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Rashidun

January 26, 2023

The Rashidun Caliphs (Arabic: الخلفاء الراشدون, romanized: al-Khulafāʾ al-Rāshidūn, lit. 'Rightly Guided Caliphs'), often simply called the Rashidun, are the first four caliphs (lit.: 'successors') who led the Muslim community following the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad: Abu Bakr (r. 632–634), Umar (r. 634–644), Uthman (r. 644–656), and Ali (r. 656–661).

Rashidun Caliphs
Arabic: الخلفاء الراشدون
Calligraphic representation of Rashidun Caliphs
Born
Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia
(present-day Saudi Arabia)
Known forCompanions of the Prophet
TitleAr-Rashidun
FamilyQuraysh

The reign of these caliphs, called the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), is considered in Sunni Islam to have been 'rightly guided' (Arabic: rāshid), meaning that it constitutes a model (sunna) to be followed and emulated from a religious point of view.[1]

History

See also: Succession to Muhammad

The first four caliphs who succeeded Muhammad are known as the Rashidun (rightly-guided) Caliphs.[2]

  1. Abu Bakr (c. 573–634; r. 632–634)
  2. Umar ibn al-Khattab (c. 583–644; r. 634–644) – often known simply as Umar or Omar
  3. Uthman ibn Affan (c. 573–656; r. 644–656) – often known simply as Uthman, Othman, or Osman
  4. Ali ibn Abi Talib (c. 600–661; r. 656–661) – often known simply as Ali

The succession to Muhammad is the central issue that divides the Muslim community. Sunni Islam, according to the author Carl Ernst, accepts the political status quo of their succession, regardless of its justice, whereas Shia Muslims largely reject the legitimacy of the first three caliphs, and maintain that Muhammad had appointed Ali as his successor.[2][3]

Abu Bakr

Main article: Abu Bakr

Abu Bakr, (Arabic: أَبُو بَكْرٍ), c. 573 CE unknown exact date 634/13 AH) was a senior companion of Muhammad (sahabah) and his father-in-law. He ruled over the Rashidun Caliphate from 632 to 634 CE when he became the first Muslim Caliph following Muhammad's death.[4] As caliph, Abu Bakr continued the political and administrative functions previously exercised by Muhammad. Abu Bakr was called As-Siddiq (Arabic: اَلـصِّـدِّيْـق, "The Truthful"),[5] and was known by that title among later generations of Sunni Muslims. He prevented the recently converted Muslims from dispersing, kept the community united, and consolidated Islamic grip on the region by containing the Ridda, while extending the Dar Al Islam all the way to the Red Sea.

Umar

Main article: Umar

Umar ibn al-Khattab (Arabic: عمر ابن الخطاب, romanized: ʿUmar ibn al-Khattāb, c. 586–590 – 644[5]: 685 ) c. 2 November (Dhu al-Hijjah 26, 23 Hijri[6]) was a leading companion and adviser to Muhammad. His daughter Hafsa bint Umar was married to Muhammad; thus he became Muhammad's father-in-law. He became the second Muslim caliph after Muhammad's death and ruled for 10 years.[7] He succeeded Abu Bakr on 23 August 634 as the second caliph, and played a significant role in Islam. Under Umar the Islamic empire expanded at an unprecedented rate, ruling the whole Sassanid Persian Empire and more than two thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire.[8] His legislative abilities, firm political and administrative control over a rapidly expanding empire, and brilliantly coordinated multi-prong attacks against the Sassanid Persian Empire resulted in the conquest of the Persian empire in less than two years. This marked his reputation as a great political and military leader. Among his conquests are Jerusalem, Damascus, and Egypt.[9] He was killed in 644 by a Persian captive named Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz.

Uthman

Main article: Uthman

Uthman ibn Affan (Arabic: عثمان ابن عفان, romanized: ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān) (c. 579 – 17 July 656) was one of the early companions and son in law of Muhammad.Two of Muhammad and Khadija daughters Ruqayyah and Umm Kulthum were married to him one after another. Uthman was born into the Umayyad clan of Mecca, a powerful family of the Quraysh tribe. He became caliph at the age of 70. Under his leadership, the empire expanded into Fars (present-day Iran) in 650 and some areas of Khorasan (present-day Afghanistan) in 651, and the conquest of Armenia was begun in the 640s.[10] His rule ended when he was assassinated.

Uthman is perhaps best known for forming the committee which was tasked with producing copies of the Quran based on text that had been gathered separately on parchment, bones and rocks during the lifetime of Muhammad and also on a copy of the Quran that had been collated by Abu Bakr and left with Muhammad's widow after Abu Bakr's death. The committee members were also reciters of the Quran and had memorised the entire text during the lifetime of Muhammad. This work was undertaken due to the vast expansion of Islam under Uthman's rule, which encountered many different dialects and languages. This had led to variant readings of the Quran for those converts who were not familiar with the language. After clarifying any possible errors in pronunciation or dialects, Uthman sent copies of the sacred text to each of the Muslim cities and garrison towns, and destroyed variant texts.[11]

