal emperor immediately beneath him were four ministries The finance revenue ministry was responsible for controlling revenues from the empire s territories calculating tax revenues and using this information to distribute assignments The ministry of the military army intelligence was headed by an official titled mir bakhshi who was in charge of military organisation messenger service and the mansabdari system The ministry in charge of law religious patronage was the responsibility of the sadr as sudr who appointed judges and managed charities and stipends Another ministry was dedicated to the imperial household and public works 81 79 The empire was divided into suba provinces each of which were headed by a provincial governor called a subadar The structure of the central government was mirrored at the provincial level each suba had its own bakhshi sadr as sudr and finance minister that reported directly to the central government rather than the subahdar Subas were subdivided into administrative units known as sarkars which were further divided into groups of villages known as parganas Mughal government in the pargana consisted of a Muslim judge and local tax collector 81 79 Capitals The Mughals had multiple imperial capitals established over the course of their rule These were the cities of Agra Delhi Lahore and Fatehpur Sikri Power often shifted back and forth between these capitals 82 Sometimes this was necessitated by political and military demands but shifts also occurred for ideological reasons for example Akbar s establishment of Fatehpur Sikri or even simply because the cost of establishing a new capital was marginal 83 Situations where there were two simultaneous capitals happened multiple times in Mughal history Certain cities also served as short term provincial capitals as was the case with Aurangzeb s shift to Aurangabad in the Deccan 82 Kabul was the summer capital of mughals from 1526 to 1681 84 The imperial camp used for military expeditions and royal tours also served as a kind of mobile de facto administrative capital From the time of Akbar Mughal camps were huge in scale accompanied by numerous personages associated with the royal court as well as soldiers and labourers All administration and governance was carried out within them The Mughal Emperors spent a significant portion of their ruling period within these camps 85 After Aurangzeb the Mughal capital definitively became the walled city of Shahjahanabad today Old Delhi 86 Law Police in Delhi under Bahadur Shah II 1842 The Mughal Empire s legal system was context specific and evolved over the course of the empire s rule Being a Muslim state the empire employed fiqh Islamic jurisprudence and therefore the fundamental institutions of Islamic law such as those of the qadi judge mufti jurisconsult and muhtasib censor and market supervisor were well established in the Mughal Empire However the dispensation of justice also depended on other factors such as administrative rules local customs and political convenience This was due to Persianate influences on Mughal ideology and the fact that the Mughal Empire governed a non Muslim majority 87 Legal ideology The Mughal Empire followed the Sunni Hanafi system of jurisprudence In its early years the empire relied on Hanafi legal references inherited from its predecessor the Delhi Sultanate These included the al Hidayah the best guidance and the Fatawa al Tatarkhaniyya religious decisions of the Emire Tatarkhan During the Mughal Empire s peak the Fatawa Alamgiri was commissioned by Emperor Aurangzeb This compendium of Hanafi law sought to serve as a central reference for the Mughal state that dealt with the specifics of the South Asian context 88 The Mughal Empire also drew on Persianate notions of kingship Particularly this meant that the Mughal emperor was considered the supreme authority on legal affairs 87 Courts of law Various kinds of courts existed in the Mughal empire One such court was that of the qadi The Mughal qadi was responsible for dispensing justice this included settling disputes judging people for crimes and dealing with inheritances and orphans The qadi also had additional importance with regards to documents as the seal of the qadi was required to validate deeds and tax records Qadis did not constitute a single position but made up a hierarchy For example the most basic kind was the pargana district qadi More prestigious positions were those of the qadi al quddat judge of judges who accompanied the mobile imperial camp and the qadi yi lashkar judge of the army 87 Qadis were usually appointed by the emperor or the sadr us sudr chief of charities 87 89 The jurisdiction of the qadi was availed by Muslims and non Muslims alike 90 The jagirdar local tax collector was another kind of official approached especially for high stakes cases Subjects of the Mughal Empire also took their grievances to the courts of superior officials who held more authority and punitive power than the local qadi Such officials included the kotwal local police the faujdar an officer controlling multiple districts and troops of soldiers and the most powerful the subahdar provincial governor In some cases the emperor themself dispensed justice directly 87 Jahangir was known to have installed a chain of justice in the Agra fort that any aggrieved subject could shake to get the attention of the emperor and bypass the inefficacy of officials 91 Self regulating tribunals operating at the community or village level were common but sparse documentation of them exists For example it is unclear how panchayats village councils operated in the Mughal era 87 EconomyMain article Economy of the Mughal Empire The Mughal economy was large and prosperous 92 During the Mughal era the gross domestic product GDP of India in 1600 was estimated at 22 of the world economy the second largest in the world behind only China Ming era but larger than Europe By 1700 the GDP of India had risen to 24 of the world economy the largest in the world larger than both China Qing era and Western Europe 93 India was producing 24 5 of the world s manufacturing output up until 1750 94 India s GDP growth increased over the 1500 1820 period having grown faster than over the 1 1000 and 1000 1500 periods 93 India s economy has been described as a form of proto industrialization like that of 18th century Western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution 95 The Mughals were responsible for building an extensive road system creating a uniform currency and the unification of the country 9 185 204 The empire had an extensive road network which was vital to the economic infrastructure built by a public works department set up by the Mughals which designed constructed and maintained roads linking towns and cities across the empire making trade easier to conduct 92 The main base of the empire s collective wealth was agricultural taxes instituted by the third Mughal emperor Akbar 22 23 These taxes which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator 24 were paid in the well regulated silver currency 21 and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets 25 Coinage Coin of Aurangzeb minted in Kabul dated 1691 2 The Mughals adopted and standardised the rupee rupiya or silver and dam copper currencies introduced by Sur Emperor Sher Shah Suri during his brief rule 96 The currency was initially 48 dams to a single rupee in the beginning of Akbar s reign before it later became 38 dams to a rupee in the 1580s with the dam s value rising further in the 17th century as a result of new industrial uses for copper such as in bronze cannons and brass utensils The dam was initially the most common coin in Akbar s time before being replaced by the rupee as the most common coin in succeeding reigns 9 The dam s value was later worth 30 to a rupee towards the end of Jahangir s reign and then 16 to a rupee by the 1660s 97 The Mughals minted coins with high purity never dropping below 96 and without debasement until the 1720s 98 Despite India having its own stocks of gold and silver the Mughals produced minimal gold of their own but mostly minted coins from imported bullion as a result of the empire s strong export driven economy with global demand for Indian agricultural and industrial products drawing a steady stream of precious metals into India 9 Around 80 of Mughal India s imports were bullion mostly silver 99 with major sources of imported bullion including the New World and Japan 98 which in turn imported large quantities of textiles and silk from the Bengal Subah province 9 Labour The historian Shireen Moosvi estimates that in terms of contributions to the Mughal economy in the late 16th century the primary sector contributed 52 the secondary sector 18 and the tertiary sector 29 the secondary sector contributed a higher percentage than in early 20th century British India where the secondary sector only contributed 11 to the economy 100 In terms of urban rural divide 18 of Mughal India s labour force were urban and 82 were rural contributing 52 and 48 to the economy respectively 101 According to Stephen Broadberry and Bishnupriya Gupta grain wages in India were comparable to England in the 16th and 17th centuries but diverged in the 18th century when they fell to 20 40 of England s wages 102 103 This however is disputed by Parthasarathi and Sivramkrishna Parthasarathi cites his estimates that grain wages for weaving and spinning in mid 18 century Bengal and South India was comparable to Britain 104 Similarly Sivramkrishna analyzed agricultural surveys conducted in Mysore by Francis Buchanan during 1800 1801 