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Delhi Sultanate

May 02, 2023

Not to be confused with Sultanate of Deli.

The Delhi Sultanate, or the Sultanate of Delhi, was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent during the period of Medieval India, for 320 years (1206–1526).[11][12] Following the invasion of South Asia by the Ghurid dynasty, five unrelated heterogeneous dynasties ruled over the Delhi Sultanate sequentially: the Mamluk dynasty (1206–1290), the Khalji dynasty (1290–1320), the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1414),[13] the Sayyid dynasty (1414–1451), and the Lodi dynasty (1451–1526). It covered large swaths of territory in modern-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh as well as some parts of southern Nepal.[14]

Delhi Sultanate
سلطنت دهلی(Persian)
1206–1526
Flag of the Delhi Sultanate according to the contemporary Catalan Atlas (c. 1375).[1][2][3]
Delhi Sultanate at its greatest extent, under the Tughlaq dynasty, 1330–1335.[4][5]
Capital
Common languagesPersian (official and court language)[6]
Hindavi (semi-official between 1451 and 1526)[7]
Turkic languages (originally spoken by the ruling class)[8]
Religion
State religion
Sunni Islam
Others
Hinduism (majority), Jainism, Buddhism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism
GovernmentSultanate
Sultan 
• 1206–1210
Qutubuddin Aibak (first)
• 1517–1526
Ibrahim Lodi (last)
LegislatureCorps of Forty
Historical eraMiddle Ages
12 June 1206
21 April 1526
Area
• 1312.
3,200,000[10] km2 (1,200,000 sq mi)
CurrencyTaka
Today part ofBangladesh
India
Pakistan

The foundation of the Sultanate was laid by the Ghurid conqueror Muhammad Ghori who routed the Rajput Confederacy led by Ajmer ruler Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192 near Tarain, after suffering a reverse against them earlier.[15] As a successor to the Ghurid dynasty, the Delhi Sultanate was originally one among a number of principalities ruled by the Turkic slave-generals of Muhammad Ghori, including Taj al-Din Yildiz, Qutb al-Din Aibak, Bahauddin Tughril and Nasir ad-Din Qabacha, that had inherited and divided the Ghurid territories amongst themselves.[16] After a long period of infighting, the Mamluks were overthrown in the Khalji revolution, which marked the transfer of power from the Turks to a heterogeneous Indo-Muslim nobility.[17][18] This revolution under Khalji and Tughlaq rule ushered a new wave of rapid and ceaseless Muslim conquests deep into South India.[19][20][21] The sultanate finally reached the peak of its geographical reach during the Tughlaq dynasty, occupying most of the Indian subcontinent under Muhammad bin Tughluq.[22] This was followed by decline due to Hindu reconquests, Hindu kingdoms such as the Vijayanagara and Mewar asserting independence, and new Muslim sultanates such as the Bengal and Bahmani Sultanates breaking off.[23][24] In 1526, the Sultanate was conquered and succeeded by the Mughal Empire.

The establishment of the Sultanate drew the Indian subcontinent more closely into international and multicultural Islamic social and economic networks.[25](as seen concretely in the development of the Hindustani language[26] and Indo-Islamic architecture),[27][28] being one of the few powers to repel attacks of the Mongols (from the Chagatai Khanate)[29] and for enthroning one of the few female rulers in Islamic history, Razia Sultan, who reigned from 1236 to 1240.[30] Bakhtiyar Khalji's annexations involved a large-scale desecration of Hindu and Buddhist temples[31] (contributing to the decline of Buddhism in East India and Bengal),[32][33] and the destruction of universities and libraries.[34][35] Mongolian raids on West and Central Asia set the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers, intelligentsia, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from those regions into the subcontinent, thereby establishing Islamic culture there.[36][37]

History

Background

See also: Mamluk and Turkic migration

The rise of the Delhi Sultanate in India was part of a wider trend affecting much of the Asian continent, including the whole of southern and western Asia: the influx of nomadic Turkic peoples from the Central Asian steppes. This can be traced back to the 9th century when the Islamic Caliphate began fragmenting in the Middle East, where Muslim rulers in rival states began enslaving non-Muslim nomadic Turks from the Central Asian steppes and raising many of them to become loyal military slaves called Mamluks. Soon, Turks were migrating to Muslim lands and becoming Islamicized. Many of the Turkic Mamluk slaves eventually rose up to become rulers, and conquered large parts of the Muslim world, establishing Mamluk Sultanates from Egypt to present-day Afghanistan, before turning their attention to the Indian subcontinent.[38]

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Main South Asian polities in 1175, on the eve of the Ghurid Empire invasion of the subcontinent. Orange line: Ghurid territorial conquests from 1175 to 1205, which led to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206.[39][40]

It is also part of a longer trend predating the spread of Islam. Like other settled, agrarian societies in history, those in the Indian subcontinent have been attacked by nomadic tribes throughout its long history. In evaluating the impact of Islam on the subcontinent, one must note that the northwestern subcontinent was a frequent target of tribes raiding from Central Asia in the pre-Islamic era. In that sense, the Muslim intrusions and later Muslim invasions were not dissimilar to those of the earlier invasions during the 1st millennium.[41]

By 962 AD, Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms in South Asia faced a series of raids from Muslim armies from Central Asia.[42] Among them was Mahmud of Ghazni, the son of a Turkic Mamluk military slave,[43] who raided and plundered kingdoms in north India from east of the Indus river to west of Yamuna river seventeen times between 997 and 1030.[44] Mahmud of Ghazni raided the treasuries but retracted each time, only extending Islamic rule into western Punjab.[45][46]

The series of raids on north Indian and western Indian kingdoms by Muslim warlords continued after Mahmud of Ghazni.[47] The raids did not establish or extend the permanent boundaries of the Islamic kingdoms. In contrast, the Ghurid Sultan Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori (commonly known as Muhammad of Ghor) began a systematic war of expansion into north India in 1173.[48] He sought to carve out a principality for himself and expand the Islamic world.[44][49] Muhammad of Ghor created a Sunni Islamic kingdom of his own extending east of the Indus river, and he thus laid the foundation for the Muslim kingdom called the Delhi Sultanate.[44] Some historians chronicle the Delhi Sultanate from 1192 due to the presence and geographical claims of Muhammad Ghori in South Asia by that time.[50]

Ghori was assassinated in 1206, by Ismāʿīlī Shia Muslims in some accounts or by Khokhars in others.[51] After the assassination, one of Ghori's slaves (or mamluks, Arabic: مملوك), the Turkic Qutb al-Din Aibak, assumed power, becoming the first Sultan of Delhi.[44]

Dynasties

Mamluk dynasty (1206–1290)

Main article: Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)
 
Territory of the Delhi Mamluk Dynasty circa 1250.[52]

Qutb al-Din Aibak, a former slave of Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori (known more commonly as Muhammad of Ghor), was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. Aibak was of Cuman-Kipchak (Turkic) origin, and due to his lineage, his dynasty is known as the Mamluk (Slave origin) dynasty (not to be confused with the Mamluk dynasty of Iraq or the Mamluk dynasty of Egypt).[53] Aibak reigned as the Sultan of Delhi for four years, from 1206 to 1210. Aibak was praised by the contemporary and later accounts for his generosity and due to this was called with the sobriquet of Lakhbaksh. (giver of lakhs)[54]

After Aibak died, Aram Shah assumed power in 1210, but he was assassinated in 1211 by Aibak's son-in-law, Shams ud-Din Iltutmish.[55] Iltutmish's power was precarious, and a number of Muslim amirs (nobles) challenged his authority as they had been supporters of Qutb al-Din Aibak. After a series of conquests and brutal executions of opposition, Iltutmish consolidated his power.[56]

 
Tomb of Iltutmish (r. 1211–1236) in the Qutub Minar complex.

His rule was challenged a number of times, such as by Qubacha, and this led to a series of wars.[57] Iltutmish conquered Multan and Bengal from contesting Muslim rulers, as well as Ranthambore and Siwalik from the Hindu rulers. He also attacked, defeated, and executed Taj al-Din Yildiz, who asserted his rights as heir to Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori.[58] Iltutmish's rule lasted until 1236. Following his death, the Delhi Sultanate saw a succession of weak rulers, disputing Muslim nobility, assassinations, and short-lived tenures. Power shifted from Rukn ud-Din Firuz to Razia Sultana and others, until Ghiyas ud-Din Balban came to power and ruled from 1266 to 1287.[57][58] Ghiyasuddin Balban destroyed the power of the Corps of Forty, a council of 40 Turkic slaves who had played a role as kingmakers and had been independent of the Sultan. This had a side-effect where the diminshing number of Turkic slaves and their power over the state was weakened and were no longer able to maintain dominance, while conversion and intermarriage steadily increased the number of Indian Muslims. This paved the way to the political emergence and progress of an Indo-Muslim society, where the transformation from a Turkic to an Indo-Muslim state was well on its way, to which resistance was not only impossible but also highly unwise in light of the defence of the Muslim state from the Hindus and the Mongols.[59] He was succeeded by 17-year-old Muiz ud-Din Qaiqabad, who appointed Jalal ud-Din Firuz Khalji as the commander of the army. Khalji assassinated Qaiqabad and assumed power, thus ending the Mamluk dynasty and starting the Khalji dynasty.

Qutb al-Din Aibak initiated the construction of the Qutub Minar but died before it was completed. It was later completed by his son-in-law, Iltutmish.[60] The Quwwat-ul-Islam (Might of Islam) Mosque was built by Aibak, now a UNESCO world heritage site.[61] The Qutub Minar Complex or Qutb Complex was expanded by Iltutmish, and later by Ala ud-Din Khalji (the second ruler of the Khalji dynasty) in the early 14th century.[61][note 1] During the Mamluk dynasty, many nobles from Afghanistan and Persia migrated and settled in India, as West Asia came under Mongol siege.[63]

Khalji dynasty (1290–1320)

Main article: Khalji dynasty
See also: Mongol invasions of India
 
Territory controlled by Khalji dynasty circa 1320.[64]

The Khalji dynasty was of Turko-Afghan heritage.[65][66][67][68] They were originally Turkic, but due to their long presence in Afghanistan, they were treated by others as Afghan as they adopted of some Afghan habits and customs.[69][70] After their settlment in India they assimilated into the mass Indian Muslim settlements due to their century long domicile in India since the early Ghorid invasions.[71] The dynasty later also had Hindu ancestry, through Jhatyapali (daughter of Ramachandra of Devagiri), wife of Alauddin Khalji and mother of Shihabuddin Omar.[72]

The first ruler of the Khalji dynasty was Jalal ud-Din Firuz Khalji. He came to power after the Khalji revolution which marked the transfer of power from the monopoly of Turkic nobles to a heterogeneous Indian Muslim nobility. The Khalji and Indo-Muslim faction had been strengthened by an ever-increasing number of converts, and took power through a series of assassinations.[17] Muiz ud-Din Kaiqabad was assassinated and Jalal-ad din took power in a military coup. The revolution, essentially being a revolt of the Indian Muslims, ushered in a new era of eceaseless conquests, of unique experiment in statescraft and of incomparable literay activity.[19] He was around 70 years old at the time of his ascension, and was known as a mild-mannered, humble and kind monarch to the general public.[73][74] Jalal ud-Din Firuz ruled for 6 years before he was murdered in 1296 by a Muhammad Salim of Samana, on the orders of his nephew and son-in-law Juna Muhammad Khalji,[75] who later came to be known as Ala ud-Din Khalji.[76]

The Alai era saw the emergence of an Indian Muslim state, as Indian Muslims gained power to replace the old nobility.[77][78] Ala-ud-Din appointed his Indian Muslim relatives such as Nusrat Khan Jalesari as his Grand Vizier and Hizabruddin Zafar Khan as his Minister of War.[79][80][81] The Muslim generals of Indian-origin such as Ainul Mulk Multani, Malik Kafur, Malik Nayk, Malik Yak Lakhi and Khusrau Khan emerged as the main conquerors of the Sultanate.[82][83][84] This era also saw the preference towards Indian slaves instead of Turkic slaves, as there are hardly any more accounts of Turkic slaves from this era, as the Sultanate attempted to reduce the influence of the deposed Mamluks.[85][86] Ala ud-Din began his military career as governor of Kara province, from where he led two raids on Malwa (1292) and Devagiri (1294) for plunder and loot. After his accession to the throne, expansions towards these kingdoms were renewed including Gujarat which was conquered by the Indian Muslim Grand Vizier Nusrat Khan Jalesari,[87][79][88] the kingdom of Malwa by the Punjabi Muslim general Ainul Mulk Multani,[89][90] as well as Rajputana.[91] However, these victories were cut short because of Mongol attacks and plunder raids from the northwest. The Mongols withdrew after plundering and stopped raiding northwest parts of the Delhi Sultanate.[92]

 
The Khaljis captured Jaisalmer Fort in Jaisalmer, Rajputana, in 1299.

After the Mongols withdrew, Ala ud-Din Khalji continued to expand the Delhi Sultanate into southern India with the help of Gujarati slave generals such as Malik Kafur and Khusro Khan. They collected much war booty (anwatan) from those they defeated.[93][94] His commanders collected war spoils and paid ghanima (Arabic: الْغَنيمَة, a tax on spoils of war), which helped strengthen the Khalji rule. Among the spoils was the Warangal loot that included the famous Koh-i-Noor diamond.[95]

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The Delhi Sultanate and contemporary Asian polities circa 1320. Most of the Asian continent was occupied by the Mongol Empire by that time, with Turkic polities occupying South and Western Asia, as far as Egypt

Ala ud-Din Khalji changed tax policies, raising agriculture taxes from 20% to 50% (payable in grain and agricultural produce), eliminating payments and commissions on taxes collected by local chiefs, banned socialization among his officials as well as inter-marriage between noble families to help prevent any opposition forming against him, and he cut salaries of officials, poets, and scholars.[75] These tax policies and spending controls strengthened his treasury to pay the keep of his growing army; he also introduced price controls on all agriculture produce and goods in the kingdom, as well as controls on where, how, and by whom these goods could be sold. Markets called "shahana-i-mandi" were created.[96] Muslim merchants were granted exclusive permits and monopoly in these "mandis" to buy and resell at official prices. No one other than these merchants could buy from farmers or sell in cities. Those found violating these "mandi" rules were severely punished, often by mutilation.[citation needed] Taxes collected in the form of grain were stored in the kingdom's storage. During famines that followed, these granaries ensured sufficient food for the army.[75]

 
The Alai Darwaza, completed in 1311 during the Khalji dynasty.

Historians note Ala ud-Din Khalji as being a tyrant. Anyone Ala ud-Din suspected of being a threat to this power was killed along with the women and children of that family. He grew to eventually distrust the majority of his nobles and favored only a handful of his own slaves and family. In 1298, between 15,000 and 30,000 Mongols near Delhi, who had recently converted to Islam, were slaughtered in a single day, due to a mutiny during an invasion of Gujarat.[97] He is also known for his cruelty against kingdoms he defeated in battle.

After Ala ud-Din's death in 1316, his eunuch general Malik Kafur, who was born to a Hindu family but converted to Islam, assumed de facto power and was supported by non-Khalaj nobles like the Pashtuns, notably Kamal al-Din Gurg. However he lacked the support of the majority of Khalaj nobles who had him assassinated, hoping to take power for themselves.[75] However the new ruler had the killers of Kafur executed.

The last Khalji ruler was Ala ud-Din Khalji's 18-year-old son Qutb ud-Din Mubarak Shah Khalji, who ruled for four years before he was killed by Khusro Khan, another slave-general with Hindu origins, who reverted from Islam and favoured his Hindu Baradu military clan in the nobility. Khusro Khan's reign lasted only a few months, when Ghazi Malik, later to be called Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq, defeated him with the help of Punjabi Khokhar tribesmen and assumed power in 1320, thus ending the Khalji dynasty and starting the Tughlaq dynasty.[63][97]

Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1413)

Main article: Tughlaq dynasty
 
Territory of the Tughlaq dynasty circa 1330-1335, corresponding to the maximum extent of the Delhi Sultanate.[4]

The Tughlaq dynasty was a Turko-Mongol[98] or Turkic[5] Muslim dynasty, which lasted from 1320 to 1413. The first ruler was Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq. Ghiyath al-Din ruled for five years and built a town near Delhi named Tughlaqabad.[99] His son Juna Khan and general Ainul Mulk Multani conquered Warangal in south India.[100] According to some historians such as Vincent Smith,[101] he was killed by his son Juna Khan, who then assumed power in 1325.