Ali

Main articles: Ali, Ali as Caliph, and First Fitna

Ali ibn Abi Talib (Arabic: علي ابن أبي طالب, romanized: ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib) was Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law.[12] In Mecca, a young Ali was the first male to embrace Islam and the person who offered his support when Muhammad first presented Islam to his relatives.[13][14][15][16][17] Later, he facilitated Muhammad's safe escape to Medina by risking his life as the decoy.[18][19][20][21][22] In Medina, Ali swore a pact of brotherhood with Muhammad and later took the hand of Muhammad's daughter, Fatimah, in marriage.[23][24][25] Ali commonly acted as Muhammad's secretary in Medina, and served as his deputy during the expedition of Tabuk.[26] Ali is often considered the most able warrior in Muhammad's army and the two were the only Muslim men who represented Islam against a Christian delegation from Najran.[27][28][29][30] Ali's role in the collection of the Quran, the central text of Islam, is deemed as one of his key contributions.[31] In Shia Islam, Ali is considered the rightful successor of Muhammad whose appointment was announced at the event of Ghadir Khumm and earlier in his prophetic mission.[32]

Shortly after Uthman's assassination in Medina, the crowds turned to Ali for leadership and were turned down initially.[33][34][35] The explanation of Will Durant for Ali's initial reluctance is that, "Genial and charitable, meditative and reserved; he [Ali] shrank from drama in which religion had been displaced by politics, and devotion by intrigue."[36] In the absence of any serious opposition and urged particularly by the Ansar and the Iraqi delegations, Ali eventually took up the mantle on 25th of Dhu al-Hijjah, 656 CE, and Muslims filled the Prophet's Mosque and its courtyard to pledge their allegiance to him.[37][38][39]

It has been suggested that Ali inherited the grave internal problems of Uthman's reign.[40][41] After his appointment as the caliph, Ali transferred his capital from Medina to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in the present-day Iraq.[42] Ali also dismissed most of Uthman's governors whom he considered corrupt, including Muawiya, Uthman's cousin.[43][44] Under a lenient Uthman, Muawiya had built a parallel power structure in Damascus that, according to Madelung, mirrored the despotism of the Roman Byzantine empire.[43][45][46] Muawiya defied Ali's orders and, once the negotiations failed, the two sides engaged in a bloody and lengthy civil war, which is known as the First Fitnah.[47][48]

After Ali's assassination in 661 CE at the mosque of Kufa, his son, Hasan, was elected caliph and adopted a similar approach towards Muawiya.[49][50][51] However, as Muawiya began to buy the loyalties of military commanders and tribal chiefs, Hasan's military campaign suffered defections in large numbers.[52][53][54] After a failed assassination attempt on his life, a wounded Hasan ceded the caliphate to Muawiya.[54][55]

Military expansion

Main article: Rashidun Caliphate § Military expansion
Further information: Arab–Byzantine wars

The Rashidun Caliphate greatly expanded Islam beyond Arabia, conquering all of Persia, Syria (637), Armenia (639), Egypt (639) and Cyprus (654).

Social policies

During his reign, Abu Bakr established the Bayt al-Mal (state treasury). Umar expanded the treasury and established a government building to administer the state finances.[56]

Upon conquest, in almost all cases, the caliphs were burdened with the maintenance and construction of roads and bridges in return for the conquered nation's political loyalty.[57]

Civil activities

Civil welfare in Islam started in the form of the construction and purchase of wells. During the caliphate, the Muslims repaired many of the aging wells in the lands they conquered.[58]

In addition to wells, the Muslims built many tanks and canals. Many canals were purchased, and new ones constructed. While some canals were excluded for the use of monks (such as a spring purchased by Talhah), and the needy, most canals were open to general public use. Some canals were constructed between settlements, such as the Saad canal that provided water to Anbar, and the Abi Musa Canal to provide water to Basra.[59]

During a famine, Umar ibn al-Khattab ordered the construction of a canal in Egypt connecting the Nile with the sea. The purpose of the canal was to facilitate the transport of grain to Arabia through a sea-route, hitherto transported only by land. The canal was constructed within a year by 'Amr ibn al-'As, and Abdus Salam Nadiv writes that "Arabia was rid of famine for all the times to come."[60]

After four floods hit Mecca after Muhammad's death, Umar ordered the construction of two dams to protect the Kaaba. He also constructed a dam near Medina to protect its fountains from flooding.[57]

Settlements

 
Islamic coin, time of the Rashidun. Imitation of Sasanid Empire ruler Khosrau II type. BYS (Bishapur) mint. Dated YE 25 = AH 36 (AD 656). Sasanian style bust imitating Khosrau II right; bismillah in margin/ Fire altar with ribbons and attendants; star and crescent flanking flames; date to left, mint name to right.

The area of Basra was very sparsely populated when it was conquered by the Muslims. During the reign of Umar, the Muslim army found it a suitable place to construct a base. Later the area was settled and a mosque was erected.[61][62][63]

Upon the conquest of Madyan, it was settled by Muslims. However, soon the environment was considered harsh, and Umar ordered the resettlement of the 40,000 settlers to Kufa. The new buildings were constructed from mud bricks instead of reeds, a material that was popular in the region, but caught fire easily.

