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Mali

April 10, 2023

This article is about the country in West Africa. For other uses, see Mali (disambiguation).

Mali[b] (/ˈmɑːli/ (listen); French pronunciation: ​[mali]), officially the Republic of Mali,[c] is a landlocked country in West Africa. Mali is the eighth-largest country in Africa, with an area of over 1,241,238 square kilometres (479,245 sq mi). The population of Mali is 21.9 million.[10][11] 67% of its population was estimated to be under the age of 25 in 2017.[12] Its capital and largest city is Bamako. The sovereign state of Mali consists of ten regions and its borders on the north reach deep into the middle of the Sahara Desert. The country's southern part is in the Sudanian savanna, where the majority of inhabitants live, and both the Niger and Senegal rivers pass through. The country's economy centres on agriculture and mining. One of Mali's most prominent natural resources is gold, and the country is the third largest producer of gold on the African continent.[13] It also exports salt.[14]

Republic of Mali
République du Mali (French)
Motto: "Un peuple, un but, une foi" (French)
"One people, one goal, one faith"
Anthem: "Le Mali" (French)
Location of Mali (green)
Capital
and largest city
Bamako
12°39′N 8°0′W / 12.650°N 8.000°W / 12.650; -8.000
Official languagesFrench
Other languagesLanguages of Mali
Ethnic groups
Religion
(2021)[2]
Demonym(s)Malian
GovernmentUnitary semi-presidential republic under a military junta[3]
• President
Assimi Goïta (interim)
Choguel Kokalla Maïga (acting)
LegislatureNational Assembly
Formation
• Establishment of the Sudanese Republic
24 November 1958
• Merger with Senegal to create the Mali Federation
4 April 1959
• Independence from France
20 June 1960
• Dissolution of the Mali Federation
20 August 1960
• Declaration of the Republic of Mali
22 September 1960
Area
• Total
1,240,192 km2 (478,841 sq mi) (23rd)
• Water (%)
1.6
Population
• 2022 estimate
21,473,764[4] (60th)
• November 2018 census
19,329,841[5]
• Density
11.7/km2 (30.3/sq mi) (215th)
GDP (PPP)2022 estimate
• Total
$56.05 billion[6] (115th)
• Per capita
$2,609[6] (174th)
GDP (nominal)2022 estimate
• Total
$18.4 billion[6] (123nd)
• Per capita
$858[6] (175th)
Gini (2010)33.0[7]
medium
HDI (2021) 0.428[8]
low · 186th
CurrencyWest African CFA franc (XOF)
Time zoneUTC (GMT)
Date formatdd/mm/yyyy
Driving sideright[9]
Calling code+223
ISO 3166 codeML
Internet TLD.ml

Present-day Mali was once part of three extremely powerful and wealthy West African empires that controlled trans-Saharan trade: the Ghana Empire (for which Ghana is named), the Mali Empire (for which Mali is named), and the Songhai Empire. At its peak in 1300, the Mali Empire was the wealthiest country in Africa, covering an area about twice the size of modern-day France and stretched to the west coast of the continent.[15] Mali was also one of the wealthiest countries on earth, and its emperor at its zenith, Mansa Musa, is believed to be possibly the wealthiest individual in history.[16][17][18] Besides being an economic powerhouse, medieval Mali was a centre of Islam, culture and knowledge, with Timbuktu becoming a renowned place of learning with its university, one of the oldest in the world still active. The expanding Songhai Empire absorbed the empire in 1468, followed by a Moroccan army which defeated the Songhai in 1591. The Moroccan colonists established a new ruling class, the Arma, who after 1631 became virtually independent of Morocco.[citation needed] In the late 19th century, during the Scramble for Africa, France seized control of Mali, making it a part of French Sudan. French Sudan (then known as the Sudanese Republic) joined with Senegal in 1959, achieving independence in 1960 as the Mali Federation. Shortly thereafter, following Senegal's withdrawal from the federation, the Sudanese Republic declared itself the independent Republic of Mali. After a long period of one-party rule, a coup in 1991 led to the writing of a new constitution and the establishment of Mali as a democratic, multi-party state.

In January 2012, an armed conflict broke out in northern Mali, in which Tuareg rebels took control of a territory in the north, and in April declared the secession of a new state, Azawad.[19] The conflict was complicated by a military coup that took place in March[20] and later fighting between Tuareg and other rebel factions. In response to territorial gains, the French military launched Operation Serval in January 2013.[21] A month later, Malian and French forces recaptured most of the north, although the conflict still continued. Presidential elections were held on 28 July 2013, with a second-round run-off held on 11 August, and legislative elections were held on 24 November and 15 December 2013.

In the early 2020s Mali experienced two military takeovers by Assimi Goïta.

Etymology

The name Mali is taken from the name of the Mali Empire. The name means "the place where the king lives"[22] and carries a connotation of strength.[23]

Guinean writer Djibril Niane suggests in Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali (1965) that it is not impossible that Mali was the name given to one of the capitals of the emperors. 14th-century Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta reported that the capital of the Mali Empire was called Mali.[24] One Mandinka tradition tells that the legendary first emperor Sundiata Keita changed himself into a hippopotamus upon his death in the Sankarani River and that it's possible to find villages in the area of this river, termed "old Mali", which have Mali for a name. A study of Malian proverbs noted that in old Mali, there is a village called Malikoma, which means "New Mali", and that Mali could have formerly been the name of a city.[25]

Another theory suggests that Mali is a Fulani pronunciation of the name of the Mande peoples.[26][27] It is suggested that a sound shift led to the change, whereby in Fulani the alveolar segment /nd/ shifts to /l/ and the terminal vowel denasalizes and raises, leading "Manden" to shift to /mali/.[25]

History

 
The extent of the Mali Empire's peak
 
The pages above are from Timbuktu Manuscripts written in Sudani script (a form of Arabic) from the Mali Empire showing established knowledge of astronomy and mathematics. Today there are close to a million of these manuscripts found in Timbuktu alone.
 
Griots of Sambala, king of Médina (Fula people, Mali), 1890
Main article: History of Mali

Rock paintings and carvings indicate that northern Mali has been inhabited since prehistoric times when the Sahara was fertile grassland. Farming took place by 5000 BC and iron was used around 500 BC.

The rock art in the Sahara suggests that northern Mali has been inhabited since 10,000 BC, when the Sahara was fertile and rich in wildlife. Early ceramics have been discovered at the central Malian site of Ounjougou dating to about 9,400 BC, and are believed to represent an instance of the independent invention of pottery in the region.[28]

In the first millennium BC, early cities and towns were created by Mande peoples related to the Soninke people, along the middle Niger River in central Mali, including Dia which began from around 900 BC, and reached its peak around 600 BC,[29] and Djenne-Djenno, which lasted from around 300 BC to 900 AD. By the sixth century AD, the lucrative trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt and slaves had begun, facilitating the rise of West Africa's great empires.

There are a few references to Mali in early Islamic literature. Among these are references to "Pene" and "Malal" in the work of al-Bakri in 1068,[30] the story of the conversion of an early ruler, known to Ibn Khaldun (by 1397) as Barmandana,[31] and a few geographical details in the work of al-Idrisi.[32]

Mali was once part of three famed West African empires which controlled trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, other precious commodities, and slaves majorly during the reign of Mansa Musa from c. 1312 – c. 1337.[33] These Sahelian kingdoms had neither rigid geopolitical boundaries nor rigid ethnic identities.[33] The earliest of these empires was the Ghana Empire, which was dominated by the Soninke, a Mande-speaking people.[33] The empire expanded throughout West Africa from the eighth century until 1078, when it was conquered by the Almoravids.[34]

The Battle of Kirina in 1235, culminated in a victory for the Mandinka under the command of the exiled prince Sundiata Keita, which led to the downfall of the Sosso Empire.

The Mali Empire later formed on the upper Niger River, and reached the height of power in the 14th century.[34] Under the Mali Empire, the ancient cities of Djenné and Timbuktu were centers of both trade and Islamic learning.[34] The empire later declined as a result of internal intrigue, ultimately being supplanted by the Songhai Empire.[34]The Songhai had long been a major power in West Africa subject to the Mali Empire's rule.[34]

In the late 14th century, the Songhai gradually gained independence from the Mali Empire and expanded, ultimately subsuming the entire eastern portion of the Mali Empire.[34] The Songhai Empire's eventual collapse was largely the result of a Moroccan invasion in 1591, under the command of Judar Pasha.[34] The fall of the Songhai Empire marked the end of the region's role as a trading crossroads.[34] Following the establishment of sea routes by the European powers, the trans-Saharan trade routes lost significance.[34] At that time, the Mali Empire's abundance in wealth expanded its commercial assets of salt and gold.

One of the worst famines in the region's recorded history occurred in the 18th century. According to John Iliffe, "The worst crises were in the 1680s, when famine extended from the Senegambian coast to the Upper Nile and 'many sold themselves for slaves, only to get a sustenance', and especially in 1738–1756, when West Africa's greatest recorded subsistence crisis, due to drought and locusts, reportedly killed half the population of Timbuktu."[35]

French colonial rule

 
Cotton being processed in Niono into 180 kg (400 lb) bales for export to other parts of Africa and to France, c. 1950

Mali fell under the control of France during the late 19th century.[34] By 1905, most of the area was under firm French control as a part of French Sudan.[34] On 24 November 1958, French Sudan (which changed its name to the Sudanese Republic) became an autonomous republic within the French Community.[36] In January 1959, Mali and Senegal united to become the Mali Federation.[36] The Mali Federation gained independence from France on 20 June 1960.[34]

Senegal withdrew from the federation in August 1960, which allowed the Sudanese Republic to become the independent Republic of Mali on 22 September 1960, and that date is now the country's Independence Day.[37] Modibo Keïta was elected the first president.[34] Keïta quickly established a one-party state, adopted an independent African and socialist orientation with close ties to the East, and implemented extensive nationalization of economic resources.[34] In 1960, the population of Mali was reported to be about 4.1 million.[38]

Moussa Traoré

On 19 November 1968, following progressive economic decline, the Keïta regime was overthrown in a bloodless military coup led by Moussa Traoré,[39] a day which is now commemorated as Liberation Day.[40] The subsequent military-led regime, with Traoré as president, attempted to reform the economy. His efforts were frustrated by political turmoil and a devastating drought between 1968 and 1974,[39] in which famine killed thousands of people.[41] The Traoré regime faced student unrest beginning in the late 1970s and three coup attempts. The Traoré regime repressed all dissenters until the late 1980s.[39]

The government continued to attempt economic reforms, and the populace became increasingly dissatisfied.[39] In response to growing demands for multi-party democracy, the Traoré regime allowed some limited political liberalization. They refused to usher in a full-fledged democratic system.[39] In 1990, cohesive opposition movements began to emerge, and was complicated by the turbulent rise of ethnic violence in the north following the return of many Tuaregs to Mali.[39]

 
WWI Commemorative Monument to the "Armée Noire"

Anti-government protests in 1991 led to a coup, a transitional government, and a new constitution.[39] Opposition to the corrupt and dictatorial regime of General Moussa Traoré grew during the 1980s. During this time strict programs, imposed to satisfy demands of the International Monetary Fund, brought increased hardship upon the country's population, while elites close to the government supposedly lived in growing wealth. Peaceful student protests in January 1991 were brutally suppressed, with mass arrests and torture of leaders and participants.[42] Scattered acts of rioting and vandalism of public buildings followed, but most actions by the dissidents remained nonviolent.[42]

March Revolution

From 22 March through 26 March 1991, mass pro-democracy rallies and a nationwide strike was held in both urban and rural communities, which became known as les évenements ("the events") or the March Revolution. In Bamako, in response to mass demonstrations organized by university students and later joined by trade unionists and others, soldiers opened fire indiscriminately on the nonviolent demonstrators. Riots broke out briefly following the shootings. Barricades as well as roadblocks were erected and Traoré declared a state of emergency and imposed a nightly curfew. Despite an estimated loss of 300 lives over the course of four days, nonviolent protesters continued to return to Bamako each day demanding the resignation of the dictatorial president and the implementation of democratic policies.[43]

26 March 1991 is the day that marks the clash between military soldiers and peaceful demonstrating students which climaxed in the massacre of dozens under the orders of then President Moussa Traoré. He and three associates were later tried and convicted and received the death sentence for their part in the decision-making of that day. Nowadays, the day is a national holiday in order to remember the tragic events and the people who were killed.[44][unreliable source?] The coup is remembered as Mali's March Revolution of 1991.[45]

By 26 March, the growing refusal of soldiers to fire into the largely nonviolent protesting crowds turned into a full-scale tumult, and resulted in thousands of soldiers putting down their arms and joining the pro-democracy movement. That afternoon, Lieutenant Colonel Amadou Toumani Touré announced on the radio that he had arrested the dictatorial president, Moussa Traoré. As a consequence, opposition parties were legalized and a national congress of civil and political groups met to draft a new democratic constitution to be approved by a national referendum.[43]

Amadou Toumani Touré presidency

In 1992, Alpha Oumar Konaré won Mali's first democratic, multi-party presidential election, before being re-elected for a second term in 1997, which was the last allowed under the constitution. Amadou Toumani Touré, a retired general who had been the leader of the military aspect of the 1991 democratic uprising, was elected in 2002.[46] During this democratic period Mali was regarded as one of the most politically and socially stable countries in Africa.[47]