arrived at estimates using a subsistence basket that aggregated millet income could be almost five times subsistence level while corresponding rice income was three times that much 105 That could be comparable to advance part of Europe 106 Due to the scarcity of data however more research is needed before drawing any conclusion 107 108 According to Moosvi Mughal India had a per capita income in terms of wheat 1 24 higher in the late 16th century than British India did in the early 20th century 109 This income however would have to be revised downwards if manufactured goods like clothing would be considered Compared to food per capita expenditure on clothing was much smaller though so relative income between 1595 and 1596 should be comparable to 1901 1910 110 However in a system where wealth was hoarded by elites wages were depressed for manual labour 111 In Mughal India there was a generally tolerant attitude towards manual labourers with some religious cults in northern India proudly asserting a high status for manual labour While slavery also existed it was limited largely to household servants 111 Agriculture Indian agricultural production increased under the Mughal Empire 92 A variety of crops were grown including food crops such as wheat rice and barley and non food cash crops such as cotton indigo and opium By the mid 17th century Indian cultivators begun to extensively grow two new crops from the Americas maize and tobacco 92 The Mughal administration emphasised agrarian reform which began under the non Mughal emperor Sher Shah Suri the work of which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms The civil administration was organised in a hierarchical manner on the basis of merit with promotions based on performance 112 The Mughal government funded the building of irrigation systems across the empire which produced much higher crop yields and increased the net revenue base leading to increased agricultural production 92 A major Mughal reform introduced by Akbar was a new land revenue system called zabt He replaced the tribute system previously common in India and used by Tokugawa Japan at the time with a monetary tax system based on a uniform currency 98 The revenue system was biased in favour of higher value cash crops such as cotton indigo sugar cane tree crops and opium providing state incentives to grow cash crops in addition to rising market demand 9 Under the zabt system the Mughals also conducted extensive cadastral surveying to assess the area of land under plow cultivation with the Mughal state encouraging greater land cultivation by offering tax free periods to those who brought new land under cultivation 98 The expansion of agriculture and cultivation continued under later Mughal emperors including Aurangzeb whose 1665 firman edict stated the entire elevated attention and desires of the Emperor are devoted to the increase in the population and cultivation of the Empire and the welfare of the whole peasantry and the entire people 113 Mughal agriculture was in some ways advanced compared to European agriculture at the time exemplified by the common use of the seed drill among Indian peasants before its adoption in Europe 114 While the average peasant across the world was only skilled in growing very few crops the average Indian peasant was skilled in growing a wide variety of food and non food crops increasing their productivity 115 Indian peasants were also quick to adapt to profitable new crops such as maize and tobacco from the New World being rapidly adopted and widely cultivated across Mughal India between 1600 and 1650 Bengali farmers rapidly learned techniques of mulberry cultivation and sericulture establishing Bengal Subah as a major silk producing region of the world 9 Sugar mills appeared in India shortly before the Mughal era Evidence for the use of a draw bar for sugar milling appears at Delhi in 1540 but may also date back earlier and was mainly used in the northern Indian subcontinent Geared sugar rolling mills first appeared in Mughal India using the principle of rollers as well as worm gearing by the 17th century 116 According to economic historian Immanuel Wallerstein citing evidence from Irfan Habib Percival Spear and Ashok Desai per capita agricultural output and standards of consumption in 17th century Mughal India were probably higher than in 17th century Europe and certainly higher than early 20th century British India 117 The increased agricultural productivity led to lower food prices In turn this benefited the Indian textile industry Compared to Britain the price of grain was about one half in South India and one third in Bengal in terms of silver coinage This resulted in lower silver coin prices for Indian textiles giving them a price advantage in global markets 118 Industrial manufacturing Up until 1750 India produced about 25 of the world s industrial output 76 Manufactured goods and cash crops from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world Key industries included textiles shipbuilding and steel Processed products included cotton textiles yarns thread silk jute products metalware and foods such as sugar oils and butter 92 The growth of manufacturing industries in the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal era in the 17th 18th centuries has been referred to as a form of proto industrialization similar to 18th century Western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution 95 In early modern Europe there was significant demand for products from Mughal India particularly cotton textiles as well as goods such as spices peppers indigo silks and saltpeter for use in munitions 92 European fashion for example became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks From the late 17th century to the early 18th century Mughal India accounted for 95 of British imports from Asia and the Bengal Subah province alone accounted for 40 of Dutch imports from Asia 119 In contrast there was very little demand for European goods in Mughal India which was largely self sufficient thus Europeans had very little to offer except for some woolens unprocessed metals and a few luxury items The trade imbalance caused Europeans to export large quantities of gold and silver to Mughal India in order to pay for South Asian imports 92 Indian goods especially those from Bengal were also exported in large quantities to other Asian markets such as Indonesia and Japan 9 Textile industry See also Muslin trade in Bengal and Mughal clothing Miniature painting Portrait of an Old Mughal Courtier Wearing Muslin Muslim Lady Reclining or An Indian Girl with a Hookah painted in Dacca 18th century The largest manufacturing industry in the Mughal Empire was textile manufacturing particularly cotton textile manufacturing which included the production of piece goods calicos and muslins available unbleached and in a variety of colours The cotton textile industry was responsible for a large part of the empire s international trade 92 India had a 25 share of the global textile trade in the early 18th century 120 Indian cotton textiles were the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century consumed across the world from the Americas to Japan 121 By the early 18th century Mughal Indian textiles were clothing people across the Indian subcontinent Southeast Asia Europe the Americas Africa and the Middle East 77 The most important centre of cotton production was the Bengal province particularly around its capital city of Dhaka 122 Bengal accounted for more than 50 of textiles and around 80 of silks imported by the Dutch from Asia 119 Bengali silk and cotton textiles were exported in large quantities to Europe Indonesia and Japan 9 202 and Bengali muslin textiles from Dhaka were sold in Central Asia where they were known as Dhaka textiles 122 Indian textiles dominated the Indian Ocean trade for centuries were sold in the Atlantic Ocean trade and had a 38 share of the West African trade in the early 18th century while Indian calicos were a major force in Europe and Indian textiles accounted for 20 of total English trade with Southern Europe in the early 18th century 76 The worm gear roller cotton gin which was invented in India during the early Delhi Sultanate era of the 13th 14th centuries came into use in the Mughal Empire sometime around the 16th century 116 and is still used in India through to the present day 123 Another innovation the incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin first appeared in India sometime during the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire 124 The production of cotton which may have largely been spun in the villages and then taken to towns in the form of yarn to be woven into cloth textiles was advanced by the diffusion of the spinning wheel across India shortly before the Mughal era lowering the costs of yarn and helping to increase demand for cotton The diffusion of the spinning wheel and the incorporation of the worm gear and crank handle into the roller cotton gin led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production during the Mughal era 125 Once the Mughal emperor Akbar asked his courtiers which was the most beautiful flower Some said rose from whose petals were distilled the precious ittar others the lotus glory of every Indian village But Birbal said The cotton boll There was a scornful laughter and Akbar asked for an explanation Birbal said Your Majesty from the cotton boll comes the fine fabric prized by merchants across the seas that has made your empire famous throughout the world The perfume of your fame far exceeds the scent of roses and