During the conquest of Egypt the area of Fustat was used by the Muslim army as a base. Upon the conquest of Alexandria, the Muslims returned and settled in the same area. Initially the land was primarily used for pasture, but later buildings were constructed.[64]

Other already populated areas were greatly expanded. At Mosul, Arfaja al-Bariqi, at the command of Umar, constructed a fort, a few churches, a mosque and a locality for the Jewish population.[65]

Muslim views

The first four caliphs are particularly significant to modern intra-Islamic debates: for Sunni Muslims, they are models of righteous rule; for Shia Muslims, the first three of the four were usurpers. Accepted traditions of both Sunni and Shia Muslims detail disagreements and tensions between the four rightly guided caliphs.[citation needed]

Sunni view

In Sunni Islam, the application of the label 'rightly-guided' to the first caliphs signifies their status as models whose actions and opinions (Arabic: sunna) should be followed and emulated from a religious point of view.[66] In this sense, they are both 'rightly-guided' and 'rightly-guiding':[67] the religious narratives about their lives serve as a guide to right belief.[66]

They were all close companions of Muhammad, and his relatives: the daughters of Abu Bakr and Umar, Aisha and Hafsa respectively, were married to Muhammad, and two of Muhammad's daughters Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum were married to Uthman and another daughter Fatimah to Ali. Likewise, their succession was not hereditary, something that would become the custom after them, beginning with the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate. Council decision or caliph's choice determined the successor originally.[citation needed]

The Sunni have long viewed the period of the Rashidun as an exemplary system of governance—based upon Islamic righteousness and merit—which they seek to emulate. The Sunni also equate this system with the worldly success that was promised by Allah, in the Quran and hadith, to those Muslims who pursued His pleasure; this spectacular success has further added to the emulatory appeal of the Rashidun era.[68][69][70]

At the same time, it has been noted that the domination of Arabs over non-Arabs on an ethnic basis during Umar's reign and the widespread nepotism of Uthman's caliphate are in essential conflict with the call of Islam.[71][72]

Shia view

The (Twelver) Shia view is that, similar to the past prophets in the Quran,[73] the succession to Muhammad was settled by divine appointment, rather than by consensus.[74][75] In the Shia view, as with the past prophets in the Quran,[73] God chose Muhammad's successor from his family.[74][75] In particular, Muhammad announced his cousin and son-in-law, Ali, as his rightful successor shortly before his death at the event of Ghadir Khumm and on other occasions, e.g., at the event of Dhul Asheera.[32] Of course, as with the faith itself, the faithful were endowed with the free will not to follow Ali, to their own disadvantage. In the Shia view, while direct revelation ended with Muhammad's death, Ali remained the righteous guide or Imam towards God, similar to the successors of the past prophets in the Quran.[75] After Muhammad's death, Ali inherited Muhammad's divine knowledge and his authority to correctly interpret the Quran, especially its allegorical and metaphorical verses (mutashabihat).[76][77]

In the Shia view, since the time of the first prophet, Adam, the earth has never remained without an Imam, in the form of prophets and their divinely-appointed successors. Likewise, Imamate was passed on from Ali to the next Imam, Hasan, by divinely-inspired designation (nass).[78] After Hasan's death, Husayn and nine of his descendants are the Shia Imams, the last of whom, Mahdi, went into occultation in 260 AH, due to the hostility of Mahdi's enemies and the danger to his life.[79] His advent is awaited by the Shia and Sunni alike, although the Sunni hold different views about Mahdi.[80] In his absence, the vacuum in the Shia leadership is partly filled by marjaiyya and, more recently, by wilayat al-faqqih, i.e., guardianship of the Islamic jurist.[81]

Timeline

Note that a caliph's succession does not necessarily occur on the first day of the new year.