Slavery persists in Mali today with as many as 200,000 people held in direct servitude to a master.[48] In the Tuareg Rebellion of 2012, ex-slaves were a vulnerable population with reports of some slaves being recaptured by their former masters.[49]

Northern Mali conflict

Main article: Mali War
 
Tuareg separatist rebels in Mali, January 2012

In January 2012 a Tuareg rebellion began in Northern Mali, led by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA).[50] In March, military officer Amadou Sanogo seized power in a coup d'état, citing Touré's failures in quelling the rebellion, and leading to sanctions and an embargo by the Economic Community of West African States.[51] The MNLA quickly took control of the north, declaring independence as Azawad.[52] However, Islamist groups including Ansar Dine and Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), who had helped the MNLA defeat the government, turned on the Tuareg and took control of the North[53] with the goal of implementing sharia in Mali.[54][55]

On 11 January 2013, the French Armed Forces intervened at the request of the interim government. On 30 January, the coordinated advance of the French and Malian troops claimed to have retaken the last remaining Islamist stronghold of Kidal, which was also the last of three northern provincial capitals.[56] On 2 February, French president François Hollande joined Mali's interim president Dioncounda Traoré in a public appearance in recently recaptured Timbuktu.[57]

In August 2013, Ibrahim Boubacar Keita was elected as the new president of Mali after his rival admitted defeat in the second round of the election.[58]

Conflict in Central Mali

In the central Mali province of Mopti, conflict has escalated since 2015 between agricultural communities like the Dogon and the Bambara, and the pastoral Fula (or Fulani) people.[59][60] Historically, the two sides have fought over access to land and water, factors which have been exacerbated by climate change as the Fula move into new areas.[61] The Dogon and the Bambara communities have formed militias, or "self-defense groups",[60] to fight the Fula. They accuse the Fula of working with armed Islamists linked to al-Qaeda.[60] While some Fula have joined Islamist groups, Human Rights Watch reports that the links have been "exaggerated and instrumentalized by different actors for opportunistic ends".[60]

Added a top Mali military commander:

"I’ve discussed the growing violence with my commanders and with village chiefs from all sides. Yes, sure, there are jihadists in this zone, but the real problem is banditry, animal theft, score settling – people are enriching themselves using the fight against terrorists as a cover."[60]

The conflict has seen the creation and growth of Dogon and Bambara militias. The government of Mali is suspected of supporting some of these groups under the guise of they being proxies in the war against Islamists in the Northern Mali conflict.[62] The government denies this.[62] One such militia is the Dogon group Dan Na Ambassagou, created in 2016.[60]

2018 elections

Further information: 2018 Malian presidential election

Presidential elections were held in Mali on 29 July 2018.[63][64] In July 2018, the Constitutional Court approved the nomination of a total of 24 candidates in the election.[65] As no candidate received more than 50% of the vote in the first round, a runoff was held on 12 August 2018 between the top two candidates, incumbent president Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta of the Rally for Mali and Soumaïla Cissé of the Union for the Republic and Democracy. Keïta was subsequently re-elected with 67% of the vote.[66]

2018 ceasefire and aftermath

In September 2018, the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue negotiated a unilateral ceasefire with Dan Na Ambassagou "in the context of the conflict which opposes the group to other community armed groups in central Mali".[67] However, the group has been blamed for the 24 March 2019 massacre of 160 Fula villagers.[68] The group denied the attack, but afterwards Malian president Keita ordered the group to disband.[69]

The UN Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, Adama Dieng, warned of a growing ethnicization of the conflict.[70]

The United Nations reported that the number of children killed in the conflict in the first six months of 2019 was twice as many for the entire year of 2018. Many of the children have been killed in intercommunal attacks attributed to ethnic militias, with the majority of attacks occurring around Mopti. It is reported that around 900 schools have closed down and that armed militias are recruiting children.[71]

During the first week of October 2019, two jihadist attacks in the towns of Boulikessi and Mondoro killed more than 25 Mali soldiers near the border with Burkina Faso.[72] President Keïta declared that "no military coup will prevail in Mali", continuing by saying that he doesn't think it "is on the agenda at all and cannot worry us".[73]

2020 coup d'état and aftermath

Main article: 2020 Malian coup d'état
 
Members of the National Committee for the Salvation of the People, directory of the ruling junta in Mali.

Popular unrest began on 5 June 2020 following irregularities in the March and April parliamentary elections, including outrage against the kidnapping of opposition leader Soumaïla Cissé.[74][75] Between 11 and 23 deaths followed protests that took place from 10 to 13 June.[76] In July, President Keïta dissolved the constitutional court.

Members of the military led by Colonel Assimi Goïta and Colonel-Major Ismaël Wagué in Kati, Koulikoro Region, began a mutiny on 18 August 2020.[76] President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta and Prime Minister Boubou Cissé were arrested, and shortly after midnight Keïta announced his resignation, saying he did not want to see any bloodshed.[76] Wagué announced the formation of the National Committee for the Salvation of the People (CNSP) and promised elections in the future. A curfew was begun and the streets of Bamako were quiet.[76]

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) condemned the coup and demanded the reinstallation of President Keïta.[77]

On 12 September 2020, the National Committee for the Salvation of the People (CNSP) agreed to an 18-month political transition to civilian rule. Shortly after, Bah N'daw was named interim president by a group of 17 electors, with Goïta being appointed vice president. The government was inaugurated on 25 September 2020.

On 18 January 2021, the transitional government announced that the CNSP had been disbanded, almost four months after had been promised under the initial agreement.[citation needed]

2021 coup d'état

Main article: 2021 Malian coup d'état

Tensions have been high between the civilian transitional government and the military since the handover of power in September 2020.

On 24 May, tensions came to a head after a cabinet reshuffle, where two leaders of the 2020 military coup – Sadio Camara and Modibo Kone – were replaced by N'daw's administration.[78] Later that day, journalists reported that three key civilian leaders – President N'daw, Prime Minister Moctar Ouane and Defence Minister Souleymane Doucouré, were being detained in a military base in Kati, outside Bamako.[79] On 7 June 2021, Mali's military commander Assimi Goita was sworn into office as the new interim president.[80]

2022

On 10 January, Mali announced the closure of its borders and recalled several ambassadors to ECOWAS countries, in response to sanctions placed on Mali for deferring elections for four years.[81] On 4 February, France's ambassador was expelled.[82] According to Human Rights Watch (HRW) Malian troops and suspected Russian mercenaries from the Wagner group executed around 300 civilian men in central Mali in March 2022. France had withdrawn French troops from Mali in February 2022.[83] On 2 May, the military government announced breaking its defence accords concluded in 2013 with France, constituting an additional step in the deterioration of Malian-French relations.[84] This latest announcement has been criticized by French authorities and considered as "illegitimate".[85] A UN panel reported that in the first three months of 2022, 543 civilians were killed and 269 wounded, warning the 2015 peace agreement between the government and pro-independence groups was threatened by a potential risk of confrontation for the first time in five years. The report also noted a sharp increase in the number of people needing humanitarian assistance over the previous year.[86]

2023

Sergey Lavrov, the Russian foreign minister, visited Bamako, Mali, on Tuesday February 7 and said that Moscow would continue to help Bamako improve its military capabilities.[87] On February 23, Mali became one of seven countries to vote against the UN General Assembly motion calling for Russia to withdraw from Ukraine.[88]

Geography

 
Satellite image of Mali
 
Mali map of Köppen climate classification
 
Landscape in Hombori
Main article: Geography of Mali

Mali is a landlocked country in West Africa, located southwest of Algeria. It lies between latitudes 10° and 25°N, and longitudes 13°W and 5°E. Mali borders Algeria to the north-northeast, Niger to the east, Burkina Faso to the south-east, Ivory Coast to the south, Guinea to the south-west, and Senegal to the west and Mauritania to the north-west.[89]

At 1,242,248 square kilometres (479,635 sq mi), Mali is the world's 24th-largest country and is comparable in size to South Africa or Angola. Most of the country lies in the southern Sahara Desert, which produces an extremely hot, dust-laden Sudanian savanna zone.[90] Mali is mostly flat, rising to rolling northern plains covered by sand. The Adrar des Ifoghas massif lies in the northeast.

Mali lies in the torrid zone and is among the hottest countries in the world. The thermal equator, which matches the hottest spots year-round on the planet based on the mean daily annual temperature, crosses the country.[90] Most of Mali receives negligible rainfall and droughts are very frequent.[90] Late April to early October is the rainy season in the southernmost area. During this time, flooding of the Niger River is common, creating the Inner Niger Delta.[90] The vast northern desert part of Mali has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) with long, extremely hot summers and scarce rainfall which decreases northwards. The central area has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSh) with very high temperatures year-round, a long, intense dry season and a brief, irregular rainy season. The southern areas have a tropical wet and dry climate. (Köppen climate classification Aw) In review, Mali's climate is tropical, with March to May being the hot, dry season. June to October is rainy, humid and mild. November to February is the cool, dry season.

Mali has considerable natural resources, with gold, uranium, phosphates, kaolinite, salt and limestone being most widely exploited. Mali is estimated to have in excess of 17,400 tonnes of uranium (measured + indicated + inferred).[91][92] In 2012, a further uranium mineralized north zone was identified.[93] Mali faces numerous environmental challenges, including desertification, deforestation, soil erosion, and inadequate supplies of potable water.[90]

Five terrestrial ecoregions lie within Mali's borders: Sahelian Acacia savanna, West Sudanian savanna, Inner Niger Delta flooded savanna, South Saharan steppe and woodlands, and West Saharan montane xeric woodlands.[94] The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.16/10, ranking it 51st globally out of 172 countries.[95]

Regions and cercles

Main articles: Regions of Mali, Cercles of Mali, and Communes of Mali
Tombouctou RegionKidal RegionGao RegionMopti RegionKoulikoro RegionKayes RegionBamakoBamakoSikassoSégou Region 

Since 2016, Mali has been divided into ten regions and the District of Bamako.[96] Each region has a governor.[97] The implementation of the two newest regions, Taoudénit (formerly part of Tombouctou Region) and Ménaka (formerly Ménaka Cercle in Gao Region), has been ongoing since January 2016;[98][99] a governor and transitional council has been appointed for both regions.[100] The ten regions in turn are subdivided into 56 cercles and 703 communes.[101]

The régions and Capital District are:

Region name Area (km2) Population
Census 1998		 Population
Census 2009
Kayes 119,743 1,374,316 1,993,615
Koulikoro 95,848 1,570,507 2,422,108
Bamako
Capital District		 252 1,016,296 1,810,366
Sikasso 70,280 1,782,157 2,643,179
Ségou 64,821 1,675,357 2,338,349
Mopti 79,017 1,484,601 2,036,209
Tombouctou 56,435 442,619 674,793
Gao 89,532 341,542 542,304
Kidal 151,430 38,774 67,739
Taoudénit 440,176 – 18,160
Ménaka 81,040 – 54,456

Extent of central government control

In March 2012, the Malian government lost control over Tombouctou, Gao and Kidal Regions and the north-eastern portion of Mopti Region. On 6 April 2012, the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad unilaterally declared their secession from Mali as Azawad, an act that neither Mali nor the international community recognised.[102] The government later regained control over these areas.

Politics and government

Main article: Politics of Mali

Government

 
Assimi Goita, interim president of Mali since 2021 Malian coup d'état

Until the military coup of 22 March 2012,[20][103] Mali was a constitutional democracy governed by the Constitution of 12 January 1992, which was amended in 1999.[104] The constitution provides for a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government.[104] The system of government can be described as "semi-presidential".[104] Executive power is vested in a president, who is elected to a five-year term by universal suffrage and is limited to two terms.[104][105]

The president serves as a chief of state and commander in chief of the armed forces.[104][106] A prime minister appointed by the president serves as head of government and in turn appoints the Council of Ministers.[104][107] The unicameral National Assembly is Mali's sole legislative body, consisting of deputies elected to five-year terms.[108][109] Following the 2007 elections, the Alliance for Democracy and Progress held 113 of 160 seats in the assembly.[110] The assembly holds two regular sessions each year, during which it debates and votes on legislation that has been submitted by a member or by the government.[108][111]

Mali's constitution provides for an independent judiciary,[108][112] but the executive continues to exercise influence over the judiciary by virtue of power to appoint judges and oversee both judicial functions and law enforcement.[108] Mali's highest courts are the Supreme Court, which has both judicial and administrative powers, and a separate Constitutional Court that provides judicial review of legislative acts and serves as an election arbiter.[108][113] Various lower courts exist, though village chiefs and elders resolve most local disputes in rural areas.[108]

Despite continued pressure from ECOWAS, the initial timetable for a new election in February 2022 was pushed back and is now slated for February 2024.[114]

Foreign relations

Main articles: Foreign relations of Mali and France–Mali relations
 
Former President of Mali Amadou Toumani Touré and Minister-president of the Netherlands Mark Rutte

Until 2012, Mali's foreign policy orientation had become increasingly pragmatic and pro-Western over time.[115] Since the institution of a democratic form of government in 2002, Mali's relations with the West in general and with the United States in particular have improved significantly.[115] Mali has a longstanding yet ambivalent relationship with France, a former colonial ruler.[115] Mali was active in regional organizations such as the African Union until its suspension over the 2012 Malian coup d'état.[115][116]