jasmine That is why I say the cotton boll is the most beautiful flower 126 Shipbuilding industry Mughal India had a large shipbuilding industry which was also largely centred in the Bengal province Economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223 250 tons annually compared with 23 061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771 127 He also assesses ship repairing as very advanced in Bengal 127 Indian shipbuilding particularly in Bengal was advanced compared to European shipbuilding at the time with Indians selling ships to European firms An important innovation in shipbuilding was the introduction of a flushed deck design in Bengal rice ships resulting in hulls that were stronger and less prone to leak than the structurally weak hulls of traditional European ships built with a stepped deck design The British East India Company later duplicated the flushed deck and hull designs of Bengal rice ships in the 1760s leading to significant improvements in seaworthiness and navigation for European ships during the Industrial Revolution 128 Bengal Subah Main article Bengal Subah See also Muslin trade in Bengal Ruins of the Great Caravanserai in Dhaka The Bengal Subah province was especially prosperous from the time of its takeover by the Mughals in 1590 until the British East India Company seized control in 1757 129 It was the Mughal Empire s wealthiest province 130 Domestically much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice silks and cotton textiles Overseas Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles silks and opium Bengal accounted for 40 of Dutch imports from Asia for example including more than 50 of textiles and around 80 of silks 119 From Bengal saltpeter was also shipped to Europe opium was sold in Indonesia raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands and cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe Indonesia and Japan 9 Akbar played a key role in establishing Bengal as a leading economic centre as he began transforming many of the jungles there into farms As soon as he conquered the region he brought tools and men to clear jungles in order to expand cultivation and brought Sufis to open the jungles to farming 113 Bengal was later described as the Paradise of Nations by Mughal emperors 131 The Mughals introduced agrarian reforms including the modern Bengali calendar 132 The calendar played a vital role in developing and organising harvests tax collection and Bengali culture in general including the New Year and Autumn festivals The province was a leading producer of grains salt fruits liquors and wines precious metals and ornaments 133 page needed Its handloom industry flourished under royal warrants making the region a hub of the worldwide muslin trade which peaked in the 17th and 18th centuries The provincial capital Dhaka became the commercial capital of the empire The Mughals expanded cultivated land in the Bengal delta under the leadership of Sufis which consolidated the foundation of Bengali Muslim society 134 page needed After 150 years of rule by Mughal viceroys Bengal gained semi independence as a dominion under the Nawab of Bengal in 1717 The Nawabs permitted European companies to set up trading posts across the region including firms from Britain France the Netherlands Denmark Portugal and Austria An Armenian community dominated banking and shipping in major cities and towns The Europeans regarded Bengal as the richest place for trade 133 By the late 18th century the British displaced the Mughal ruling class in Bengal DemographicsSee also Demographics of India History Population India s population growth accelerated under the Mughal Empire with an unprecedented economic and demographic upsurge which boosted the Indian population by 60 135 to 253 in 200 years during 1500 1700 136 The Indian population had a faster growth during the Mughal era than at any known point in Indian history prior to the Mughal era 93 135 By the time of Aurangzeb s reign there were a total of 455 698 villages in the Mughal Empire 137 The following table gives population estimates for the Mughal Empire compared to the total population of India including the regions of modern Pakistan and Bangladesh and compared to the world population Year Mughal Empire population Total Indian population of Indian population World population of world population1500 100 000 000 135 425 000 000 138 1600 115 000 000 137 130 000 000 135 89 579 000 000 138 201700 158 400 000 8 160 000 000 135 99 679 000 000 138 23Urbanization According to Irfan Habib Cities and towns boomed under the Mughal Empire which had a relatively high degree of urbanization for its time with 15 of its population living in urban centres 139 This was higher than the percentage of the urban population in contemporary Europe at the time and higher than that of British India in the 19th century 139 the level of urbanization in Europe did not reach 15 until the 19th century 140 Under Akbar s reign in 1600 the Mughal Empire s urban population was up to 17 million people 15 of the empire s total population This was larger than the entire urban population in Europe at the time and even a century later in 1700 the urban population of England Scotland and Wales did not exceed 13 of its total population 137 while British India had an urban population that was under 13 of its total population in 1800 and 9 in 1881 a decline from the earlier Mughal era 141 By 1700 Mughal India had an urban population of 23 million people larger than British India s urban population of 22 3 million in 1871 142 Those estimates were criticised by Tim Dyson who consider them exaggerations According to Dyson urbanization of Mughal empire was less than 9 143 The historian Nizamuddin Ahmad 1551 1621 reported that under Akbar s reign there were 120 large cities and 3200 townships 139 A number of cities in India had a population between a quarter million and half million people 139 with larger cities including Agra in Agra Subah with up to 800 000 people Lahore in Lahore Subah with up to 700 000 people 144 Dhaka in Bengal Subah with over 1 million people 145 full citation needed and Delhi in Delhi Subah with over 600 000 people 146 Cities acted as markets for the sale of goods and provided homes for a variety of merchants traders shopkeepers artisans moneylenders weavers craftspeople officials and religious figures 92 However a number of cities were military and political centres rather than manufacturing or commerce centres 147 CultureSee also Indo Persian culture Ghulam Hamdani Mushafi the poet first believed to have coined the name Urdu around 1780 AD for a language that went by a multiplicity of names before his time 148 The Mughal Empire was definitive in the early modern and modern periods of South Asian history with its legacy in India Pakistan Bangladesh and Afghanistan seen in cultural contributions such as Mir Taqi Mir an Urdu poet of the 18th century Mughal Empire The Taj Mahal in the 1870s Centralised imperial rule that consolidated the smaller polities of South Asia 149 The amalgamation of Persian art and literature with Indian art 150 Badshahi Mosque Lahore Punjab Pakistan The development of Mughlai cuisine an amalgamation of South Asian Iranian and Central Asian culinary styles The development of Mughal clothing jewelry and fashion utilizing richly decorated fabrics such as muslin silk brocade and velvet The standardization of the Hindustani language and thus the development of Hindi and Urdu 151 The introduction of sophisticated Iranian style waterworks and horticulture through Mughal gardening 152 The introduction of Turkish baths into the Indian subcontinent The evolution and refinement of Mughal and Indian architecture and in turn the development of later Rajput and Sikh palatial architecture A famous Mughal landmark is the Taj Mahal The development of the Pehlwani style of Indian wrestling a combination of Indian malla yuddha and Persian varzesh e bastani 153 154 The construction of Maktab schools where youth were taught the Quran and Islamic law such as the Fatawa Alamgiri in their indigenous languages The development of Hindustani classical music 155 and instruments such as the sitar 156 Buland Darwaza in Fatehpur Sikiri Agra India Architecture Main articles Indo Islamic architecture Mughal architecture and Mughal gardenThe Mughals made a major contribution to the Indian subcontinent with the development of their unique Indo Persian architecture Many monuments were built during the Mughal era by the Muslim emperors especially Shah Jahan including the Taj Mahal a UNESCO World Heritage Site considered the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world s heritage 30 attracting 7 8 million unique visitors a year The palaces tombs gardens and forts built by the dynasty stand today in Agra Aurangabad Delhi Dhaka Fatehpur Sikri Jaipur Lahore Kabul Sheikhupura and many other cities of India Pakistan Afghanistan and Bangladesh 157 such as Lalbagh Fort aerial view in Dhaka Bangladesh Shalimar Bagh in Srinagar Kashmir India India Pakistan Bangladesh AfghanistanTaj Mahal in Agra India Agra Fort in Agra India Buland Darwaza in Agra India Akbar s tomb in Sikandra India Tomb of Mariam uz Zamani in Sikandra India Humayun s Tomb in Delhi India Jama Masjid in Delhi India Red Fort in Delhi India Sunder Nursery in Delhi India Purana Qila in Delhi India Sher Mandal in Delhi India Pinjore Gardens in Pinjore India Shalimar Bagh in Srinagar India Nishat Bagh in Srinagar India Chasma Shahi in Srinagar India Pari Mahal in Srinagar India Verinag Gardens in Srinagar India Allahabad Fort in Prayagraj