AliUthman ibn AffanUmarAbu Bakr

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Melchert (2020, p. 63; cf. p. 72, note 1)
  2. ^ a b Abbas (2021, p. 6)
  3. ^ Ernst, Carl W. (2003). Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the contemporary world. University of North Carolina Press. p. 169. ISBN 9780807828373.
  4. ^ "Abu Bakr - Muslim caliph". from the original on 2015-04-29.
  5. ^ a b Juan Eduardo Campo, Encyclopedia of Islam, Infobase Publishing, 2009
  6. ^ Ibn Kathir, "al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah", part 7.
  7. ^ Ahmed, Nazeer, Islam in Global History: From the Death of Prophet Muhammad to the First World War, American Institute of Islamic History and Cul, 2001, p. 34. ISBN 0-7388-5963-X.
  8. ^ Hourani, p. 23.
  9. ^ "The Caliphate". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. from the original on 2014-07-09. Retrieved 2014-04-16.
  10. ^ Ochsenweld, William; Fisher, Sydney Nettleton (2004). The Middle East: a history (sixth ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-244233-6.
  11. ^ Shafi', Maulana Mufti Muhammad. "Ma'ariful-Qur'an" (PDF). Retrieved 1 July 2022.
  12. ^ Momen, Moojan (1985). Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press. pp. 12–16. ISBN 9780853982005.
  13. ^ Gleave, Robert (2021). "ʿAlī B. Abī Ṭālib". In Fleet, Kate (ed.). Encyclopedia of Islam (Third ed.). Brill Reference Online.
  14. ^ Betty, Kelen (1975). Muhammad: the messenger of God. Nashville: T. Nelson. pp. 48, 49. ISBN 9780929093123.
  15. ^ Abbas (2021, p. 34)
  16. ^ Hazleton (2013, pp. 95–97)
  17. ^ Irving, Washington (1868), Mahomet and his successors, vol. 8, New York: G. P. Putnam and Son, p. 71
  18. ^ Abbas (2021, pp. 45, 46)
  19. ^ Hazleton (2013, pp. 159–161)
  20. ^ Peters, Francis (1994). Muhammad and the origins of Islam. Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 185–187. ISBN 9780791418758.
  21. ^ Kelen, Betty (1975). Muhammad: the messenger of God. Nashville: T. Nelson. pp. 85–87. ISBN 9780929093123.
  22. ^ Watt, W. Montgomery (1953). Muhammad at Mecca. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 149–151.
  23. ^ Abbas (2021, pp. 5, 48)
  24. ^ Miskinzoda, Gurdofarid (2015). "The significance of the ḥadīth of the position of Aaron for the formulation of the Shīʿī doctrine of authority". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 78 (1): 82. doi:10.1017/S0041977X14001402. S2CID 159678004.
  25. ^ Momen (1985, pp. 12, 13)
  26. ^ Miskinzoda (2015, p. 69)
  27. ^ Momen (1985, p. 13)
  28. ^ Abbas (2021, pp. 54, 112, 191)
  29. ^ Rogerson, Barnaby (2006). The heirs of the prophet Muhammad: And the roots of the Sunni-Shia schism. London: Abacus. pp. 40, 62. ISBN 9780349117577.
  30. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 15, 16)
  31. ^ Abbas (2021, p. 87)
  32. ^ a b Momen (1985, pp. 12, 15)
  33. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 142)
  34. ^ Momen (1985, p. 22)
  35. ^ Abbas (2021, p. 129)
  36. ^ Abbas (2021, p. 128)
  37. ^ Hazleton (2009, p. 99)
  38. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 141, 142)
  39. ^ Jafri, S.H.M. (1979). The Origins and Early Development of Shia Islam. London: Longman. p. 63.
  40. ^ Hazleton (2009, p. 100)
  41. ^ Momen (1985, p. 24)
  42. ^ Abbas (2021, p. 141)
  43. ^ a b Abbas (2021, p. 134)
  44. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 148)
  45. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 197)
  46. ^ Hazleton (2009, p. 183)
  47. ^ Badie, Dina (2017). After Saddam: American foreign policy and the destruction of secularism in the Middle East. Lexington Books. p. 4. ISBN 9781498539005.
  48. ^ Glassé, Cyril (2003). The new encyclopedia of Islam. Rowman Altamira. p. 423. ISBN 9780759101906.
  49. ^ Glassé (2003, p. 423)
  50. ^ Abbas (2021, p. 163)
  51. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 318)
  52. ^ Abbas (2021, p. 164)
  53. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 318–320)
  54. ^ a b Momen (1985, p. 27)
  55. ^ Hazleton (2009, p. 228)
  56. ^ Nadvi (2000), pg. 411
  57. ^ a b Nadvi (2000), pg. 408
  58. ^ Nadvi (2000), pg. 403-4
  59. ^ Nadvi (2000), pg. 405-6
  60. ^ Nadvi (2000), pg. 407-8
  61. ^ Netton, Ian Richard (2013-12-19). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Routledge. ISBN 9781135179601.
  62. ^ Fidai, Rafi Ahmad; Shaikh, N. M. (2002-01-01). THE COMPANION OF THE HOLY PROPHET. Adam Publishers & Distributors. ISBN 9788174352231.
  63. ^ Bennison, Amira K. (2011-07-30). The Great Caliphs: The Golden Age of the 'Abbasid Empire. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 9780857720269.
  64. ^ Nadvi (2000), pg. 416-7
  65. ^ Nadvi (2000), pg. 418
  66. ^ a b Melchert (2020, p. 63)
  67. ^ Melchert (2020, p. 72, note 1)
  68. ^ Jeffry R. Halverson (27 Apr 2010). Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam: The Muslim Brotherhood, Ash'arism, and Political Sunnism. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 69. ISBN 9780230106581.
  69. ^ Didier Fassin (31 Dec 2014). A Companion to Moral Anthropology (reprint ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 235. ISBN 9781118959503.
  70. ^ Cristoffel A. O. van Nieuwenhuijze (1997). Paradise Lost: Reflections on the Struggle for Authenticity in the Middle East. BRILL. p. 28. ISBN 9789004106727.
  71. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 77, 81)
  72. ^ Momen (1985, p. 21)
  73. ^ a b Madelung (1997, pp. 8–12)
  74. ^ a b Madelung (1997, p. 17)
  75. ^ a b c Momen (1985, p. 147)
  76. ^ Mavani, Hamid (2013). Religious authority and political thought in Twelver Shiʿism: From Ali to post-Khomeini. Routledge. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-135-04473-2.
  77. ^ "(Quran 3:7) It is He who has sent down to you the Book. Parts of it are definitive verses, which are the mother of the Book, while others are metaphorical..."{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  78. ^ Momen (1985, pp. 147, 153, 154)
  79. ^ Momen (1985, p. 161)
  80. ^ Momen (1985, p. 168)
  81. ^ Mavani (2013, p. 136)

Bibliography

  • Abbas, Hassan (2021). The Prophet's Heir: The life of Ali ibn Abi Talib. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300252057.
  • Hazleton, Lesley (2009). After the prophet : the epic story of the Shia-Sunni split in Islam (1st ed.). New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-52393-6. OCLC 310714958.
  • Hazleton, Lesley (2013). The first Muslim : the story of Muhammad. London: Atlantic Books. ISBN 9781782392293.
  • Madelung, Wilferd (1997). The succession to Muḥammad : a study of the early Caliphate. Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-56181-7. OCLC 33443482.
  • Melchert, Christopher (2020). "The Rightly Guided Caliphs: The Range of Views Preserved in Ḥadīth". In al-Sarhan, Saud (ed.). Political Quietism in Islam: Sunni and Shi'i Practice and Thought. London and New York: I.B. Tauris. pp. 63–79. ISBN 978-1-83860-765-4.