Working to control and resolve regional conflicts, such as in Ivory Coast, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, is one of Mali's major foreign policy goals.[115] Mali feels threatened by the potential for the spillover of conflicts in neighboring states, and relations with those neighbors are often uneasy.[115] General insecurity along borders in the north, including cross-border banditry and terrorism, remain troubling issues in regional relations.[115]

In early 2019, Al Qaeda claimed responsibility for an attack on a United Nations base in Mali that killed 10 peacekeepers from Chad. 25 people were reported to have been injured in the attack. Al Qaeda's stated reason for the attack was Chad's re-establishing diplomatic ties with Israel. The base was attacked in Anguelhok, a village located in an especially unstable region of the country.[115][117]

Military

Further information: Military of Mali

Mali's military forces consist of an army, which includes land forces and air force,[118] as well as the paramilitary Gendarmerie and Republican Guard, all of which are under the control of Mali's Ministry of Defense and Veterans, headed by a civilian.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Mali
 
A market scene in Djenné
 
A proportional representation of Mali exports, 2019
 
Kalabougou potters
 
Cotton processing at CMDT

The Central Bank of West African States handles the financial affairs of Mali and additional members of the Economic Community of West African States. Mali is considered one of the poorest countries in the world.[118] The average worker's annual salary is approximately US$1,500.[119]

 
GDP per capita development of Mali

Mali underwent economic reform, beginning in 1988 by signing agreements with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.[119] During 1988 to 1996, Mali's government largely reformed public enterprises. Since the agreement, sixteen enterprises were privatized, 12 partially privatized, and 20 liquidated.[119] In 2005, the Malian government conceded a railroad company to the Savage Corporation.[119] Two major companies, Societé de Telecommunications du Mali (SOTELMA) and the Cotton Ginning Company (CMDT), were expected to be privatized in 2008.[119]

Between 1992 and 1995, Mali implemented an economic adjustment programme that resulted in economic growth and a reduction in financial imbalances[vague]. The programme increased social and economic conditions[vague], and led to Mali joining the World Trade Organization on 31 May 1995.[120]

Mali is also a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).[121] The gross domestic product (GDP) has risen since. In 2002, the GDP amounted to US$3.4 billion,[122] and increased to US$5.8 billion in 2005,[119] which amounts to an approximately 17.6% annual growth rate.

Mali is a part of the "Franc Zone" (Zone Franc), which means that it uses the CFA franc. Mali is connected with the French government by agreement since 1962 (creation of BCEAO). Today all seven countries of BCEAO (including Mali) are connected to French Central Bank.[123]

Agriculture

Mali's key industry is agriculture. Cotton is the country's largest crop export and is exported west throughout Senegal and Ivory Coast.[124][125] During 2002, 620,000 tons of cotton were produced in Mali but cotton prices declined significantly in 2003.[124][125] In addition to cotton, Mali produces rice, millet, corn, vegetables, tobacco, and tree crops. Gold, livestock and agriculture amount to 80% of Mali's exports.[119]

Eighty percent of Malian workers are employed in agriculture. 15% of Malian workers are employed in the service sector.[125] Seasonal variations lead to regular temporary unemployment of agricultural workers.[126]

Mining

In 1991, with the assistance of the International Development Association, Mali relaxed the enforcement of mining codes which led to renewed foreign interest and investment in the mining industry.[127] Gold is mined in the southern region and Mali has the third highest gold production in Africa (after South Africa and Ghana).[124]

The emergence of gold as Mali's leading export product since 1999 has helped mitigate some of the negative impact of the cotton and Ivory Coast crises.[128] Other natural resources include kaolin, salt, phosphate, and limestone.[119]

Energy

See also: List of power stations in Mali

Electricity and water are maintained by the Energie du Mali, or EDM, and textiles are generated by Industry Textile du Mali, or ITEMA.[119] Mali has made efficient use of hydroelectricity, consisting of over half of Mali's electrical power. In 2002, 700 GWh of hydroelectric power were produced in Mali.[125]

Energie du Mali is an electric company that provides electricity to Mali citizens. Only 55% of the population in cities have access to EDM.[129]

Transport infrastructure

Main article: Transport in Mali

In Mali, there is a railway that connects to bordering countries. There are also approximately 29 airports of which 8 have paved runways. Urban areas are known for their large quantity of green and white taxicabs. A significant sum of the population is dependent on public transportation.

Demographics

 
A Bozo girl in Bamako
Main article: Demographics of Mali
Population in Mali[10][11]
Year Million
1950 4.7
2000 11
2021 21.9

In 2021, Mali's population was an estimated 21.9 million[10][11]. The population is predominantly rural (68% in 2002), and 5%–10% of Malians are nomadic.[130] More than 90% of the population lives in the southern part of the country, especially in Bamako, which has over 2 million residents.[130]

In 2007, about 48% of Malians were younger than 12 years old, 49% were 15–64 years old, and 3% were 65 and older.[118] The median age was 15.9 years.[118] The birth rate in 2014 is 45.53 births per 1,000, and the total fertility rate (in 2012) was 6.4 children per woman.[118][131] The death rate in 2007 was 16.5 deaths per 1,000.[118] Life expectancy at birth was 53.06 years total (51.43 for males and 54.73 for females).[118] Mali has one of the world's highest rates of infant mortality,[130] with 106 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2007.[118]

Largest cities in Mali

For a more comprehensive list, see List of cities in Mali.
 
Largest cities or towns in Mali
According to the 2009 Census[132]
Rank Name Region Pop.
 
Bamako
 
Sikasso 		1 Bamako Bamako 1,810,366
2 Sikasso Sikasso 226,618
3 Koutiala Sikasso 141,444
4 Ségou Ségou 133,501
5 Kayes Kayes 126,319
6 Mopti Mopti 120,786
7 Kalabancoro Koulikoro 96,173
8 Gao Gao 86,353
9 Kati Koulikoro 84,500
10 San Ségou 66,967

Ethnic groups

 
The Tuareg are historic, nomadic inhabitants of northern Mali.

Mali's population encompasses a number of sub-Saharan ethnic groups. The Bambara (Bambara: Bamanankaw) are by far the largest single ethnic group, making up 36.5% of the population.[130]

Collectively, the Bambara, Soninké, Khassonké, and Malinké (also called Mandinka), all part of the broader Mandé group, constitute 50% of Mali's population.[118] Other significant groups are the Fula (French: Peul; Fula: Fulɓe) (17%), Voltaic (12%), Songhai (6%), and Tuareg and Moor (10%).[118] In Mali as well as Niger, the Moors are also known as Azawagh Arabs, named after the Azawagh region of the Sahara. They speak mainly Hassaniya Arabic which is one of the regional varieties of Arabic.[133]

In the far north, there is a division between Berber-descended Tuareg nomad populations and the darker-skinned Bella or Tamasheq people, due to the historical spread of slavery in the region.

An estimated 800,000 people in Mali are descended from slaves.[48] Slavery in Mali has persisted for centuries.[134]

The Arabic population kept slaves well into the 20th century, until slavery was suppressed by French authorities around the mid-20th century. There still persist certain hereditary servitude relationships,[135][136] and according to some estimates, even today approximately 200,000 Malians are still enslaved.[137]

Mixed European/African descendants of Muslims of Spanish, as well some French, Irish, Italian and Portuguese origins live in Mali, they are known as the Arma people (1% of the nation's population).[138]

Although Mali has enjoyed a reasonably good inter-ethnic relationships based on the long history of coexistence, some hereditary servitude and bondage relationship exist, as well as ethnic tension between settled Songhai and nomadic Tuaregs of the north.[130] Due to a backlash against the northern population after independence, Mali is now in a situation where both groups complain about discrimination on the part of the other group.[139] This conflict also plays a role in the continuing Northern Mali conflict where there is a tension between both Tuaregs and the Malian government, and the Tuaregs and radical Islamists who are trying to establish sharia law.[140]

Languages

Spoken Languages in Mali (2009 Census)[141]
Spoken Languages percent
Bambara
 
 51.82%
Fula
 
 8.29%
Dogon
 
 6.48%
Maraka / Soninké
 
 5.69%
Songhai / Zarma
 
 5.27%
Mandinka
 
 5.12%
Minyanka
 
 3.77%
Tamasheq
 
 3.18%
Senufo
 
 2.03%
Bobo
 
 1.89%
Bozo
 
 1.58%
Kassonké
 
 1.07%
Maure
 
 1%
Samogo
 
 0.43%
Dafing
 
 0.41%
Arabic
 
 0.33%
Hausa
 
 0.03%
Other Malian
 
 0.49%
Other African
 
 0.18%
Other foreign
 
 0.18%
Not Stated
 
 0.75%
Mother Tongues in Mali (2009 Census)[141]
Mother Tongues percent
Bambara
 
 46.5%
Fula
 
 9.39%
Dogon
 
 7.12%
Maraka / Soninké
 
 6.33%
Mandinka
 
 5.6%
Songhai / Zarma
 
 5.58%
Minianka
 
 4.29%
Tamasheq
 
 3.4%
Senufo
 
 2.56%
Bobo
 
 2.15%
Bozo
 
 1.85%
Kassonké
 
 1.17%
Maure
 
 1.1%
Samogo
 
 0.5%
Dafing
 
 0.46%
Arabic
 
 0.34%
Hausa
 
 0.04%
Other Malian
 
 0.55%
Other African
 
 0.31%
Other Foreign
 
 0.08%
Not Stated
 
 0.69%
Main article: Languages of Mali

While the country's official language is French, the lingua franca in Mali is Bambara, which about 80 percent of the population can communicate in.[130] Due to deteriorating relations between the Malian military junta and the French government, the Mali government announced making Bambara the official language in January 2022, although this proposal has not yet been official.[142] Over 40 other African languages are spoken by the various ethnic groups of Mali.[130]

According to the 2009 census, the languages spoken in Mali were Bambara by 51.5%, Fula by 8.3%, Dogon by 6.6% Soninké by 5.7%, Songhai by 5.3%, Mandinka by 5.2%, Minianka by 3.8%, Tamasheq by 3.2%, Sénoufo by 2%, Bobo by 1.9%, Tieyaxo Bozo by 1.6%, Kassonké by 1.1%, Maure by 1%, Dafing by 0.4%, Samogo by 0.4%, Arabic (Hassaniya) by 0.3%, other Malian languages by 0.5%, other African languages by 0.2%, Foreign languages by 0.2%, and 0.7% didn't declare their language.[143]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Mali
Religion in Mali[144]
Religion Percent
Islam
 
 90%
Christianity
 
 5%
Indigenous
 
 5%
 
An entrance to the Djinguereber mosque

Islam was introduced to West Africa in the 11th century and remains the predominant religion in much of the region. An estimated 90% of Malians are Muslim (mostly Sunni[145]), approximately 5% are Christian (about two-thirds Roman Catholic and one-third Protestant) and the remaining 5% adhere to traditional African religions such as the Dogon religion.[144] Atheism and agnosticism are believed to be rare among Malians, most of whom practice their religion daily.[146]

The constitution establishes a secular state and provides for freedom of religion, and the government largely respects this right.[146]

Islam as historically practiced in Mali has been malleable and adapted to local conditions; relations between Muslims and practitioners of minority religious faiths have generally been amicable.[146] After the 2012 imposition of sharia rule in northern parts of the country, however, Mali came to be listed high (number 7) in the Christian persecution index published by Open Doors, which described the persecution in the north as severe.[147][148]

Education

Main article: Education in Mali
 
High school students in Kati

Public education in Mali is in principle provided free of charge and is compulsory for nine years between the ages of seven and sixteen.[146] The system encompasses six years of primary education beginning at age 7, followed by six years of secondary education.[146] Mali's actual primary school enrollment rate is low, in large part because families are unable to cover the cost of uniforms, books, supplies, and other fees required to attend.[146]

In 2017, the primary school enrollment rate was 61% (65% of males and 58% of females).[149] In the late 1990s, the secondary school enrollment rate was 15% (20% of males and 10% of females).[146] The education system is plagued by a lack of schools in rural areas, as well as shortages of teachers and materials.[146]

Estimates of literacy rates in Mali range from 27–30 to 46.4%, with literacy rates significantly lower among women than men.[146] The University of Bamako, which includes four constituent universities, is the largest university in the country and enrolls approximately 60,000 undergraduate and graduate students.[150]

Health

Main article: Health in Mali

Mali faces numerous health challenges related to poverty, malnutrition, and inadequate hygiene and sanitation.[146] Mali's health and development indicators rank among the worst in the world.[146] Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 53.06 years in 2012.[151] In 2000, 62–65% of the population was estimated to have access to safe drinking water and only 69% to sanitation services of some kind.[146] In 2001, the general government expenditures on health totaled about US$4 per capita at an average exchange rate.[152]

Efforts have been made to improve nutrition, and reduce associated health problems, by encouraging women to make nutritious versions of local recipes. For example, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and the Aga Khan Foundation, trained women's groups to make equinut, a healthy and nutritional version of the traditional recipe di-dèguè (comprising peanut paste, honey and millet or rice flour). The aim was to boost nutrition and livelihoods by producing a product that women could make and sell, and which would be accepted by the local community because of its local heritage.[153]