Juna Khan renamed himself Muhammad bin Tughlaq and ruled for 26 years.[102] During his rule, Delhi Sultanate reached its peak in terms of geographical reach, covering most of the Indian subcontinent.[22]

Muhammad bin Tughlaq was an intellectual, with extensive knowledge of the Quran, Fiqh, poetry and other fields. He was also deeply suspicious of his kinsmen and wazirs (ministers), extremely severe with his opponents, and took decisions that caused economic upheaval. For example, he ordered minting of coins from base metals with face value of silver coins - a decision that failed because ordinary people minted counterfeit coins from base metal they had in their houses and used them to pay taxes and jizya.[22][101]

 
Depiction of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq, founder of the Tughlaq dynasty, in the Basātin al-uns by Ikhtisān-i Dabir, a member of the Tughluq court and an ambassador to Iran. Ca.1410 Jalayirid copy of 1326 lost original.[103]

Muhammad bin Tughlaq chose the city of Deogiri in present-day Indian state of Maharashtra (renaming it Daulatabad), as the second administrative capital of the Delhi Sultanate.[104] He ordered a forced migration of the Muslim population of Delhi, including his royal family, the nobles, Syeds, Sheikhs and 'Ulema to settle in Daulatabad. The purpose of transferring the entire Muslim elite to Daulatabad was to enroll them in his mission of world conquest. He saw their role as propagandists who would adapt Islamic religious symbolism to the rhetoric of empire, and that the Sufis could by persuasion bring many of the inhabitants of the Deccan to become Muslim.[105] Tughluq cruelly punished the nobles who were unwilling to move to Daulatabad, seeing their non-compliance of his order as equivalent to rebellion. According to Ferishta, when the Mongols arrived to Punjab, the Sultan returned the elite back to Delhi, although Daulatabad remained as an administrative centre.[106] One result of the transfer of the elite to Daulatabad was the hatred of the nobility to the Sultan, which remained in their minds for a long time.[107] The other result was that he managed to create a stable Muslim elite and result in the growth of the Muslim population of Daulatabad who did not return to Delhi,[22] without which the rise of the Bahmanid kingdom to challenge Vijayanagara would not have been possible.[108] These were the Urdu-speaking community of North Indian Muslims.[109] Muhammad bin Tughlaq's adventures in the Deccan region also marked campaigns of destruction and desecration temples, for example, the Swayambhu Shiva Temple and the Thousand Pillar Temple.[35]

Revolts against Muhammad bin Tughlaq began in 1327, continued over his reign, and over time the geographical reach of the Sultanate shrunk. Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan, a Sayyid native of Kaithal in North India, founded the Madurai Sultanate in South India.[110][111][112] The Vijayanagara Empire originated in southern India as a direct response to attacks from the Delhi Sultanate.,[113] and liberated south India from the Delhi Sultanate's rule.[114] In the 1330s, Muhammad bin Tughlaq ordered an invasion of China,[citation needed] sending part of his forces over the Himalayas. However, they were defeated by the Kangra State .[115] During his reign, state revenues collapsed from his policies such as the base metal coins from 1329 to 1332. Famines, widespread poverty, and rebellion grew across the kingdom. In 1338 his own nephew rebelled in Malwa, whom he attacked, caught, and flayed alive.[citation needed] By 1339, the eastern regions under local Muslim governors and southern parts led by Hindu kings had revolted and declared independence from the Delhi Sultanate. Muhammad bin Tughlaq did not have the resources or support to respond to the shrinking kingdom.[116] The historian Walford chronicled Delhi and most of India faced severe famines during Muhammad bin Tughlaq's rule in the years after the base metal coin experiment.[117][118] By 1347, the Bahmani Sultanate had become an independent and competing Muslim kingdom in the Deccan region of South Asia, founded by Hasan Gangu.[42][119][120][121]

 
 
The Tughlaq dynasty is remembered for its architectural patronage, such as the construction of Firoz Shah Kotla. It reused old Buddhists pillars erected by Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE, such as the Delhi-Topra pillar. The Sultanate initially wanted to use the pillars to make mosque minarets. Firuz Shah Tughlaq decided otherwise and had them installed near mosques.[122] The meaning of the Brahmi script on the pillars (the Edicts of Ashoka) was unknown in Firuz Shah's time.[123][124]

Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in 1351 while trying to chase and punish people in Gujarat who were rebelling against the Delhi Sultanate.[116] He was succeeded by Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388), who tried to regain the old kingdom, boundary by waging a war with Bengal for 11 months in 1359. However, Bengal did not fall. Firuz Shah ruled for 37 years. His reign was marked with prosperity much of which was due to the wise and capable Grand Vizier, Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul, a South Indian Telugu convert to Islam.[125][126] His reign attempted to stabilize the food supply and reduce famines by commissioning an irrigation canal from the Yamuna river. An educated sultan, Firuz Shah left a memoir.[127] In it he wrote that he banned the practice of torture, such as amputations, tearing out of eyes, sawing people alive, crushing people's bones as punishment, pouring molten lead into throats, setting people on fire, driving nails into hands and feet, among others.[128] He also wrote that he did not tolerate attempts by Rafawiz Shia Muslim and Mahdi sects from proselytizing people into their faith, nor did he tolerate Hindus who tried to rebuild temples that his armies had destroyed.[129] Firuz Shah Tughlaq also lists his accomplishments to include converting Hindus to Sunni Islam by announcing an exemption from taxes and jizya for those who convert, and by lavishing new converts with presents and honours.[citation needed] Simultaneously, he raised taxes and jizya, assessing it at three levels, and stopping the practice of his predecessors who had historically exempted all Hindu Brahmins from the jizya.[128][130] He also vastly expanded the number of slaves in his service and those of Muslim nobles, who were converted to Islam, taught to read and memorize the Quran, and employed in many offices especially in the military, out of which he was able to amass a large army.[131] These slaves, who were Indian converts to Islam, were known as the Ghulaman-i-Firuz Shahi, and became an elite guard which later became influential in the state.[132][133] The reign of Firuz Shah Tughlaq was marked by reduction in extreme forms of torture, elimination of favours to select parts of society, but also increased intolerance and persecution of targeted groups,[128] the latter of which resulting in conversion of significant parts of the population to Islam.[134]

 
A base metal coin of Muhammad bin Tughlaq that led to an economic collapse.

The death of Firuz Shah Tughlaq created anarchy and disintegration of the kingdom. Firuz Shah's successor, Ghiyath-ud-Din Shah II was young and inexperienced, gave himself up to wine and pleasure. The nobles rose up against him and killed the Sultan and his vizier, and installed Abu Bakr Shah on the throne.[135] However, the old Ghulaman-i-Firuz Shahi turned against Abu Bakr, who fled, and on their invitation Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad Shah was installed on the throne.[136] The anamalous institution of the Ghulaman-i-Firuz Shahi became a corrupting influence on the successive Sultans following Firuz Shah.[137] The last rulers of this dynasty both called themselves Sultan from 1394 to 1397: Nasir ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughlaq, the grandson of Firuz Shah Tughlaq who ruled from Delhi, and Nasir ud-Din Nusrat Shah Tughlaq, another relative of Firuz Shah Tughlaq who ruled from Firozabad, which was a few miles from Delhi.[138] The battle between the two relatives continued until Timur's invasion in 1398. Timur, also known as Tamerlane in Western scholarly literature, was the Turkicized Mongol ruler of the Timurid Empire. He became aware of the weakness and quarreling of the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate, so he marched with his army to Delhi, plundering and killing all the way.[139][140] Estimates for the massacre by Timur in Delhi range from 100,000 to 200,000 people.[141][142] Timur had no intention of staying in or ruling India. He looted the lands he crossed, then plundered and burnt Delhi. Over five days, Timur and his army raged a massacre.[citation needed] Then he collected wealth, captured women, and enslaved people (particularly skilled artisans), and returning with this loot to Samarkand. The people and lands within the Delhi Sultanate were left in a state of anarchy, chaos, and pestilence.[138] Nasir ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughlaq, who had fled to Gujarat during Timur's invasion, returned and nominally ruled as the last ruler of Tughlaq dynasty, as a puppet of various factions at the court.[143]

Sayyid dynasty (1414–1450)

Main article: Sayyid dynasty
 
Territories of the Sayyid Dynasty.[144]

The Sayyid dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1415 to 1451, as a vassal of the Timurid Empire.[42] A contemporary writer Yahya Sirhindi mentions in his Takhrikh-i-Mubarak Shahi that the founder of the dynasty Khizr Khan was a descendant of prophet Muhammad.[145] However, according to Richard M. Eaton, Khizr Khan was a Punjabi chieftain.[146] The Timurid invasion and plunder had left the Delhi Sultanate in shambles, and little is known about the rule by the Sayyid dynasty. Annemarie Schimmel notes the first ruler of the dynasty as Khizr Khan, who assumed power by claiming to represent Timur. His authority was questioned even by those near Delhi. His successor was Mubarak Khan, who renamed himself Mubarak Shah and unsuccessfully tried to regain lost territories in Punjab from Khokhar warlords.[143]

 
The tomb of Muhammad Shah at Lodi Gardens, New Delhi.

With the power of the Sayyid dynasty faltering, Islam's history on the Indian subcontinent underwent a profound change, according to Schimmel.[143] The previously dominant Sunni sect of Islam became diluted, alternate Muslim sects such as Shia rose, and new competing centers of Islamic culture took roots beyond Delhi.

In course of the late Sayyid dynasty, the Delhi Sultanate shrank until it became a minor power. By the time of the last Sayyid ruler, Alam Shah (whose name translated to "king of the world"), this resulted in a common northern Indian witticism, according to which the "kingdom of the king of the world extends from Delhi to Palam", i.e. merely 13 kilometres (8.1 mi). Historian Richard M. Eaton noted that this saying showcased how the "once-mighty empire had literally become a joke".[147] The Sayyid dynasty was displaced by the Lodi dynasty in 1451, however, resulting in a resurgence of the Delhi Sultanate.[147]

Lodi dynasty (1451–1526)

Main article: Lodi dynasty
 
Territory of the Lodi Sultanate (1451-1526).[148]

The Lodi dynasty was an Afghan, or Turco-Afghan dynasty,[a] related to the Pashtun (Afghan) Lodi tribe.[150][151] The founder of the dynasty, Bahlul Khan Lodi, was a Khalji of the Lodi clan.[152] He started his reign by attacking the Muslim Jaunpur Sultanate to expand the influence of the Delhi Sultanate, and was partially successful through a treaty. Thereafter, the region from Delhi to Varanasi (then at the border of Bengal province), was back under influence of Delhi Sultanate.

After Bahlul Lodi died, his son Nizam Khan assumed power, renamed himself Sikandar Lodi and ruled from 1489 to 1517.[153] One of the better known rulers of the dynasty, Sikandar Lodi expelled his brother Barbak Shah from Jaunpur, installed his son Jalal Khan as the ruler, then proceeded east to make claims on Bihar. The Muslim governors of Bihar agreed to pay tribute and taxes, but operated independent of the Delhi Sultanate. Sikandar Lodi led a campaign of destruction of temples, particularly around Mathura. He also moved his capital and court from Delhi to Agra,[154] an ancient Hindu city that had been destroyed during the plunder and attacks of the early Delhi Sultanate period. Sikandar thus erected buildings with Indo-Islamic architecture in Agra during his rule, and the growth of Agra continued during the Mughal Empire, after the end of the Delhi Sultanate.[155][156]

Sikandar Lodi died a natural death in 1517, and his second son Ibrahim Lodi assumed power. Ibrahim did not enjoy the support of Afghan and Persian nobles or regional chiefs.[157] Ibrahim attacked and killed his elder brother Jalal Khan, who was installed as the governor of Jaunpur by his father and had the support of the amirs and chiefs.[155] Ibrahim Lodi was unable to consolidate his power, and after Jalal Khan's death, the governor of Punjab, Daulat Khan Lodi and Rana Sanga, reached out to the Mughal Babur and invited him to attack the Delhi Sultanate.[158] Babur defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi in the Battle of Panipat in 1526. The death of Ibrahim Lodi ended the Delhi Sultanate, and the Mughal Empire replaced it.

Government and politics

The historian Peter Jackson explains in The New Cambridge History of Islam: "The elite of the early Delhi sultanate comprised overwhelmingly first generation immigrants from Persia and Central Asia: Persians (‘Tājīks’), Turks, Ghūrīs and also Khalaj from the hot regions (garmsīr) of modern Afghanistan.[159] The Alai era saw the overthrow of the old nobility of early Mamluk rule. The backbone of the Turkic elite was broken as their wealth in Delhi was confiscated by Nusrat Khan Jalesari,[160] after which a new heterogeneous Indo-Muslim nobility emerged in the Delhi Sultanate.[17][161]

Political system

Medieval scholars such as Isami and Barani suggested that the prehistory of the Delhi Sultanate lay in the Ghaznavid state and that its ruler, Mahmud Ghaznavi, provided the foundation and inspiration integral in the making of the Delhi regime. The Mongol and infidel Hindus were the great "Others" in these narratives and the Persianate and class conscious, aristocratic virtues of the ideal state were creatively memorialized in the Ghaznavid state, now the templates for the Delhi Sultanate. Cast within a historical narrative it allowed for a more self-reflective, linear rooting of the Sultanate in the great traditions of Muslim statecraft.[162] Over time, successive Indo-Muslim dynasties created a 'centralized structure in the Persian tradition whose task was to mobilize human and material resources for the ongoing armed struggle against both Mongol and Hindu infidels'.[163] The monarch was not the Sultan of the Hindus or of, say, the people of Haryana, rather in the eyes of the Sultanate's chroniclers, the Muslims constituted what in more recent times would be termed a "Staatsvolk". For many Muslim observers, the ultimate justification for any ruler within the Islamic world was the protection and advancement of the faith. For the Sultans, as for their Ghaznavid and Ghurid predecessors, this entailed the suppression of heterodox Muslims, and Firuz Shah attached some importance to the fact that he had acted against the ashab-i ilhad-u ibahat (deviators and latitudinarians). It also involved plundering, and extorting tribute from, independent Hindu principalities.[164] Firuz Shah, who finally believed that India was a Muslim country,[165] declared that "no zimmi living in a Musalman country might dare to act".[166]

The Hindu polytheists who submitted to Islamic rule qualified as "protected peoples" according to the wide spectrum of the educated Muslim community within the subcontinent. The balance of the evidence is that in the latter half of the fourteenth century, if not before, the jizyah was definitely levied as a discriminatory tax on non-Muslims, although even then it is difficult to see how such a measure could have been enforced outside the principal centres of Muslim authority.[167] The Delhi Sultanate also continued the governmental conventions of the previous Hindu polities, claiming paramountcy of some of its subjects rather than exclusive supreme control. Accordingly, it did not interfere with the autonomy and military of certain conquered Hindu rulers, and freely included Hindu vassals and officials.[11]

Economic policy and administration

See also: Market reforms of Alauddin Khalji
 
Coin of Ghiyath al-Din 'Iwad, Governor of Bengal, AH 614-616 AD 1217–1220. Struck in the name of Shams al-Din Iltutmish, Sultan of Dehli.

The economic policy of the Delhi Sultanate was characterized by greater government involvement in the economy relative to the Classical Hindu dynasties, and increased penalties for private businesses that broke government regulations. Alauddin Khalji replaced the private markets with four centralized government-run markets, appointed a "market controller", and implemented strict price controls[168] on all kinds of goods, "from caps to socks; from combs to needles; from vegetables, soups, sweetmeats to chapatis" (according to Ziauddin Barani [c. 1357][169]). The price controls were inflexible even during droughts.[170] Capitalist investors were completely banned from participating in horse trade,[171] animal and slave brokers were forbidden from collecting commissions,[172] and private merchants were eliminated from all animal and slave markets.[172] Bans were instituted against hoarding[173] and regrating,[174] granaries were nationalized[173] and limits were placed on the amount of grain that could be used by cultivators for personal use.[175]

Various licensing rules were imposed. Registration of merchants was required,[176] and expensive goods such as certain fabrics were deemed "unnecessary" for the general public and required a permit from the state to be purchased. These licenses were issued to amirs, maliks, and other important persons in government.[172] Agricultural taxes were raised to 50%.

Traders regarded the regulations as burdensome, and violations were severely punished, leading to further resentment among the traders.[169] A network of spies was instituted to ensure the implementation of the system; even after price controls were lifted after Khalji's death, Barani claims that the fear of his spies remained, and that people continued to avoid trading in expensive commodities.[177]

Social policies

 
Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq leading his troops in the capture of the city of Tirhut in 1324, from Basātin al-uns by Ikhtisān-i Dabir, a member of the Tughluq court. Ca.1410 Jalayirid copy of 1326 lost original. Istanbul, Topkapi Palace Museum Library, Ms. R.1032.[178]

The sultanate enforced Islamic religious prohibitions of anthropomorphic representations in art.[179]

Military

The army of the Delhi sultans initially consisted of nomadic Turkic Mamluk military slaves belonging to Muhammad of Ghor.

The Alai era ended the Turkic monopoly over the state. The army of the Alai era of the Delhi Sultanate had an Indian military style of warfare which had replaced the Ilbari Mamluk style. There are hardly any more references to newly recruited Turkic slaves in historical accounts, and Indian slaves were preferred towards the end of the 1200s,[85] as the new nobility wished to reduce the power of the Turkic slaves after the overthrow of the Mamluks.[86]

A major military contribution of the Delhi Sultanate was their successful campaigns in repelling the Mongol Empire's invasions of India, which could have been devastating for the Indian subcontinent, like the Mongol invasions of China, Persia and Europe. Were it not for the Delhi Sultanate, it is possible that the Mongol Empire may have been successful in invading India.[38] The strength of the armies changes according to time.

Economy

See also: Economic history of India

Some historians argue that the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for making India more multicultural and cosmopolitan. The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in India has been compared to the expansion of the Mongol Empire, and called "part of a larger trend occurring throughout much of Eurasia, in which nomadic people migrated from the steppes of Inner Asia and became politically dominant".[25]

According to Angus Maddison, between the years 1000 and 1500, India's GDP, of which the sultanates represented a significant part, grew nearly 8% to $60.5 billion in 1500. Though the overall the percentage of the GDP share reduced from 33% to 22% [180] According to Maddison's estimates, India's population also grew by nearly 50% in the same time period.[181]

 
Transportation of the Delhi-Topra pillar to Delhi. Sirat i-Firuz Shahi, 14th century illustration.[182]

The Delhi Sultanate period coincided with a more use of mechanical technology in the Indian subcontinent. India previously already had highly sophisticated agriculture, food crops, textiles, medicine, minerals, and metals, later on Central Asian technique were introduced in the subcontinent [183] there are plentiful evidence of water wheels existing in India prior to the Delhi Sultanate as described by the various Chinese monks and Arabs travellers and writers in their books .[184][185][note 2] Later, Mughal emperor Babur provided a description on the use of water-wheels in the Delhi Sultanate.[190]

According to historians Arnold Pacey and Irfan Habib, the spinning wheel was introduced to India from Iran during the Delhi Sultanate.[191] Smith and Cothren suggested that it was invented in India during the latter half of the first millennium,[192] but Pacey and Habib said these early references to cotton spinning do not clearly identify a wheel, but more likely refer to hand spinning.[191] The earliest unambiguous reference to a spinning wheel in India is dated to 1350.[191] The worm gear roller cotton gin was invented in the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries; Habib states that the development may likely occurred in peninsular India, before becoming more widespread across India during the Mughal era.[193] The incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin may have appeared sometime during the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire.[194]

India and China has connections throughout the thousands of years of history. Paper had already reached some parts of India as early as the 6th or 7th century,[195][196][197] initially through Chinese travellers and the ancient silk road which india was very well connected with. Earlier some historians believed that paper failed to catch on as palmyra leaves and birch bark remained far more popular but this theory was descredited later on.[198][199] [200] [201] On the other hand, paper may have arrived in Bengal from a separate route, as 15th century Chinese traveler Ma Huan remarked that Bengali paper was white and made from "bark of a tree" similar to the Chinese method of papermaking (as opposed to the Middle-Eastern method of using rags and waste material), suggesting a direct route from China for the arrival of paper in Bengal and paper was already very well established and widespread in that part of the subcontinent .[201]

[201]

Society

Demographics

See also: Demographics of India: History

According to one set of the very uncertain estimates of modern historians, the total Indian population had largely been stagnant at 75 million during the Middle Kingdoms era from 1 AD to 1000 AD. During the Medieval Delhi Sultanate era from 1000 to 1500, India as a whole experienced lasting population growth for the first time in a thousand years, with its population increasing nearly 50% to 110 million by 1500 AD.[202][203]

Culture

See also: Indo-Persian culture
 
Decorative reliefs, Alai Darwaza, 1311.