Further reading

External links

  •   Media related to Rashidun Caliphs at Wikimedia Commons
  • Rashidun - Encyclopaedia Britannica

January 26, 2023
rashidun, caliphs, arabic, الخلفاء, الراشدون, romanized, khulafāʾ, rāshidūn, rightly, guided, caliphs, often, simply, called, first, four, caliphs, successors, muslim, community, following, death, islamic, prophet, muhammad, bakr, umar, uthman, caliphsarabic, . The Rashidun Caliphs Arabic الخلفاء الراشدون romanized al Khulafaʾ al Rashidun lit Rightly Guided Caliphs often simply called the Rashidun are the first four caliphs lit successors who led the Muslim community following the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad Abu Bakr r 632 634 Umar r 634 644 Uthman r 644 656 and Ali r 656 661 Rashidun CaliphsArabic الخلفاء الراشدونCalligraphic representation of Rashidun CaliphsBornMecca Hejaz Arabia present day Saudi Arabia Known forCompanions of the ProphetTitleAr RashidunFamilyQurayshThe reign of these caliphs called the Rashidun Caliphate 632 661 is considered in Sunni Islam to have been rightly guided Arabic rashid meaning that it constitutes a model sunna to be followed and emulated from a religious point of view 1 Contents 1 History 1 1 Abu Bakr 1 2 Umar 1 3 Uthman 1 4 Ali 2 Military expansion 3 Social policies 3 1 Civil activities 3 2 Settlements 4 Muslim views 4 1 Sunni view 4 2 Shia view 5 Timeline 6 See also 7 Notes 7 1 Bibliography 8 Further reading 9 External linksHistory EditSee also Succession to Muhammad The first four caliphs who succeeded Muhammad are known as the Rashidun rightly guided Caliphs 2 Abu Bakr c 573 634 r 632 634 Umar ibn al Khattab c 583 644 r 634 644 often known simply as Umar or Omar Uthman ibn Affan c 573 656 r 644 656 often known simply as Uthman Othman or Osman Ali ibn Abi Talib c 600 661 r 656 661 often known simply as AliThe succession to Muhammad is the central issue that divides the Muslim community Sunni Islam according to the author Carl Ernst accepts the political status quo of their succession regardless of its justice whereas Shia Muslims largely reject the legitimacy of the first three caliphs and maintain that Muhammad had appointed Ali as his successor 2 3 Abu Bakr Edit Main article Abu Bakr Abu Bakr Arabic أ ب و ب ك ر c 573 CE unknown exact date 634 13 AH was a senior companion of Muhammad sahabah and his father in law He ruled over the Rashidun Caliphate from 632 to 634 CE when he became the first Muslim Caliph following Muhammad s death 4 As caliph Abu Bakr continued the political and administrative functions previously exercised by Muhammad Abu Bakr was called As Siddiq Arabic ا لـص ـد ي ـق The Truthful 5 and was known by that title among later generations of Sunni Muslims He prevented the recently converted Muslims from dispersing kept the community united and consolidated Islamic grip on the region by containing the Ridda while extending the Dar Al Islam all the way to the Red Sea Umar Edit Main article Umar Umar ibn al Khattab Arabic عمر ابن الخطاب romanized ʿUmar ibn al Khattab c 586 590 644 5 685 c 2 November Dhu al Hijjah 26 23 Hijri 6 was a leading companion and adviser to Muhammad His daughter Hafsa bint Umar was married to Muhammad thus he became Muhammad s father in law He became the second Muslim caliph after Muhammad s death and ruled for 10 years 7 He succeeded Abu Bakr on 23 August 634 as the second caliph and played a significant role in Islam Under Umar the Islamic empire expanded at an unprecedented rate ruling the whole Sassanid Persian Empire and more than two thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire 8 His legislative abilities firm political and administrative control over a rapidly expanding empire and brilliantly coordinated multi prong attacks against the Sassanid Persian Empire resulted in the conquest of the Persian empire in less than two years This marked his reputation as a great political and military leader Among his conquests are Jerusalem Damascus and Egypt 9 He was killed in 644 by a Persian captive named Abu Lu lu a Firuz Uthman Edit Main article Uthman Uthman ibn Affan Arabic عثمان ابن عفان romanized ʿUthman ibn ʿAffan c 579 17 July 656 was one of the early companions and son in law of Muhammad Two of Muhammad and Khadija daughters Ruqayyah and Umm Kulthum were married to him one after another Uthman was born into the Umayyad clan of Mecca a powerful family of the Quraysh tribe He became caliph at the age of 70 Under his leadership the empire expanded into Fars present day Iran in 650 and some areas of Khorasan present day Afghanistan in 651 and the conquest of Armenia was begun in the 640s 10 His rule ended when he was assassinated Uthman is perhaps best known for forming the committee which was tasked with producing copies of the Quran based on text that had been gathered separately on parchment bones and rocks during the lifetime of Muhammad and also on a copy of the Quran that had been collated by Abu Bakr and left with Muhammad s widow after Abu Bakr s death The committee members were also reciters of the Quran and had memorised the entire text during the lifetime of Muhammad This work was undertaken due to the vast expansion of Islam under Uthman s rule which encountered many