India Shahi Bridge in Jaunpur India Bibi Ka Maqbara in Aurangabad India Kos Minar in Haryana India Baoli Ghaus Ali Shah in Farrukhnagar India Badshahi Masjid in Lahore Pakistan Shalimar Gardens in Lahore Pakistan Lahore Fort in Lahore Pakistan Shahi Hammam in Lahore Pakistan Wazir Khan Mosque in Lahore Pakistan Tomb of Jahangir in Lahore Pakistan Tomb of Anarkali in Lahore Pakistan Tomb of Nur Jahan in Lahore Pakistan Tomb of Asif Khan in Lahore Pakistan Begum Shahi Mosque in Lahore Pakistan Akbari Sarai in Lahore Pakistan Hiran Minar in Sheikhpura Pakistan Mahabat Khan Mosque in Peshawar Pakistan Shahi Eid Gah Mosque in Multan Pakistan Mausoleum of Masum Shah in Sukkur Pakistan Losar Baoli in Taxila Pakistan Makli Necropolis in Thatta Pakistan Shah Jahan Mosque in Thatta Pakistan Mughal Eidgah in Dhaka Bangladesh Lalbagh Fort in Dhaka Bangladesh Shahi Eidgah in Sylhet Bangladesh Mughal Tahakhana in Chapai Nawabganj Bangladesh Sat Gambuj Mosque in Dhaka Bangladesh Masjid e Siraj ud Daulah in Chittagong Bangladesh Allakuri Masjid in Dhaka Bangladesh Chawkbazar Shahi Masjid in Dhaka Bangladesh Laldighi Masjid in Rangpur Bangladesh Khan Mohammad Mridha Masjid in Dhaka Bangladesh Wali Khan Masjid in Chittagong Bangladesh Shaista Khan Masjid in Dhaka Bangladesh Musa Khan Masjid in Dhaka Bangladesh Shahbaz Khan Masjid in Dhaka Bangladesh Kartalab Khan Masjid in Dhaka Bangladesh Azimpur Masjid in Dhaka Bangladesh Goaldi Masjid in Sonargaon Bangladesh Atia Masjid in Tangail Bangladesh Arifail Masjid in Brahmanbaria Bangladesh Bazra Shahi Masjid in Noakhali Bangladesh Masjid Kur in Khulna Bangladesh Nayabad Masjid in Dinajpur Bangladesh Ghayebi Dighi Masjid in Sylhet Bangladesh Hussaini Dalan in Dhaka Bangladesh Bara Katra in Dhaka Bangladesh Hajiganj Fort in Narayanganj Bangladesh Idrakpur Fort in Munshiganj Bangladesh Choto Katra in Dhaka Bangladesh Sonakanda Fort in Narayanganj Bangladesh Bagh e Babur in Kabul Afghanistan Shahjahani Mosque in Kabul AfghanistanArt and literature Illustration by the 17th century Mughal artist Ustad Mansur Alexander Visits the Sage Plato in His Mountain Cave illustration by the 16th century Indian artist Basawan in a folio from a quintet of the 13th century Indian poet Amir Khusrau Dihlavi Main articles Mughal painting and Mughal clothing The Mughal artistic tradition mainly expressed in painted miniatures as well as small luxury objects was eclectic borrowing from Iranian Indian Chinese and Renaissance European stylistic and thematic elements 158 Mughal emperors often took in Iranian bookbinders illustrators painters and calligraphers from the Safavid court due to the commonalities of their Timurid styles and due to the Mughal affinity for Iranian art and calligraphy 159 Miniatures commissioned by the Mughal emperors initially focused on large projects illustrating books with eventful historical scenes and court life but later included more single images for albums with portraits and animal paintings displaying a profound appreciation for the serenity and beauty of the natural world 160 For example Emperor Jahangir commissioned brilliant artists such as Ustad Mansur to realistically portray unusual flora and fauna throughout the empire The literary works Akbar and Jahangir ordered to be illustrated ranged from epics like the Razmnama a Persian translation of the Hindu epic the Mahabharata to historical memoirs or biographies of the dynasty such as the Baburnama and Akbarnama and Tuzk e Jahangiri Richly finished albums muraqqa decorated with calligraphy and artistic scenes were mounted onto pages with decorative borders and then bound with covers of stamped and gilded or painted and lacquered leather 161 Aurangzeb 1658 1707 was never an enthusiastic patron of painting largely for religious reasons and took a turn away from the pomp and ceremonial of the court around 1668 after which he probably commissioned no more paintings 162 Language Folio from Farhang i Jahangiri a Persian dictionary compiled during the Mughal era Main articles Persian language in the Indian subcontinent Persian and Urdu and Hindustani language Though the Mughals were of Turko Mongol origin their reign enacted the revival and height of the Persian language in the Indian subcontinent Accompanied by literary patronage was the institutionalisation of Persian as official and courtly language this led to Persian reaching nearly the status of a first language for many inhabitants of Mughal India 163 164 Muzaffar Alam argues that the Mughals used Persian purposefully as the vehicle of an overarching Indo Persian political culture to unite their diverse empire 165 Persian had a profound impact on the languages of South Asia one such language today known as Urdu developed in the imperial capital of Delhi in the late Mughal era It began to be used as a literary language in the Mughal court from the reign of Shah Alam II who described it as the language of his dastans 166 and replaced Persian as the language of the Muslim elite 167 168 According to Qazvini by the time of Shah Jahan the emperor was only familiar with a few Turki words and showed little interest in the study of the language as a child 169 MilitaryFurther information Army of the Mughal Empire Mughal weapons and Mughal artillery Gunpowder warfare Mughal matchlock rifle 16th century See also Gunpowder empires and History of gunpowder India and the Mughal EmpireMughal India was one of the three Islamic gunpowder empires along with the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia 34 170 171 By the time he was invited by Lodi governor of Lahore Daulat Khan to support his rebellion against Lodi Sultan Ibrahim Khan Babur was familiar with gunpowder firearms and field artillery and a method for deploying them Babur had employed Ottoman expert Ustad Ali Quli who showed Babur the standard Ottoman formation artillery and firearm equipped infantry protected by wagons in the centre and the mounted archers on both wings Babur used this formation at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 where the Afghan and Rajput forces loyal to the Delhi Sultanate though superior in numbers but without the gunpowder weapons were defeated The decisive victory of the Timurid forces is one reason opponents rarely met Mughal princes in pitched battle over the course of the empire s history 172 In India guns made of bronze were recovered from Calicut 1504 and Diu 1533 173 Fathullah Shirazi c 1582 a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar developed an early multi gun shot As opposed to the polybolos and repeating crossbows used earlier in ancient Greece and China respectively Shirazi s rapid firing gun had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannons loaded with gunpowder It may be considered a version of a volley gun 174 Mughal musketeer 17th century By the 17th century Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms large guns in particular became visible in Tanjore Dacca Bijapur and Murshidabad 175 Rocketry and explosives See also Mysorean rockets and Congreve rocket In the sixteenth century Akbar was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known as bans particularly against war elephants during the Battle of Sanbal 176 In 1657 the Mughal Army used rockets during the Siege of Bidar 177 Prince Aurangzeb s forces discharged rockets and grenades while scaling the walls Sidi Marjan was mortally wounded when a rocket struck his large gunpowder depot and after twenty seven days of hard fighting Bidar was captured by the Mughals 177 In A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder James Riddick Partington described Indian rockets and explosive mines 173 The Indian war rockets were formidable weapons before such rockets were used in Europe They had bam boo rods a rocket body lashed to the rod and iron points They were directed at the target and fired by lighting the fuse but the trajectory was rather erratic The use of mines and counter mines with explosive charges of gunpowder is mentioned for the times of Akbar and Jahangir Later the Mysorean rockets were upgraded versions of Mughal rockets used during the Siege of Jinji by the progeny of the Nawab of Arcot Hyder Ali s father Fatah Muhammad the constable at Budikote commanded a corps consisting of 50 rocketmen Cushoon for the Nawab of Arcot Hyder Ali realised the importance of rockets and introduced advanced versions of metal cylinder rockets These rockets turned fortunes in favour of the Sultanate of Mysore during the Second Anglo Mysore War particularly during the Battle of Pollilur In turn the Mysorean rockets were the basis for the Congreve rockets which Britain deployed in the Napoleonic Wars against France and the War of 1812 against the United States 178 ScienceAstronomy See also Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world and Indian astronomy While there appears to have been little concern for theoretical astronomy Mughal astronomers made advances in observational astronomy and produced nearly a hundred Zij treatises Humayun built a personal observatory near Delhi Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also intending to build observatories but were unable to do so The astronomical instruments and observational techniques used at the Mughal observatories were mainly derived from Islamic astronomy 179 180 In the 17th century the Mughal Empire saw a synthesis between Islamic and Hindu astronomy where Islamic observational instruments were combined with Hindu computational techniques 179 180 During the decline of the Mughal Empire the Hindu king Jai Singh II of Amber continued the work of Mughal