While the Indian subcontinent has had invaders from Central Asia since ancient times, what made the Muslim invasions different is that unlike the preceding invaders who assimilated into the prevalent social system, the successful Muslim conquerors retained their Islamic identity and created new legal and administrative systems that challenged and usually in many cases superseded the existing systems of social conduct and ethics, even influencing the non-Muslim rivals and common masses to a large extent, though the non-Muslim population was left to their own laws and customs.[204][205] They also introduced new cultural codes that in some ways were very different from the existing cultural codes. This led to the rise of a new Indian culture which was mixed in nature, different from ancient Indian culture. The overwhelming majority of Muslims in India were Indian natives converted to Islam. This factor also played an important role in the synthesis of cultures.[206]

The Hindustani language (Hindi/Urdu) began to emerge in the Delhi Sultanate period, developed from the Middle Indo-Aryan apabhramsha vernaculars of North India. Amir Khusro, who lived in the 13th century CE during the Delhi Sultanate period in North India, used a form of Hindustani, which was the lingua franca of the period, in his writings and referred to it as Hindavi.[26]

The officers, the Sultans, Khans, Maliks and the soldiers wore the Islamic qabas dress in the style of Khwarezm, which were tucked in the middle of the body, while the turban and kullah were common headwear. The turbans were wrapped around the kullah(caps) and the feet were covered with red boots. The Wazirs and Katibs also dressed like the soldiers, except they did not use belts, and often let down a piece of cloth in front of them in the manner of the Sufis. The judges and the learned men wore ample gowns (farajiyat) and an Arabic garment(durra).[207]

Architecture

Main article: Indo-Islamic architecture
 
The Qutb Minar (left, begun c. 1200) next to the Alai Darwaza gatehouse (1311); Qutb Complex in Delhi.[61]

The start of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 under Qutb al-Din Aibak introduced a large Islamic state to India, using Central Asian styles.[208] The types and forms of large buildings required by Muslim elites, with mosques and tombs much the most common, were very different from those previously built in India. The exteriors of both were very often topped by large domes, and made extensive use of arches. Both of these features were hardly used in Hindu temple architecture and other indigenous Indian styles. Both types of building essentially consist of a single large space under a high dome, and completely avoid the figurative sculpture so important to Hindu temple architecture.[209]

The important Qutb Complex in Delhi was begun under Muhammad of Ghor, by 1199, and continued under Qutb al-Din Aibak and later sultans. The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, now a ruin, was the first structure. Like other early Islamic buildings it re-used elements such as columns from destroyed Hindu and Jain temples, including one on the same site whose platform was reused. The style was Iranian, but the arches were still corbelled in the traditional Indian way.[210]

Beside it is the extremely tall Qutb Minar, a minaret or victory tower, whose original four stages reach 73 meters (with a final stage added later). Its closest comparator is the 62-metre all-brick Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan, of c. 1190, a decade or so before the probable start of the Delhi tower.[note 3] The surfaces of both are elaborately decorated with inscriptions and geometric patterns; in Delhi the shaft is fluted with "superb stalactite bracketing under the balconies" at the top of each stage.[211] In general minarets were slow to be used in India, and are often detached from the main mosque where they exist.[212]

The Tomb of Iltutmish was added by 1236; its dome, the squinches again corbelled, is now missing, and the intricate carving has been described as having an "angular harshness", from carvers working in an unfamiliar tradition.[213] Other elements were added to the complex over the next two centuries.

Another very early mosque, begun in the 1190s, is the Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra in Ajmer, Rajasthan, built for the same Delhi rulers, again with corbelled arches and domes. Here Hindu temple columns (and possibly some new ones) are piled up in threes to achieve extra height. Both mosques had large detached screens with pointed corbelled arches added in front of them, probably under Iltutmish a couple of decades later. In these the central arch is taller, in imitation of an iwan. At Ajmer the smaller screen arches are tentatively cusped, for the first time in India.[214]

By around 1300 true domes and arches with voussoirs were being built; the ruined Tomb of Balban (d. 1287) in Delhi may be the earliest survival.[215] The Alai Darwaza gatehouse at the Qutb complex, from 1311, still shows a cautious approach to the new technology, with very thick walls and a shallow dome, only visible from a certain distance or height. Bold contrasting colours of masonry, with red sandstone and white marble, introduce what was to become a common feature of Indo-Islamic architecture, substituting for the polychrome tiles used in Persia and Central Asia. The pointed arches come together slightly at their base, giving a mild horseshoe arch effect, and their internal edges are not cusped but lined with conventionalized "spearhead" projections, possibly representing lotus buds. Jali, stone openwork screens, are introduced here; they already had been long used in temples.[216]

Tughlaq architecture

 
Tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam at Multan, built during the reign of Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq in 1320 AD

The tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam (built 1320 to 1324) in Multan, Pakistan is a large octagonal brick-built mausoleum with polychrome glazed decoration that remains much closer to the styles of Iran and Afghanistan. Timber is also used internally. This was the earliest major monument of the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1413), built during the unsustainable expansion of its massive territory. It was built for a Sufi saint rather than a sultan, and most of the many Tughlaq tombs are much less exuberant. The tomb of the founder of the dynasty, Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (d. 1325) is more austere, but impressive; like a Hindu temple, it is topped with a small amalaka and a round finial like a kalasha. Unlike the buildings mentioned previously, it completely lacks carved texts, and sits in a compound with high walls and battlements. Both these tombs have external walls sloping slightly inwards, by 25° in the Delhi tomb, like many fortifications including the ruined Tughlaqabad Fort opposite the tomb, intended as the new capital.[217]

The Tughlaqs had a corps of government architects and builders, and in this and other roles employed many Hindus. They left many buildings, and a standardized dynastic style.[216] The third sultan, Firuz Shah (r. 1351–88) is said to have designed buildings himself, and was the longest ruler and greatest builder of the dynasty. His Firoz Shah Palace Complex (started 1354) at Hisar, Haryana is a ruin, but parts are in fair condition.[218] Some buildings from his reign take forms that had been rare or unknown in Islamic buildings.[219] He was buried in the large Hauz Khas Complex in Delhi, with many other buildings from his period and the later Sultanate, including several small domed pavilions supported only by columns.[220]

By this time Islamic architecture in India had adopted some features of earlier Indian architecture, such as the use of a high plinth,[221] and often mouldings around its edges, as well as columns and brackets and hypostyle halls.[222] After the death of Firoz the Tughlaqs declined, and the following Delhi dynasties were weak. Most of the monumental buildings constructed were tombs, although the impressive Lodi Gardens in Delhi (adorned with fountains, charbagh gardens, ponds, tombs and mosques) were constructed by the late Lodi dynasty. The architecture of other regional Muslim states was often more impressive.[223]

List of rulers

See also: List of rulers of the Delhi Sultanate

Destruction and desecration

Cities

While the sacking of cities was not uncommon in medieval warfare, the army of the Delhi Sultanate also often completely destroyed cities in their military expeditions. According to Jain chronicler Jinaprabha Suri, Nusrat Khan's conquests destroyed hundreds of towns including Ashapalli (modern-day Ahmedabad), Anhilvad (modern-day Patan), Vanthali and Surat in Gujarat.[224] This account is corroborated by Ziauddin Barani.[225]

Battles and massacres

  • Ghiyas ud din Balban wiped out the Rajputs of Mewat and Awadh, killing approximately 100,000 people.[226]
  • Alauddin Khalji ordered the killing of 30,000 people at Chittor.[227]
  • Alauddin Khalji ordered the killing of several prominent Brahmin and merchant civilians during his raid on Devagiri.[228]
  • According to a hymn, Muhammad bin Tughlaq is said to have killed 12,000 Hindu ascetics during the sacking of Srirangam.[229]
  • Firuz Shah Tughlaq killed 180,000 people during his invasion of Bengal.[230]

Desecration

 
Jordanus was a contemporary European witness of the destructions by the "Turkish Saracens" in India (extract from Mirabilia Descripta, written in 1329–1338).[231][232]

Historian Richard Eaton has tabulated a campaign of destruction of idols and temples by Delhi Sultans, intermixed with certain years where the temples were protected from desecration.[31][233][234] In his paper, he has listed 37 instances of Hindu temples being desecrated or destroyed in India during the Delhi Sultanate, from 1234 to 1518, for which reasonable evidences are available.[235][236][237] He notes that this was not unusual in medieval India, as there were numerous recorded instances of temple desecration by Hindu and Buddhist kings against rival Indian kingdoms between 642 and 1520, involving conflict between devotees of different Hindu deities, as well as between Hindus, Buddhists and Jains at small scales.[238][239][240] He also noted there were also many instances of Delhi sultans, who often had Hindu ministers, ordering the protection, maintenance and repairing of temples, according to both Muslim and Hindu sources. For example, a Sanskrit inscription notes that Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq repaired a Siva temple in Bidar after his Deccan conquest. There was often a pattern of Delhi sultans plundering or damaging temples during conquest, and then patronizing or repairing temples after conquest. This pattern came to an end with the Mughal Empire, where Akbar's chief minister Abu'l-Fazl criticized the excesses of earlier sultans such as Mahmud of Ghazni.[235]

In majority cases, the demolished remains, rocks and broken statue pieces of temples destroyed by Delhi sultans were reused to build mosques and other buildings. For example, the Qutb complex in Delhi was built from stones of 27 demolished Hindu and Jain temples by some accounts.[241] Similarly, the Muslim mosque in Khanapur, Maharashtra was built from the looted parts and demolished remains of Hindu temples.[63] Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji destroyed Buddhist and Hindu libraries and their manuscripts at Nalanda and Odantapuri Universities in 1193 AD at the beginning of the Delhi Sultanate.[35][34]

The first historical record of a campaign of destruction of temples and defacement of faces or heads of Hindu idols lasted from 1193 to 1194 in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh under the command of Ghuri. Under the Mamluks and Khaljis, the campaign of temple desecration expanded to Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra, and continued through the late 13th century.[31] The campaign extended to Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu under Malik Kafur and Ulugh Khan in the 14th century, and by the Bahmanis in the 15th century.[35] Orissa temples were destroyed in the 14th century under the Tughlaqs.

Beyond destruction and desecration, the sultans of the Delhi Sultanate in some cases had forbidden reconstruction or repair of damaged Hindu, Jain and Buddhist temples. In certain cases, the Sultanate would grant a permit for repairs and construction of temples if the patron or religious community paid jizya (fee, tax). For example, a proposal by the Chinese to repair Himalayan Buddhist temples destroyed by the Sultanate army was refused, on the grounds that such temple repairs were only allowed if the Chinese agreed to pay jizya tax to the treasury of the Sultanate.[242][243][244] According to Eva De Clercq, an expert in the study of Jainism, the Delhi Sultans did not strictly prohibit construction of new temples in the sultanate, Islamic law notwithstanding.[245] In his memoirs, Firoz Shah Tughlaq describes how he destroyed temples and built mosques instead and killed those who dared build new temples.[129] Other historical records from wazirs, amirs and the court historians of various Sultans of the Delhi Sultanate describe the grandeur of idols and temples they witnessed in their campaigns and how these were destroyed and desecrated.[246]

Temple desecration during Delhi Sultanate period, a list prepared by Richard Eaton in Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States[31][247]
Sultan / Agent Dynasty Years Temple Sites Destroyed States
Muhammad of Ghor, Qutb ud-Din Aibak and Bakhtiyar Khilji Ghurids 1192-1206 Ajmer, Samana, Kuhram, Delhi, Kara, Pushkar, Anahilavada, Kol, Kannauj, Varanasi, Nalanda, Odantapuri, Somapura, Vikramashila Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal
Iltumish, Jalal-ud-din Khalji, Alauddin Khalji, Malik Kafur Mamluk and Khalji 1211-1320 Bhilsa, Ujjain, Jhain, Vijapur, Devagiri, Ellora, Lonar, Somnath, Ashapalli, Khambat, Vamanathali, Surat, Dhar, Mandu, Ranthambore, Chittor, Siwana, Jalore, Hanmakonda, Dwarasamudra, Chidambaram, Srirangam, Madurai Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Telangana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
Ulugh Khan, Firuz Shah Tughlaq, Raja Nahar Khan, Muzaffar Khan Khalji and Tughlaq 1320-1395[note 4] Warangal, Bodhan, Pillalamarri, Ghanpur, Dwarasamudra, Belur, Somanathapura, Puri, Cuttack, Jajpur, Jaunpur, Sainthali, Idar[note 5] Gujarat, Telangana, Karnataka, Orissa, Haryana
Sikandar, Muzaffar Shah, Ahmad Shah, Mahmud Sayyid 1400-1442 Paraspur, Bijbehara, Tripuresvara, Idar, Diu, Manvi, Sidhpur, Navsari, Dilwara, Kumbhalmer Gujarat, Rajasthan
Suhrab, Begada, Bahmanis, Khalil Shah, Khawwas Khan, Sikandar Lodi, Ibrahim Lodi Lodi 1457-1518 Mandalgarh, Malan, Dwarka, Alampur, Kondapalli, Kanchipuram, Amod, Nagarkot, Girnar, Vadnagar, Junagadh, Pavagadh, Utgir, Narwar, Khajuraho, Gwalior Rajasthan, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Welch and Crane note that the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque was built with the remains of demolished Hindu and Jain temples.[62]
  2. ^ Pali literature dating to the 4th century BC mentions the cakkavattaka, which commentaries explain as arahatta-ghati-yanta (machine with wheel-pots attached), and according to Pacey, water-raising devices were used for irrigation in Ancient India predating their use in the Roman empire or China.[186] Greco-Roman tradition, on the other hand, asserts that the device was introduced to India from the Roman Empire.[187] Furthermore, South Indian mathematician Bhaskara II describes water-wheels c. 1150 in his incorrect proposal for a perpetual motion machine.[188] Srivastava argues that the Sakia, or araghatta was in fact invented in India by the 4th century.[189]
  3. ^ Also two huge minarets at Ghazni.
  4. ^ Ulugh Khan also known as Almas Beg was brother of Ala-al Din Khalji; his destruction campaign overlapped the two dynasties.
  5. ^ Somnath temple went through cycles of destruction by Sultans and rebuilding by Hindus.
  1. ^ Herbert Hartel calls the Lodi sultans Turco-Afghan: "The Turco-Afghan sultans of the Lodi Dynasty...".[149]