different dialects and languages This had led to variant readings of the Quran for those converts who were not familiar with the language After clarifying any possible errors in pronunciation or dialects Uthman sent copies of the sacred text to each of the Muslim cities and garrison towns and destroyed variant texts 11 Ali Edit Main articles Ali Ali as Caliph and First Fitna Ali ibn Abi Talib Arabic علي ابن أبي طالب romanized ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib was Muhammad s cousin and son in law 12 In Mecca a young Ali was the first male to embrace Islam and the person who offered his support when Muhammad first presented Islam to his relatives 13 14 15 16 17 Later he facilitated Muhammad s safe escape to Medina by risking his life as the decoy 18 19 20 21 22 In Medina Ali swore a pact of brotherhood with Muhammad and later took the hand of Muhammad s daughter Fatimah in marriage 23 24 25 Ali commonly acted as Muhammad s secretary in Medina and served as his deputy during the expedition of Tabuk 26 Ali is often considered the most able warrior in Muhammad s army and the two were the only Muslim men who represented Islam against a Christian delegation from Najran 27 28 29 30 Ali s role in the collection of the Quran the central text of Islam is deemed as one of his key contributions 31 In Shia Islam Ali is considered the rightful successor of Muhammad whose appointment was announced at the event of Ghadir Khumm and earlier in his prophetic mission 32 Shortly after Uthman s assassination in Medina the crowds turned to Ali for leadership and were turned down initially 33 34 35 The explanation of Will Durant for Ali s initial reluctance is that Genial and charitable meditative and reserved he Ali shrank from drama in which religion had been displaced by politics and devotion by intrigue 36 In the absence of any serious opposition and urged particularly by the Ansar and the Iraqi delegations Ali eventually took up the mantle on 25th of Dhu al Hijjah 656 CE and Muslims filled the Prophet s Mosque and its courtyard to pledge their allegiance to him 37 38 39 It has been suggested that Ali inherited the grave internal problems of Uthman s reign 40 41 After his appointment as the caliph Ali transferred his capital from Medina to Kufa the Muslim garrison city in the present day Iraq 42 Ali also dismissed most of Uthman s governors whom he considered corrupt including Muawiya Uthman s cousin 43 44 Under a lenient Uthman Muawiya had built a parallel power structure in Damascus that according to Madelung mirrored the despotism of the Roman Byzantine empire 43 45 46 Muawiya defied Ali s orders and once the negotiations failed the two sides engaged in a bloody and lengthy civil war which is known as the First Fitnah 47 48 After Ali s assassination in 661 CE at the mosque of Kufa his son Hasan was elected caliph and adopted a similar approach towards Muawiya 49 50 51 However as Muawiya began to buy the loyalties of military commanders and tribal chiefs Hasan s military campaign suffered defections in large numbers 52 53 54 After a failed assassination attempt on his life a wounded Hasan ceded the caliphate to Muawiya 54 55 Military expansion EditMain article Rashidun Caliphate Military expansion Further information Arab Byzantine wars The Rashidun Caliphate greatly expanded Islam beyond Arabia conquering all of Persia Syria 637 Armenia 639 Egypt 639 and Cyprus 654 Social policies EditDuring his reign Abu Bakr established the Bayt al Mal state treasury Umar expanded the treasury and established a government building to administer the state finances 56 Upon conquest in almost all cases the caliphs were burdened with the maintenance and construction of roads and bridges in return for the conquered nation s political loyalty 57 Civil activities Edit Civil welfare in Islam started in the form of the construction and purchase of wells During the caliphate the Muslims repaired many of the aging wells in the lands they conquered 58 In addition to wells the Muslims built many tanks and canals Many canals were purchased and new ones constructed While some canals were excluded for the use of monks such as a spring purchased by Talhah and the needy most canals were open to general public use Some canals were constructed between settlements such as the Saad canal that provided water to Anbar and the Abi Musa Canal to provide water to Basra 59 During a famine Umar ibn al Khattab ordered the construction of a canal in Egypt connecting the Nile with the sea The purpose of the canal was to facilitate the transport of grain to Arabia through a sea route hitherto transported only by land The canal was constructed within a year by Amr ibn al As and Abdus Salam Nadiv writes that Arabia was rid of famine for all the times to come 60 After four floods hit Mecca after Muhammad s death Umar ordered the construction of two dams to protect the Kaaba He also constructed a dam near Medina to protect its fountains from flooding 57 Settlements Edit Islamic coin time of the Rashidun Imitation of Sasanid Empire ruler Khosrau II type BYS Bishapur mint Dated YE 25 AH 36 AD 656 Sasanian style bust imitating Khosrau II right bismillah in margin Fire altar with ribbons and attendants