 
Village in the Sahel region

Medical facilities in Mali are very limited, and medicines are in short supply.[152] Malaria and other arthropod-borne diseases are prevalent in Mali, as are a number of infectious diseases such as cholera and tuberculosis.[152] Mali's population also suffers from a high rate of child malnutrition and a low rate of immunization.[152] An estimated 1.9% of the adult and children population was afflicted with HIV/AIDS that year,[clarification needed] among the lowest rates in Sub-Saharan Africa.[152][dead link] An estimated 85%–91% of Mali's girls and women have had female genital mutilation (2006 and 2001 data).[154][155]

Gender equality

In 2017, Mali ranked 157th out of 160 countries in the gender inequality index as reported by the United Nations Development Programme.[156] The Malian Constitution states that it protects women's rights, however many laws exist that discriminate against women.[157] Provisions in the laws limit women's decision-making power after marriage, in which the husband becomes superior to his wife.[157] Women are blamed for not maintaining the appearance of their husbands and are also blamed for the actions of their children if they misbehave, which encourages the cultural attitude that women are inferior to men.[157] The lack of participation of women in politics is due to the idea that politics is associated with men and that women should avoid this sector.[157] Education is also an area in which boys dominate, since it is a better investment for the parents.[157] As traditional values and practices have contributed to gender inequality in Mali, conflict and lawlessness have also influenced the growing gap in gender through gender-based violence.[158] The unstable government of Mali has led to organizations like USAID attempting to improve the lives of the people, mainly women and girls' rights in order to re-engage the development of the country.[158]

Gender relations

Religion, the patriarchal norms, and gender-based violence are major negative factors shaping the life of women in Mali.[159] Patriarchal norms cause major gender inequalities and lead to male domination within the household.[159] Girls learn household activities like chores, cooking, childcare, etc. at a young age and are expected to take the main responsibility of household chores throughout their life. This hampers women's ability to enter the formal workforce and leads to a lack of education of girls.[159] Gender-based violence in Mali happens both on a national and a family level. At the national level, in 2012 the conflict in the Northern part of the country increased cases of kidnappings and rapes.[158] The conflict also reduced women's access to resources, economy, and opportunities.[158] At the household level, Malian women face gender-based violence through domestic violence, forced marriages, and marital rape.[157] The Demographic Health Survey for Mali in 2013 stated that 76% of women and 54% of men believed physical harm towards women was acceptable if the women burnt food, argued back, went out without notifying her husband, or refused sexual relations with her husband.[158]

Area of opportunity

The lack of education has increased gender inequality in Mali because not many women are working outside the household are even participating in the Public Administration sector.[159] After adjusting the entrance requirements and access to education, girls still have lower enrollment rates and less access to formal education.[159] Drop-out rates for girls are 15% higher than that of boys because they have a higher responsibility at home and most parents refuse to allow all their children to go to school, so boys tend to become educated.[159] Similarly, technical and vocational education has a lower numbers of girls participating and are inadequately distributed in the country because the training centers are focused in the urban cities.[159] Finally, higher education for girls consist of short programs because early marriages prevent most girls from pursuing a longer term education program like those in science.[159] Although women do not have the same access of education, in recent decades women have been entering and representing in decision-making positions in the Public Administration sector.[159] Out of 147 members of Parliament, 15 were women in 2010.[159] Recent decades show that women are slowly joining important decision-making positions which is changing the attitude and status of women in Mali, which has led to the promotion of women's right in the political sphere.[159]

Efforts

Legislation at the international and national levels have been implemented over the decades to help promote women's rights in Mali.[159] At the international, Mali signed the Beijing Platform for Action which suggest that women should participate in decision-making and the convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women which is the foundation to women's rights promotion.[159] At the national level, Mali's Constitution has the Decree No. 092-073P-CTSP that claims equality to all Malian citizens and discrimination is prohibited, which has not been followed.[159] The Poverty Reduction Strategy Programme (PRSP) and the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy Programme under the Malian Government seek to improve the well-being of the citizens, and changes to governance and gender in the country.[159] The Ministry for Advancement of Women, Children and the Family was created specifically for women and children so that their basics rights and needs get met under the law.[159] Although there exists legislation and policy for gender equality the institutionalization of the National Gender Policy of Mali is necessary to support the importance of women's rights.[159] Strengthening and the support of girls' and women's access to education and training is recommended to improve gender equality in Mali.[159] The involvement of international organizations like USAID assist Mali financially to enhance their development through the efforts of the improvement of women's rights.[158]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Mali
 
Konoguel Mosque tower

The varied everyday culture of Malians reflects the country's ethnic and geographic diversity.[160] Most Malians wear flowing, colorful robes called boubous that are typical of West Africa. Malians frequently participate in traditional festivals, dances, and ceremonies.[160]

Music

Main article: Music of Mali
 
Mali Dogon Dance

Malian musical traditions are derived from the griots, who are known as "Keepers of Memories".[161] Malian music is diverse and has several different genres. Some famous Malian influences in music are kora virtuoso musician Toumani Diabaté, the ngoni with Bassekou Kouyate the virtuoso of the electric jeli ngoni, the late roots and blues guitarist Ali Farka Touré, the Tuareg band Tinariwen, Khaira Arby, and several Afro-pop artists such as Salif Keita, the duo Amadou et Mariam, Oumou Sangare, Fatoumata Diawara, Rokia Traore, and Habib Koité. Dance also plays a large role in Malian culture.[162] Dance parties are common events among friends, and traditional mask dances are performed at ceremonial events.[162]

Literature

Though Mali's literature is less famous than its music,[163] Mali has always been one of Africa's liveliest intellectual centers.[164] Mali's literary tradition is passed mainly by word of mouth, with jalis reciting or singing histories and stories known by heart.[164][165] Amadou Hampâté Bâ, Mali's best-known historian, spent much of his life writing these oral traditions down for the world to remember.[165]

The best-known novel by a Malian writer is Yambo Ouologuem's Le devoir de violence, which won the 1968 Prix Renaudot but whose legacy was marred by accusations of plagiarism.[164][165] Other well-known Malian writers include Baba Traoré, Modibo Sounkalo Keita, Massa Makan Diabaté, Moussa Konaté, and Fily Dabo Sissoko.[164][165]

Sport

 
Malian children playing football in a Dogon village

The most popular sport in Mali is association football,[166][167] which became more prominent after Mali hosted the 2002 African Cup of Nations.[166][168] Most towns and cities have regular games;[168] the most popular teams nationally are Djoliba AC, Stade Malien, and Real Bamako, all based in the capital.[167] Informal games are often played by youths using a bundle of rags as a ball.[167]

Basketball is another major sport;[167][169] the Mali women's national basketball team, led by Hamchetou Maiga, competed at the 2008 Beijing Olympics.[170] Traditional wrestling (la lutte) is also somewhat common, though popularity has declined in recent years.[168] The game wari, a mancala variant, is a common pastime.[167]

Mali featured a men's national team in beach volleyball that competed at the 2018–2020 CAVB Beach Volleyball Continental Cup.[171]

Cuisine

Main article: Malian cuisine
 
Malian tea

Rice and millet are the staples of Malian cuisine, which is heavily based on cereal grains.[172][173] Grains are generally prepared with sauces made from edible leaves, such as spinach or baobab, with tomato peanut sauce, and may be accompanied by pieces of grilled meat (typically chicken, mutton, beef, or goat).[172][173] Malian cuisine varies regionally.[172][173] Other popular dishes include fufu, jollof rice, and maafe.

Media

Main article: Media of Mali

In Mali, there are several newspapers such as Les Echos, L'Essor, Info Matin, Nouvel Horizon, and Le Républicain [fr].[174] Telecommunications in Mali include 869,600 mobile phones, 45,000 televisions and 414,985 Internet users.[175]

Notable people

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Includes Christianity, No religion, Traditional African religions.
  2. ^
  3. ^
    • French: République du Mali
    • Bambara: Mali ka Fasojamana, N'Ko script: ߡߊߟߌ ߞߊ ߝߊߛߏߖߊߡߊߣߊ
    • Fula: 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, romanized: Renndaandi Maali
    • Arabic: جمهورية مالي, romanized: Jumhūriyyāt Mālī

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Bibliography

  • (PDF) (in French). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 September 2018. Retrieved 2 April 2008. A student-translated English version 12 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine is also available.
  • DiPiazza, Francesca Davis (2006). Mali in Pictures. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Learner Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8225-6591-8. from the original on 7 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
  • "Mali country profile" (PDF). Library of Congress Federal Research Division. January 2005. (PDF) from the original on 26 February 2005. Retrieved 2 April 2008. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  • Milet, Eric & Manaud, Jean-Luc (2007). Mali (in French). Editions Olizane. ISBN 978-2-88086-351-7.
  • Velton, Ross (2004). Mali. Bradt Travel Guides. ISBN 978-1-84162-077-0.

External links

  • Official website 9 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine
  •   Wikimedia Atlas of Mali
  •   Geographic data related to Mali at OpenStreetMap
  • Mali. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
  • from UCB Libraries GovPubs
  • Mali at Curlie
  • Mali profile from the BBC News
  • Possibilities and Challenges for Transitional Justice in Mali from the ICTJ
  • Facebook group about Ngoni, considered a traditional instrument of Mali; also known as Xalam, Jeli N'goni, Hoddu, Khalam, Tehardent, or Gambare.