References

Citations

  1. ^ Grey flag with black vertical stripe according to the Catalan Atlas (c. 1375):   in the depiction of the Delhi Sultanate in the Catalan Atlas
  2. ^ Kadoi, Yuka (2010). "On the Timurid flag". Beiträge zur islamischen Kunst und Archäologie. 2: 148. ...helps identify another curious flag found in northern India – a brown or originally sliver flag with a vertical black line – as the flag of the Delhi Sultanate (602-962/1206-1555).
  3. ^ Note: other sources describe the use of two flags: the black Abbasid flag, and the red Ghurid flag, as well as various banners with figures of the new moon, a dragon or a lion. "Large banners were carried with the army. In the beginning the sultans had only two colours : on the right were black flags, of Abbasid colour; and on the left they carried their own colour, red, which was derived from Ghor. Qutb-u'd-din Aibak's standards bore the figures of the new moon, a dragon or a lion; Firuz Shah's flags also displayed a dragon." in Qurashi, Ishtiyaq Hussian (1942). The Administration of the Sultanate of Delhi. Kashmiri Bazar Lahore: SH. MUHAMMAD ASHRAF. p. 143. , also in Jha, Sadan (8 January 2016). Reverence, Resistance and Politics of Seeing the Indian National Flag. Cambridge University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-107-11887-4., also "On the right of the Sultan was carried the black standard of the Abbasids and on the left the red standard of Ghor." in Thapliyal, Uma Prasad (1938). The Dhvaja, Standards and Flags of India: A Study. B.R. Publishing Corporation. p. 94. ISBN 978-81-7018-092-0.
  4. ^ a b Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 147, map XIV.3 (j). ISBN 0226742210.
  5. ^ a b Jamal Malik (2008). Islam in South Asia: A Short History. Brill Publishers. p. 104. ISBN 978-9004168596.
  6. ^ . Asi.nic.in. Archived from the original on 29 September 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
  7. ^ Alam, Muzaffar (1998). "The pursuit of Persian: Language in Mughal Politics". Modern Asian Studies. Cambridge University Press. 32 (2): 317–349. doi:10.1017/s0026749x98002947. S2CID 146630389. Hindavi was recognized as a semi-official language by the Sor Sultans (1540–1555) and their chancellery rescripts bore transcriptions in the Devanagari script of the Persian contents. The practice is said to have been introduced by the Lodis (1451–1526).
  8. ^ Peter. Jackson, "Turkish Slaves on Islam’s Indian Frontier," in Slavery & South Asian History, ed. Indrani Chatterjee and Richard M. Eaton (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006)65
  9. ^ Jackson 2003, p. 28.
  10. ^ Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires" (PDF). Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 222–223. ISSN 1076-156X. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
  11. ^ a b Delhi Sultanate, Encyclopædia Britannica
  12. ^ A. Schimmel, Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, Leiden, 1980
  13. ^ Sen, Sailendra (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History. Primus Books. pp. 68–102. ISBN 978-9-38060-734-4.
  14. ^ Chapman, Graham. "Religious vs. regional determinism: India, Pakistan and Bangladesh as inheritors of empire." Shared space: Divided space. Essays on conflict and territorial organization (1990): 106-134.
  15. ^ Sugata Bose; Ayesha Jalal (2004). Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy. Psychology Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-415-30786-4. It was a similar combination of political and economic imperatives which led Muhmmad Ghuri, a Turk, to invade India a century and half later in 1192. His defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan, a Rajput chieftain, in the strategic battle of Tarain in northern India paved the way for the establishment of first Muslim sultante
  16. ^ K. A. Nizami (1992). A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206-1526). Vol. 5 (2nd ed.). The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House. p. 198.
  17. ^ a b c Mohammad Aziz Ahmad (1939). "The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India. (1206-1290 A.d.)". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Indian History Congress. 3: 832–841. JSTOR 44252438.
  18. ^ Satish Chandra (2004). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526) - Part One. Har-Anand Publications. ISBN 9788124110645.
  19. ^ a b Mahajan. History of Medieval India. Chand. p. 121.
  20. ^ Sugata Bose, Ayesha Jalal (1998). Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy. p. 28. ISBN 9780415169523.
  21. ^ Krishna Gopal Sharma (1999). History and Culture of Rajasthan: From Earliest Times Upto 1956 A.D. Centre for Rajasthan Studies, University of Rajasthan.
  22. ^ a b c d Muḥammad ibn Tughluq Encyclopædia Britannica
  23. ^ Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India, 3rd Edition, Routledge, 1998, ISBN 0-415-15482-0, pp. 187-190.
  24. ^ Vincent A Smith, The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911, p. 217, at Google Books, Chapter 2, Oxford University Press
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May 02, 2023
delhi, sultanate, confused, with, sultanate, deli, sultanate, delhi, islamic, empire, based, delhi, that, stretched, over, large, parts, indian, subcontinent, during, period, medieval, india, years, 1206, 1526, following, invasion, south, asia, ghurid, dynasty. Not to be confused with Sultanate of Deli The Delhi Sultanate or the Sultanate of Delhi was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent during the period of Medieval India for 320 years 1206 1526 11 12 Following the invasion of South Asia by the Ghurid dynasty five unrelated heterogeneous dynasties ruled over the Delhi Sultanate sequentially the Mamluk dynasty 1206 1290 the Khalji dynasty 1290 1320 the Tughlaq dynasty 1320 1414 13 the Sayyid dynasty 1414 1451 and the Lodi dynasty 1451 1526 It covered large swaths of territory in modern day India Pakistan and Bangladesh as well as some parts of southern Nepal 14 Delhi Sultanateسلطنت دهلی Persian 1206 1526Flag of the Delhi Sultanate according to the contemporary Catalan Atlas c 1375 1 2 3 Delhi Sultanate at its greatest extent under the Tughlaq dynasty 1330 1335 4 5 CapitalLahore 1206 1210 Badayun 1210 1214 Delhi 1214 1327 Daulatabad 1327 1334 Delhi 1334 1506 Agra 1506 1526 Common languagesPersian official and court language 6 Hindavi semi official between 1451 and 1526 7 Turkic languages originally spoken by the ruling class 8 ReligionState religionSunni IslamOthersHinduism majority Jainism Buddhism Christianity ZoroastrianismGovernmentSultanateSultan 1206 1210Qutubuddin Aibak first 1517 1526Ibrahim Lodi last LegislatureCorps of FortyHistorical eraMiddle Ages Independence 9 12 June 1206 Battle of Panipat21 April 1526Area 1312 3 200 000 10 km2 1 200 000 sq mi CurrencyTakaPreceded by Succeeded byGhurid dynastyGahadavalaChandela dynastyParamara dynastyDeva dynastySena dynastySeuna Yadava dynastyKakatiya dynastyVaghela dynastyYajvapala dynastyChahamanas of RanastambhapuraPithipatis of Bodh Gaya Mughal EmpireBengal SultanateBahamani SultanateGujarat SultanateMalwa SultanateKhandesh SultanateVijayanagara EmpireToday part ofBangladeshIndiaPakistanThe foundation of the Sultanate was laid by the Ghurid conqueror Muhammad Ghori who routed the Rajput Confederacy led by Ajmer ruler Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192 near Tarain after suffering a reverse against them earlier 15 As a successor to the Ghurid dynasty the Delhi Sultanate was originally one among a number of principalities ruled by the Turkic slave generals of Muhammad Ghori including Taj al Din Yildiz Qutb al Din Aibak Bahauddin Tughril and Nasir ad Din Qabacha that had inherited and divided the Ghurid territories amongst themselves 16 After a long period of infighting the Mamluks were overthrown in the Khalji revolution which marked the transfer of power from the Turks to a heterogeneous Indo Muslim nobility 17 18 This revolution under Khalji and Tughlaq rule ushered a new wave of rapid and ceaseless Muslim conquests deep into South India 19 20 21 The sultanate finally reached the peak of its geographical reach during the Tughlaq dynasty occupying most of the Indian subcontinent under Muhammad bin Tughluq 22 This was followed by decline due to Hindu reconquests Hindu kingdoms such as the Vijayanagara and Mewar asserting independence and new Muslim sultanates such as the Bengal and Bahmani Sultanates breaking off 23 24 In 1526 the Sultanate was conquered and succeeded by the Mughal Empire The establishment of the Sultanate drew the Indian subcontinent more closely into international and multicultural Islamic social and economic networks 25 as seen concretely in the development of the Hindustani language 26 and Indo Islamic architecture 27 28 being one of the few powers to repel attacks of the Mongols from the Chagatai Khanate 29 and for enthroning one of the few female rulers in Islamic history Razia Sultan who reigned from 1236 to 1240 30 Bakhtiyar Khalji s annexations involved a large scale desecration of Hindu and Buddhist temples 31 contributing to the decline of Buddhism in East India and Bengal 32 33 and the destruction of universities and libraries 34 35 Mongolian raids on West and Central Asia set the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers intelligentsia mystics traders artists and artisans from those regions into the subcontinent thereby establishing Islamic culture there 36 37 Contents 1 History 1 1 Background 1 2 Dynasties 1 2 1 Mamluk dynasty 1206 1290 1 2 2 Khalji dynasty 1290 1320 1 2 3 Tughlaq dynasty 1320 1413 1 2 4 Sayyid dynasty 1414 1450 1 2 5 Lodi dynasty 1451 1526 2 Government and politics 2 1 Political system 2 2 Economic policy and administration 2 3 Social policies 2 4 Military 3 Economy 4 Society 4 1 Demographics 4 2 Culture 4 3 Architecture 4 3 1 Tughlaq architecture 5 List of rulers 6 Destruction and desecration 6 1 Cities 6 2 Battles and massacres 6 3 Desecration 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9 1 Citations 9 2 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External linksHistory EditBackground Edit See also Mamluk and Turkic migration The rise of the Delhi Sultanate in India was part of a wider trend affecting much of the Asian continent including the whole of southern and western Asia the influx of nomadic Turkic peoples from the Central Asian steppes This can be traced back to the 9th century when the Islamic Caliphate began fragmenting in the Middle East where Muslim rulers in rival states began enslaving non Muslim nomadic Turks from the Central Asian steppes and raising many of them to become loyal military slaves called Mamluks Soon Turks were migrating to Muslim lands and becoming Islamicized Many of the Turkic Mamluk slaves eventually rose up to become rulers and conquered large parts of the Muslim world establishing Mamluk Sultanates from Egypt to present day Afghanistan before turning their attention to the Indian subcontinent 38 South Asia1175 CEKARAKHANIDKHANATEQARA KHITAIGHURIDEMPIREKUMAONCHAULUKYASCHAHAMANASLATEGHAZNAVIDSPARAMARASWESTERNCHALUKYASKAKATIYASSHILA HARASCHOLASCHERASPANDYASKADAMBASHOYSALASGAHADAVALASGUHILASKACHCHAPA GHATASCHANDELASKALACHURIS TRIPURI KALACHURIS RATNAPURA SENASCHEROSNAGVANSISKAMARUPASEASTERNGANGASGUGEMARYULLOHA RASSOOMRAEMIRATEMAKRANSULTANATE class notpageimage Main South Asian polities in 1175 on the eve of the Ghurid Empire invasion of the subcontinent Orange line Ghurid territorial conquests from 1175 to 1205 which led to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 39 40 It is also part of a longer trend predating the spread of Islam Like other settled agrarian societies in history those in the Indian subcontinent have been attacked by nomadic tribes throughout its long history In evaluating the impact of Islam on the subcontinent one must note that the northwestern subcontinent was a frequent target of tribes raiding from Central Asia in the pre Islamic era In that sense the Muslim intrusions and later Muslim invasions were not dissimilar to those of the earlier invasions during the 1st millennium 41 By 962 AD Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms in South Asia faced a series of raids from Muslim armies from Central Asia 42 Among them was Mahmud of Ghazni the son of a Turkic Mamluk military slave 43 who raided and plundered kingdoms in north India from east of the Indus river to west of Yamuna river seventeen times between 997 and 1030 44 Mahmud of Ghazni raided the treasuries but retracted each time only extending Islamic rule into western Punjab 45 46 The series of raids on north Indian and western Indian kingdoms by Muslim warlords continued after Mahmud of Ghazni 47 The raids did not establish or extend the permanent boundaries of the Islamic kingdoms In contrast the Ghurid Sultan Mu izz ad Din Muhammad Ghori commonly known as Muhammad of Ghor began a systematic war of expansion into north India in 1173 48 He sought to carve out a principality for himself and expand the Islamic world 44 49 Muhammad of Ghor created a Sunni Islamic kingdom of his own extending east of the Indus river and he thus laid the foundation for the Muslim kingdom called the Delhi Sultanate 44 Some historians chronicle the Delhi Sultanate from 1192 due to the presence and geographical claims of Muhammad Ghori in South Asia by that time 50 Ghori was assassinated in 1206 by Ismaʿili Shia Muslims in some accounts or by Khokhars in others 51 After the assassination one of Ghori s slaves or mamluks Arabic مملوك the Turkic Qutb al Din Aibak assumed power becoming the first Sultan of Delhi 44 Dynasties Edit Mamluk dynasty 1206 1290 Edit Main article Mamluk dynasty Delhi Territory of the Delhi Mamluk Dynasty circa 1250 52 Qutb al Din Aibak a former slave of Mu izz ad Din Muhammad Ghori known more commonly as Muhammad of Ghor was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate Aibak was of Cuman Kipchak Turkic origin and due to his lineage his dynasty is known as the Mamluk Slave origin dynasty not to be confused with the Mamluk dynasty of Iraq or the Mamluk dynasty of Egypt 53 Aibak reigned as the Sultan of Delhi for four years from 1206 to 1210 Aibak was praised by the contemporary and later accounts for his generosity and due to this was called with the sobriquet of Lakhbaksh giver of lakhs 54 After Aibak died Aram Shah assumed power in 1210 but he was assassinated in 1211 by Aibak s son in law Shams ud Din Iltutmish 55 Iltutmish s power was precarious and a number of Muslim amirs nobles challenged his authority as they had been supporters of Qutb al Din Aibak After a series of conquests and brutal executions of opposition Iltutmish consolidated his power 56 Tomb of Iltutmish r 1211 1236 in the Qutub Minar complex His rule was challenged a number of times such as by Qubacha and this led to a series of wars 57 Iltutmish conquered Multan and Bengal from contesting Muslim rulers as well as Ranthambore and Siwalik from the Hindu rulers He also attacked defeated and executed Taj al Din Yildiz who asserted his rights as heir to Mu izz ad Din Muhammad Ghori 58 Iltutmish s rule lasted until 1236 Following his death the Delhi Sultanate saw a succession of weak rulers disputing Muslim nobility assassinations and short lived tenures Power shifted from Rukn ud Din Firuz to Razia Sultana and others until Ghiyas ud Din Balban came to power and ruled from 1266 to 1287 57 58 Ghiyasuddin Balban destroyed the power of the Corps of Forty a council of 40 Turkic slaves who had played a role as kingmakers and had been independent of the Sultan This had a side effect where the diminshing number of Turkic slaves and their power over the state was weakened and were no longer able to maintain dominance while conversion and intermarriage steadily increased the number of Indian Muslims This paved the way to the political emergence and progress of an Indo Muslim society where the transformation from a Turkic to an Indo Muslim state was well on its way to which resistance was not only impossible but also highly unwise in light of the defence of the Muslim state from the Hindus and the Mongols 59 He was succeeded by 17 year old Muiz ud Din Qaiqabad who appointed Jalal ud Din Firuz Khalji as the commander of the army Khalji assassinated Qaiqabad and assumed power thus ending the Mamluk dynasty and starting the Khalji dynasty Qutb al Din Aibak initiated the construction of the Qutub Minar but died before it was completed It was later completed by his son in law Iltutmish 60 The Quwwat ul Islam Might of Islam Mosque was built by Aibak now a UNESCO world heritage site 61 The Qutub Minar Complex or Qutb Complex was expanded by Iltutmish and later by Ala ud Din Khalji the second ruler of the Khalji dynasty in the early 14th century 61 note 1 During the Mamluk dynasty many nobles from Afghanistan and Persia migrated and settled in India as West Asia came under Mongol siege 63 Khalji dynasty 1290 1320 Edit Main article Khalji dynasty See also Mongol invasions of India Territory controlled by Khalji dynasty circa 1320 64 The Khalji dynasty was of Turko Afghan heritage 65 66 67 68 They were originally Turkic but due to their long presence in Afghanistan they were treated by others as Afghan as they adopted of some Afghan habits and customs 69 70 After their settlment in India they assimilated into the mass Indian Muslim settlements due to their century long domicile in India since the early Ghorid invasions 71 The dynasty later also had Hindu ancestry through Jhatyapali daughter of Ramachandra of Devagiri wife of Alauddin Khalji and mother of Shihabuddin Omar 72 The first ruler of the Khalji dynasty was Jalal ud Din Firuz Khalji He came to power after the Khalji revolution which marked the transfer of power from the monopoly of Turkic nobles to a heterogeneous Indian Muslim nobility The Khalji and Indo Muslim faction had been strengthened by an ever increasing number of converts and took power through a series of assassinations 17 Muiz ud Din Kaiqabad was assassinated and Jalal ad din took power in a military coup The revolution essentially being a revolt of the Indian Muslims ushered in a new era of eceaseless conquests of unique experiment in statescraft and of incomparable literay activity 19 He was around 70 years old at the time of his ascension and was known as a mild mannered humble and kind monarch to the general public 73 74 Jalal ud Din Firuz ruled for 6 years before he was murdered in 1296 by a Muhammad Salim of Samana on the orders of his nephew and son in law Juna Muhammad Khalji 75 who later came to be known as Ala ud Din Khalji 76 The Alai era saw the emergence of an Indian Muslim state as Indian Muslims gained power to replace the old nobility 77 78 Ala ud Din appointed his Indian Muslim relatives such as Nusrat Khan Jalesari as his Grand Vizier and Hizabruddin Zafar Khan as his Minister of War 79 80 81 The Muslim generals of Indian origin such as Ainul Mulk Multani Malik Kafur Malik Nayk Malik Yak Lakhi and Khusrau Khan emerged as the main conquerors of the Sultanate 82 83 84 This era also saw the preference towards Indian slaves instead of Turkic slaves as there are hardly any more accounts of Turkic slaves from this era as the Sultanate attempted to reduce the influence of the deposed Mamluks 85 86 Ala ud Din began his military career as governor of Kara province from where he led two raids on Malwa 1292 and Devagiri 1294 for plunder and loot After his accession to the throne expansions towards these kingdoms were renewed including Gujarat which was conquered by the Indian Muslim Grand Vizier Nusrat Khan Jalesari 87 79 88 the kingdom of Malwa by the Punjabi Muslim general Ainul Mulk Multani 89 90 as well as Rajputana 91 However these victories were cut short because of Mongol attacks and plunder raids from the northwest The Mongols withdrew after plundering and stopped raiding northwest parts of the Delhi Sultanate 92 The Khaljis captured Jaisalmer Fort in Jaisalmer Rajputana in 1299 After the Mongols withdrew Ala ud Din Khalji continued to expand the Delhi Sultanate into southern India with the help of Gujarati slave generals such as Malik Kafur and Khusro Khan They collected much war booty anwatan from those they defeated 93 94 His commanders collected war