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Chad

February 11, 2023

This article is about the country. For the given name, see Chad (name). For other uses, see Chad (disambiguation).

Coordinates: 15°N 19°E / 15°N 19°E / 15; 19

Chad (/tʃæd/ (listen); Arabic: تشاد Tšād, Arabic pronunciation: [tʃaːd]; French: Tchad, pronounced [tʃa(d)]), officially the Republic of Chad,[a] is a landlocked country at the crossroads of North and Central Africa. It is bordered by Libya to the north, Sudan to the east, the Central African Republic to the south, Cameroon to the southwest, Nigeria to the southwest (at Lake Chad), and Niger to the west. Chad has a population of 16 million, of which 1.6 million live in the capital and largest city of N'Djamena.

Republic of Chad
  • جمهورية تشاد (Arabic)
    Jumhūriyyat Tšād
  • République du Tchad (French)
Motto: 
  • "Unité, Travail, Progrès" (French)
  • الاتحاد، العمل، التقدم (Arabic)
  • "Unity, Work, Progress"
Anthem: 
  • "La Tchadienne" (French)
  • نشيد تشاد الوطني (Arabic)
  • "The Song of Chad"
Capital
and largest city
N'Djamena
12°06′N 16°02′E / 12.100°N 16.033°E / 12.100; 16.033
Official languages
Ethnic groups
(2009 Census[1])
Religion
(2020)[2]
Demonym(s)Chadian
GovernmentUnitary republic under a military junta[3]
Mahamat Déby
Saleh Kebzabo
Djimadoum Tiraina
LegislatureNone (transitional administration)[3]
Independence
• Republic established
28 November 1958
• from France
11 August 1960
Area
• Total
1,284,000 km2 (496,000 sq mi)[4] (20th)
• Water (%)
1.9
Population
• 2022 estimate
17,963,211[5] (67th)
• Density
8.6/km2 (22.3/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)2022 estimate
• Total
 $29.9 billion [6] (147th)
• Per capita
$743[6] (179th)
GDP (nominal)2022 estimate
• Total
$12.9 billion[6] (145th)
• Per capita
$1,719 [6] (183nd)
Gini (2018)37.5[7]
medium
HDI (2021) 0.394[8]
low · 190th
CurrencyCentral African CFA franc (XAF)
Time zoneUTC+1 (WAT)
Driving sideright
Calling code+235
ISO 3166 codeTD
Internet TLD.td

Chad has several regions: a desert zone in the north, an arid Sahelian belt in the centre and a more fertile Sudanian Savanna zone in the south. Lake Chad, after which the country is named, is the second-largest wetland in Africa. Chad's official languages are Arabic and French. It is home to over 200 different ethnic and linguistic groups. Islam (55.1%) and Christianity (41.1%) are the main religions practiced in Chad.[2][9]

Beginning in the 7th millennium BC, human populations moved into the Chadian basin in great numbers. By the end of the 1st millennium AD, a series of states and empires had risen and fallen in Chad's Sahelian strip, each focused on controlling the trans-Saharan trade routes that passed through the region. France conquered the territory by 1920 and incorporated it as part of French Equatorial Africa. In 1960, Chad obtained independence under the leadership of François Tombalbaye. Resentment towards his policies in the Muslim north culminated in the eruption of a long-lasting civil war in 1965. In 1979 the rebels conquered the capital and put an end to the South's hegemony. The rebel commanders then fought amongst themselves until Hissène Habré defeated his rivals. The Chadian–Libyan conflict erupted in 1978 by the Libyan invasion which stopped in 1987 with a French military intervention (Operation Épervier). Hissène Habré was overthrown in turn in 1990 by his general Idriss Déby. With French support, a modernization of the Chad National Army was initiated in 1991. From 2003, the Darfur crisis in Sudan spilt over the border and destabilised the nation. Already poor, the nation and people struggled to accommodate the hundreds of thousands of Sudanese refugees who live in and around camps in eastern Chad.

While many political parties participated in Chad's legislature, the National Assembly, power laid firmly in the hands of the Patriotic Salvation Movement during the presidency of Idriss Déby, whose rule was described as authoritarian.[10][11][12] After President Déby was killed by FACT rebels in April 2021, the Transitional Military Council led by his son Mahamat Déby assumed control of the government and dissolved the Assembly.[13] Chad remains plagued by political violence and recurrent attempted coups d'état.

Chad ranks the 2nd lowest in the Human Development Index, with 0.394 in 2021 placed 190th, and a least developed country facing the effects of being one of the poorest and most corrupt countries in the world.

Most of its inhabitants live in poverty as subsistence herders and farmers. Since 2003 crude oil has become the country's primary source of export earnings, superseding the traditional cotton industry. Chad has a poor human rights record, with frequent abuses such as arbitrary imprisonment, extrajudicial killings, and limits on civil liberties by both security forces and armed militias.