star and crescent flanking flames date to left mint name to right The area of Basra was very sparsely populated when it was conquered by the Muslims During the reign of Umar the Muslim army found it a suitable place to construct a base Later the area was settled and a mosque was erected 61 62 63 Upon the conquest of Madyan it was settled by Muslims However soon the environment was considered harsh and Umar ordered the resettlement of the 40 000 settlers to Kufa The new buildings were constructed from mud bricks instead of reeds a material that was popular in the region but caught fire easily During the conquest of Egypt the area of Fustat was used by the Muslim army as a base Upon the conquest of Alexandria the Muslims returned and settled in the same area Initially the land was primarily used for pasture but later buildings were constructed 64 Other already populated areas were greatly expanded At Mosul Arfaja al Bariqi at the command of Umar constructed a fort a few churches a mosque and a locality for the Jewish population 65 Muslim views EditThe first four caliphs are particularly significant to modern intra Islamic debates for Sunni Muslims they are models of righteous rule for Shia Muslims the first three of the four were usurpers Accepted traditions of both Sunni and Shia Muslims detail disagreements and tensions between the four rightly guided caliphs citation needed Sunni view Edit In Sunni Islam the application of the label rightly guided to the first caliphs signifies their status as models whose actions and opinions Arabic sunna should be followed and emulated from a religious point of view 66 In this sense they are both rightly guided and rightly guiding 67 the religious narratives about their lives serve as a guide to right belief 66 They were all close companions of Muhammad and his relatives the daughters of Abu Bakr and Umar Aisha and Hafsa respectively were married to Muhammad and two of Muhammad s daughters Ruqayyah Umm Kulthum were married to Uthman and another daughter Fatimah to Ali Likewise their succession was not hereditary something that would become the custom after them beginning with the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate Council decision or caliph s choice determined the successor originally citation needed The Sunni have long viewed the period of the Rashidun as an exemplary system of governance based upon Islamic righteousness and merit which they seek to emulate The Sunni also equate this system with the worldly success that was promised by Allah in the Quran and hadith to those Muslims who pursued His pleasure this spectacular success has further added to the emulatory appeal of the Rashidun era 68 69 70 At the same time it has been noted that the domination of Arabs over non Arabs on an ethnic basis during Umar s reign and the widespread nepotism of Uthman s caliphate are in essential conflict with the call of Islam 71 72 Shia view Edit The Twelver Shia view is that similar to the past prophets in the Quran 73 the succession to Muhammad was settled by divine appointment rather than by consensus 74 75 In the Shia view as with the past prophets in the Quran 73 God chose Muhammad s successor from his family 74 75 In particular Muhammad announced his cousin and son in law Ali as his rightful successor shortly before his death at the event of Ghadir Khumm and on other occasions e g at the event of Dhul Asheera 32 Of course as with the faith itself the faithful were endowed with the free will not to follow Ali to their own disadvantage In the Shia view while direct revelation ended with Muhammad s death Ali remained the righteous guide or Imam towards God similar to the successors of the past prophets in the Quran 75 After Muhammad s death Ali inherited Muhammad s divine knowledge and his authority to correctly interpret the Quran especially its allegorical and metaphorical verses mutashabihat 76 77 In the Shia view since the time of the first prophet Adam the earth has never remained without an Imam in the form of prophets and their divinely appointed successors Likewise Imamate was passed on from Ali to the next Imam Hasan by divinely inspired designation nass 78 After Hasan s death Husayn and nine of his descendants are the Shia Imams the last of whom Mahdi went into occultation in 260 AH due to the hostility of Mahdi s enemies and the danger to his life 79 His advent is awaited by the Shia and Sunni alike although the Sunni hold different views about Mahdi 80 In his absence the vacuum in the Shia leadership is partly filled by marjaiyya and more recently by wilayat al faqqih i e guardianship of the Islamic jurist 81 Timeline EditNote that a caliph s succession does not necessarily occur on the first day of the new year See also EditHadith of the ten promised paradise The Four CompanionsNotes Edit Melchert 2020 p 63 cf p 72 note 1 a b Abbas 2021 p 6 Ernst Carl W 2003 Following Muhammad Rethinking Islam in the contemporary world University of North Carolina Press p 169 ISBN 9780807828373 Abu Bakr Muslim caliph Archived from the original on 2015 04 29 a b Juan Eduardo Campo Encyclopedia of Islam Infobase Publishing 2009 Ibn Kathir al Bidayah wa al Nihayah part 7 Ahmed Nazeer Islam in Global History