spoils and paid ghanima Arabic ال غ نيم ة a tax on spoils of war which helped strengthen the Khalji rule Among the spoils was the Warangal loot that included the famous Koh i Noor diamond 95 1320CHAGATAI KHANATEGOLDEN HORDEEMPIREOF THEGREAT KHANILKHANATEGEORGIADELHISULTANATETungusPINYAKHMERBEYLIKSMAMLUKSULTANATEGO RYEOMAJAPAHITMUSCOVY class notpageimage The Delhi Sultanate and contemporary Asian polities circa 1320 Most of the Asian continent was occupied by the Mongol Empire by that time with Turkic polities occupying South and Western Asia as far as Egypt Ala ud Din Khalji changed tax policies raising agriculture taxes from 20 to 50 payable in grain and agricultural produce eliminating payments and commissions on taxes collected by local chiefs banned socialization among his officials as well as inter marriage between noble families to help prevent any opposition forming against him and he cut salaries of officials poets and scholars 75 These tax policies and spending controls strengthened his treasury to pay the keep of his growing army he also introduced price controls on all agriculture produce and goods in the kingdom as well as controls on where how and by whom these goods could be sold Markets called shahana i mandi were created 96 Muslim merchants were granted exclusive permits and monopoly in these mandis to buy and resell at official prices No one other than these merchants could buy from farmers or sell in cities Those found violating these mandi rules were severely punished often by mutilation citation needed Taxes collected in the form of grain were stored in the kingdom s storage During famines that followed these granaries ensured sufficient food for the army 75 The Alai Darwaza completed in 1311 during the Khalji dynasty Historians note Ala ud Din Khalji as being a tyrant Anyone Ala ud Din suspected of being a threat to this power was killed along with the women and children of that family He grew to eventually distrust the majority of his nobles and favored only a handful of his own slaves and family In 1298 between 15 000 and 30 000 Mongols near Delhi who had recently converted to Islam were slaughtered in a single day due to a mutiny during an invasion of Gujarat 97 He is also known for his cruelty against kingdoms he defeated in battle After Ala ud Din s death in 1316 his eunuch general Malik Kafur who was born to a Hindu family but converted to Islam assumed de facto power and was supported by non Khalaj nobles like the Pashtuns notably Kamal al Din Gurg However he lacked the support of the majority of Khalaj nobles who had him assassinated hoping to take power for themselves 75 However the new ruler had the killers of Kafur executed The last Khalji ruler was Ala ud Din Khalji s 18 year old son Qutb ud Din Mubarak Shah Khalji who ruled for four years before he was killed by Khusro Khan another slave general with Hindu origins who reverted from Islam and favoured his Hindu Baradu military clan in the nobility Khusro Khan s reign lasted only a few months when Ghazi Malik later to be called Ghiyath al Din Tughlaq defeated him with the help of Punjabi Khokhar tribesmen and assumed power in 1320 thus ending the Khalji dynasty and starting the Tughlaq dynasty 63 97 Tughlaq dynasty 1320 1413 Edit Main article Tughlaq dynasty Territory of the Tughlaq dynasty circa 1330 1335 corresponding to the maximum extent of the Delhi Sultanate 4 The Tughlaq dynasty was a Turko Mongol 98 or Turkic 5 Muslim dynasty which lasted from 1320 to 1413 The first ruler was Ghiyath al Din Tughlaq Ghiyath al Din ruled for five years and built a town near Delhi named Tughlaqabad 99 His son Juna Khan and general Ainul Mulk Multani conquered Warangal in south India 100 According to some historians such as Vincent Smith 101 he was killed by his son Juna Khan who then assumed power in 1325 Juna Khan renamed himself Muhammad bin Tughlaq and ruled for 26 years 102 During his rule Delhi Sultanate reached its peak in terms of geographical reach covering most of the Indian subcontinent 22 Muhammad bin Tughlaq was an intellectual with extensive knowledge of the Quran Fiqh poetry and other fields He was also deeply suspicious of his kinsmen and wazirs ministers extremely severe with his opponents and took decisions that caused economic upheaval For example he ordered minting of coins from base metals with face value of silver coins a decision that failed because ordinary people minted counterfeit coins from base metal they had in their houses and used them to pay taxes and jizya 22 101 Depiction of Ghiyath al Din Tughluq founder of the Tughlaq dynasty in the Basatin al uns by Ikhtisan i Dabir a member of the Tughluq court and an ambassador to Iran Ca 1410 Jalayirid copy of 1326 lost original 103 Muhammad bin Tughlaq chose the city of Deogiri in present day Indian state of Maharashtra renaming it Daulatabad as the second administrative capital of the Delhi Sultanate 104 He ordered a forced migration of the Muslim population of Delhi including his royal family the nobles Syeds Sheikhs and Ulema to settle in Daulatabad The purpose of transferring the entire Muslim elite to Daulatabad was to enroll them in his mission of world conquest He saw their role as propagandists who would adapt Islamic religious symbolism to the rhetoric of empire and that the Sufis could by persuasion bring many of the inhabitants of the Deccan to become Muslim 105 Tughluq cruelly punished the nobles who were unwilling to move to Daulatabad seeing their non compliance of his order as equivalent to rebellion According to Ferishta when the Mongols arrived to Punjab the Sultan returned the elite back to Delhi although Daulatabad remained as an administrative centre 106 One result of the transfer of the elite to Daulatabad was the hatred of the nobility to the Sultan which remained in their minds for a long time 107 The other result was that he managed to create a stable Muslim elite and result in the growth of the Muslim population of Daulatabad who did not return to Delhi 22 without which the rise of the Bahmanid kingdom to challenge Vijayanagara would not have been possible 108 These were the Urdu speaking community of North Indian Muslims 109 Muhammad bin Tughlaq s adventures in the Deccan region also marked campaigns of destruction and desecration temples for example the Swayambhu Shiva Temple and the Thousand Pillar Temple 35 Revolts against Muhammad bin Tughlaq began in 1327 continued over his reign and over time the geographical reach of the Sultanate shrunk Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan a Sayyid native of Kaithal in North India founded the Madurai Sultanate in South India 110 111 112 The Vijayanagara Empire originated in southern India as a direct response to attacks from the Delhi Sultanate 113 and liberated south India from the Delhi Sultanate s rule 114 In the 1330s Muhammad bin Tughlaq ordered an invasion of China citation needed sending part of his forces over the Himalayas However they were defeated by the Kangra State 115 During his reign state revenues collapsed from his policies such as the base metal coins from 1329 to 1332 Famines widespread poverty and rebellion grew across the kingdom In 1338 his own nephew rebelled in Malwa whom he attacked caught and flayed alive citation needed By 1339 the eastern regions under local Muslim governors and southern parts led by Hindu kings had revolted and declared independence from the Delhi Sultanate Muhammad bin Tughlaq did not have the resources or support to respond to the shrinking kingdom 116 The historian Walford chronicled Delhi and most of India faced severe famines during Muhammad bin Tughlaq s rule in the years after the base metal coin experiment 117 118 By 1347 the Bahmani Sultanate had become an independent and competing Muslim kingdom in the Deccan region of South Asia founded by Hasan Gangu 42 119 120 121 The Tughlaq dynasty is remembered for its architectural patronage such as the construction of Firoz Shah Kotla It reused old Buddhists pillars erected by Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE such as the Delhi Topra pillar The Sultanate initially wanted to use the pillars to make mosque minarets Firuz Shah Tughlaq decided otherwise and had them installed near mosques 122 The meaning of the Brahmi script on the pillars the Edicts of Ashoka was unknown in Firuz Shah s time 123 124 Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in 1351 while trying to chase and punish people in Gujarat who were rebelling against the Delhi Sultanate 116 He was succeeded by Firuz Shah Tughlaq 1351 1388 who tried to regain the old kingdom boundary by waging a war with Bengal for 11 months in 1359 However Bengal did not fall Firuz Shah ruled for 37 years His reign was marked with prosperity much of which was due to the wise and capable Grand Vizier Khan i Jahan Maqbul a South Indian Telugu convert to Islam 125 126 His reign attempted to stabilize the food supply and reduce famines by commissioning an irrigation canal from the Yamuna river An educated sultan Firuz Shah left a memoir 127 In it he wrote that he banned the practice of torture such as amputations tearing out of eyes sawing people alive crushing people s bones as punishment pouring molten lead into throats setting people on fire driving nails into hands and feet among others 128 He also wrote that he did not tolerate attempts by Rafawiz Shia Muslim and Mahdi sects from proselytizing people into their faith nor did he tolerate Hindus who tried to rebuild temples that his armies had destroyed 129 Firuz Shah Tughlaq also lists his accomplishments to include converting Hindus to Sunni Islam by announcing an exemption from taxes and jizya for those who convert and by lavishing new converts with presents and honours citation needed Simultaneously he raised taxes and jizya assessing it at three levels and stopping the practice of his predecessors who had historically exempted all Hindu Brahmins from the jizya 128 130 He also vastly expanded the number of slaves in his service and those of Muslim nobles who were converted to Islam taught to read and memorize the Quran and employed in many offices especially in the military out of which he was able to amass a large army 131 These slaves who were Indian converts to Islam were known as the Ghulaman i Firuz Shahi and became an elite guard which later became influential in the state 132 133 The reign of Firuz Shah Tughlaq was marked by reduction in extreme forms of torture elimination of favours to select parts of society but also increased intolerance and persecution of targeted groups 128 the latter of which resulting in conversion of significant parts of the population to Islam 134 A base metal coin of Muhammad bin Tughlaq that led to an economic collapse The death of Firuz Shah Tughlaq created anarchy and disintegration of the kingdom Firuz Shah s successor Ghiyath ud Din Shah II was young and inexperienced gave himself up to wine and pleasure The nobles rose up against him and killed the Sultan and his vizier and installed Abu Bakr Shah on the throne 135 However the old Ghulaman i Firuz Shahi turned against Abu Bakr who fled and on their invitation Nasir ud Din Muhammad Shah was installed on the throne 136 The anamalous institution of the Ghulaman i Firuz Shahi became a corrupting influence on the successive Sultans following Firuz Shah 137 The last rulers of this dynasty both called themselves Sultan from 1394 to 1397 Nasir ud Din Mahmud Shah Tughlaq the grandson of Firuz Shah Tughlaq who ruled from Delhi and Nasir ud Din Nusrat Shah Tughlaq another relative of Firuz Shah Tughlaq who ruled from Firozabad which was a few miles from Delhi 138 The battle between the two relatives continued until Timur s invasion in 1398 Timur also known as Tamerlane in Western scholarly literature was the Turkicized Mongol ruler of the Timurid Empire He became aware of the weakness and quarreling of the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate so he marched with his army to Delhi plundering and killing all the way 139 140 Estimates for the massacre by Timur in Delhi range from 100 000 to 200 000 people 141 142 Timur had no intention of staying in or ruling India He looted the lands he crossed then plundered and burnt Delhi Over five days Timur and his army raged a massacre citation needed Then he collected wealth captured women and enslaved people particularly skilled artisans and returning with this loot to Samarkand The people and lands within the Delhi Sultanate were left in a state of anarchy chaos and pestilence 138 Nasir ud Din Mahmud Shah Tughlaq who had fled to Gujarat during Timur s invasion returned and nominally ruled as the last ruler of Tughlaq dynasty as a puppet of various factions at the court 143 Sayyid dynasty 1414 1450 Edit Main article Sayyid dynasty Territories of the Sayyid Dynasty 144 The Sayyid dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1415 to 1451 as a vassal of the Timurid Empire 42 A contemporary writer Yahya Sirhindi mentions in his Takhrikh i Mubarak Shahi that the founder of the dynasty Khizr Khan was a descendant of prophet Muhammad 145 However according to Richard M Eaton Khizr Khan was a Punjabi chieftain 146 The Timurid invasion and plunder had left the Delhi Sultanate in shambles and little is known about the rule by the Sayyid dynasty Annemarie Schimmel notes the first ruler of the dynasty as Khizr Khan who assumed power by claiming to represent Timur His authority was questioned even by those near Delhi His successor was Mubarak Khan who renamed himself Mubarak Shah and unsuccessfully tried to regain lost territories in Punjab from Khokhar warlords 143 The tomb of Muhammad Shah at Lodi Gardens New Delhi With the power of the Sayyid dynasty faltering Islam s history on the Indian subcontinent underwent a profound change according to Schimmel 143 The previously dominant Sunni sect of Islam became diluted alternate Muslim sects such as Shia rose and new competing centers of Islamic culture took roots beyond Delhi In course of the late Sayyid dynasty the Delhi Sultanate shrank until it became a minor power By the time of the last Sayyid ruler Alam Shah whose name translated to king of the world this resulted in a common northern Indian witticism according to which the kingdom of the king of the world extends from Delhi to Palam i e merely 13 kilometres 8 1 mi Historian Richard M Eaton noted that this saying showcased how the once mighty empire had literally become a joke 147 The Sayyid dynasty was displaced by the Lodi dynasty in 1451 however resulting in a resurgence of the Delhi Sultanate 147 Lodi dynasty 1451 1526 Edit Main article Lodi dynasty Territory of the Lodi Sultanate 1451 1526 148 The Lodi dynasty was an Afghan or Turco Afghan dynasty a related to the Pashtun Afghan Lodi tribe 150 151 The founder of the dynasty Bahlul Khan Lodi was a Khalji of the Lodi clan 152 He started his reign by attacking the Muslim Jaunpur Sultanate to expand the influence of the Delhi Sultanate and was partially successful through a treaty Thereafter the region from Delhi to Varanasi then at the border of Bengal province was back under influence of Delhi Sultanate Bada Gumbad Lodhi Gardens New Delhi After Bahlul Lodi died his son Nizam Khan assumed power renamed himself Sikandar Lodi and ruled from 1489 to 1517 153 One of the better known rulers of the dynasty Sikandar Lodi expelled his brother Barbak Shah from Jaunpur installed his son Jalal Khan as the ruler then proceeded east to make claims on Bihar The Muslim governors of Bihar agreed to pay tribute and taxes but operated independent of the Delhi Sultanate Sikandar Lodi led a campaign of destruction of temples particularly around Mathura He also moved his capital and court from Delhi to Agra 154 an ancient Hindu city that had been destroyed during the plunder and attacks of the early Delhi Sultanate period Sikandar thus erected buildings with Indo Islamic architecture in Agra during his rule and the growth of Agra continued during the Mughal Empire after the end of the Delhi Sultanate 155 156 Sikandar Lodi died a natural death in 1517 and his second son Ibrahim Lodi assumed power Ibrahim did not enjoy the support of Afghan and Persian nobles or regional chiefs 157 Ibrahim attacked and killed his elder brother Jalal Khan who was installed as the governor of Jaunpur by his father and had the support of the amirs and chiefs 155 Ibrahim Lodi was unable to consolidate his power and after Jalal Khan s death the governor of Punjab Daulat Khan Lodi and Rana Sanga reached out to the Mughal Babur and invited him to attack the Delhi Sultanate 158 Babur defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi in the Battle of Panipat in 1526 The death of Ibrahim Lodi ended the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire replaced it Government and politics EditThe historian Peter Jackson explains in The New Cambridge History of Islam The elite of the early Delhi sultanate comprised overwhelmingly first generation immigrants from Persia and Central Asia Persians Tajiks Turks Ghuris and also Khalaj from the hot regions garmsir of modern Afghanistan 159 The Alai era saw the overthrow of the old nobility of early Mamluk rule The backbone of the Turkic elite was broken as their wealth in Delhi was confiscated by Nusrat Khan Jalesari 160 after which a new heterogeneous Indo Muslim nobility emerged in the Delhi Sultanate 17 161 Political system Edit Medieval scholars such as Isami and Barani suggested that the prehistory of the Delhi Sultanate lay in the Ghaznavid state and that its ruler Mahmud Ghaznavi provided the foundation and inspiration integral in the making of the Delhi regime The Mongol and infidel Hindus were the great Others in these narratives and the Persianate and class conscious aristocratic virtues of the ideal state were creatively memorialized in the Ghaznavid state now the templates for the Delhi Sultanate Cast within a historical narrative it allowed for a more self reflective linear rooting of the Sultanate in the great traditions of Muslim statecraft 162 Over time successive Indo Muslim dynasties created a centralized structure in the Persian tradition whose task was to mobilize human and material resources for the ongoing armed struggle against both Mongol and Hindu infidels 163 The monarch was not the Sultan of the Hindus or of say the people of Haryana rather in the eyes of the Sultanate s chroniclers the Muslims constituted what in more recent times would be termed a Staatsvolk For many Muslim observers the ultimate justification for any ruler within the Islamic world was the protection and advancement of the faith For the Sultans as for their Ghaznavid and Ghurid predecessors this entailed the suppression of heterodox Muslims and Firuz Shah attached some importance to the fact that he had acted against the ashab i ilhad u ibahat deviators and latitudinarians It also involved plundering and extorting tribute from independent Hindu principalities 164 Firuz Shah who finally believed that India was a Muslim country 165 declared that no zimmi living in a Musalman country might dare to act 166 The Hindu polytheists who submitted to Islamic rule qualified as protected peoples according to the wide spectrum of the educated Muslim community within the subcontinent The balance of the evidence is that in the latter half of the fourteenth century if not before the jizyah was definitely levied as a discriminatory tax on non Muslims although even then it is difficult to see how such a measure could have been enforced outside the principal centres of Muslim authority 167 The Delhi Sultanate also continued the governmental conventions of the previous Hindu polities claiming paramountcy of some of its subjects rather than exclusive supreme control Accordingly it did not interfere with the autonomy and military of certain conquered Hindu rulers and freely included Hindu vassals and officials 11 Economic policy and administration Edit See also Market reforms of Alauddin Khalji Coin of Ghiyath al Din Iwad Governor of Bengal AH 614 616 AD 1217 1220 Struck in the name of Shams al Din Iltutmish Sultan of Dehli The economic policy of the Delhi Sultanate was characterized by greater government involvement in the economy relative to the Classical Hindu dynasties and