Trade

  • Mali 2012 Trade Summary Statistics

April 10, 2023
mali, this, article, about, country, west, africa, other, uses, disambiguation, ɑː, listen, french, pronunciation, mali, officially, republic, landlocked, country, west, africa, eighth, largest, country, africa, with, area, over, square, kilometres, population. This article is about the country in West Africa For other uses see Mali disambiguation Mali b ˈ m ɑː l i listen French pronunciation mali officially the Republic of Mali c is a landlocked country in West Africa Mali is the eighth largest country in Africa with an area of over 1 241 238 square kilometres 479 245 sq mi The population of Mali is 21 9 million 10 11 67 of its population was estimated to be under the age of 25 in 2017 12 Its capital and largest city is Bamako The sovereign state of Mali consists of ten regions and its borders on the north reach deep into the middle of the Sahara Desert The country s southern part is in the Sudanian savanna where the majority of inhabitants live and both the Niger and Senegal rivers pass through The country s economy centres on agriculture and mining One of Mali s most prominent natural resources is gold and the country is the third largest producer of gold on the African continent 13 It also exports salt 14 Republic of MaliRepublique du Mali French Flag EmblemMotto Un peuple un but une foi French One people one goal one faith Anthem Le Mali French source source track track track track track Location of Mali green Capitaland largest cityBamako12 39 N 8 0 W 12 650 N 8 000 W 12 650 8 000Official languagesFrenchOther languagesLanguages of MaliEthnic groups33 3 Bambara13 3 Fula9 6 Soninke9 6 Senufo Bwa8 8 Malinke8 7 Dogon5 9 Songhai3 5 Tuareg2 1 Bobo4 5 Others 1 Religion 2021 2 95 Islam5 Others a Demonym s MalianGovernmentUnitary semi presidential republic under a military junta 3 PresidentAssimi Goita interim Prime MinisterChoguel Kokalla Maiga acting LegislatureNational AssemblyFormation Establishment of the Sudanese Republic24 November 1958 Merger with Senegal to create the Mali Federation4 April 1959 Independence from France20 June 1960 Dissolution of the Mali Federation20 August 1960 Declaration of the Republic of Mali22 September 1960Area Total1 240 192 km2 478 841 sq mi 23rd Water 1 6Population 2022 estimate21 473 764 4 60th November 2018 census19 329 841 5 Density11 7 km2 30 3 sq mi 215th GDP PPP 2022 estimate Total 56 05 billion 6 115th Per capita 2 609 6 174th GDP nominal 2022 estimate Total 18 4 billion 6 123nd Per capita 858 6 175th Gini 2010 33 0 7 mediumHDI 2021 0 428 8 low 186thCurrencyWest African CFA franc XOF Time zoneUTC GMT Date formatdd mm yyyyDriving sideright 9 Calling code 223ISO 3166 codeMLInternet TLD mlPresent day Mali was once part of three extremely powerful and wealthy West African empires that controlled trans Saharan trade the Ghana Empire for which Ghana is named the Mali Empire for which Mali is named and the Songhai Empire At its peak in 1300 the Mali Empire was the wealthiest country in Africa covering an area about twice the size of modern day France and stretched to the west coast of the continent 15 Mali was also one of the wealthiest countries on earth and its emperor at its zenith Mansa Musa is believed to be possibly the wealthiest individual in history 16 17 18 Besides being an economic powerhouse medieval Mali was a centre of Islam culture and knowledge with Timbuktu becoming a renowned place of learning with its university one of the oldest in the world still active The expanding Songhai Empire absorbed the empire in 1468 followed by a Moroccan army which defeated the Songhai in 1591 The Moroccan colonists established a new ruling class the Arma who after 1631 became virtually independent of Morocco citation needed In the late 19th century during the Scramble for Africa France seized control of Mali making it a part of French Sudan French Sudan then known as the Sudanese Republic joined with Senegal in 1959 achieving independence in 1960 as the Mali Federation Shortly thereafter following Senegal s withdrawal from the federation the Sudanese Republic declared itself the independent Republic of Mali After a long period of one party rule a coup in 1991 led to the writing of a new constitution and the establishment of Mali as a democratic multi party state In January 2012 an armed conflict broke out in northern Mali in which Tuareg rebels took control of a territory in the north and in April declared the secession of a new state Azawad 19 The conflict was complicated by a military coup that took place in March 20 and later fighting between Tuareg and other rebel factions In response to territorial gains the French military launched Operation Serval in January 2013 21 A month later Malian and French forces recaptured most of the north although the conflict still continued Presidential elections were held on 28 July 2013 with a second round run off held on 11 August and legislative elections were held on 24 November and 15 December 2013 In the early 2020s Mali experienced two military takeovers by Assimi Goita Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 French colonial rule 2 2 Moussa Traore 2 2 1 March Revolution 2 3 Amadou Toumani Toure presidency 2 4 Northern Mali conflict 2 5 Conflict in Central Mali 2 5 1 2018 elections 2 5 2 2018 ceasefire and aftermath 2 6 2020 coup d etat and aftermath 2 7 2021 coup d etat 2 8 2022 2 9 2023 3 Geography 3 1 Regions and cercles 3 1 1 Extent of central government control 4 Politics and government 4 1 Government 4 2 Foreign relations 4 3 Military 5 Economy 5 1 Agriculture 5 2 Mining 5 3 Energy 5 4 Transport infrastructure 6 Demographics 6 1 Largest cities in Mali 6 2 Ethnic groups 6 3 Languages 6 4 Religion 6 5 Education 6 6 Health 6 7 Gender equality 6 7 1 Gender relations 6 7 2 Area of opportunity 6 7 3 Efforts 7 Culture 7 1 Music 7 2 Literature 7 3 Sport 7 4 Cuisine 7 5 Media 8 Notable people 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 External links 13 1 TradeEtymology EditThe name Mali is taken from the name of the Mali Empire The name means the place where the king lives 22 and carries a connotation of strength 23 Guinean writer Djibril Niane suggests in Sundiata An Epic of Old Mali 1965 that it is not impossible that Mali was the name given to one of the capitals of the emperors 14th century Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta reported that the capital of the Mali Empire was called Mali 24 One Mandinka tradition tells that the legendary first emperor Sundiata Keita changed himself into a hippopotamus upon his death in the Sankarani River and that it s possible to find villages in the area of this river termed old Mali which have Mali for a name A study of Malian proverbs noted that in old Mali there is a village called Malikoma which means New Mali and that Mali could have formerly been the name of a city 25 Another theory suggests that Mali is a Fulani pronunciation of the name of the Mande peoples 26 27 It is suggested that a sound shift led to the change whereby in Fulani the alveolar segment nd shifts to l and the terminal vowel denasalizes and raises leading Manden to shift to mali 25 History Edit The extent of the Mali Empire s peak The pages above are from Timbuktu Manuscripts written in Sudani script a form of Arabic from the Mali Empire showing established knowledge of astronomy and mathematics Today there are close to a million of these manuscripts found in Timbuktu alone Griots of Sambala king of Medina Fula people Mali 1890 Main article History of Mali Rock paintings and carvings indicate that northern Mali has been inhabited since prehistoric times when the Sahara was fertile grassland Farming took place by 5000 BC and iron was used around 500 BC The rock art in the Sahara suggests that northern Mali has been inhabited since 10 000 BC when the Sahara was fertile and rich in wildlife Early ceramics have been discovered at the central Malian site of Ounjougou dating to about 9 400 BC and are believed to represent an instance of the independent invention of pottery in the region 28 In the first millennium BC early cities and towns were created by Mande peoples related to the Soninke people along the middle Niger River in central Mali including Dia which began from around 900 BC and reached its peak around 600 BC 29 and Djenne Djenno which lasted from around 300 BC to 900 AD By the sixth century AD the lucrative trans Saharan trade in gold salt and slaves had begun facilitating the rise of West Africa s great empires There are a few references to Mali in early Islamic literature Among these are references to Pene and Malal in the work of al Bakri in 1068 30 the story of the conversion of an early ruler known to Ibn Khaldun by 1397 as Barmandana 31 and a few geographical details in the work of al Idrisi 32 Mali was once part of three famed West African empires which controlled trans Saharan trade in gold salt other precious commodities and slaves majorly during the reign of Mansa Musa from c 1312 c 1337 33 These Sahelian kingdoms had neither rigid geopolitical boundaries nor rigid ethnic identities 33 The earliest of these empires was the Ghana Empire which was dominated by the Soninke a Mande speaking people 33 The empire expanded throughout West Africa from the eighth century until 1078 when it was conquered by the Almoravids 34 The Battle of Kirina in 1235 culminated in a victory for the Mandinka under the command of the exiled prince Sundiata Keita which led to the downfall of the Sosso Empire The Mali Empire later formed on the upper Niger River and reached the height of power in the 14th century 34 Under the Mali Empire the ancient cities of Djenne and Timbuktu were centers of both trade and Islamic learning 34 The empire later declined as a result of internal intrigue ultimately being supplanted by the Songhai Empire 34 The Songhai had long been a major power in West Africa subject to the Mali Empire s rule 34 In the late 14th century the Songhai gradually gained independence from the Mali Empire and expanded ultimately subsuming the entire eastern portion of the Mali Empire 34 The Songhai Empire s eventual collapse was largely the result of a Moroccan invasion in 1591 under the command of Judar Pasha 34 The fall of the Songhai Empire marked the end of the region s role as a trading crossroads 34 Following the establishment of sea routes by the European powers the trans Saharan trade routes lost significance 34 At that time the Mali Empire s abundance in wealth expanded its commercial assets of salt and gold One of the worst famines in the region s recorded history occurred in the 18th century According to John Iliffe The worst crises were in the 1680s when famine extended from the Senegambian coast to the Upper Nile and many sold themselves for slaves only to get a sustenance and especially in 1738 1756 when West Africa s greatest recorded subsistence crisis due to drought and locusts reportedly killed half the population of Timbuktu 35 French colonial rule Edit Cotton being processed in Niono into 180 kg 400 lb bales for export to other parts of Africa and to France c 1950 Mali fell under the control of France during the late 19th century 34 By 1905 most of the area was under firm French control as a part of French Sudan 34 On 24 November 1958 French Sudan which changed its name to the Sudanese Republic became an autonomous republic within the French Community 36 In January 1959 Mali and Senegal united to become the Mali Federation 36 The Mali Federation gained independence from France on 20 June 1960 34 Senegal withdrew from the federation in August 1960 which allowed the Sudanese Republic to become the independent Republic of Mali on 22 September 1960 and that date is now the country s Independence Day 37 Modibo Keita was elected the first president 34 Keita quickly established a one party state adopted an independent African and socialist orientation with close ties to the East and implemented extensive nationalization of economic resources 34 In 1960 the population of Mali was reported to be about 4 1 million 38 Moussa Traore Edit On 19 November 1968 following progressive economic decline the Keita regime was overthrown in a bloodless military coup led by Moussa Traore 39 a day which is now commemorated as Liberation Day 40 The subsequent military led regime with Traore as president attempted to reform the economy His efforts were frustrated by political turmoil and a devastating drought between 1968 and 1974 39 in which famine killed thousands of people 41 The Traore regime faced student unrest beginning in the late 1970s and three coup attempts The Traore regime repressed all dissenters until the late 1980s 39 The government continued to attempt economic reforms and the populace became increasingly dissatisfied 39 In response to growing demands for multi party democracy the Traore regime allowed some limited political liberalization They refused to usher in a full fledged democratic system 39 In 1990 cohesive opposition movements began to emerge and was complicated by the turbulent rise of ethnic violence in the north following the return of many Tuaregs to Mali 39 WWI Commemorative Monument to the Armee Noire Anti government protests in 1991 led to a coup a transitional government and a new constitution 39 Opposition to the corrupt and dictatorial regime of General Moussa Traore grew during the 1980s During this time strict programs imposed to satisfy demands of the International Monetary Fund brought increased hardship upon the country s population while elites close to the government supposedly lived in growing wealth Peaceful student protests in January 1991 were brutally suppressed with mass arrests and torture of leaders and participants 42 Scattered acts of rioting and vandalism of public buildings followed but most actions by the dissidents remained nonviolent 42 March Revolution Edit From 22 March through 26 March 1991 mass pro democracy rallies and a nationwide strike was held in both urban and rural communities which became known as les evenements the events or the March Revolution In Bamako in response to mass demonstrations organized by university students and later joined by trade unionists and others soldiers opened fire indiscriminately on the nonviolent demonstrators Riots broke out briefly following the shootings Barricades as well as roadblocks were erected and Traore declared a state of emergency and imposed a nightly curfew Despite an estimated loss of 300 lives over the course of four days nonviolent protesters continued to return to Bamako each day demanding the resignation of the dictatorial president and the implementation of democratic policies 43 26 March 1991 is the day that marks the clash between military soldiers and peaceful demonstrating students which climaxed in the massacre of dozens under the orders of then President Moussa Traore He and three associates were later tried and convicted and received the death sentence for their part in the decision making of that day Nowadays the day is a national holiday in order to remember the tragic events and the people who were killed 44 unreliable source The coup is remembered as Mali s March Revolution of 1991 45 By 26 March the growing refusal of soldiers to fire into the largely nonviolent protesting crowds turned into a full scale tumult and resulted in thousands of soldiers putting down their arms and joining the pro democracy movement That afternoon Lieutenant Colonel Amadou Toumani Toure announced on the radio that he had arrested the dictatorial president Moussa Traore As a consequence opposition parties were legalized and a national congress of civil and political groups met to draft a new democratic constitution to be approved by a national referendum 43 Amadou Toumani Toure presidency Edit In 1992 Alpha Oumar Konare won Mali s first democratic multi party presidential election before being re elected for a second term in 1997 which was the last allowed under the constitution Amadou Toumani Toure a retired general who had been the leader of the military aspect of the 1991 democratic uprising was elected in 2002 46 During this democratic period Mali was regarded as one of the most politically and socially stable countries in Africa 47 Slavery persists in Mali today with as many as 200 000 people held in direct servitude to a master 48 In the Tuareg Rebellion of 2012 ex slaves were a vulnerable population with reports of some slaves being recaptured by their former masters 49 Northern Mali conflict Edit Main article Mali War Tuareg separatist rebels in Mali January 2012 In January 2012 a Tuareg rebellion began in Northern Mali led by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad MNLA 50 In March military officer Amadou Sanogo seized power in a coup d etat citing Toure s failures in quelling the rebellion and leading to sanctions and an embargo by the Economic Community of West African States 51 The MNLA quickly took control of the north declaring independence as Azawad 52 However Islamist groups including Ansar Dine and Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb AQIM who had helped the MNLA defeat the government turned on the Tuareg and took control of the North 53 with the goal of implementing sharia in Mali 54 55 On 11 January 2013 the French Armed Forces intervened at the request of the interim government On 30 January the coordinated advance of the French and Malian troops claimed to have retaken the last remaining Islamist stronghold of Kidal which was also the last of three northern provincial capitals 56 On 2 February French president Francois Hollande joined Mali s interim president Dioncounda Traore in a public appearance in recently recaptured Timbuktu 57 In August 2013 Ibrahim Boubacar Keita was elected as the new president of Mali after his rival admitted defeat in the second round of the election 58 Conflict in Central Mali Edit In the central Mali province of Mopti conflict has escalated since 2015 between agricultural communities like the Dogon and the Bambara and the pastoral Fula or Fulani people 59 60 Historically the two sides have fought over access to land and water factors which have been exacerbated by climate change as the Fula move into new areas 61 The Dogon and the Bambara communities have formed militias or self defense groups 60 to fight the Fula They accuse the Fula of working with armed Islamists linked to al Qaeda 60 While some Fula have joined Islamist groups Human Rights Watch reports that the links have been exaggerated and instrumentalized by different actors for opportunistic ends 60 Added a top Mali military commander I ve discussed the growing violence with my commanders and with village chiefs from all sides Yes sure there are jihadists in this zone but the real problem is banditry animal theft score settling people are enriching themselves using the fight against terrorists as a cover 60 The conflict has seen the creation and growth of Dogon and Bambara militias The government of Mali is suspected of supporting some of these groups under the guise of they being proxies in the war against Islamists in the Northern Mali conflict 62 The government denies this 62 One such militia is the Dogon group Dan Na Ambassagou created in 2016 60 2018 elections Edit Further information 2018 Malian presidential election Presidential elections were held in Mali on 29 July 2018 63 64 In July 2018 the Constitutional Court approved the nomination of a total of 24 candidates in the election 65 As no candidate received more than 50 of the vote in the first round a runoff was held on 12 August 2018 between the top two candidates incumbent president Ibrahim Boubacar Keita of the Rally for Mali and Soumaila Cisse of the Union for the Republic and Democracy Keita was subsequently re elected with 67 of the vote 66 2018 ceasefire and aftermath Edit In September 2018 the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue negotiated a unilateral ceasefire with Dan Na Ambassagou in the context of the conflict which opposes the group to other community armed groups in central Mali 67 However the group has been blamed for the 24 March 2019 massacre of 160 Fula villagers 68 The group denied the attack but afterwards Malian president Keita ordered the group to disband 69 The UN Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide Adama Dieng warned of a growing ethnicization of the conflict 70 The United Nations reported that the number of children killed in the conflict in the first six months of 2019 was twice as many for the entire year of 2018 Many of the children have been killed in intercommunal attacks attributed to ethnic militias with the majority of attacks occurring around Mopti It is reported that around 900 schools have closed down and that armed militias are recruiting children 71 During the first week of October 2019 two jihadist attacks in the towns of Boulikessi and Mondoro killed more than 25 Mali soldiers near the border with Burkina Faso 72 President Keita declared that no military coup will prevail in Mali continuing by saying that he doesn t think it is on the agenda at all and cannot worry us 73 2020 coup d etat and aftermath Edit Main article 2020 Malian coup d etat Members of the National Committee for the Salvation of the People directory of the ruling junta in Mali Popular unrest began on 5 June 2020 following irregularities in the March and April parliamentary elections including outrage against the kidnapping of opposition leader Soumaila Cisse 74 75 Between 11 and 23 deaths followed protests that took place from 10 to 13 June 76 In July President Keita dissolved the constitutional court Members of the military led by Colonel Assimi Goita and Colonel Major Ismael Wague in Kati Koulikoro Region began a mutiny on 18 August 2020 76 President Ibrahim Boubacar Keita and Prime Minister Boubou Cisse were arrested and shortly after midnight Keita announced his resignation saying he did not want to see any bloodshed 76 Wague announced the formation of the National Committee for the Salvation of the People CNSP and promised elections in the future A curfew was begun and the streets of Bamako were quiet 76 The Economic Community of West African States ECOWAS condemned the coup and demanded the reinstallation of President Keita 77 On 12 September 2020 the National Committee for the Salvation of the People CNSP agreed to an 18 month political transition to civilian rule Shortly after Bah N daw was named interim president by a group of 17 electors with Goita being appointed vice president The government was inaugurated on 25 September 2020 On 18 January 2021 the transitional government announced that the CNSP had been disbanded almost four months after had been promised under the initial agreement citation needed 2021 coup d etat Edit Main article 2021 Malian coup d etat Tensions have been high between the civilian transitional government and the military since the handover of power in September 2020 On 24 May tensions came to a head after a cabinet reshuffle where two leaders of the 2020 military coup Sadio Camara and Modibo Kone were replaced by N daw s administration 78 Later that day journalists reported that three key civilian leaders President N daw Prime Minister Moctar Ouane and Defence Minister Souleymane Doucoure were being detained in a military base in Kati outside Bamako 79 On 7 June 2021 Mali s military commander Assimi Goita was sworn into office as the new interim president 80 2022 Edit On 10 January Mali announced the closure of its borders and recalled several ambassadors to ECOWAS countries in response to sanctions placed on Mali for deferring elections for four years 81 On 4 February France s ambassador was expelled 82 According to Human Rights Watch HRW Malian troops and suspected Russian mercenaries from the Wagner group executed around 300 civilian men in central Mali in March 2022 France had withdrawn French troops from Mali in February 2022 83 On 2 May the military government announced breaking its defence accords concluded in 2013 with France constituting an additional step in the deterioration of Malian French relations 84 This latest announcement has been criticized by French authorities and considered as illegitimate 85 A UN panel reported that in the first three months of 2022 543 civilians were killed and 269 wounded warning the 2015 peace agreement between the government and pro independence groups was threatened by a potential risk of confrontation for the first time in five years The report also noted a sharp increase in the number of people needing humanitarian assistance over the previous year 86 2023 Edit Sergey Lavrov the Russian foreign minister visited Bamako Mali on Tuesday February 7 and said that Moscow would continue to help Bamako improve its military capabilities 87 On February 23 Mali became one of seven countries to vote against the UN General Assembly motion calling for Russia to withdraw from Ukraine 88 Geography Edit Satellite image of Mali Mali map of Koppen climate classification Landscape in Hombori Main article Geography of Mali Mali is a landlocked country in West Africa located southwest of Algeria It lies between latitudes 10 and 25 N and longitudes 13 W and 5 E Mali borders Algeria to the north northeast Niger to the east Burkina Faso to the south east Ivory Coast to the south Guinea to the south west and Senegal to the west and Mauritania to the north west 89 At 1 242 248 square kilometres 479 635 sq mi Mali is the world s 24th largest country and is comparable in size to South Africa or Angola Most of the country lies in the southern Sahara Desert which produces an extremely hot dust laden Sudanian savanna zone 90 Mali is mostly flat rising to rolling northern plains covered by sand The Adrar des Ifoghas massif lies in the northeast Mali lies in the torrid zone and is among the hottest countries in the world The thermal equator which matches the hottest spots year round on the planet based on the mean daily annual temperature crosses the country 90 Most of Mali receives negligible rainfall and droughts are very frequent 90 Late April to early October is the rainy season in the southernmost area During this time flooding of the Niger River is common creating the Inner Niger Delta 90 The vast northern desert part of Mali has a hot desert climate Koppen climate classification BWh with long extremely hot summers and scarce rainfall which decreases northwards The central area has a hot semi arid climate Koppen climate classification BSh with very high temperatures year round a long intense dry season and a brief irregular rainy season The southern areas have a tropical wet and dry climate Koppen climate classification Aw In review Mali s climate is tropical with March to May being the hot dry season June to October is rainy humid and mild November to February is the cool dry season Mali has considerable natural resources with gold uranium phosphates kaolinite salt and limestone being most widely exploited Mali is estimated to have in excess of 17 400 tonnes of uranium measured indicated inferred 91 92 In 2012 a further uranium mineralized north zone was identified 93 Mali faces numerous environmental challenges including desertification deforestation soil erosion and inadequate supplies of potable water 90 Five terrestrial ecoregions lie within Mali s borders Sahelian Acacia savanna West Sudanian savanna Inner Niger Delta flooded savanna South Saharan steppe and woodlands and West Saharan montane xeric woodlands 94 The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7 16 10 ranking it 51st globally out of 172 countries 95 Regions and cercles Edit Main articles Regions of Mali Cercles of Mali and Communes of Mali Since 2016 Mali has been divided into ten regions and the District of Bamako 96 Each region has a governor 97 The implementation of the two newest regions Taoudenit formerly part of Tombouctou Region and Menaka formerly Menaka Cercle in Gao Region has been ongoing since January 2016 98 99 a governor and transitional council has been appointed for both regions 100 The ten regions in turn are subdivided into 56 cercles and 703 communes 101 The regions and Capital District are Region name Area km2 PopulationCensus 1998 PopulationCensus 2009Kayes 119 743 1 374 316 1 993 615Koulikoro 95 848 1 570 507 2 422 108BamakoCapital District 252 1 016 296 1 810 366Sikasso 70 280 1 782 157 2 643 179Segou 64 821 1 675 357 2 338 349Mopti 79 017 1 484 601 2 036 209Tombouctou 56 435 442 619 674 793Gao 89 532 341 542 542 304Kidal 151 430 38 774 67 739Taoudenit 440 176 18 160Menaka 81 040 54 456Extent of central government control Edit In March 2012 the Malian government lost control over Tombouctou Gao and Kidal Regions and the north eastern portion of Mopti Region On 6 April 2012 the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad unilaterally declared their secession from Mali as Azawad an act that neither Mali nor the international community recognised 102 The government later regained control over these areas Politics and government EditMain article Politics of Mali Government Edit Assimi Goita interim president of Mali since 2021 Malian coup d etat Until the military coup of 22 March 2012 20 103 Mali was a constitutional democracy governed by the Constitution of 12 January 1992 which was amended in 1999 104 The constitution provides for a separation of powers among the executive legislative and judicial branches of government 104 The system of government can be described as semi presidential 104 Executive power is vested in a president who is elected to a five year term by universal suffrage and is limited to two terms 104 105 The president serves as a chief of state and commander in chief of the armed forces 104 106 A prime minister appointed by the president serves as head of government and in turn appoints the Council of Ministers 104 107 The unicameral National Assembly is Mali s sole legislative body consisting of deputies elected to five year terms 108 109 Following the 2007 elections the Alliance for Democracy and Progress held 113 of 160 seats in the assembly 110 The assembly holds two regular sessions each year during which it debates and votes on legislation that has been submitted by a member or by the government 108 111 Mali s constitution provides for an independent judiciary 108 112 but the executive continues to exercise influence over the judiciary by virtue of power to appoint judges and oversee both judicial functions and law enforcement 108 Mali s highest courts are the Supreme Court which has both judicial and administrative powers and a separate Constitutional Court that provides judicial review of legislative acts and serves as an election arbiter 108 113 Various lower courts exist though village chiefs and elders resolve most local disputes in rural areas 108 Despite continued pressure from ECOWAS the initial timetable for a new election in February 2022 was pushed back and is now slated for February 2024 114 Foreign relations Edit Main articles Foreign relations of Mali and France Mali relations Former President of Mali Amadou Toumani Toure and Minister president of the Netherlands Mark Rutte Until 2012 Mali s foreign policy orientation had become increasingly pragmatic and pro Western over time 115 Since the institution of a democratic form of government in 2002 Mali s relations with the West in general and with the United States in particular have improved significantly 115 Mali has a longstanding yet ambivalent relationship with France a former colonial ruler 115 Mali was active in regional organizations such as the African Union until its suspension over the 2012 Malian coup d etat 115 116 Working to control and resolve regional conflicts such as in Ivory Coast Liberia and Sierra Leone is one of Mali s major foreign policy goals 115 Mali feels threatened by the potential for the spillover of conflicts in neighboring states and relations with those neighbors are often uneasy 115 General insecurity along borders in the north including cross border banditry and terrorism remain troubling issues in regional relations 115 In early 2019 Al Qaeda claimed responsibility for an attack on a United Nations base in Mali that killed 10 peacekeepers from Chad 25 people were reported to have been injured in the attack Al Qaeda s stated reason for the attack was Chad s re establishing diplomatic ties with Israel The base was attacked in Anguelhok a village located in an especially unstable region of the country 115 117 Military Edit Further information Military of Mali Mali s military forces consist of an army which includes land forces and air force 118 as well as the paramilitary Gendarmerie and Republican Guard all of which are under the control of Mali s Ministry of Defense and Veterans headed by a civilian Economy EditMain article Economy of Mali This section may be confusing or unclear to readers Please help clarify the section There might be a discussion about this on the talk page July 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message A market scene in Djenne A proportional representation of Mali exports 2019 Kalabougou potters Cotton processing at CMDT The Central Bank of West African States handles the financial affairs of Mali and additional members of the Economic Community of West African States Mali is considered one of the poorest countries in the world 118 The average worker s annual salary is approximately US 1 500 