astronomy In the early 18th century he built several large observatories called Yantra Mandirs in order to rival Ulugh Beg s Samarkand observatory and in order to improve on the earlier Hindu computations in the Siddhantas and Islamic observations in Zij i Sultani The instruments he used were influenced by Islamic astronomy while the computational techniques were derived from Hindu astronomy 179 180 Chemistry See also Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world Sake Dean Mahomed had learned much of Mughal chemistry and understood the techniques used to produce various alkali and soaps to produce shampoo He was also a notable writer who described the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and the cities of Allahabad and Delhi in rich detail and also made note of the glories of the Mughal Empire In Britain Sake Dean Mahomed was appointed as shampooing surgeon to both Kings George IV and William IV 181 Metallurgy See also History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent One of the most remarkable astronomical instruments invented in Mughal India is the lost wax cast hollow seamless celestial globe It was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH 1589 90 CE and twenty other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce hollow metal globes without any seams 182 A 17th century celestial globe was also made by Diya ad din Muhammad in Lahore 1668 now in Pakistan 183 It is now housed at the National Museum of Scotland List of Mughal EmperorsMain article Mughal emperors Portrait Titular Name Birth Name Birth Reign Death Notes Baburبابر Zahir ud din Muhammadظہیر الدین محمد 14 February 1483 Andijan 20 April 1526 26 December 1530 26 December 1530 aged 47 Founded the Empire Humayunہمایوں Nasir ud din Muhammad Humayunنصیر الدین محمد ہمایوں 6 March 1508 26 December 1530 17 May 1540 9 years 4 months 21 days22 February 1555 27 January 1556 27 January 1556 aged 47 Humayun was overthrown in 1540 by Sher Shah Suri of the Suri dynasty but returned to the throne in 1555 after the death of Islam Shah Suri Sher Shah Suri s son and successor Akbar i Azamاکبر اعظم Jalal ud din Muhammadجلال الدین محمد اکبر 14 October 1542 27 January 1556 27 October 1605 49 years 9 months 0 days 27 October 1605 aged 63 His mother was Persian Hamida Banu Begum 184 Jahangirجہانگیر Nur ud din Muhammad Salimنور الدین محمد سلیم 20 September 1569 15 October 1605 8 October 1627 21 years 11 months 23 days 28 October 1627 aged 58 His mother was Rajput princess Mariam uz Zamani 185 Shah Jahanشاہ جہان Shahab ud din Muhammad Khurramشہاب الدین محمد خرم 5 January 1592 8 November 1627 2 August 1658 30 years 8 months 25 days 22 January 1666 aged 74 His mother was Rajput princess Jagat Gosaini 186 Built Taj Mahal Alamgir Iعالمگیر Muhy ud din Muhammad Aurangzeb محی الدین محمد اورنگزیب 3 November 1618 31 July 1658 3 March 1707 48 years 7 months 0 days 3 March 1707 aged 88 His mother was Persian Mumtaz Mahal He was married to Safavid dynasty Princess Dilras Banu Begum He established Islamic law throughout India After his death His younger Son Azam Shah became the King for 3 months 187 Bahadur Shahبہادر شاہ Qutb ud Din Muhammad Mu azzam Shah Alam قطب الدین محمد معزام 14 October 1643 19 June 1707 27 February 1712 3 years 253 days 27 February 1712 aged 68 He made settlements with the Marathas tranquillised the Rajputs and became friendly with the Sikhs in the Punjab Jahandar Shahجہاندار شاہ Mu izz ud Din Jahandar Shah Bahadur معز الدین جہاندار شاہ بہادر 9 May 1661 27 February 1712 11 February 1713 0 years 350 days 12 February 1713 aged 51 Highly influenced by his Grand Vizier Zulfikar Khan Farrukhsiyarفرخ سیر Farrukhsiyar فرخ سیر 20 August 1685 11 January 1713 28 February 1719 6 years 48 days 29 April 1719 aged 33 Granted a firman to the East India Company in 1717 granting them duty free trading rights for Bengal strengthening their posts on the east coast The firman or decree helped British East India company to import goods into Bengal without paying customs duty to the government Rafi ud Darajatرفیع الدرجات Rafi ud Darajat رفیع الدرجات 30 November 1699 28 February 6 June 1719 0 years 98 days 9 June 1719 aged 19 Rise of Syed Brothers as power brokers Shah Jahan IIشاہ جہان دوم Rafi ud Daulah شاہ جہاں دوم June 1696 6 June 1719 19 September 1719 0 years 105 days 19 September 1719 aged 23 Muhammad Shahمحمد شاہ Roshan Akhtar Bahadur روشن اختر بہادر 17 August 1702 27 September 1719 26 April 1748 28 years 212 days 26 April 1748 aged 45 Got rid of the Syed Brothers Fought a long war with the Marathas losing Deccan and Malwa in the process Suffered the invasion of Nader Shah of Persia in 1739 He was the last emperor to possess effective control over the empire Ahmad Shah Bahadurاحمد شاہ بہادر Ahmad Shah Bahadur احمد شاہ بہادر 23 December 1725 26 April 1748 2 June 1754 6 years 37 days 1 January 1775 aged 49 Mughal forces defeated by the Marathas at the Battle of Sikandarabad Alamgir IIعالمگیر دوم Aziz ud din عزیز ا لدین 6 June 1699 2 June 1754 29 November 1759 5 years 180 days 29 November 1759 aged 60 Domination of Vizier Imad ul Mulk Shah Jahan IIIشاہ جہان سوم Muhi ul millat محی ا لملت 1711 10 December 1759 10 October 1760 282 days 1772 aged 60 61 Consolidation of power by the Nawab of Bengal Bihar Odisha Shah Alam IIشاہ عالم دوم Ali Gauhar علی گوہر 25 June 1728 10 October 1760 19 November 1806 46 years 330 days 19 November 1806 aged 78 Defeat in the Battle of Buxar Muhammad Shah Bahadur Jahan IVشاہ جہان محمد شاه بهادر Bidar Bakht بیدار بخت 1749 31 July 1788 by 2 October 1788 63 days 1790 aged 40 41 Enthroned as a puppet Emperor by the Rohilla Ghulam Kadir following the temporary overthrow of Shah Alam II 188 Akbar Shah IIاکبر شاہ دوم Mirza Akbar میرزا اکبر 22 April 1760 19 November 1806 28 September 1837 30 years 321 days 28 September 1837 aged 77 Titular figurehead under British protection Bahadur Shah IIبہادر شاہ دوم Abu Zafar Sirajuddin Muhammad Bahadur Shah Zafar ابو ظفر سراج ا لدین محمد بہادر شاہ ظفر 24 October 1775 28 September 1837 23 September 1857 19 years 360 days 7 November 1862 aged 87 Last Mughal Emperor Deposed by the British and was exiled to Burma after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 See alsoMughal dynasty Flags of the Mughal Empire Mughal emperors List of Mongol states Mansabdar Mughal people Mughal Harem Mughal weapons Mughal architecture Mughlai cuisine Mughal Mongol genealogy Islam in South AsiaReferencesFootnotes The title Mirza descends to all the sons of the family without exception In the royal family it is placed after the name instead of before it thus Abbas Mirza and Hosfiein Mirza Mirza is a civil title and Khan is a military one The title of Khan is creative but not hereditary 5 Citations Sinopoli Carla M 1994 Monumentality and Mobility in Mughal Capitals Asian Perspectives 33 2 294 ISSN 0066 8435 JSTOR 42928323 Conan 2007 p 235 Islam Mughal Empire 1500s 1600s BBC 7 September 2009 Retrieved 13 June 2019 Pagaza amp Argyriades 2009 p 129 Morier 1812 p 601 Turchin Peter Adams Jonathan M Hall Thomas D 2006 East West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States Journal of World Systems Research 12 2 219 229 doi 10 5195 JWSR 2006 369 ISSN 1076 156X Rein Taagepera September 1997 Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities Context for Russia International Studies Quarterly 41 3 475 504 doi 10 1111 0020 8833 00053 JSTOR 2600793 a b Jozsef Borocz 2009 The European Union and Global Social Change Routledge p 21 ISBN 978 1135255800 Retrieved 26 June 2017 a b c d e f g h i j Richards John F 1995 The Mughal Empire Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 56603 2 Richards John F 1995 The Mughal Empire Cambridge University Press p 2 ISBN 978 0 521 56603 2 Quote Although the first two Timurid emperors and many of their noblemen were recent migrants to the subcontinent the dynasty and the empire itself became indisputably Indian The interests and futures of all concerned were in India not in ancestral homelands in the Middle East or Central Asia Furthermore the Mughal empire emerged from the Indian historical experience It was the end product of a millennium of Muslim conquest colonization and state building in the Indian subcontinent Stein Burton 2010 A History of India John Wiley amp Sons pp 159 ISBN 978 1 4443 2351 1 Quote The realm so defined and governed was a vast territory of some 750 000 square miles 1 900 000 km2 ranging from the frontier with Central Asia in northern Afghanistan to the northern uplands of the Deccan plateau and from the Indus basin on the west to the Assamese highlands in the east Gilbert Marc Jason 2017 South Asia in World History Oxford University Press pp 75 ISBN 978 0 19 066137 3 Quote Babur then adroitly gave the Ottomans his promise not to attack them in return for their military aid which he received in the form of the newest of battlefield inventions the matchlock gun and cast cannons as well as instructors to train his men to use them Stein Burton 2010 A History of India John Wiley amp Sons pp 159 ISBN 978 1 4443 2351 1 Quote Another possible date for the beginning of the Mughal regime is 1600 when the institutions that defined the regime were set firmly in place and when the heartland of the empire was defined both of these were the accomplishment of Babur s grandson Akbar Stein Burton 2010 A History of India John Wiley amp Sons pp 159 ISBN 978 1 4443 2351 1 Quote The imperial career of the Mughal house is conventionally reckoned to have ended in 1707 when the emperor Aurangzeb a fifth generation descendant of Babur died His fifty year reign began in 1658 with the Mughal state