increased penalties for private businesses that broke government regulations Alauddin Khalji replaced the private markets with four centralized government run markets appointed a market controller and implemented strict price controls 168 on all kinds of goods from caps to socks from combs to needles from vegetables soups sweetmeats to chapatis according to Ziauddin Barani c 1357 169 The price controls were inflexible even during droughts 170 Capitalist investors were completely banned from participating in horse trade 171 animal and slave brokers were forbidden from collecting commissions 172 and private merchants were eliminated from all animal and slave markets 172 Bans were instituted against hoarding 173 and regrating 174 granaries were nationalized 173 and limits were placed on the amount of grain that could be used by cultivators for personal use 175 Various licensing rules were imposed Registration of merchants was required 176 and expensive goods such as certain fabrics were deemed unnecessary for the general public and required a permit from the state to be purchased These licenses were issued to amirs maliks and other important persons in government 172 Agricultural taxes were raised to 50 Traders regarded the regulations as burdensome and violations were severely punished leading to further resentment among the traders 169 A network of spies was instituted to ensure the implementation of the system even after price controls were lifted after Khalji s death Barani claims that the fear of his spies remained and that people continued to avoid trading in expensive commodities 177 Social policies Edit Ghiyath al Din Tughluq leading his troops in the capture of the city of Tirhut in 1324 from Basatin al uns by Ikhtisan i Dabir a member of the Tughluq court Ca 1410 Jalayirid copy of 1326 lost original Istanbul Topkapi Palace Museum Library Ms R 1032 178 The sultanate enforced Islamic religious prohibitions of anthropomorphic representations in art 179 Military Edit The army of the Delhi sultans initially consisted of nomadic Turkic Mamluk military slaves belonging to Muhammad of Ghor The Alai era ended the Turkic monopoly over the state The army of the Alai era of the Delhi Sultanate had an Indian military style of warfare which had replaced the Ilbari Mamluk style There are hardly any more references to newly recruited Turkic slaves in historical accounts and Indian slaves were preferred towards the end of the 1200s 85 as the new nobility wished to reduce the power of the Turkic slaves after the overthrow of the Mamluks 86 A major military contribution of the Delhi Sultanate was their successful campaigns in repelling the Mongol Empire s invasions of India which could have been devastating for the Indian subcontinent like the Mongol invasions of China Persia and Europe Were it not for the Delhi Sultanate it is possible that the Mongol Empire may have been successful in invading India 38 The strength of the armies changes according to time Economy EditSee also Economic history of India Some historians argue that the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for making India more multicultural and cosmopolitan The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in India has been compared to the expansion of the Mongol Empire and called part of a larger trend occurring throughout much of Eurasia in which nomadic people migrated from the steppes of Inner Asia and became politically dominant 25 According to Angus Maddison between the years 1000 and 1500 India s GDP of which the sultanates represented a significant part grew nearly 8 to 60 5 billion in 1500 Though the overall the percentage of the GDP share reduced from 33 to 22 180 According to Maddison s estimates India s population also grew by nearly 50 in the same time period 181 Transportation of the Delhi Topra pillar to Delhi Sirat i Firuz Shahi 14th century illustration 182 The Delhi Sultanate period coincided with a more use of mechanical technology in the Indian subcontinent India previously already had highly sophisticated agriculture food crops textiles medicine minerals and metals later on Central Asian technique were introduced in the subcontinent 183 there are plentiful evidence of water wheels existing in India prior to the Delhi Sultanate as described by the various Chinese monks and Arabs travellers and writers in their books 184 185 note 2 Later Mughal emperor Babur provided a description on the use of water wheels in the Delhi Sultanate 190 According to historians Arnold Pacey and Irfan Habib the spinning wheel was introduced to India from Iran during the Delhi Sultanate 191 Smith and Cothren suggested that it was invented in India during the latter half of the first millennium 192 but Pacey and Habib said these early references to cotton spinning do not clearly identify a wheel but more likely refer to hand spinning 191 The earliest unambiguous reference to a spinning wheel in India is dated to 1350 191 The worm gear roller cotton gin was invented in the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries Habib states that the development may likely occurred in peninsular India before becoming more widespread across India during the Mughal era 193 The incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin may have appeared sometime during the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire 194 India and China has connections throughout the thousands of years of history Paper had already reached some parts of India as early as the 6th or 7th century 195 196 197 initially through Chinese travellers and the ancient silk road which india was very well connected with Earlier some historians believed that paper failed to catch on as palmyra leaves and birch bark remained far more popular but this theory was descredited later on 198 199 200 201 On the other hand paper may have arrived in Bengal from a separate route as 15th century Chinese traveler Ma Huan remarked that Bengali paper was white and made from bark of a tree similar to the Chinese method of papermaking as opposed to the Middle Eastern method of using rags and waste material suggesting a direct route from China for the arrival of paper in Bengal and paper was already very well established and widespread in that part of the subcontinent 201 201 Society EditDemographics Edit See also Demographics of India History According to one set of the very uncertain estimates of modern historians the total Indian population had largely been stagnant at 75 million during the Middle Kingdoms era from 1 AD to 1000 AD During the Medieval Delhi Sultanate era from 1000 to 1500 India as a whole experienced lasting population growth for the first time in a thousand years with its population increasing nearly 50 to 110 million by 1500 AD 202 203 Culture Edit See also Indo Persian culture Decorative reliefs Alai Darwaza 1311 While the Indian subcontinent has had invaders from Central Asia since ancient times what made the Muslim invasions different is that unlike the preceding invaders who assimilated into the prevalent social system the successful Muslim conquerors retained their Islamic identity and created new legal and administrative systems that challenged and usually in many cases superseded the existing systems of social conduct and ethics even influencing the non Muslim rivals and common masses to a large extent though the non Muslim population was left to their own laws and customs 204 205 They also introduced new cultural codes that in some ways were very different from the existing cultural codes This led to the rise of a new Indian culture which was mixed in nature different from ancient Indian culture The overwhelming majority of Muslims in India were Indian natives converted to Islam This factor also played an important role in the synthesis of cultures 206 The Hindustani language Hindi Urdu began to emerge in the Delhi Sultanate period developed from the Middle Indo Aryan apabhramsha vernaculars of North India Amir Khusro who lived in the 13th century CE during the Delhi Sultanate period in North India used a form of Hindustani which was the lingua franca of the period in his writings and referred to it as Hindavi 26 The officers the Sultans Khans Maliks and the soldiers wore the Islamic qabas dress in the style of Khwarezm which were tucked in the middle of the body while the turban and kullah were common headwear The turbans were wrapped around the kullah caps and the feet were covered with red boots The Wazirs and Katibs also dressed like the soldiers except they did not use belts and often let down a piece of cloth in front of them in the manner of the Sufis The judges and the learned men wore ample gowns farajiyat and an Arabic garment durra 207 Architecture Edit Main article Indo Islamic architecture The Qutb Minar left begun c 1200 next to the Alai Darwaza gatehouse 1311 Qutb Complex in Delhi 61 The start of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 under Qutb al Din Aibak introduced a large Islamic state to India using Central Asian styles 208 The types and forms of large buildings required by Muslim elites with mosques and tombs much the most common were very different from those previously built in India The exteriors of both were very often topped by large domes and made extensive use of arches Both of these features were hardly used in Hindu temple architecture and other indigenous Indian styles Both types of building essentially consist of a single large space under a high dome and completely avoid the figurative sculpture so important to Hindu temple architecture 209 The important Qutb Complex in Delhi was begun under Muhammad of Ghor by 1199 and continued under Qutb al Din Aibak and later sultans The Quwwat ul Islam Mosque now a ruin was the first structure Like other early Islamic buildings it re used elements such as columns from destroyed Hindu and Jain temples including one on the same site whose platform was reused The style was Iranian but the arches were still corbelled in the traditional Indian way 210 Beside it is the extremely tall Qutb Minar a minaret or victory tower whose original four stages reach 73 meters with a final stage added later Its closest comparator is the 62 metre all brick Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan of c 1190 a decade or so before the probable start of the Delhi tower note 3 The surfaces of both are elaborately decorated with inscriptions and geometric patterns in Delhi the shaft is fluted with superb stalactite bracketing under the balconies at the top of each stage 211 In general minarets were slow to be used in India and are often detached from the main mosque where they exist 212 The Tomb of Iltutmish was added by 1236 its dome the squinches again corbelled is now missing and the intricate carving has been described as having an angular harshness from carvers working in an unfamiliar tradition 213 Other elements were added to the complex over the next two centuries Another very early mosque begun in the 1190s is the Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra in Ajmer Rajasthan built for the same Delhi rulers again with corbelled arches and domes Here Hindu temple columns and possibly some new ones are piled up in threes to achieve extra height Both mosques had large detached screens with pointed corbelled arches added in front of them probably under Iltutmish a couple of decades later In these the central arch is taller in imitation of an iwan At Ajmer the smaller screen arches are tentatively cusped for the first time in India 214 By around 1300 true domes and arches with voussoirs were being built the ruined Tomb of Balban d 1287 in Delhi may be the earliest survival 215 The Alai Darwaza gatehouse at the Qutb complex from 1311 still shows a cautious approach to the new technology with very thick walls and a shallow dome only visible from a certain distance or height Bold contrasting colours of masonry with red sandstone and white marble introduce what was to become a common feature of Indo Islamic architecture substituting for the polychrome tiles used in Persia and Central Asia The pointed arches come together slightly at their base giving a mild horseshoe arch effect and their internal edges are not cusped but lined with conventionalized spearhead projections possibly representing lotus buds Jali stone openwork screens are introduced here they already had been long used in temples 216 Tughlaq architecture Edit Tomb of Shah Rukn e Alam at Multan built during the reign of Ghiyas ud Din Tughluq in 1320 AD The tomb of Shah Rukn e Alam built 1320 to 1324 in Multan Pakistan is a large octagonal brick built mausoleum with polychrome glazed decoration that remains much closer to the styles of Iran and Afghanistan Timber is also used internally This was the earliest major monument of the Tughlaq dynasty 1320 1413 built during the unsustainable expansion of its massive territory It was built for a Sufi saint rather than a sultan and most of the many Tughlaq tombs are much less exuberant The tomb of the founder of the dynasty Ghiyath al Din Tughluq d 1325 is more austere but impressive like a Hindu temple it is topped with a small amalaka and a round finial like a kalasha Unlike the buildings mentioned previously it completely lacks carved texts and sits in a compound with high walls and battlements Both these tombs have external walls sloping slightly inwards by 25 in the Delhi tomb like many fortifications including the ruined Tughlaqabad Fort opposite the tomb intended as the new capital 217 The Tughlaqs had a corps of government architects and builders and in this and other roles employed many Hindus They left many buildings and a standardized dynastic style 216 The third sultan Firuz Shah r 1351 88 is said to have designed buildings himself and was the longest ruler and greatest builder of the dynasty His Firoz Shah Palace Complex started 1354 at Hisar Haryana is a ruin but parts are in fair condition 218 Some buildings from his reign take forms that had been rare or unknown in Islamic buildings 219 He was buried in the large Hauz Khas Complex in Delhi with many other buildings from his period and the later Sultanate including several small domed pavilions supported only by columns 220 By this time Islamic architecture in India had adopted some features of earlier Indian architecture such as the use of a high plinth 221 and often mouldings around its edges as well as columns and brackets and hypostyle halls 222 After the death of Firoz the Tughlaqs declined and the following Delhi dynasties were weak Most of the monumental buildings constructed were tombs although the impressive Lodi Gardens in Delhi adorned with fountains charbagh gardens ponds tombs and mosques were constructed by the late Lodi dynasty The architecture of other regional Muslim states was often more impressive 223 Screen of the Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra mosque Ajmer c 1229 Corbel arches some cusped Tomb of Ghiyath al Din Tughluq d 1325 Delhi Possibly the first true arches in India Tomb of Balban d 1287 in Delhi Pavilions in the Hauz Khas Complex Delhi The Sheesh Gumbad in the Lodi Gardens Delhi Tomb of Sikander Lodi in the Lodi Gardens DelhiList of rulers EditSee also List of rulers of the Delhi SultanateDestruction and desecration EditCities Edit While the sacking of cities was not uncommon in medieval warfare the army of the Delhi Sultanate also often completely destroyed cities in their military expeditions According to Jain chronicler Jinaprabha Suri Nusrat Khan s conquests destroyed hundreds of towns including Ashapalli modern day Ahmedabad Anhilvad modern day Patan Vanthali and Surat in Gujarat 224 This account is corroborated by Ziauddin Barani 225 Battles and massacres Edit Ghiyas ud din Balban wiped out the Rajputs of Mewat and Awadh killing approximately 100 000 people 226 Alauddin Khalji ordered the killing of 30 000 people at Chittor 227 Alauddin Khalji ordered the killing of several prominent Brahmin and merchant civilians during his raid on Devagiri 228 According to a hymn Muhammad bin Tughlaq is said to have killed 12 000 Hindu ascetics during the sacking of Srirangam 229 Firuz Shah Tughlaq killed 180 000 people during his invasion of Bengal 230 Desecration Edit Jordanus was a contemporary European witness of the destructions by the Turkish Saracens in India extract from Mirabilia Descripta written in 1329 1338 231 232 Historian Richard Eaton has tabulated a campaign of destruction of idols and temples by Delhi Sultans intermixed with certain years where the temples were protected from desecration 31 233 234 In his paper he has listed 37 instances of Hindu temples being desecrated or destroyed in India during the Delhi Sultanate from 1234 to 1518 for which reasonable evidences are available 235 236 237 He notes that this was not unusual in medieval India as there were numerous recorded instances of temple desecration by Hindu and Buddhist kings against rival Indian kingdoms between 642 and 1520 involving conflict between devotees of different Hindu deities as well as between Hindus Buddhists and Jains at small scales 238 239 240 He also noted there were also many instances of Delhi sultans who often had Hindu ministers ordering the protection maintenance and repairing of temples according to both Muslim and Hindu sources For example a Sanskrit inscription notes that Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq repaired a Siva temple in Bidar after his Deccan conquest There was often a pattern of Delhi sultans plundering or damaging temples during conquest and then patronizing or repairing temples after conquest This pattern came to an end with the Mughal Empire where Akbar s chief minister Abu l Fazl criticized the excesses of earlier sultans such as Mahmud of Ghazni 235 In majority cases the demolished remains rocks and broken statue pieces of temples destroyed by Delhi sultans were reused to build mosques and other buildings For example the Qutb complex in Delhi was built from stones of 27 demolished Hindu and Jain temples by some accounts 241 Similarly the Muslim mosque in Khanapur Maharashtra was built from the looted parts and demolished remains of Hindu temples 63 Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji destroyed Buddhist and Hindu libraries and their manuscripts at Nalanda and Odantapuri Universities in 1193 AD at the beginning of the Delhi Sultanate 35 34 The first historical record of a campaign of destruction of temples and defacement of faces or heads of Hindu idols lasted from 1193 to 1194 in Rajasthan Punjab Haryana and Uttar Pradesh under the command of Ghuri Under the Mamluks and Khaljis the campaign of temple desecration expanded to Bihar Madhya Pradesh Gujarat and Maharashtra and continued through the late 13th century 31 The campaign extended to Telangana Andhra Pradesh Karnataka and Tamil Nadu under Malik Kafur and Ulugh Khan in the 14th century and by the Bahmanis in the 15th century 35 Orissa temples were destroyed in the 14th century under the Tughlaqs Beyond destruction and desecration the sultans of the Delhi Sultanate in some cases had forbidden reconstruction or repair of damaged Hindu Jain and Buddhist temples In certain cases the Sultanate would grant a permit for repairs and construction of temples if the patron or religious community paid jizya fee tax For example a proposal by the Chinese to repair Himalayan Buddhist temples destroyed by the Sultanate army was refused on the grounds that such temple repairs were only allowed if the Chinese agreed to pay jizya tax to the treasury of the Sultanate 242 243 244 According to Eva De Clercq an expert in the study of Jainism the Delhi Sultans did not strictly prohibit construction of new temples in the sultanate Islamic law notwithstanding 245 In his memoirs Firoz Shah Tughlaq describes how he destroyed temples and built mosques instead and killed those who dared build new temples 129 Other historical records from wazirs amirs and the court historians of various Sultans of the Delhi Sultanate describe the grandeur of idols and temples they witnessed in their campaigns and how these were destroyed and desecrated 246 Temple desecration during Delhi Sultanate period a list prepared by Richard Eaton in Temple Desecration and Indo Muslim States 31 247 