From the Death of Prophet Muhammad to the First World War American Institute of Islamic History and Cul 2001 p 34 ISBN 0 7388 5963 X Hourani p 23 The Caliphate Jewishvirtuallibrary org Archived from the original on 2014 07 09 Retrieved 2014 04 16 Ochsenweld William Fisher Sydney Nettleton 2004 The Middle East a history sixth ed New York McGraw Hill ISBN 0 07 244233 6 Shafi Maulana Mufti Muhammad Ma ariful Qur an PDF Retrieved 1 July 2022 Momen Moojan 1985 Introduction to Shi i Islam Yale University Press pp 12 16 ISBN 9780853982005 Gleave Robert 2021 ʿAli B Abi Ṭalib In Fleet Kate ed Encyclopedia of Islam Third ed Brill Reference Online Betty Kelen 1975 Muhammad the messenger of God Nashville T Nelson pp 48 49 ISBN 9780929093123 Abbas 2021 p 34 Hazleton 2013 pp 95 97 Irving Washington 1868 Mahomet and his successors vol 8 New York G P Putnam and Son p 71 Abbas 2021 pp 45 46 Hazleton 2013 pp 159 161 Peters Francis 1994 Muhammad and the origins of Islam Albany State University of New York Press pp 185 187 ISBN 9780791418758 Kelen Betty 1975 Muhammad the messenger of God Nashville T Nelson pp 85 87 ISBN 9780929093123 Watt W Montgomery 1953 Muhammad at Mecca Oxford Clarendon Press pp 149 151 Abbas 2021 pp 5 48 Miskinzoda Gurdofarid 2015 The significance of the ḥadith of the position of Aaron for the formulation of the Shiʿi doctrine of authority Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 78 1 82 doi 10 1017 S0041977X14001402 S2CID 159678004 Momen 1985 pp 12 13 Miskinzoda 2015 p 69 Momen 1985 p 13 Abbas 2021 pp 54 112 191 Rogerson Barnaby 2006 The heirs of the prophet Muhammad And the roots of the Sunni Shia schism London Abacus pp 40 62 ISBN 9780349117577 Madelung 1997 pp 15 16 Abbas 2021 p 87 a b Momen 1985 pp 12 15 Madelung 1997 p 142 Momen 1985 p 22 Abbas 2021 p 129 Abbas 2021 p 128 Hazleton 2009 p 99 Madelung 1997 pp 141 142 Jafri S H M 1979 The Origins and Early Development of Shia Islam London Longman p 63 Hazleton 2009 p 100 Momen 1985 p 24 Abbas 2021 p 141 a b Abbas 2021 p 134 Madelung 1997 p 148 Madelung 1997 p 197 Hazleton 2009 p 183 Badie Dina 2017 After Saddam American foreign policy and the destruction of secularism in the Middle East Lexington Books p 4 ISBN 9781498539005 Glasse Cyril 2003 The new encyclopedia of Islam Rowman Altamira p 423 ISBN 9780759101906 Glasse 2003 p 423 Abbas 2021 p 163 Madelung 1997 p 318 Abbas 2021 p 164 Madelung 1997 pp 318 320 a b Momen 1985 p 27 Hazleton 2009 p 228 Nadvi 2000 pg 411 a b Nadvi 2000 pg 408 Nadvi 2000 pg 403 4 Nadvi 2000 pg 405 6 Nadvi 2000 pg 407 8 Netton Ian Richard 2013 12 19 Encyclopaedia of Islam Routledge ISBN 9781135179601 Fidai Rafi Ahmad Shaikh N M 2002 01 01 THE COMPANION OF THE HOLY PROPHET Adam Publishers amp Distributors ISBN 9788174352231 Bennison Amira K 2011 07 30 The Great Caliphs The Golden Age of the Abbasid Empire I B Tauris ISBN 9780857720269 Nadvi 2000 pg 416 7 Nadvi 2000 pg 418 a b Melchert 2020 p 63 Melchert 2020 p 72 note 1 Jeffry R Halverson 27 Apr 2010 Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam The Muslim Brotherhood Ash arism and Political Sunnism Palgrave Macmillan p 69 ISBN 9780230106581 Didier Fassin 31 Dec 2014 A Companion to Moral Anthropology reprint ed John Wiley amp Sons p 235 ISBN 9781118959503 Cristoffel A O van Nieuwenhuijze 1997 Paradise Lost Reflections on the Struggle for Authenticity in the Middle East BRILL p 28 ISBN 9789004106727 Madelung 1997 pp 77 81 Momen 1985 p 21 a b Madelung 1997 pp 8 12 a b Madelung 1997 p 17 a b c Momen 1985 p 147 Mavani Hamid 2013 Religious authority and political thought in Twelver Shiʿism From Ali to post Khomeini Routledge p 73 ISBN 978 1 135 04473 2 Quran 3 7 It is He who has sent down to you the Book Parts of it are definitive verses which are the mother of the Book while others are metaphorical a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint url status link Momen 1985 pp 147 153 154 Momen 1985 p 161 Momen 1985 p 168 Mavani 2013 p 136 Bibliography Edit Abbas Hassan 2021 The Prophet s Heir The life of Ali ibn Abi Talib Yale University Press ISBN 9780300252057 Hazleton Lesley 2009 After the prophet the epic story of the Shia Sunni split in Islam 1st ed New York Doubleday ISBN 978 0 385 52393 6 OCLC 310714958 Hazleton Lesley 2013 The first Muslim the story of Muhammad London Atlantic Books ISBN 9781782392293 Madelung Wilferd 1997 The succession to Muḥammad a study of the early Caliphate Cambridge ISBN 0 521 56181 7 OCLC 33443482 Melchert Christopher 2020 The Rightly Guided Caliphs The Range of Views Preserved in Ḥadith In al Sarhan Saud ed Political Quietism in Islam Sunni and Shi i Practice and Thought London and New York I B Tauris pp 63 79 ISBN 978 1 83860 765 4 Further reading EditFayda Mustafa 1998 HULEFA yi RASIDIN An article published in 18th volume of Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam in Turkish Vol 18 Istanbul TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi pp 324 338 ISBN 978 97 53 89445 6 External links Edit Media related to Rashidun Caliphs at Wikimedia Commons Rashidun Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Rashidun amp oldid 1133316315, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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