119 GDP per capita development of Mali Mali underwent economic reform beginning in 1988 by signing agreements with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund 119 During 1988 to 1996 Mali s government largely reformed public enterprises Since the agreement sixteen enterprises were privatized 12 partially privatized and 20 liquidated 119 In 2005 the Malian government conceded a railroad company to the Savage Corporation 119 Two major companies Societe de Telecommunications du Mali SOTELMA and the Cotton Ginning Company CMDT were expected to be privatized in 2008 119 Between 1992 and 1995 Mali implemented an economic adjustment programme that resulted in economic growth and a reduction in financial imbalances vague The programme increased social and economic conditions vague and led to Mali joining the World Trade Organization on 31 May 1995 120 Mali is also a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa OHADA 121 The gross domestic product GDP has risen since In 2002 the GDP amounted to US 3 4 billion 122 and increased to US 5 8 billion in 2005 119 which amounts to an approximately 17 6 annual growth rate Mali is a part of the Franc Zone Zone Franc which means that it uses the CFA franc Mali is connected with the French government by agreement since 1962 creation of BCEAO Today all seven countries of BCEAO including Mali are connected to French Central Bank 123 Agriculture Edit Mali s key industry is agriculture Cotton is the country s largest crop export and is exported west throughout Senegal and Ivory Coast 124 125 During 2002 620 000 tons of cotton were produced in Mali but cotton prices declined significantly in 2003 124 125 In addition to cotton Mali produces rice millet corn vegetables tobacco and tree crops Gold livestock and agriculture amount to 80 of Mali s exports 119 Eighty percent of Malian workers are employed in agriculture 15 of Malian workers are employed in the service sector 125 Seasonal variations lead to regular temporary unemployment of agricultural workers 126 Mining Edit In 1991 with the assistance of the International Development Association Mali relaxed the enforcement of mining codes which led to renewed foreign interest and investment in the mining industry 127 Gold is mined in the southern region and Mali has the third highest gold production in Africa after South Africa and Ghana 124 The emergence of gold as Mali s leading export product since 1999 has helped mitigate some of the negative impact of the cotton and Ivory Coast crises 128 Other natural resources include kaolin salt phosphate and limestone 119 Energy Edit See also List of power stations in Mali Electricity and water are maintained by the Energie du Mali or EDM and textiles are generated by Industry Textile du Mali or ITEMA 119 Mali has made efficient use of hydroelectricity consisting of over half of Mali s electrical power In 2002 700 GWh of hydroelectric power were produced in Mali 125 Energie du Mali is an electric company that provides electricity to Mali citizens Only 55 of the population in cities have access to EDM 129 Transport infrastructure Edit Main article Transport in Mali In Mali there is a railway that connects to bordering countries There are also approximately 29 airports of which 8 have paved runways Urban areas are known for their large quantity of green and white taxicabs A significant sum of the population is dependent on public transportation Demographics Edit A Bozo girl in Bamako Main article Demographics of Mali Population in Mali 10 11 Year Million1950 4 72000 112021 21 9In 2021 Mali s population was an estimated 21 9 million 10 11 The population is predominantly rural 68 in 2002 and 5 10 of Malians are nomadic 130 More than 90 of the population lives in the southern part of the country especially in Bamako which has over 2 million residents 130 In 2007 about 48 of Malians were younger than 12 years old 49 were 15 64 years old and 3 were 65 and older 118 The median age was 15 9 years 118 The birth rate in 2014 is 45 53 births per 1 000 and the total fertility rate in 2012 was 6 4 children per woman 118 131 The death rate in 2007 was 16 5 deaths per 1 000 118 Life expectancy at birth was 53 06 years total 51 43 for males and 54 73 for females 118 Mali has one of the world s highest rates of infant mortality 130 with 106 deaths per 1 000 live births in 2007 118 Largest cities in Mali Edit For a more comprehensive list see List of cities in Mali vte Largest cities or towns in Mali According to the 2009 Census 132 Rank Name Region Pop Bamako Sikasso 1 Bamako Bamako 1 810 3662 Sikasso Sikasso 226 6183 Koutiala Sikasso 141 4444 Segou Segou 133 5015 Kayes Kayes 126 3196 Mopti Mopti 120 7867 Kalabancoro Koulikoro 96 1738 Gao Gao 86 3539 Kati Koulikoro 84 50010 San Segou 66 967 Ethnic groups Edit The Tuareg are historic nomadic inhabitants of northern Mali Mali s population encompasses a number of sub Saharan ethnic groups The Bambara Bambara Bamanankaw are by far the largest single ethnic group making up 36 5 of the population 130 Collectively the Bambara Soninke Khassonke and Malinke also called Mandinka all part of the broader Mande group constitute 50 of Mali s population 118 Other significant groups are the Fula French Peul Fula Fulɓe 17 Voltaic 12 Songhai 6 and Tuareg and Moor 10 118 In Mali as well as Niger the Moors are also known as Azawagh Arabs named after the Azawagh region of the Sahara They speak mainly Hassaniya Arabic which is one of the regional varieties of Arabic 133 In the far north there is a division between Berber descended Tuareg nomad populations and the darker skinned Bella or Tamasheq people due to the historical spread of slavery in the region An estimated 800 000 people in Mali are descended from slaves 48 Slavery in Mali has persisted for centuries 134 The Arabic population kept slaves well into the 20th century until slavery was suppressed by French authorities around the mid 20th century There still persist certain hereditary servitude relationships 135 136 and according to some estimates even today approximately 200 000 Malians are still enslaved 137 Mixed European African descendants of Muslims of Spanish as well some French Irish Italian and Portuguese origins live in Mali they are known as the Arma people 1 of the nation s population 138 Although Mali has enjoyed a reasonably good inter ethnic relationships based on the long history of coexistence some hereditary servitude and bondage relationship exist as well as ethnic tension between settled Songhai and nomadic Tuaregs of the north 130 Due to a backlash against the northern population after independence Mali is now in a situation where both groups complain about discrimination on the part of the other group 139 This conflict also plays a role in the continuing Northern Mali conflict where there is a tension between both Tuaregs and the Malian government and the Tuaregs and radical Islamists who are trying to establish sharia law 140 Languages Edit Spoken Languages in Mali 2009 Census 141 Spoken Languages percentBambara 51 82 Fula 8 29 Dogon 6 48 Maraka Soninke 5 69 Songhai Zarma 5 27 Mandinka 5 12 Minyanka 3 77 Tamasheq 3 18 Senufo 2 03 Bobo 1 89 Bozo 1 58 Kassonke 1 07 Maure 1 Samogo 0 43 Dafing 0 41 Arabic 0 33 Hausa 0 03 Other Malian 0 49 Other African 0 18 Other foreign 0 18 Not Stated 0 75 Mother Tongues in Mali 2009 Census 141 Mother Tongues percentBambara 46 5 Fula 9 39 Dogon 7 12 Maraka Soninke 6 33 Mandinka 5 6 Songhai Zarma 5 58 Minianka 4 29 Tamasheq 3 4 Senufo 2 56 Bobo 2 15 Bozo 1 85 Kassonke 1 17 Maure 1 1 Samogo 0 5 Dafing 0 46 Arabic 0 34 Hausa 0 04 Other Malian 0 55 Other African 0 31 Other Foreign 0 08 Not Stated 0 69 Main article Languages of Mali While the country s official language is French the lingua franca in Mali is Bambara which about 80 percent of the population can communicate in 130 Due to deteriorating relations between the Malian military junta and the French government the Mali government announced making Bambara the official language in January 2022 although this proposal has not yet been official 142 Over 40 other African languages are spoken by the various ethnic groups of Mali 130 According to the 2009 census the languages spoken in Mali were Bambara by 51 5 Fula by 8 3 Dogon by 6 6 Soninke by 5 7 Songhai by 5 3 Mandinka by 5 2 Minianka by 3 8 Tamasheq by 3 2 Senoufo by 2 Bobo by 1 9 Tieyaxo Bozo by 1 6 Kassonke by 1 1 Maure by 1 Dafing by 0 4 Samogo by 0 4 Arabic Hassaniya by 0 3 other Malian languages by 0 5 other African languages by 0 2 Foreign languages by 0 2 and 0 7 didn t declare their language 143 Religion Edit Main article Religion in Mali Religion in Mali 144 Religion PercentIslam 90 Christianity 5 Indigenous 5 An entrance to the Djinguereber mosque Islam was introduced to West Africa in the 11th century and remains the predominant religion in much of the region An estimated 90 of Malians are Muslim mostly Sunni 145 approximately 5 are Christian about two thirds Roman Catholic and one third Protestant and the remaining 5 adhere to traditional African religions such as the Dogon religion 144 Atheism and agnosticism are believed to be rare among Malians most of whom practice their religion daily 146 The constitution establishes a secular state and provides for freedom of religion and the government largely respects this right 146 Islam as historically practiced in Mali has been malleable and adapted to local conditions relations between Muslims and practitioners of minority religious faiths have generally been amicable 146 After the 2012 imposition of sharia rule in northern parts of the country however Mali came to be listed high number 7 in the Christian persecution index published by Open Doors which described the persecution in the north as severe 147 148 Education Edit Main article Education in Mali High school students in Kati Public education in Mali is in principle provided free of charge and is compulsory for nine years between the ages of seven and sixteen 146 The system encompasses six years of primary education beginning at age 7 followed by six years of secondary education 146 Mali s actual primary school enrollment rate is low in large part because families are unable to cover the cost of uniforms books supplies and other fees required to attend 146 In 2017 the primary school enrollment rate was 61 65 of males and 58 of females 149 In the late 1990s the secondary school enrollment rate was 15 20 of males and 10 of females 146 The education system is plagued by a lack of schools in rural areas as well as shortages of teachers and materials 146 Estimates of literacy rates in Mali range from 27 30 to 46 4 with literacy rates significantly lower among women than men 146 The University of Bamako which includes four constituent universities is the largest university in the country and enrolls approximately 60 000 undergraduate and graduate students 150 Health Edit Main article Health in Mali Mali faces numerous health challenges related to poverty malnutrition and inadequate hygiene and sanitation 146 Mali s health and development indicators rank among the worst in the world 146 Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 53 06 years in 2012 151 In 2000 62 65 of the population was estimated to have access to safe drinking water and only 69 to sanitation services of some kind 146 In 2001 the general government expenditures on health totaled about US 4 per capita at an average exchange rate 152 Efforts have been made to improve nutrition and reduce associated health problems by encouraging women to make nutritious versions of local recipes For example the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics ICRISAT and the Aga Khan Foundation trained women s groups to make equinut a healthy and nutritional version of the traditional recipe di degue comprising peanut paste honey and millet or rice flour The aim was to boost nutrition and livelihoods by producing a product that women could make and sell and which would be accepted by the local community because of its local heritage 153 Village in the Sahel region Medical facilities in Mali are very limited and medicines are in short supply 152 Malaria and other arthropod borne diseases are prevalent in Mali as are a number of infectious diseases such as cholera and tuberculosis 152 Mali s population also suffers from a high rate of child malnutrition and a low rate of immunization 152 An estimated 1 9 of the adult and children population was afflicted with HIV AIDS that year clarification needed among the lowest rates in Sub Saharan Africa 152 dead link An estimated 85 91 of Mali s girls and women have had female genital mutilation 2006 and 2001 data 154 155 Gender equality Edit In 2017 Mali ranked 157th out of 160 countries in the gender inequality index as reported by the United Nations Development Programme 156 The Malian Constitution states that it protects women s rights however many laws exist that discriminate against women 157 Provisions in the laws limit women s decision making power after marriage in which the husband becomes superior to his wife 157 Women are blamed for not maintaining the appearance of their husbands and are also blamed for the actions of their children if they misbehave which encourages the cultural attitude that women are inferior to men 157 The lack of participation of women in politics is due to the idea that politics is associated with men and that women should avoid this sector 157 Education is also an area in which boys dominate since it is a better investment for the parents 157 As traditional values and practices have contributed to gender inequality in Mali conflict and lawlessness have also influenced the growing gap in gender through gender based violence 158 The unstable government of Mali has led to organizations like USAID attempting to improve the lives of the people mainly women and girls rights in order to re engage the development of the country 158 Gender relations Edit Religion the patriarchal norms and gender based violence are major negative factors shaping the life of women in Mali 159 Patriarchal norms cause major gender inequalities and lead to male domination within the household 159 Girls learn household activities like chores cooking childcare etc at a young age and are expected to take the main responsibility of household chores throughout their life This hampers women s ability to enter the formal workforce and leads to a lack of education of girls 159 Gender based violence in Mali happens both on a national and a family level At the national level in 2012 the conflict in the Northern part of the country increased cases of kidnappings and rapes 158 The conflict also reduced women s access to resources economy and opportunities 158 At the household level Malian women face gender based violence through domestic violence forced marriages and marital rape 157 The Demographic Health Survey for Mali in 2013 stated that 76 of women and 54 of men believed physical harm towards women was acceptable if the women burnt food argued back went out without notifying her husband or refused sexual relations with her husband 158 Area of opportunity Edit The lack of education has increased gender inequality in Mali because not many women are working outside the household are even participating in the Public Administration sector 159 After adjusting the entrance requirements and access to education girls still have lower enrollment rates and less access to formal education 159 Drop out rates for girls are 15 higher than that of boys because they have a higher responsibility at home and most parents refuse to allow all their children to go to school so boys tend to become educated 159 Similarly technical and vocational education has a lower numbers of girls participating and are inadequately distributed in the country because the training centers are focused in the urban cities 159 Finally higher education for girls consist of short programs because early marriages prevent most girls from pursuing a longer term education program like those in science 159 Although women do not have the same access of education in recent decades women have been entering and representing in decision making positions in the Public Administration sector 159 Out of 147 members of Parliament 15 were women in 2010 159 Recent decades show that women are slowly joining important decision making positions which is changing the attitude and status of women in Mali which has led to the promotion of women s right in the political sphere 159 Efforts Edit Legislation at the international and national levels have been implemented over the decades to help promote women s rights in Mali 159 At the international Mali signed the Beijing