Sultan Agent Dynasty Years Temple Sites Destroyed StatesMuhammad of Ghor Qutb ud Din Aibak and Bakhtiyar Khilji Ghurids 1192 1206 Ajmer Samana Kuhram Delhi Kara Pushkar Anahilavada Kol Kannauj Varanasi Nalanda Odantapuri Somapura Vikramashila Rajasthan Punjab Haryana Gujarat Uttar Pradesh Bihar BengalIltumish Jalal ud din Khalji Alauddin Khalji Malik Kafur Mamluk and Khalji 1211 1320 Bhilsa Ujjain Jhain Vijapur Devagiri Ellora Lonar Somnath Ashapalli Khambat Vamanathali Surat Dhar Mandu Ranthambore Chittor Siwana Jalore Hanmakonda Dwarasamudra Chidambaram Srirangam Madurai Bihar Madhya Pradesh Rajasthan Gujarat Maharashtra Telangana Karnataka Tamil NaduUlugh Khan Firuz Shah Tughlaq Raja Nahar Khan Muzaffar Khan Khalji and Tughlaq 1320 1395 note 4 Warangal Bodhan Pillalamarri Ghanpur Dwarasamudra Belur Somanathapura Puri Cuttack Jajpur Jaunpur Sainthali Idar note 5 Gujarat Telangana Karnataka Orissa HaryanaSikandar Muzaffar Shah Ahmad Shah Mahmud Sayyid 1400 1442 Paraspur Bijbehara Tripuresvara Idar Diu Manvi Sidhpur Navsari Dilwara Kumbhalmer Gujarat RajasthanSuhrab Begada Bahmanis Khalil Shah Khawwas Khan Sikandar Lodi Ibrahim Lodi Lodi 1457 1518 Mandalgarh Malan Dwarka Alampur Kondapalli Kanchipuram Amod Nagarkot Girnar Vadnagar Junagadh Pavagadh Utgir Narwar Khajuraho Gwalior Rajasthan Gujarat Himachal Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Telangana Andhra Pradesh Tamil NaduIconoclasm under the Delhi Sultanate The Somnath Temple in Gujarat was repeatedly destroyed by Muslim armies and rebuilt by Hindus It was destroyed by Delhi Sultanate s army in 1299 CE 248 The Kashi Vishwanath Temple was destroyed by Muhammad of Ghor along with thousand other temples in Benaras 249 Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji the general of Ghurid ruler Muhammad of Ghor was responsible for the destruction of Nalanda university 250 The armies of Delhi Sultanate led by Muslim Commander Malik Kafur plundered the Meenakshi Temple and looted it of its valuables 251 252 253 Kakatiya Kala Thoranam Warangal Gate built by the Kakatiya dynasty in ruins one of the many temple complexes destroyed by the Delhi Sultanate 31 Rani ki vav is a stepwell built by the Chaulukya dynasty located in Patan the city was sacked by Sultan of Delhi Qutb ud din Aybak between 1200 and 1210 and again by the Allauddin Khilji in 1298 254 Artistic rendition of the Kirtistambh at Rudra Mahalaya Temple The temple was destroyed by Alauddin Khalji 255 Exterior wall reliefs at Hoysaleswara Temple The temple was twice sacked and plundered by the Delhi Sultanate 256 See also EditMongol invasions of India Delhi Sultanate literature Iconoclasm Ibrahim Lodhi s Tomb Persianate states Tomb of Bahlul Lodi Turkish slaves in the Delhi Sultanate Islam in South AsiaNotes Edit Welch and Crane note that the Quwwat ul Islam Mosque was built with the remains of demolished Hindu and Jain temples 62 Pali literature dating to the 4th century BC mentions the cakkavattaka which commentaries explain as arahatta ghati yanta machine with wheel pots attached and according to Pacey water raising devices were used for irrigation in Ancient India predating their use in the Roman empire or China 186 Greco Roman tradition on the other hand asserts that the device was introduced to India from the Roman Empire 187 Furthermore South Indian mathematician Bhaskara II describes water wheels c 1150 in his incorrect proposal for a perpetual motion machine 188 Srivastava argues that the Sakia or araghatta was in fact invented in India by the 4th century 189 Also two huge minarets at Ghazni Ulugh Khan also known as Almas Beg was brother of Ala al Din Khalji his destruction campaign overlapped the two dynasties Somnath temple went through cycles of destruction by Sultans and rebuilding by Hindus Herbert Hartel calls the Lodi sultans Turco Afghan The Turco Afghan sultans of the Lodi Dynasty 149 References EditCitations Edit Grey flag with black vertical stripe according to the Catalan Atlas c 1375 in the depiction of the Delhi Sultanate in the Catalan Atlas Kadoi Yuka 2010 On the Timurid flag Beitrage zur islamischen Kunst und Archaologie 2 148 helps identify another curious flag found in northern India a brown or originally sliver flag with a vertical black line as the flag of the Delhi Sultanate 602 962 1206 1555 Note other sources describe the use of two flags the black Abbasid flag and the red Ghurid flag as well as various banners with figures of the new moon a dragon or a lion Large banners were carried with the army In the beginning the sultans had only two colours on the right were black flags of Abbasid colour and on the left they carried their own colour red which was derived from Ghor Qutb u d din Aibak s standards bore the figures of the new moon a dragon or a lion Firuz Shah s flags also displayed a dragon in Qurashi Ishtiyaq Hussian 1942 The Administration of the Sultanate of Delhi Kashmiri Bazar Lahore SH MUHAMMAD ASHRAF p 143 also in Jha Sadan 8 January 2016 Reverence Resistance and Politics of Seeing the Indian National Flag Cambridge University Press p 36 ISBN 978 1 107 11887 4 also On the right of the Sultan was carried the black standard of the Abbasids and on the left the red standard of Ghor in Thapliyal Uma Prasad 1938 The Dhvaja Standards and Flags of India A Study B R Publishing Corporation p 94 ISBN 978 81 7018 092 0 a b Schwartzberg Joseph E 1978 A Historical atlas of South Asia Chicago University of Chicago Press p 147 map XIV 3 j ISBN 0226742210 a b Jamal Malik 2008 Islam in South Asia A Short History Brill Publishers p 104 ISBN 978 9004168596 Arabic and Persian Epigraphical Studies Archaeological Survey of India Asi nic in Archived from the original on 29 September 2011 Retrieved 29 January 2018 Alam Muzaffar 1998 The pursuit of Persian Language in Mughal Politics Modern Asian Studies Cambridge University Press 32 2 317 349 doi 10 1017 s0026749x98002947 S2CID 146630389 Hindavi was recognized as a semi official language by the Sor Sultans 1540 1555 and their chancellery rescripts bore transcriptions in the Devanagari script of the Persian contents The practice is said to have been introduced by the Lodis 1451 1526 Peter Jackson Turkish Slaves on Islam s Indian Frontier in Slavery amp South Asian History ed Indrani Chatterjee and Richard M Eaton Bloomington Indiana University Press 2006 65 Jackson 2003 p 28 Turchin Peter Adams Jonathan M Hall Thomas D December 2006 East West Orientation of Historical Empires PDF Journal of World Systems Research 12 2 222 223 ISSN 1076 156X Archived PDF from the original on 7 July 2020 Retrieved 7 July 2020 a b Delhi Sultanate Encyclopaedia Britannica A Schimmel Islam in the Indian Subcontinent Leiden 1980 Sen Sailendra 2013 A Textbook of Medieval Indian History Primus Books pp 68 102 ISBN 978 9 38060 734 4 Chapman Graham Religious vs regional determinism India Pakistan and Bangladesh as inheritors of empire Shared space Divided space Essays on conflict and territorial organization 1990 106 134 Sugata Bose Ayesha Jalal 2004 Modern South Asia History Culture Political Economy Psychology Press p 21 ISBN 978 0 415 30786 4 It was a similar combination of political and economic imperatives which led Muhmmad Ghuri a Turk to invade India a century and half later in 1192 His defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan a Rajput chieftain in the strategic battle of Tarain in northern India paved the way for the establishment of first Muslim sultante K A Nizami 1992 A Comprehensive History of India The Delhi Sultanat A D 1206 1526 Vol 5 2nd ed The Indian History Congress People s Publishing House p 198 a b c Mohammad Aziz Ahmad 1939 The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India 1206 1290 A d Proceedings of the Indian History Congress Indian History Congress 3 832 841 JSTOR 44252438 Satish Chandra 2004 Medieval India From Sultanat to the Mughals Delhi Sultanat 1206 1526 Part One Har Anand Publications ISBN 9788124110645 a b Mahajan History of Medieval India Chand p 121 Sugata Bose Ayesha Jalal 1998 Modern South Asia History Culture Political Economy p 28 ISBN 9780415169523 Krishna Gopal Sharma 1999 History and Culture of Rajasthan From Earliest Times Upto 1956 A D Centre for Rajasthan Studies University of Rajasthan a b c d Muḥammad ibn Tughluq Encyclopaedia Britannica Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund A History of India 3rd Edition Routledge 1998 ISBN 0 415 15482 0 pp 187 190 Vincent A Smith The Oxford History of India From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911 p 217 at Google Books Chapter 2 Oxford University Press a b Asher amp Talbot 2008 pp 50 52 a b Keith Brown Sarah Ogilvie 2008 Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World Elsevier ISBN 978 0 08 087774 7 Apabhramsha seemed to be in a state of transition from Middle Indo Aryan to the New Indo Aryan stage Some elements of Hindustani appear the distinct form of the lingua franca Hindustani appears in the writings of Amir Khusro 1253 1325 who called it Hindwi A Welch Architectural Patronage and the Past The Tughluq Sultans of India Muqarnas 10 1993 Brill Publishers pp 311 322 J A Page Guide to the Qutb Delhi Calcutta 1927 pp 2 7 Pradeep Barua The State at War in South Asia ISBN 978 0803213449 pp 29 30 Bowering et al The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought ISBN 978 0691134840 Princeton University Press a b c d e Richard Eaton September 2000 Temple Desecration and Indo Muslim States Journal of Islamic Studies 11 3 283 319 doi 10 1093 jis 11 3 283 Randall Collins The Sociology of Philosophies A Global Theory of Intellectual Change Harvard University Press 2000 pages 184 185 Craig Lockard 2007 Societies Networks and Transitions Volume I A Global History University of Wisconsin Press p 364 ISBN 978 0 618 38612 3 a b Gul and Khan 2008 Growth and Development of Oriental Libraries in India Library Philosophy and Practice University of Nebraska Lincoln a b c d Richard Eaton Temple Desecration and Muslim States in Medieval India at Google Books 2004 Ludden 2002 p 67 Asher amp Talbot 2008 pp 50 51 a b Asher amp Talbot 2008 pp 19 50 51 Schwartzberg Joseph E 1978 A Historical atlas of South Asia Chicago University of Chicago Press pp 37 147 ISBN 0226742210 Eaton 2020 p 38 Richard M Frye Pre Islamic and Early Islamic Cultures in Central Asia in Turko Persia in Historical Perspective ed Robert L Canfield Cambridge U Press c 1991 35 53 a b c See M Reza Pirbha Reconsidering Islam in a South Asian Context ISBN 978 9004177581 Brill The Islamic frontier in the east Expansion into South Asia Journal of South Asian Studies 4 1 pp 91 109 Sookoohy M Bhadreswar Oldest Islamic Monuments in India ISBN 978 9004083417 Brill Academic see discussion of earliest raids in Gujarat Asher amp Talbot 2008 p 19 a b c d Jackson 2003 pp 3 30 T A Heathcote The Military in British India The Development of British Forces in South Asia 1600 1947 Manchester University Press 1995 pp 5 7 Barnett Lionel 1999 Antiquities of India An Account of the History and Culture of Ancient Hindustan p 1 at Google Books Atlantic pp 73 79 Richard Davis 1994 Three styles in looting India History and Anthropology 6 4 pp 293 317 doi 10 1080 02757206 1994 9960832 MUHAMMAD B SAM Mu izz AL DIN T W Haig Encyclopaedia of Islam Vol VII ed C E Bosworth E van Donzel W P Heinrichs and C Pellat Brill 1993 C E Bosworth Tidge History of Iran Vol 5 ed J A Boyle John Andrew Boyle Cambridge University Press 1968 pp 161 170 History of South Asia A Chronological Outline Columbia University 2010 Muʿizz al Din Muḥammad ibn Sam Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011 Schwartzberg Joseph E 1978 A Historical atlas of South Asia Chicago University of Chicago Press p 147 map XIV 3 h ISBN 0226742210 Jackson P 1990 The Mamluk institution in early Muslim India Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain amp Ireland New Series 122 02 pp 340 358 K A Nizami 1992 FOUNDATION OF THE DELHI SULTANAT In Mohammad Habib K A Nizami eds A Comprehensive History of India The Delhi Sultanat A D 1206 1526 The Indian History Congress People s Publishing House pp 205 206 All contemporary and later chroniclers praise the qualities of lovalty generosity courage and justice in his character His generosity won for him the sobriquet of lakhbaksh giver of lakhs C E Bosworth The New Islamic Dynasties Columbia University Press 1996 Barnett amp Haig 1926 A review of History of Mediaeval India from ad 647 to the Mughal Conquest Ishwari Prasad Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain amp Ireland New Series 58 04 pp 780 783 a b Jackson 2003 pp 29 48 a b Anzalone Christopher 2008 Delhi Sultanate in Ackermann M E etc Editors Encyclopedia of World History 2 ISBN 978 0 8160 6386 4 V D Mahajan 2007 History of Medieval India p 113 Qutub Minar Archived from the original on 23 July 2015 Retrieved 5 August 2015 a b c Qutb Minar and its Monuments Delhi UNESCO Welch Anthony Crane Howard 1983 The Tughluqs Master Builders of the Delhi Sultanate PDF Muqarnas Brill 1 123 166 doi 10 2307 1523075 JSTOR 1523075 Archived from the original PDF on 13 August 2016 Retrieved 13 August 2016 a b c Welch Anthony Crane Howard 1983 The Tughluqs Master Builders of the Delhi Sultanate PDF Muqarnas Brill 1 123 166 doi 10 2307 1523075 JSTOR 1523075 Archived from the original PDF on 13 August 2016 Retrieved 13 August 2016 Schwartzberg Joseph E 1978 A Historical atlas of South Asia Chicago University of Chicago Press p 147 map XIV 3 i ISBN 0226742210 Khan Hussain Ahmad 2014 Artisans Sufis Shrines Colonial Architecture in Nineteenth Century Punjab I B Tauris p 15 ISBN 9781784530143 Yunus Mohammad Aradhana Parmar 2003 South Asia a historical narrative Oxford University Press p 97 ISBN 978 0 1957 9711 4 Retrieved 23 August 2010 Kumar Mandal Asim 2003 The Sundarbans of India A Development Analysis India Indus Publishing p 43 ISBN 978 81 738 7143 6 Retrieved 19 November 2012 Singh D 1998 The Sundarbans of India A Development Analysis India APH Publishing p 141 ISBN 978 81 702 4992 4 Retrieved 19 November 2012 Chaurasia Radhey Shyam 2002 History of medieval India from 1000 A D to 1707 A D Atlantic Publishers amp Distributors p 28 ISBN 978 81 269 0123 4 Retrieved 23 August 2010 The Khaljis were a Turkish tribe but having been long domiciled in Afghanistan and adopted some Afghan habits and customs They were treated as Afghans in Delhi Court Cavendish Marshall 2006 World and Its Peoples The Middle East Western Asia and Northern Africa Marshall Cavendish p 320 ISBN 978 0 7614 7571 2 Retrieved 23 August 2010 The members of the new dynasty although they were also Turkic had settled in Afghanistan and brought a new set of customs and culture to Delhi Jaswant L Mehta Vol Iii Medieval Indian Society And Culture Sterling Publishers Private Limited p 8 The khaljis though turks by race belonged to the muslim masses of India they were cent per cent Indian Muslims the khalji family had settled in India and made up the muslim settlements in the Gangetic valley as both soldiers and agriculturalists Lal 1950 pp 56 57 A L Srivastava 1966 The Sultanate of Delhi 711 1526 A D Second ed Shiva Lal Agarwala p 141 OCLC 607636383 A B M Habibullah 1992 1970 The Khaljis Jalaluddin Khalji In Mohammad Habib Khaliq Ahmad Nizami eds A Comprehensive History of India Vol 5 The Delhi Sultanat A D 1206 1526 The Indian History Congress People s Publishing House p 312 OCLC 31870180 a b c d Holt et al The Cambridge History of Islam The Indian sub continent south east Asia Africa and the Muslim west ISBN 978 0521291378 pp 9 13 New Indian Antiquary Volume 2 Karnatak Publishing House 1939 p 545 Alauddin gave the signal and in a twinkling Muhammad Salim of Samana struck Satish Chandra 2004 Medieval India From Sultanat to the Mughals Delhi Sultanat 1206 1526 Part One p 78 ISBN 9788124110645 Radhey Shyam Chaurasia 2002 History of Medieval India From 1000 A D to 1707 A D Atlantic p 30 ISBN 9788126901234 In spite of all this capturing the throne for Khilji was a revolution as instead of Turks Indian Muslims gained power a b Yasin Mazhar Siddiqi 1972 the Kotwals under the Sultans of Delhi Proceedings of the Indian History Congress Indian History Congress 194 JSTOR 44145331 Nusrat Khan Jalesari who was the Kotwal in the first year of the Alai reign was an Indian Muslim The Life and Works of Sultan Alauddin Khalji Atlantic Publishers amp Dist 1992 ISBN 9788171563623 the Sultan appointed his Wazir Nusrat Khan to deal with the Jalali nobles Nusrat Khan confiscated property worth about one crore This brought to an end the influence of the Jalali nobles and strengthened the government trreasury Also the Sultan got a happy riddance from a nobility whose loyalty was always doubtful After this he created a new nobility whose distinctive feature was its loyalty and friendship of Ala ud Din Satish Chandra 2004 Medieval India From Sultanate to the Mughals Delhi Sultanat 1206 1526 Har Anand Publications p 269 ISBN 9788124110645 Satish Chandra 2004 Medieval India From Sultanate to the Mughals Delhi Sultanat 1206 1526 Har Anand Publications p 269 ISBN 9788124110645 SHAIKH ABDUL LATIF 1993 The Indian Elements in the Bureaucracy of the Delhi Sultanate Proceedings of the Indian History Congress Indian History Congress 54 159 JSTOR 44142942 Pran Nath Chopra T K Ravindran N Subrahmanian 1979 History of South India Medieval period the University of Virginia sultan that Malik Yak Lakhi a Hindu born slave officer of Ala ud din whom he had appointed governor of Devagiri a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b Indian History Congress 1999 Proceedings Indian History Congress p 232 a b Fouzia Farooq Ahmed 27 September 2016 Muslim Rule in Medieval India Power and Religion in the Delhi Sultanate Bloomsbury Publishing p 122 ISBN 9781786730824 AL P Sharma 1987 History of medieval India 1000 1740 A D TKonark Publishers ISBN 9788122000429 The Life and Works of Sultan Alauddin Khalji Atlantic Publishers amp Dist 1992 ISBN 9788171563623 the Sultan appointed his Wazir Nusrat Khan to deal with the Jalali nobles Fauja Singh 1972 History of the Punjab A D 1000 1526 Editor Fauja Singh p 150 Satish Chandra 2004 Medieval India From Sultanat to the Mughals Delhi Sultanat 1206 1526 Part One Har Anand Publications ISBN 9788124110645 Alexander Mikaberidze Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World A Historical Encyclopedia ISBN 978 1598843361 pp 62 63 Rene Grousset Empire of steppes Chagatai Khanate Rutgers Univ Press New Jersey U S A 1988 ISBN 0 8135 1304 9 Gujarat State Gazetteer Part 1 1989 p 164 Frank Fanselow 1989 Muslim society in Tamil Nadu India an historical perspective Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs 10 1 pp 264 289 Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund A History of India 3rd Edition Routledge 1998 ISBN 0 415 15482 0 AL Srivastava Delhi Sultanate 5th Edition ASIN B007Q862WO pp 156 158 a b Vincent A Smith The Oxford History of India From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911 p 217 at Google Books Chapter 2 pp 231 235 Oxford University Press CAGMAN FILIZ TANINDI ZEREN 2011 Selections from Jalayirid Books in the Libraries of Istanbul PDF Muqarnas 28 231 ISSN 0732 2992 JSTOR 23350289 Muhammad Tughluq and his successors were contemporaries of the Jalayirid sultans both dynasties were Turco Mongol Eight Cities of Delhi Tughlakabad Delhi Tourism Siddiqui January 1980 The Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Supplement Parts 1 2 Brill Archive p 105 ISBN 9004061673 a b Vincent A Smith The Oxford History of India From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911 p 217 at Google Books Chapter 2 pp 236 242 Oxford University Press Elliot and Dowson Tarikh i Firoz Shahi of Ziauddin Barani The History of India as Told by Its Own Historians The Muhammadan Period Vol 3 London Trubner amp Co CAGMAN FILIZ TANINDI ZEREN 2011 Selections from Jalayirid Books in the Libraries of Istanbul PDF Muqarnas 28 230 258 Fig 56 ISSN 0732 2992 JSTOR 23350289 Aniruddha Ray 4 March 2019 The Sultanate of Delhi 1206 1526 Polity Economy Society and Culture Routledge ISBN 9781000007299 The Sultan created Daulatabad as the second administrative centre A contemporary writer has written that the Empire had two capitals Delhi and Daulatabad Carl W Ernst 1992 Eternal Garden Mysticism