seeming as strong as ever or even stronger But in Aurangzeb s later years the state was brought to the brink of destruction over which it toppled within a decade and a half after his death by 1720 imperial Mughal rule was largely finished and an epoch of two imperial centuries had closed Richards John F 1995 The Mughal Empire Cambridge University Press p xv ISBN 978 0 521 56603 2 Quote By the latter date 1720 the essential structure of the centralized state was disintegrated beyond repair Stein Burton 2010 A History of India John Wiley amp Sons pp 159 ISBN 978 1 4443 2351 1 Quote The vaunting of such progenitors pointed up the central character of the Mughal regime as a warrior state it was born in war and it was sustained by war until the eighteenth century when warfare destroyed it Robb Peter 2011 A History of India Macmillan pp 108 ISBN 978 0 230 34549 2 Quote The Mughal state was geared for war and succeeded while it won its battles It controlled territory partly through its network of strongholds from its fortified capitals in Agra Delhi or Lahore which defined its heartlands to the converted and expanded forts of Rajasthan and the Deccan The emperors will was frequently enforced in battle Hundreds of army scouts were an important source of information But the empire s administrative structure too was defined by and directed at war Local military checkpoints or thanas kept order Directly appointed imperial military and civil commanders faujdars controlled the cavalry and infantry or the administration in each region The peasantry in turn were often armed able to provide supporters for regional powers and liable to rebellion on their own account continual pacification was required of the rulers Gilbert Marc Jason 2017 South Asia in World History Oxford University Press pp 75 ISBN 978 0 19 066137 3 Quote With Safavid and Ottoman aid the Mughals would soon join these two powers in a triumvirate of warrior driven expansionist and both militarily and bureaucratically efficient early modern states now often called gunpowder empires due to their common proficiency is using such weapons to conquer lands they sought to control Asher Catherine B Talbot Cynthia 2006 India Before Europe Cambridge University Press pp 115 ISBN 978 0 521 80904 7 Robb Peter 2011 A History of India Macmillan pp 99 100 ISBN 978 0 230 34549 2 a b c Asher Catherine B Talbot Cynthia 2006 India Before Europe Cambridge University Press pp 152 ISBN 978 0 521 80904 7 a b Stein Burton 2010 A History of India John Wiley amp Sons pp 164 ISBN 978 1 4443 2351 1 Quote The resource base of Akbar s new order was land revenue a b Asher Catherine B Talbot Cynthia 2006 India Before Europe Cambridge University Press pp 158 ISBN 978 0 521 80904 7 Quote The Mughal empire was based in the interior of a large land mass and derived the vast majority of its revenues from agriculture a b Stein Burton 2010 A History of India John Wiley amp Sons pp 164 ISBN 978 1 4443 2351 1 Quote well over half of the output from the fields in his realm after the costs of production had been met is estimated to have been taken from the peasant producers by way of official taxes and unofficial exactions Moreover payments were exacted in money and this required a well regulated silver currency a b Asher Catherine B Talbot Cynthia 2006 India Before Europe Cambridge University Press pp 152 ISBN 978 0 521 80904 7 Quote His stipulation that land taxes be paid in cash forced peasants into market networks where they could obtain the necessary money while the standardization of imperial currency made the exchange of goods for money easier Asher Catherine B Talbot Cynthia 2006 India Before Europe Cambridge University Press pp 152 ISBN 978 0 521 80904 7 Quote Above all the long period of relative peace ushered in by Akbar s power and maintained by his successors contributed to India s economic expansion Asher Catherine B Talbot Cynthia 2006 India Before Europe Cambridge University Press pp 186 ISBN 978 0 521 80904 7 Quote As the European presence in India grew their demands for Indian goods and trading rights increased thus bringing even greater wealth to the already flush Indian courts Asher Catherine B Talbot Cynthia 2006 India Before Europe Cambridge University Press pp 186 ISBN 978 0 521 80904 7 Quote The elite spent more and more money on luxury goods and sumptuous lifestyles and the rulers built entire new capital cities at times Asher Catherine B Talbot Cynthia 2006 India Before Europe Cambridge University Press pp 186 ISBN 978 0 521 80904 7 Quote All these factors resulted in greater patronage of the arts including textiles paintings architecture jewelry and weapons to meet the ceremonial requirements of kings and princes a b Centre UNESCO World Heritage Taj Mahal UNESCO World Heritage Centre Bose Sugata Ayesha Jalal 2004 Modern South Asia History Culture Political Economy Routledge p 28 ISBN 978 0 203 71253 5 Avari Burjor 2004 Islamic Civilization in South Asia A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent Routledge p 83 ISBN 978 0 415 58061 8 Zahir ud Din Mohammad 2002 Thackston Wheeler M ed The Baburnama Memoirs of Babur Prince and Emperor New York Modern Library p xlvi ISBN 978 0 375 76137 9 In India the dynasty always called itself Gurkani after Temur s title Gurkan the Persianized form of the Mongolian kuragan son in law a title he assumed after his marriage to a Genghisid princess a b Dodgson Marshall G S 2009 The Venture of Islam Vol 3 University of Chicago Press p 62 ISBN 978 0 226 34688 5 Huskin Frans Husken Dick van der Meij 2004 Reading Asia New Research in Asian Studies Routledge p 104 ISBN 978 1 136 84377 8 John Walbridge God and Logic in Islam The Caliphate of Reason p 165 Persianate Mogul Empire Rutherford 2010 Canfield Robert L 2002 Turko Persia in Historical Perspective Cambridge University Press p 20 ISBN 978 0 521 52291 5 Vanina Eugenia 2012 Medieval Indian Mindscapes Space Time Society Man Primus Books p 47 ISBN 978 93 80607 19 1 Fontana Michela 2011 Matteo Ricci A Jesuit in the Ming Court Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers p 32 ISBN 978 1 4422 0588 8 Schwartzberg Joseph E 1978 A Historical atlas of South Asia Chicago University of Chicago Press pp 39 147 ISBN 0226742210 a b c d e f g h i j k l m Berndl Klaus 2005 National Geographic Visual History of the World National Geographic Society pp 318 320 ISBN 978 0 7922 3695 5 Bayley Christopher The European Emergence The Mughals Ascendant p 151 ISBN 0 7054 0982 1 Hooja Rima 2006 A History of Rajasthan Rupa p 454 ISBN 9788129115010 From Baburs memoirs we learn that Sanga s success against the Mughal advance guard commanded by Abdul Aziz and other forces at Bayana severely demoralised the fighting spirit of Baburs troops encamped near Sikri Bayley Christopher The European Emergence The Mughals Ascendant p 154 ISBN 0 7054 0982 1 Ballhatchet Kenneth A Akbar Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 17 July 2017 Smith Vincent Arthur 1917 Akbar the Great Mogul 1542 1605 Oxford at The Clarendon Press pp 13 14 Begum Gulbadan 1902 The History of Humayun Humayun Nama Translated by Beveridge Annette S Royal Asiatic Society pp 237 239 a b Mohammada Malika 2007 The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India Aakar Books p 300 ISBN 978 81 89833 18 3 Gilbert Marc Jason 2017 South Asia in World History Oxford University Press p 79 ISBN 978 0 19 976034 3 Muhammad Hadi 1999 Preface to The Jahangirnama Translated by Thackston Wheeler M Oxford University Press p 4 ISBN 978 0 19 512718 8 Jahangir Emperor of Hindustan 1999 The Jahangirnama Memoirs of Jahangir Emperor of India Translated by Thackston Wheeler M Oxford University Press p 65 ISBN 978 0 19 512718 8 Faruqui Munis D 2012 The Princes of the Mughal Empire 1504 1719 Cambridge University Press pp 268 269 ISBN 978 1 107 02217 1 Robb Peter 2011 A History of India Macmillan International Higher Education pp 97 98 ISBN 978 0 230 34424 2 a b Asher Catherine B Talbot Cynthia 2006 India before Europe Cambridge University Press p 267 ISBN 0 521 80904 5 OCLC 61303480 a b BBC Religions Sikhism Origins of Sikhism BBC 30 September 2009 Retrieved 19 February 2021 Mehta Jaswant Lal 1984 First published 1981 Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India Vol II 2nd ed Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd p 59 ISBN 978 81 207 1015 3 OCLC 1008395679 Singhal Damodar P 1983 A History of the Indian People Methuen p 193 ISBN 978 0 413 48730 8 Dara Shikoh Medieval Islamic Civilization An Encyclopedia by Josef W Meri Jere L Bacharach Routledge 2005 ISBN 0 415 96690 6 Page 195 196 a b c d Truschke Audrey 2017 Aurangzeb The Life and Legacy of India s Most Controversial King Stanford University Press ISBN 978 1 5036 0259 5 Robb Peter 2011 A History of India Macmillan International Higher Education p 98 ISBN 978 0 230 34424 2 Abhishek Kaicker 2020 The King and the People Sovereignty and Popular Politics in Mughal Delhi Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 007067 0 Copland Ian Mabbett Ian Roy Asim et al 2013 A History of State and Religion in India Routledge p 119 ISBN 978 1 136 45950 4 Audrey Truschke 2021 the Language of History Sanskrit Narratives of Indo Muslim Rule Publisher Columbia University Press Columbia University Press 2000 Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture Columbia University Press p 285 ISBN 9780231110044 Richard M Eaton 2013 Expanding Frontiers in South Asian and World History Essays in Honour of John F Richards Cambridge University Press p 21 I consider all this army Marathas as my own and I will get my work done through them It is