Platform for Action which suggest that women should participate in decision making and the convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women which is the foundation to women s rights promotion 159 At the national level Mali s Constitution has the Decree No 092 073P CTSP that claims equality to all Malian citizens and discrimination is prohibited which has not been followed 159 The Poverty Reduction Strategy Programme PRSP and the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy Programme under the Malian Government seek to improve the well being of the citizens and changes to governance and gender in the country 159 The Ministry for Advancement of Women Children and the Family was created specifically for women and children so that their basics rights and needs get met under the law 159 Although there exists legislation and policy for gender equality the institutionalization of the National Gender Policy of Mali is necessary to support the importance of women s rights 159 Strengthening and the support of girls and women s access to education and training is recommended to improve gender equality in Mali 159 The involvement of international organizations like USAID assist Mali financially to enhance their development through the efforts of the improvement of women s rights 158 Culture EditMain article Culture of Mali Konoguel Mosque tower The varied everyday culture of Malians reflects the country s ethnic and geographic diversity 160 Most Malians wear flowing colorful robes called boubous that are typical of West Africa Malians frequently participate in traditional festivals dances and ceremonies 160 Music Edit Main article Music of Mali Mali Dogon Dance Malian musical traditions are derived from the griots who are known as Keepers of Memories 161 Malian music is diverse and has several different genres Some famous Malian influences in music are kora virtuoso musician Toumani Diabate the ngoni with Bassekou Kouyate the virtuoso of the electric jeli ngoni the late roots and blues guitarist Ali Farka Toure the Tuareg band Tinariwen Khaira Arby and several Afro pop artists such as Salif Keita the duo Amadou et Mariam Oumou Sangare Fatoumata Diawara Rokia Traore and Habib Koite Dance also plays a large role in Malian culture 162 Dance parties are common events among friends and traditional mask dances are performed at ceremonial events 162 Literature Edit Though Mali s literature is less famous than its music 163 Mali has always been one of Africa s liveliest intellectual centers 164 Mali s literary tradition is passed mainly by word of mouth with jalis reciting or singing histories and stories known by heart 164 165 Amadou Hampate Ba Mali s best known historian spent much of his life writing these oral traditions down for the world to remember 165 The best known novel by a Malian writer is Yambo Ouologuem s Le devoir de violence which won the 1968 Prix Renaudot but whose legacy was marred by accusations of plagiarism 164 165 Other well known Malian writers include Baba Traore Modibo Sounkalo Keita Massa Makan Diabate Moussa Konate and Fily Dabo Sissoko 164 165 Sport Edit Malian children playing football in a Dogon village The most popular sport in Mali is association football 166 167 which became more prominent after Mali hosted the 2002 African Cup of Nations 166 168 Most towns and cities have regular games 168 the most popular teams nationally are Djoliba AC Stade Malien and Real Bamako all based in the capital 167 Informal games are often played by youths using a bundle of rags as a ball 167 Basketball is another major sport 167 169 the Mali women s national basketball team led by Hamchetou Maiga competed at the 2008 Beijing Olympics 170 Traditional wrestling la lutte is also somewhat common though popularity has declined in recent years 168 The game wari a mancala variant is a common pastime 167 Mali featured a men s national team in beach volleyball that competed at the 2018 2020 CAVB Beach Volleyball Continental Cup 171 Cuisine Edit Main article Malian cuisine Malian tea Rice and millet are the staples of Malian cuisine which is heavily based on cereal grains 172 173 Grains are generally prepared with sauces made from edible leaves such as spinach or baobab with tomato peanut sauce and may be accompanied by pieces of grilled meat typically chicken mutton beef or goat 172 173 Malian cuisine varies regionally 172 173 Other popular dishes include fufu jollof rice and maafe Media Edit Main article Media of Mali In Mali there are several newspapers such as Les Echos L Essor Info Matin Nouvel Horizon and Le Republicain fr 174 Telecommunications in Mali include 869 600 mobile phones 45 000 televisions and 414 985 Internet users 175 Notable people EditAdama Sanogo NCAA Final Four Most Outstanding Player 2023 UConn Mamadou Namory Traore Mali government ministerSee also Edit Mali portal Africa portalIndex of Mali related articles Outline of MaliNotes Edit Includes Christianity No religion Traditional African religions N Ko script ߡߊߟߌFula 𞤃𞤢 𞤤𞤭Arabic مالي French Republique du MaliBambara Mali ka Fasojamana N Ko script ߡߊߟߌ ߞߊ ߝߊߛߏߖߊߡߊߣߊFula 𞤈𞤫𞤲 𞤣𞤢 𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢 𞤤𞤭 romanized Renndaandi MaaliArabic جمهورية مالي romanized Jumhuriyyat MaliReferences Edit Africa Mali The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency www cia gov 27 April 2021 Archived from the original on 30 March 2021 Retrieved 1 May 2021 Mali United States Department of State Retrieved 8 October 2022 Mali junta defies mediators with 5 year transition plan AP NEWS 2 January 2022 Retrieved 17 May 2022 UNdata record view Total population both sexes combined thousands data un org Retrieved July 2022 Mali preliminary 2018 census Institut National de la Statistique Archived from the original on 18 April 2010 Retrieved 29 November 2018 a b c d World Economic Outlook Database October 2022 IMF org International Monetary Fund October 2022 Retrieved 11 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0006 3568 PMC 5451287 PMID 28608869 Grantham H S et al 2020 Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40 of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity Supplementary Material Nature Communications 11 1 5978 Bibcode 2020NatCo 11 5978G doi 10 1038 s41467 020 19493 3 ISSN 2041 1723 PMC 7723057 PMID 33293507 Martin Phillip L 2006 Managing Migration The Promise of Cooperation Lanham Maryland Lexington Books p 134 ISBN 978 0 7391 1341 7 DiPiazza p 37 Report of the Secretary General on the situation in Mali PDF MINUSMA 28 March 2016 Archived PDF from the original on 22 February 2017 Retrieved 21 February 2017 Regionalisation Deux Nouvelles regions creees au Mali Malijet 21 January 2016 Archived from the original on 22 February 2017 Retrieved 21 February 2017 Report of the Secretary General on the situation in Mali PDF MINUSMA 30 December 2016 Archived PDF from the original on 29 January 2017 Retrieved 21 February 2017 Loi N 99 035 Du 10 Aout 1999 Portant Creation des Collectivites Territoriales de Cercles et de Regions PDF in French Ministere de l Administration Territoriales et des Collectivites Locales Republique du Mali 1999 archived from the original PDF on 9 March 2012 Tuareg rebels declare the independence of Azawad north of Mali Al Arabiya 6 April 2012 Archived from the original on 31 January 2013 Retrieved 6 April 2012 Video US condemns Mali coup amid reports of looting Telegraph 22 March 2012 Retrieved 24 March 2013 a b c d e f Mali country profile p 14 Constitution of Mali Art 30 Constitution of Mali Art 29 amp 46 Constitution of Mali Art 38 a b c d e f Mali country profile p 15 Constitution of Mali Art 59 amp 61 in French Kone Denis Mali Resultats definitifs des Legislatives Archived 29 December 2012 at the Wayback Machine Les Echos Bamako 13 August 2007 Retrieved 24 June 2008 Constitution of Mali Art 65 Constitution of Mali Art 81 Constitution of Mali Art 83 94 Brooke Holland Louisa Mali Why have elections been delayed until 2024 UK Parliament House 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Retrieved 24 March 2013 a b c Hale Briony 13 May 1998 Mali s Golden Hope BBC News Archived from the original on 11 July 2018 Retrieved 4 June 2008 a b c d Cavendish Marshall 2007 World and Its Peoples Middle East Western Asia and Northern Africa Tarrytown New York Marshall Cavendish p 1367 ISBN 978 0 7614 7571 2 May Jacques Meyer 1968 The Ecology of Malnutrition in the French Speaking Countries of West Africa and Madagascar New York Macmillan Publishing Company p 291 ISBN 978 0 02 848960 5 Campbell Bonnie 2004 Regulating Mining in Africa For Whose Benefit Uppsala Sweden Nordic African Institute p 43 ISBN 978 0 7614 7571 2 African Development Bank p 186 Farvacque Vitkovic Catherine et al September 2007 DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITIES OF MALI Challenges and Priorities Archived 16 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine Africa Region Working Paper Series No 104 a World Bank a b c d e f g Mali country profile p 6 Mali Demographics Profile 2014 Archived from the original on 7 January 2015 Retrieved 14 December 2014 Mali Regions Major Cities amp Localities Population Statistics in Maps and Charts Retrieved 5 September 2019 Popenoe Rebecca 2003 Feeding Desire Fatness Beauty and Sexuality among a Saharan People Routledge London pp 16 17 ISBN 0 415 28096 6 Fortin Jacey 16 January 2013 Mali s Other Crisis Slavery Still Plagues Mali And Insurgency Could Make It Worse International Business Times Archived from the original on 8 December 2014 Retrieved 16 January 2013 Kayaking to Timbuktu Writer Sees Slave Trade Archived 10 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine National Geographic News 5 December 2002 Kayaking to Timbuktu Original National Geographic Adventure Article discussing Slavery in Mali Archived 22 September 2010 at the Wayback Machine National Geographic Adventure December 2002 January 2003 MacInnes Rae Rick 26 November 2012 Al Qaeda complicating anti slavery drive in Mali CBC News Archived from the original on 5 March 2014 Retrieved 25 April 2014 Fage J D Gray Richard Oliver Roland 1975 The Cambridge History of Africa Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521204132 Hall Bruce S 2011 A History of Race in Muslim West Africa 1600 1960 Cambridge University Press ISBN 9781107002876 The mobilization of local ideas about racial difference has been important in generating and intensifying civil wars that have occurred since the end of colonial rule in all of the countries that straddle the southern edge of the Sahara Desert contemporary conflicts often hearken back to an older history in which blackness could be equated with slavery and non blackness with predatory and uncivilized banditry cover text Hirsch Afua 6 July 2012 Mali s conflict and a war over skin colour Archived 11 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine The Guardian a b 4eme Recensement General de la Population et de L Habitat du Mali RGPH PDF in French Institut National de la Statistique Archived from the original PDF on 11 January 2020 Retrieved 25 January 2020 Mali s military rulers say French ambassador has 72 hours to leave the country CNN 31 January 2022 Retrieved 14 February 2022 Archived copy PDF Archived from the original PDF on 19 August 2019 Retrieved 14 December 2019 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link a b International Religious Freedom Report 2008 Mali Archived 18 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine State gov 19 September 2008 Retrieved 4 May 2012 The World s Muslims Unity and Diversity PDF Pew Forum on Religious amp Public life 9 August 2012 Archived from the original PDF on 24 October 2012 Retrieved 2 June 2014 a b c d e f g h i j k l Mali country profile p 7 Report points to 100 million persecuted Christians Archived 6 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 10 January 2013 OPEN DOORS World Watch list 2012 Archived 10 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine Worldwatchlist us Retrieved 24 March 2013 Education Statistics datatopics worldbank org Archived from the original on 7 May 2021 Retrieved 19 November 2019 Universite de Bamako Bamako Mali Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine Archived from the original on 13 May 2013 Retrieved 8 July 2013 Life Expectancy ranks Archived 6 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine CIA World Factbook a b c d e Mali country profile p 8 Nourishing communities through holistic farming Archived 6 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine Impatient optimists Bill amp Melinda Gates Foundation 30 April 2013 WHO Female genital mutilation and other harmful practices Who int 6 May 2011 Retrieved 4 May 2012 Female genital cutting in the Demographic Health Surveys a critical and comparative analysis Calverton MD ORC Marco 2004 DHS Comparative Reports No 7 Archived 26 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine PDF Retrieved 18 January 2013 Human Development Indices and Indicators 2018 Statistical Update Mali PDF United Nations Development Programme Archived PDF from the original on 25 March 2019 Retrieved 24 November 2018 a b c d e f Violence against Women in Mali PDF World Organisation Against Torture OMCT 7 July 2004 Archived PDF from the original on 8 August 2019 Retrieved 24 November 2018 a b c d e f USAID MALI ADDENDUM TO THE 2012 GENDER ASSESSMENT PDF United States Agency of International Development May 2015 Archived PDF from the original on 5 September 2018 Retrieved 24 November 2018 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN S EMPOWERMENT IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION MALI CASE STUDY PDF United Nations Development Programme 2012 Archived PDF from the original on 18 December 2018 Retrieved 24 November 2018 a b Pye Smith Charlie amp Rheal Drisdelle Mali A Prospect of Peace Oxfam 1997 ISBN 0 85598 334 5 p 13 Crabill Michelle and Tiso Bruce January 2003 Mali Resource Website Fairfax County Public Schools Retrieved 4 June 2008 a b Music Embassy of the Republic of Mali in Japan Archived from the original on 8 July 2013 Retrieved 8 July 2013 Velton p 29 a b c d Milet p 128 a b c d Velton p 28 a b Milet p 151 a b c d e DiPiazza p 55 a b c Hudgens Jim Richard Trillo and Nathalie Calonnec The Rough Guide to West Africa Rough Guides 2003 ISBN 1 84353 118 6 p 320 Malian Men Basketball Africabasket com Retrieved 3 June 2008 Chitunda Julio Ruiz looks to strengthen Mali roster ahead of Beijing Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine FIBA com 13 March 2008 Retrieved 24 June 2008 Continental Cup Finals start in Africa FIVB 22 June 2021 Archived from the original on 7 August 2021 Retrieved 7 August 2021 a b c Velton p 30 a b c Milet p 146 Murison Katharine ed 2002 Africa South of the Sahara 2003 Taylor amp Francis pp 652 53 ISBN 978 1 85743 131 5 Archived from the original on 6 September 2015 Retrieved 20 June 2015 Batvina Iryna Culture of Mali www best country com Archived from the original on 5 November 2016 Retrieved 18 September 2016 Bibliography Edit Constitution of Mali PDF in French Archived from the original PDF on 20 September 2018 Retrieved 2 April 2008 A student translated English version Archived 12 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine is also available DiPiazza Francesca Davis 2006 Mali in Pictures Minneapolis Minnesota Learner Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 8225 6591 8 Archived from the original on 7 September 2015 Retrieved 20 June 2015 Mali country profile PDF Library of Congress Federal Research Division January 2005 Archived PDF from the original on 26 February 2005 Retrieved 2 April 2008 This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain Milet Eric amp Manaud Jean Luc 2007 Mali in French Editions Olizane ISBN 978 2 88086 351 7 Velton Ross 2004 Mali Bradt Travel Guides ISBN 978 1 84162 077 0 External links EditMali at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage Official website Archived 9 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine Wikimedia Atlas of Mali Geographic data related to Mali at OpenStreetMap Mali The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency Mali from UCB Libraries GovPubs Mali at Curlie Mali profile from the BBC News Possibilities and Challenges for Transitional Justice in Mali from the ICTJ Facebook group about Ngoni considered a traditional instrument of Mali also known as Xalam Jeli N goni Hoddu Khalam Tehardent or Gambare Trade Edit Mali 2012 Trade Summary Statistics Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Mali amp oldid 1148224332, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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