History and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center SUNY Press ISBN 9781438402123 Aniruddha Ray 4 March 2019 The Sultanate of Delhi 1206 1526 Polity Economy Society and Culture Routledge ISBN 9781000007299 Aniruddha Ray 4 March 2019 The Sultanate of Delhi 1206 1526 Polity Economy Society and Culture ISBN 9781000007299 The primary result of the transfer of the capital to Daulatabad was the hatred of the people towards the Sultan P M Holt Ann K S Lambton Bernard Lewis 22 May 1977 The Cambridge History of Islam Volume 2A Cambridge University Press p 15 Kousar J Azam 2017 Languages and Literary Cultures in Hyderabad Taylor amp Francis p 8 ISBN 9781351393997 Raj Kumar 2003 Essays on Medieval India p 82 ISBN 9788171416837 Kate Fleet Gudrun Kramer Denis Matringe John Nawas Devin J Stewart January 2018 Jalal al Din Ahsan M S Nagaraja Rao 1987 Kusumanjali New Interpretation of Indian Art amp Culture Sh C Sivaramamurti Commemoration Volume Volume 2 Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund A History of India Routledge 1986 188 Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India by Jl Mehta p 97 Chandra Satish 1997 Medieval India From Sultanate to the Mughals New Delhi India Har Anand Publications pp 101 102 ISBN 978 8124105221 a b Vincent A Smith The Oxford History of India From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911 p 217 at Google Books Chapter 2 pp 242 248 Oxford University Press Cornelius Walford 1878 The Famines of the World Past and Present p 3 at Google Books pp 9 10 Judith Walsh A Brief History of India ISBN 978 0816083626 pp 70 72 Quote In 1335 42 during a severe famine and death in the Delhi region the Sultanate offered no help to the starving residents Suvorova 2000 Masnavi p 3 ISBN 978 0 19 579148 8 Husaini Saiyid Abdul Qadir 1960 Bahman Shah the Founder of the Bahmani Kingdom Firma K L Mukhopadhyay pp 59 60 Jayanta Gaḍakari 2000 Hindu Muslim Communalism a Panchnama p 140 McKibben William Jeffrey 1994 The Monumental Pillars of Firuz Shah Tughluq Ars Orientalis 24 105 118 JSTOR 4629462 HM Elliot amp John Dawson 1871 Tarikh I Firozi Shahi Records of Court Historian Sams i Siraj The History of India as told by its own historians Volume 3 Cornell University Archives pp 352 353 Prinsep J 1837 Interpretation of the most ancient of inscriptions on the pillar called lat of Feroz Shah near Delhi and of the Allahabad Radhia and Mattiah pillar or lat inscriptions which agree therewith Journal of the Asiatic Society 6 2 600 609 Mehta 1979 Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India Volume 2 p 225 Khan i Jahan was a Brahmin from Telangana whose original name was Kattu or Kannu Kannu was brought a captive to Delhi where he embraced Islam and was given the name of Maqbul No wonder Khan i Jahan Maqbul and his family made a great contribution towards the initial administrative achievements of Sultan Firuz Tughlaq the peace and propserity of his reign during the first two decades is unintelligible unless the services redered by Khan i Jahan Maqbul to the throne are taken into consideration Iqtidar Alam Khan 2008 Historical Dictionary of Medieval India Scarecrow Press p 141 Firoz Shah Tughlak Futuhat i Firoz Shahi Memoirs of Firoz Shah Tughlak Translated in 1871 by Elliot and Dawson Volume 3 The History of India Cornell University Archives a b c Vincent A Smith The Oxford History of India From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911 p 217 at Google Books Chapter 2 pp 249 251 Oxford University Press a b Firoz Shah Tughlak Futuhat i Firoz Shahi Autobiographical memoirs Translated in 1871 by Elliot and Dawson Volume 3 The History of India Cornell University Archives pp 377 381 Annemarie Schimmel Islam in the Indian Subcontinent ISBN 978 9004061170 Brill Academic pp 20 23 Complete Indian History for IAS Exam Highly Recommended for IAS PCS and other Competitive Exam p 217 Andre Wink 2020 The Making of the Indo Islamic World C 700 1800 CE Gurcharn Singh Sandhu 2003 A Military History of Medieval India p 247 Debajyoti Burman 1947 Indo Muslim Relations A Study in Historical Background Jugabani Sahitya Chakra p 36 Dr Aijaz Ahmad 2021 History of Mewat p 112 Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of IndiaIssues 52 54 Archaeological Survey of India 1937 p 19 The old Firoz Shahi slaves however turned against Abu Bakr who fled and on their invitation Sultan Muhammad entered the city and took Ag h a Mahdi Ḥusain 1963 Tughluq Dynasty Thacker Spink p 444 a b Vincent A Smith The Oxford History of India From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911 p 217 at Google Books Chapter 2 pp 248 254 Oxford University Press Peter Jackson 1999 The Delhi Sultanate A Political and Military History Cambridge University Press pp 312 317 Beatrice F Manz 2000 Timur Lang In P J Bearman Th Bianquis C E Bosworth E van Donzel W P Heinrichs eds Encyclopaedia of Islam Vol 10 2 ed Brill Lionel Trotter 1906 History of India From the Earliest Times to the Present Day Gorham Publishers London New York pp 74 Annemarie Schimmel 1997 Islam in the Indian Subcontinent Brill Academic ISBN 978 9004061170 pp 36 37 Also see Elliot Studies in Indian History 2nd Edition pp 98 101 a b c Annemarie Schimmel Islam in the Indian Subcontinent ISBN 978 9004061170 Brill Academic Chapter 2 Schwartzberg Joseph E 1978 A Historical atlas of South Asia Chicago University of Chicago Press pp 39 148 ISBN 0226742210 Porter Yves Degeorge Gerard 2009 The Glory of the Sultans Islamic Architecture in India Though Timur had since withdrawn his forces the Sayyid Khizr Khan the scion of a venerable Arab family who had settled in Multan continued to pay him tribute Flammarion ISBN 978 2 08 030110 9 Eaton 2020 p 117 The career of Khizr Khan a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan a b Eaton 2020 p 108 Schwartzberg Joseph E 1978 A Historical atlas of South Asia Chicago University of Chicago Press p 147 map XIV 4 d ISBN 0226742210 Hartel 1997 p 261 Judith Walsh A Brief History of India ISBN 978 0816083626 p 81 Quote The last dynasty was founded by a Sayyid provincial governor Buhlul Lodi r 1451 89 The Lodis were descended from Afghans and under their rule Afghans eclipsed Turks in court patronage Ramananda Chatterjee 1961 The Modern Review Vol 109 Indiana University p 84 Lee Jonathan 2019 Afghanistan A History from 1260 to the Present Reaktion Books p 56 ISBN 9781789140101 In 1451 Bahlul Khan a Khalji of the Lodhi clan deposed the then sultan and founded a second Afghan sultanate the Lodhi Dynasty which ruled northern India for 75 years 1451 1526 Digby S 1975 The Tomb of Buhlul Lōdi Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 38 03 pp 550 561 Delhi Sultanate under Lodhi Dynasty A Complete Overview Jagranjosh com 31 March 2017 Retrieved 1 August 2020 a b Vincent A Smith The Oxford History of India From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911 p 217 at Google Books Chapter 2 pp 253 257 Oxford University Press Andrew Petersen Dictionary of Islamic Architecture Routledge ISBN 978 0415060844 pp 7 Richards John 1965 The Economic History of the Lodi Period 1451 1526 Journal de l histoire economique et sociale de l Orient Vol 8 No 1 pp 47 67 Lodi Dynasty Encyclopaedia Britannica 2009 Jackson Peter 2010 Muslim India the Delhi sultanate In Morgan David O Reid Anthony eds The New Cambridge History of Islam Volume 3 The Eastern Islamic World Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries Cambridge Cambridge University Press p 101 ISBN 978 0 521 85031 5 Rekha Pande 1990 Succession in the Delhi Sultanate the University of Michigan p 100 ISBN 9788171690695 Satish Chandra 2004 Medieval India From Sultanat to the Mughals Delhi Sultanat 1206 1526 Part One Har Anand Publications ISBN 9788124110645 John F Richards 2013 Expanding Frontiers in South Asian and World History Cambridge University Press p 55 ISBN 9781107034280 John F Richards 1993 Power Administration and Finance in Mughal India Variorum ISBN 9780860783664 Peter Jackson April 1999 the Delhi Sultanate A Political and Military History Cambridge University Press p 278 V D Mahajan 2007 History of Medieval India S Chand p 446 ISBN 9788121903646 Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society Volume 45 Pakistan Historical Society 1997 p 222 Peter Jackson April 1999 the Delhi Sultanate A Political and Military History Cambridge University Press pp 283 287 Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 pp 379 380 a b Satish Chandra 2007 p 105 Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 p 379 Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 p 385 a b c Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 p 384 a b Satish Chandra 2007 p 102 Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 p 380 Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 p 389 Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 p 383 Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 p 386 CAGMAN FILIZ TANINDI ZEREN 2011 Selections from Jalayirid Books in the Libraries of Istanbul PDF Muqarnas 28 230 258 Fig 56 ISSN 0732 2992 JSTOR 23350289 Architecture under the Sultanate of Delhi Madison Angus 6 December 2007 Contours of the world economy 1 2030 AD essays in macro economic history Oxford University Press p 379 ISBN 978 0 19 922720 4 Madison 2007 p 376 Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India No 52 a Memoir on Kotla Firoz Delhi p 58 Pacey Arnold 1991 1990 Technology in World Civilization A Thousand Year History 1st MIT Press paperback ed Cambridge MA The MIT Press pp 26 29 Al Biruni 1888 Alberuni s India an Account of the religion philosophy literature geography chronology astronomy customs laws and astrology of India about A D 1030 An English Edition with Notes and Indices by Edward C Sachau Trubner amp Co OCLC 162833441 Siddiqui Iqtidar Hussain 1986 Water Works and Irrigation System in India during Pre Mughal Times Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 29 1 63 64 doi 10 2307 3632072 JSTOR 3632072 Pacey 1991 p 10 Oleson John Peter 2000 Water Lifting in Wikander Orjan ed Handbook of Ancient Water Technology Technology and Change in History vol 2 Leiden South Holland Brill pp 217 302 ISBN 978 90 04 11123 3 Pacey 1991 p 36 Vinod Chanda Srivastava Lallanji Gopal 2008 History of Agriculture in India Up to C 1200 A D New Delhi Project of History of Indian Science Philosophy and Culture ISBN 978 81 8069 521 6 Jos Gommans Harriet Zurndorfer eds 2008 Roots and Routes of Development in China and India Highlights of Fifty Years ofThe Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 1957 2007 Leiden South Holland Koninklijke Brill NV p 444 ISBN 978 90 04 17060 5 a b c Pacey 1991 p 23 24 Smith C Wayne Cothren J Tom 1999 Cotton Origin History Technology and Production Vol 4 John Wiley amp Sons p viii ISBN 978 0471180456 The first improvement in spinning technology was the spinning wheel which was invented in India between 500 and 1000 A D Habib Irfan 2011 Economic History of Medieval India 1200 1500 Pearson Education p 53 ISBN 9788131727911 Habib 2011 p 53 54 Harrison Frederick A Book about Books London John Murray 1943 p 79 Mandl George Paper Chase A Millennium in the Production and Use of Paper Myers Robin amp Michael Harris eds A Millennium of the Book Production Design amp Illustration in Manuscript amp Print 900 1900 Winchester St Paul s Bibliographies 1994 p 182 Mann George Print A Manual for Librarians and Students Describing in Detail the History Methods and Applications of Printing and Paper Making London Grafton amp Co 1952 p 79 McMurtrie Douglas C The Book The Story of Printing amp Bookmaking London Oxford University Press 1943 p 63 Tsien Tsuen Hsuin 1985 Joseph Needham ed Paper and Printing Science and Civilisation in China Chemistry and Chemical Technology vol 5 Cambridge University Press pp 2 3 356 357 Wilkinson Endymion 2012 Chinese History A New Manual Harvard University Asia Center for the Harvard Yenching Institute p 909 Kurlansky Mark 23 May 2017 Paper paging through history ISBN 978 0 393 35370 9 OCLC 1119136572 D C Sircar 1996 Indian Epigraphy Motilal Banarsidass pp 67 68 ISBN 978 81 208 1166 9 Habib 2011 p 96 a b c Habib 2011 pp 95 96 Angus Maddison 2001 The World Economy A Millennial Perspective pages 241 242 OECD Development Centre Angus Maddison 2001 The World Economy A Millennial Perspective page 236 OECD Development Centre Asher amp Talbot 2008 p 47 Metcalf B Metcalf T R 9 October 2006 A Concise History of Modern India 2nd ed Cambridge University Press p 6 ISBN 978 0 521 68225 1 Eaton Richard M The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier 1204 1760 Berkeley University of California Press c1993 1993 accessed on 1 May 2007 Raj Kumar 2008 Encyclopaedia Of Untouchables Ancient Medieval And Modern Kalpaz Publications p 212 ISBN 9788178356648 Harle 423 424 Harle 1994 pp 421 425 Yale p 165 Blair amp Bloom 1995 p 149 Yale pp 164 165 Harle 1994 pp 423 424 Blair amp Bloom 1995 p 149 Yale p 164 Harle 1994 p 424 quoted Blair amp Bloom 1995 p 149 Harle 429 Yale p 164 quoted Harle 1994 p 425 Blair amp Bloom 1995 pp 149 150 Harle 1994 p 425 Harle 1994 p 425 a b Blair amp Bloom 1995 p 151 Blair amp Bloom 1995 pp 151 156 Harle 1994 pp 425 426 Blair amp Bloom 1995 p 154 Harle 1994 pp 425 Blair amp Bloom 1995 pp 154 156 Blair amp Bloom 1995 pp 154 156 Harle 1994 p 425 Blair amp Bloom 1995 p 149 Blair amp Bloom 1995 p 156 Harle 1994 p 426 Blair amp Bloom 1995 p 156 Lal 1950 p 85 Lal 1950 p 86 Hunter W W 5 November 2013 The Indian Empire Its People History and Products Routledge p 280 ISBN 9781136383014 Barua Pradeep 2005 The State at War in South Asia University of Nebraska Press pp 30 317 ISBN 0803213441 Lal 1950 p 55 Hopkins Steven Paul 18 April 2002 Singing the Body of God The Hymns of Vedantadesika in Their South Indian Tradition Oxford University Press p 69 ISBN 9780198029304 Rummel R J 31 December 2011 Death by Government Transaction Publishers p 60 ISBN 9781412821292 Jordanus Catalani Yule Henry Parr Charles McKew donor Parr Ruth 1863 Mirabilia descripta the wonders of the East London Printed for the Hakluyt Society p 23 Juncu Meera 30 July 2015 India in the Italian Renaissance Visions of a Contemporary Pagan World 1300 1600 Routledge p 85 ISBN 978 1 317 44768 9 Richard M Eaton Temple Desecration and Indo Muslim States Part II Frontline January 5 2001 70 77 1 Richard M Eaton Temple Desecration and Indo Muslim States Part I Frontline December 22 2000 62 70 2 a b Eaton Richard M 2000 Temple Desecration and Indo Muslim States PDF The Hindu Chennai India p 297 Archived from the original PDF on 6 January 2014 Annemarie Schimmel Islam in the Indian Subcontinent ISBN 978 9004061170 Brill Academic pp 7 10 James Brown 1949 The History of Islam in India The Muslim World 39 1 11 25 Eaton Richard M December 2000 Temple desecration in pre modern India Frontline The Hindu Group 17 25 Eaton Richard M September 2000 Temple Desecration and Indo Muslim States Journal of Islamic Studies 11 3 283 319 doi 10 1093 jis 11 3 283 Eaton Richard M 2004 Temple desecration and Muslim states in medieval India Gurgaon Hope India Publications ISBN 978 8178710273 Welch Anthony 1993 Architectural patronage and the past The Tughluq sultans of India Muqarnas Vol 10 311 322 A L Srivastava 1966 Delhi Sultanate 5th Edition Agra College R Islam 2002 Theory and Practice of Jizyah in the Delhi Sultanate 14th Century Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society 50 pp 7 18 Jackson 2003 pp 287 295 Eva De Clercq 2010 ON JAINA APABHRAṂSA PRASASTIS Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hung Volume 63 3 pp 275 287 Hasan Nizami et al Taju l Ma asir amp Appendix Translated in 1871 by Elliot and Dawson Volume 2 The History of India Cornell University Archives pp 22 219 398 471 Richard Eaton Temple desecration and Indo Muslim states Frontline January 5 2001 pp 72 73 Eaton 2000 Temple desecration in pre modern India Frontline p 73 item 16 of the Table Archived by Columbia University Andre Wink 1991 Al Hind the Making of the Indo Islamic World The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest 11Th 13th Centuries BRILL p 333 ISBN 9004102361 We do not know much about the first Muslim raid on Benares by Ahmad Nayaltigin in 1033 AD which appears merely to have been a plundering expedition When Muhammad Ghuri marched on the city we are merely told that after breaking the idols in above 1000 temples he purified and consecrated the latter to the worship of the true God History of Ancient India Earliest Times to 1000 A D Radhey Shyam Chaurasia Atlantic 2009 p191 Carl W Ernst 2004 Eternal Garden Mysticism History and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center Oxford University Press p 109 ISBN 978 0 19 566869 8 Sarojini Chaturvedi 2006 A short history of South India Saṁskṛiti p 209 ISBN 978 81 87374 37 4 Abraham Eraly 2015 The Age of Wrath A History of the Delhi Sultanate Penguin Books pp 155 156 ISBN 978 93 5118 658 8 Lal 1950 p 84 Burgess Murray 1874 The Rudra Mala at Siddhpur Photographs of Architecture and Scenery in Gujarat and Rajputana Bourne and Shepherd p 19 Retrieved 23 July 2016 Robert Bradnock Roma Bradnock 2000 India Handbook McGraw Hill p 959 ISBN 978 0 658 01151 1 Sources Edit Asher C B Talbot C 1 January 2008 India Before Europe 1st ed Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 51750 8 Blair Sheila Bloom Jonathan M 1995 The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250 1800 Yale University Press Pelican History of Art ISBN 0300064659 Eaton Richard M 2020 1st pub 2019 India in the Persianate Age London Penguin Books ISBN 978 0 141 98539 8 Elliot H M Henry Miers Sir John Dowson 1867 15 Tarikh i Firoz Shahi of Ziauddin Barani The History of India as Told by Its Own Historians The Muhammadan Period Vol 3 London Trubner amp Co Hambly Gavin R G Asher Catherine B 1994 Delhi Sultanate In Yarshater Ehsan ed Encyclopaedia Iranica Volume VII 3 Dehqan I Deylam John of London and New York Routledge amp Kegan Paul pp 242 250 ISBN 978 1 56859 021 9 Harle J C 1994 The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent 2nd ed Yale University Press Pelican History of Art ISBN 0300062176 Hartel Herbert 1997 India under the Moghol Empire In Kissling H J Barbour N Spuler Bertold Trimingham J S Bagley F R C eds The Last Great Muslim Empires BRILL pp 262 263 ISBN 90 04 02104 3 Retrieved 20 July 2011 Green Nile ed 2019 The Persianate World The Frontiers of a Eurasian Lingua Franca University of California Press ISBN 978 0520972100 Srivastava Ashirvadi Lal 1929 The Sultanate Of Delhi 711 1526 A D Shiva Lal Agarwala amp Company Khan Mohd Adul Wali 1974 Gold and Silver Coins of Sultans of Delhi Government of Andhra Pradesh Lal Kishori Saran 1950 History of the Khaljis 1290 1320 Allahabad The Indian Press OCLC 685167335 Kumar Sunil 2007 The Emergence of the Delhi Sultanate Delhi Permanent Black Jackson Peter 2003 The Delhi Sultanate A Political and Military History Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 54329 3 Ludden David 2002 India And South Asia A Short History Oxford Oneworld xii 306 ISBN 978 1 85168 237 9 Majumdar R C Raychaudhuri H amp Datta K 1951 An advanced history of India 2 London Macmillan Majumdar R C amp Munshi K M 1990 The Delhi Sultanate Bombay Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan Yale Ettinghausen Richard Grabar Oleg Jenkins Madina Marilyn 2001 Islamic Art and Architecture 650 1250 Yale University Press ISBN 9780300088694 Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 1970 The Khaljis Alauddin Khalji In Mohammad Habib Khaliq Ahmad Nizami eds A Comprehensive History of India The Delhi Sultanat A D 1206 1526 Vol 5 2nd ed The Indian History Congress People s Publishing House OCLC 31870180 Satish Chandra 2007 History of Medieval India 800 1700 Orient Longman ISBN 978 81 250 3226 7 Further reading EditSeyyed Hussein zadeh Huda Miller Isabel 2018 Delhi Sultanate In Madelung Wilferd Daftary Farhad eds Encyclopaedia Islamica Online Brill Online ISSN 1875 9831 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Delhi Sultanate Quotations related to Delhi Sultanate at Wikiquote Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Delhi Sultanate amp oldid 1152487127, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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