necessary to take our hands off Malwa God willing I will enter into an understanding with them and entrust the Mulukgiri raiding on that side of the Narmada to them Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute Poona Volumes 51 53 Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 1970 p 94 The Mughal court was hostile to Nizam ul Mulk If it had the power it would have crushed him To save himself from the hostile intentions of the Emperor the Nizam did not interfere with the Maratha activities in Malwa and Gujarat As revealed in the anecdotes narrated b Lala Mansaram the Nizam ul Mulk considered the Maratha army operating in Malwa and Gujarat as his own a b Bose Sugata Jalal Ayesha 2004 Modern South Asia History Culture Political Economy 2nd ed Routledge p 41 ISBN 978 0 203 71253 5 Rathod N G 1994 The Great Maratha Mahadaji Scindia New Delhi Sarup amp Sons p 8 ISBN 978 8185431529 Richards J F 1981 Mughal State Finance and the Premodern World Economy Comparative Studies in Society and History 23 2 285 308 doi 10 1017 s0010417500013311 JSTOR 178737 S2CID 154809724 Sir William Wilson Hunter 1908 Imperial gazetteer of India Clarendon Press p 107 Habib Irfan March 1969 Potentialities of Capitalistic Development in the Economy of Mughal India Journal of Economic History 29 1 32 78 doi 10 1017 s0022050700097825 JSTOR 2115498 S2CID 91170802 Leonard Karen April 1979 The Great Firm Theory of the Decline of the Mughal Empire Comparative Studies in Society and History 21 2 151 167 doi 10 1017 s0010417500012792 JSTOR 178414 S2CID 54775994 Hallissey Robert C 1977 The Rajput Rebellion Against Aurangzeb University of Missouri Press pp ix x 84 ISBN 978 0 8262 0222 2 Claude Markovits 2004 First published 1994 as Histoire de l Inde Moderne A History of Modern India 1480 1950 Anthem Press pp 172 173 ISBN 978 1 84331 004 4 a b c Jeffrey G Williamson David Clingingsmith August 2005 India s Deindustrialization in the 18th and 19th Centuries PDF Harvard University Retrieved 18 May 2017 a b Jeffrey G Williamson 2011 Trade and Poverty When the Third World Fell Behind MIT Press p 91 ISBN 978 0 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Shireen December 2011 The World of Labour in Mughal India c 1500 1750 International Review of Social History 56 S19 245 261 doi 10 1017 S0020859011000526 Pagaza Ignacio Argyriades Demetrios 2009 Winning the Needed Change Saving Our Planet Earth IOS Press p 129 ISBN 978 1 58603 958 5 a b Ludden David 1999 An Agrarian History of South Asia Cambridge University Press p 96 ISBN 978 0 521 36424 9 Irfan Habib Dharma Kumar Tapan Raychaudhuri 1987 The Cambridge Economic History of India PDF Vol 1 Cambridge University Press p 214 Irfan Habib Dharma Kumar Tapan Raychaudhuri 1987 The Cambridge Economic History of India PDF Vol 1 Cambridge University Press p 217 a b Irfan Habib 2011 Economic History of Medieval India 1200 1500 p 53 Pearson Education Suneja Vivek 2000 Understanding Business A Multidimensional Approach to the Market Economy Psychology Press p 13 ISBN 978 0 415 23857 1 Parthasarathi Prasannan 2011 Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not Global Economic Divergence 1600 1850 Cambridge University Press pp 39 45 ISBN 978 1 139 49889 0 a b c Om Prakash Empire Mughal History of World Trade Since 1450 edited by John J McCusker vol 1 Macmillan Reference US 2006 pp 237 240 World History in Context Retrieved 3 August 2017 Angus Maddison 1995 Monitoring the World Economy 1820 1992 OECD p 30 Parthasarathi Prasannan 2011 Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not Global Economic Divergence 1600 1850 Cambridge University Press p 2 ISBN 978 1 139 49889 0 a b Richard Maxwell Eaton 1996 The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier 1204 1760 p 202 University of California Press Lakwete Angela 2003 Inventing the Cotton Gin Machine and Myth in Antebellum America Baltimore The Johns Hopkins University Press pp 1 6 ISBN 978 0 8018 7394 2 Irfan Habib 2011 Economic History of Medieval India 1200 1500 pp 53 54 Pearson Education Irfan Habib 2011 Economic History of Medieval India 1200 1500 p 54 Pearson Education دكتور محمد نصر Fashion And Designing Under The Mughals Akbar To Aurangzeb A Historical Perspective a b Ray Indrajit 2011 Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution 1757 1857 Routledge p 174 ISBN 978 1 136 82552 1 Technological Dynamism in a Stagnant Sector Safety at Sea during the Early Industrial Revolution PDF Roy Tirthankar November 2011 Where is Bengal Situating an Indian Region in the Early Modern World Economy Past amp Present 213 1 115 146 doi 10 1093 pastj gtr009 Alam M Shahid 2016 Poverty From The Wealth of Nations Integration and Polarization in the Global Economy since 1760 Springer Science Business Media p 32 ISBN 978 0 333 98564 9 The paradise of nations Dhaka Tribune Daniyal Shoaib Bengali New Year how Akbar invented the modern Bengali calendar Scroll in a b Nanda J N 2005 Bengal The Unique State Concept Publishing Company ISBN 978 81 8069 149 2 Eaton Richard M 1996 The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier 1204 1760 University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 20507 9 a b c d e Colin McEvedy Richard Jones 1978 Atlas of World Population History PDF New York Facts on File pp 184 185 Angus Maddison 2001 The World Economy A Millennial Perspective p 236 OECD Development Centre a b c Irfan Habib Dharma Kumar Tapan Raychaudhuri 1987 The Cambridge Economic History of India PDF Vol 1 Cambridge University Press p 170 a b c Jean Noel Biraben 1980 An Essay Concerning Mankind s Evolution Population Selected Papers Vol 4 pp 1 13 a b c d Eraly Abraham 2007 The Mughal World Life in India s Last Golden Age Penguin Books India pp 5 ISBN 978 0 14 310262 5 Paolo Malanima 2009 Pre Modern European Economy One Thousand Years 10th 19th Centuries Brill Publishers p 244 ISBN 978 9004178229 Irfan Habib Dharma Kumar Tapan Raychaudhuri 1987 The Cambridge Economic History of India PDF Vol 1 Cambridge University Press p 165 Broadberry Stephen Gupta Bishnupriya 2010 Indian GDP before 1870 Some preliminary estimates and a comparison with Britain PDF Warwick University p 23 Archived from the original PDF on 11 November 2020 Retrieved 12 October 2015 Dyson Tim 2018 A Population History of India From the First Modern People to the Present Day pp 63 65 Irfan Habib Dharma Kumar Tapan Raychaudhuri 1987 The Cambridge Economic History of India PDF Vol 1 Cambridge University Press p 171 Social Science Review Volume 14 Issue 1 p 126 Dhaka University Moosvi Shireen 2008 People Taxation and Trade in Mughal India Oxford University Press p 131 ISBN 978 0 19 569315 7 Chaudhuri K N 2008 Some Reflections on the Town and Country in Mughal India Modern Asian Studies 12 1 77 96 doi 10 1017 S0026749X00008155 ISSN 0026 749X S2CID 146558617 Garcia Maria Isabel Maldonado The Urdu language reforms Studies 26 2011 97 Mughal Empire MSN Encarta Archived from the original on 28 October 2009 Indo Persian Literature Conference SOAS North Indian Literary Culture 1450 1650 SOAS Retrieved 28 November 2012 Islam Mughal Empire 1500s 1600s Religions BBC Retrieved 10 June 2018 Fatma Sadaf 2012 Waterworks in Mughal Gardens Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 73 1268 1278 JSTOR 44156328 Alter Joseph S May 1992 The sannyasi and the Indian Wrestler The Anatomy of a Relationship American Ethnologist 19 2 317 336 doi 10 1525 ae 1992 19 2 02a00070 ISSN 0094 0496 Alter Joseph S 1992 The Wrestler s Body Identity and Ideology in North India University of California Press p 2 ISBN 978 0 520 07697 6 Wrestling in modern India is a synthesis of two different traditions the Persian form of the art brought into South Asia by the Moguls and an indigenous Hindu form Mughal influence on Indian music The Hindu 8 February 2000 Retrieved 5 April 2019 Swarn Lata 2013 The Journey of the Sitar in Indian Classical Music p 24 ISBN 978 1475947076 Ross Marlay Clark D Neher 1999 Patriots and Tyrants Ten Asian Leaders Rowman amp Littlefield p 269 ISBN 978 0 8476 8442 7 Crill Rosemary and Jariwala Kapil The Indian Portrait 1560 1860 pp 23 27 National Portrait Gallery London 2010 ISBN 978 1855144095 Beach Milo Cleveland 1987 Early Mughal painting Harvard University Press pp 33 37 ISBN 978 0674221857 google books Soucek Priscilla 1987 Persian Artists in Mughal India Influences and Transformations Muqarnas 4 166 181 doi 10 2307 1523102 JSTOR 1523102 Blunt Wilfrid 1948 The Mughal Painters of Natural History The Burlington Magazine 90 539 48 50 JSTOR 869792 Sardar Marika October 2003 The Art of the Mughals After 1600 The MET Archived from the original on 4 February 2019 Losty J P Roy Malini eds Mughal India Art Culture and Empire 2013 pp 147 149 British Library ISBN 978 0712358705 2 The Culture and Politics of Persian in Precolonial Hindustan Literary Cultures in History University of California Press pp 158 167 2019 doi 10 1525 9780520926738 007 ISBN 978 0 520 92673 8 S2CID 226770775 retrieved 26 July 2021 Abidi S A H Gargesh Ravinder 2008 Kachru Braj B Kachru Yamuna Sridhar S N eds Persian in South Asia Language in South Asia Cambridge Cambridge University Press p 105 doi 10 1017 cbo9780511619069 007 ISBN 978 0 511 61906 9 retrieved 26 July 2021 Alam Muzaffar 2004 The languages of political Islam India 1200 1800 University of Chicago Press pp 134 144 ISBN 0 226 01100 3 OCLC 469379391 14 A Long History of Urdu Literary Culture Literary Cultures in History University of California Press p 29 2019 ISBN 978 0 19 565201 7 14 A Long History of Urdu Literary Culture Part 1 Naming and Placing a Literary Culture Literary Cultures in History University of California Press pp 805 863 2019 doi 10 1525 9780520926738 019 ISBN 978 0 520 92673 8 S2CID 226765648 retrieved 26 July 2021 Matthews David Urdu Encyclopaedia Iranica Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1932 History Of Shahjahan Of Dihli 1932 Indian Press Limited Streusand Douglas E 2011 Islamic Gunpowder Empires Ottomans Safavids and Mughals Philadelphia Westview Press ISBN 978 0 8133 1359 7 Charles T Evans The Gunpowder Empires Northern Virginia Community College Retrieved 28 December 2010 Streusand Douglas E 2011 Islamic Gunpowder Empires Ottomans Safavids and Mughals Philadelphia Westview Press p 255 ISBN 978 0 8133 1359 7 a b Partington James Riddick 1999 A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder Baltimore Johns Hopkins University Press p 226 ISBN 978 0 8018 5954 0 Bag A K 2005 Fathullah Shirazi Cannon Multi barrel Gun and Yarghu Indian Journal of History of Science 40 3 431 436 ISSN 0019 5235 Partington James Riddick 1999 A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder Baltimore Johns Hopkins University Press p 225 ISBN 978 0 8018 5954 0 MughalistanSipahi 19 June 2010 Islamic Mughal Empire War Elephants Part 3 Archived from the original on 21 December 2021 Retrieved 28 November 2012 via YouTube a b Ghulam Yazdani Bidar Its History and Monuments Motilal Banarsidass 1995 15 Roddam Narasimha 1985 Rockets in Mysore and Britain 1750 1850 A D National Aerospace Laboratories India Retrieved 30 November 2011 a b c Sharma Virendra Nath 1995 Sawai Jai Singh and His Astronomy Motilal Banarsidass Publ pp 8 9 ISBN 978 81 208 1256 7 a b c Baber Zaheer 1996 The Science of Empire Scientific Knowledge Civilization and Colonial Rule in India State University of New York Press pp 82 89 ISBN 978 0 7914 2919 8 Teltscher Kate 2000 The Shampooing Surgeon and the Persian Prince Two Indians in Early Nineteenth century Britain Interventions International Journal of Postcolonial Studies 2 3 409 423 doi 10 1080 13698010020019226 ISSN 1469 929X S2CID 161906676 Savage Smith Emilie 1985 Islamicate Celestial Globes Their History Construction and Use Smithsonian Institution Press Washington DC Celestial globe National Museums Scotland Retrieved 15 October 2020 Begum Gulbadan 1902 The History of Humayun Humayun Nama Royal Asiatic Society pp 237 9 Marc Jason Gilbert 2017 South Asia in World History Oxford University Press p 79 ISBN 9780199760343 Emperor of Hindustan Jahangir 2010 The Tuzuk i Jahangiri Or Memoirs of Jahangir Translated by Alexander Rogers Edited by Henry Beveridge General Books LLC p 18 ISBN 978 1 152 49040 6 Mohammada Malika 1 January 2007 The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India Aakar Books p 300 ISBN 978 8 189 83318 3 The Honorary Secretaries Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 1871 1871 p 97Further readingAlam Muzaffar Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India Awadh amp the Punjab 1707 48 1988 Ali M Athar 1975 The Passing of Empire The Mughal Case Modern Asian Studies 9 3 385 396 doi 10 1017 s0026749x00005825 JSTOR 311728 S2CID 143861682 on the causes of its collapse Asher C B Talbot C 2008 India Before Europe 1st ed Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 51750 8 Black Jeremy The Mughals Strike Twice History Today April 2012 62 4 pp 22 26 full text online Blake Stephen P November 1979 The Patrimonial Bureaucratic Empire of the Mughals Journal of Asian Studies 39 1 77 94 doi 10 2307 2053505 JSTOR 2053505 S2CID 154527305 Conan Michel 2007 Middle East Garden Traditions Unity and Diversity Questions Methods and Resources in a Multicultural Perspective Dumbarton Oaks ISBN 978 0 88402 329 6 Dale Stephen F The Muslim Empires of the Ottomans Safavids and Mughals Cambridge U P 2009 Dalrymple William 2007 The Last Mughal The Fall of a Dynasty Delhi 1857 Random House Digital Inc ISBN 9780307267399 Faruqui Munis D 2005 The Forgotten Prince Mirza Hakim and the Formation of the Mughal Empire in India Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 48 4 487 523 doi 10 1163 156852005774918813 JSTOR 25165118 on Akbar and his brother Gommans Jos Mughal Warfare Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire 1500 1700 Routledge 2002 online edition Gordon S The New Cambridge History of India II 4 The Marathas 1600 1818 Cambridge 1993 Habib Irfan Atlas of the Mughal Empire Political and Economic Maps 1982 Markovits Claude ed 2004 First published 1994 as Histoire de l Inde Moderne A History of Modern India 1480 1950 2nd ed London Anthem Press ISBN 978 1 84331 004 4 Metcalf B Metcalf T R 2006 A Concise History of Modern India 2nd ed Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 68225 1 Moosvi Shireen 2015 First published 1987 The economy of the Mughal Empire c 1595 a statistical study 2nd ed Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 908549 1 Morier James 1812 A journey through Persia Armenia and Asia Minor The Monthly Magazine Vol 34 R Phillips Richards John F 1996 The Mughal Empire Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521566032 Majumdar Ramesh Chandra 1974 The Mughul Empire B V Bhavan Richards J F April 1981 Mughal State Finance and the Premodern World Economy Comparative Studies in Society and History 23 2 285 308 doi 10 1017 s0010417500013311 JSTOR 178737 S2CID 154809724 Robb P 2001 A History of India London Palgrave ISBN 978 0 333 69129 8 Srivastava Ashirbadi Lal The Mughul Empire 1526 1803 1952 online Rutherford Alex 2010 Empire of the Moghul Brothers at War Brothers at War Headline ISBN 978 0 7553 8326 9 Stein B 1998 A History of India 1st ed Oxford Wiley Blackwell ISBN 978 0 631 20546 3 Stein B 2010 Arnold D ed A History of India 2nd ed Oxford Wiley Blackwell ISBN 978 1 4051 9509 6Culture Berinstain V Mughal India Splendour of the Peacock Throne London 1998 Busch Allison Poetry of Kings The Classical Hindi Literature of Mughal India 2011 excerpt and text search Parodi Laura E 2021 Kabul a Forgotten Mughal Capital Gardens City and Court at the Turn of the Sixteenth Century Muqarnas Online 38 1 113 153 doi 10 1163 22118993 00381P05 S2CID 245040517 Diana Preston Michael Preston 2007 Taj Mahal Passion and Genius at the Heart of the Moghul Empire Walker amp Company ISBN 978 0 8027 1673 6 Schimmel Annemarie The Empire of the Great Mughals History Art and Culture Reaktion 2006 Welch S C et al 1987 The Emperors album images of Mughal India New York The Metropolitan Museum of Art ISBN 978 0 87099 499 9 Society and economy Chaudhuri K N 1978 Some Reflections on the Town and Country in Mughal India Modern Asian Studies 12 1 77 96 doi 10 1017 s0026749x00008155 JSTOR 311823 S2CID 146558617 Habib Irfan Atlas of the Mughal Empire Political and Economic Maps 1982 Habib Irfan Agrarian System of Mughal India 1963 revised edition 1999 Heesterman J C 2004 The Social Dynamics of the Mughal Empire A Brief Introduction Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 47 3 292 297 doi 10 1163 1568520041974729 JSTOR 25165051 Khan Iqtidar Alam 1976 The Middle Classes in the Mughal Empire Social Scientist 5 1 28 49 doi 10 2307 3516601 JSTOR 3516601 Rothermund Dietmar An Economic History of India From Pre Colonial Times to 1991 1993 Primary sources Bernier Francois 1891 Travels in the Mogul Empire A D 1656 1668 Archibald Constable London Hiro Dilip ed Journal of Emperor Babur Penguin Classics 2007 The Baburnama Memoirs of Babur Prince and Emperor ed by W M Thackston Jr 2002 this was the first autobiography in Islamic literature Jackson A V et al eds History of India 1907 v 9 Historic accounts of India by foreign travellers classic oriental and occidental by A V W Jackson online edition Jouher 1832 The Tezkereh al vakiat or Private Memoirs of the Moghul Emperor Humayun Written in the Persian language by Jouher A confidential domestic of His Majesty Translated by Major Charles Stewart John Murray London Older histories Elliot Sir H M Edited by Dowson John The History of India as Told by Its Own Historians The Muhammadan Period published by London Trubner Company 1867 1877 Online Copy at Packard Humanities Institute Other Persian Texts in Translation historical books Author List and Title List Adams W H Davenport 1893 Warriors of the Crescent London Hutchinson Holden Edward Singleton 1895 The Mogul emperors of Hindustan A D 1398 A D 1707 New York C Scribner s Sons Malleson G B 1896 Akbar and the rise of the Mughal empire Oxford Clarendon Press Manucci Niccolao tr from French by Francois Catrou 1826 History of the Mogul dynasty in India 1399 1657 London J M Richardson Lane Poole Stanley 1906 History of India From Reign of Akbar the Great to the Fall of Moghul Empire Vol 4 London Grolier society Manucci Niccolao tr by William Irvine 1907 Storia do Mogor or Mogul India 1653 1708 Vol 1 London J Murray Manucci Niccolao tr by William Irvine 1907 Storia do Mogor or Mogul India 1653 1708 Vol 2 London J Murray Manucci Niccolao tr by William Irvine 1907 Storia do Mogor or Mogul India 1653 1708 Vol 3 London J Murray Owen Sidney J 1912 The Fall of the Mogul Empire London J Murray External linksMughal Empire at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel information from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Mughal India an interactive experience from the British Museum The Mughal Empire BBC Radio 4 discussion with Sanjay Subrahmanyam Susan Stronge amp Chandrika Kaul In Our Time 26 February 2004 Sunil Khilnani s Akbar From BBC Radio 4 s Incarnations India in 50 Lives Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Mughal Empire amp oldid 1132144438, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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