History

Main article: History of Chad

In the 7th millennium BC, ecological conditions in the northern half of Chadian territory favored human settlement, and its population increased considerably. Some of the most important African archaeological sites are found in Chad, mainly in the Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region; some date to earlier than 2000 BC.[14][15]

 
Group of Kanem-Bu warriors. The Kanem–Bornu Empire controlled almost all of what is today Chad.

For more than 2,000 years, the Chadian Basin has been inhabited by agricultural and sedentary people. The region became a crossroads of civilizations. The earliest of these was the legendary Sao, known from artifacts and oral histories. The Sao fell to the Kanem Empire,[16][17] the first and longest-lasting of the empires that developed in Chad's Sahelian strip by the end of the 1st millennium AD. Two other states in the region, Sultanate of Bagirmi and Wadai Empire, emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries. The power of Kanem and its successors was based on control of the trans-Saharan trade routes that passed through the region.[15] These states, at least tacitly Muslim, never extended their control to the southern grasslands except to raid for slaves.[18] In Kanem, about a third of the population were slaves.[19]

French colonial expansion led to the creation of the Territoire Militaire des Pays et Protectorats du Tchad in 1900. By 1920, France had secured full control of the colony and incorporated it as part of French Equatorial Africa.[20] French rule in Chad was characterised by an absence of policies to unify the territory and sluggish modernisation compared to other French colonies.[21]

The French primarily viewed the colony as an unimportant source of untrained labour and raw cotton; France introduced large-scale cotton production in 1929. The colonial administration in Chad was critically understaffed and had to rely on the dregs of the French civil service. Only the Sara of the south was governed effectively; French presence in the Islamic north and east was nominal. The educational system was affected by this neglect.[15][21]

 
A Chadian soldier fighting for Free France during World War II. The Free French Forces included 15,000 soldiers from Chad.[22]

After World War II, France granted Chad the status of overseas territory and its inhabitants the right to elect representatives to the National Assembly and a Chadian assembly. The largest political party was the Chadian Progressive Party (French: Parti Progressiste Tchadien, PPT), based in the southern half of the colony. Chad was granted independence on 11 August 1960 with the PPT's leader, François Tombalbaye, an ethnic Sara, as its first president.[15][23][24]

Two years later, Tombalbaye banned opposition parties and established a one-party system. Tombalbaye's autocratic rule and insensitive mismanagement exacerbated inter-ethnic tensions. In 1965, Muslims in the north, led by the National Liberation Front of Chad (French: Front de libération nationale du Tchad, FRONILAT), began a civil war. Tombalbaye was overthrown and killed in 1975,[25] but the insurgency continued. In 1979 the rebel factions led by Hissène Habré took the capital, and all central authority in the country collapsed. Armed factions, many from the north's rebellion, contended for power.[26][27]

The disintegration of Chad caused the collapse of France's position in the country. Libya moved to fill the power vacuum and became involved in Chad's civil war.[28] Libya's adventure ended in disaster in 1987; the French-supported president, Hissène Habré, evoked a united response from Chadians of a kind never seen before[29] and forced the Libyan army off Chadian soil.[30]

Habré consolidated his dictatorship through a power system that relied on corruption and violence with thousands of people estimated to have been killed under his rule.[31][32] The president favoured his own Toubou ethnic group and discriminated against his former allies, the Zaghawa. His general, Idriss Déby, overthrew him in 1990.[33] Attempts to prosecute Habré led to his placement under house arrest in Senegal in 2005; in 2013, Habré was formally charged with war crimes committed during his rule.[34] In May 2016, he was found guilty of human-rights abuses, including rape, sexual slavery, and ordering the killing of 40,000 people, and sentenced to life in prison.[35]

 
Despite internal political opposition, coup attempts, and a civil war, Idriss Déby continuously ruled Chad from 1990 until his death in 2021.

Déby attempted to reconcile the rebel groups and reintroduced multiparty politics. Chadians approved a new constitution by referendum, and in 1996, Déby easily won a competitive presidential election. He won a second term five years later.[36] Oil exploitation began in Chad in 2003, bringing with it hopes that Chad would, at last, have some chances of peace and prosperity. Instead, internal dissent worsened, and a new civil war broke out. Déby unilaterally modified the constitution to remove the two-term limit on the presidency; this caused an uproar among the civil society and opposition parties.[37]

In 2006 Déby won a third mandate in elections that the opposition boycotted. Ethnic violence in eastern Chad has increased; the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has warned that a genocide like that in Darfur may yet occur in Chad.[38] In 2006 and in 2008 rebel forces attempted to take the capital by force, but failed on both occasions.[39] An agreement for the restoration of harmony between Chad and Sudan, signed 15 January 2010, marked the end of a five-year war.[40] The fix in relations led to the Chadian rebels from Sudan returning home, the opening of the border between the two countries after seven years of closure, and the deployment of a joint force to secure the border. In May 2013, security forces in Chad foiled a coup against President Idriss Déby that had been in preparation for several months.[41]

Chad is currently one of the leading partners in a West African coalition in the fight against Boko Haram and other Islamist militants.[42] Chad's army announced the death of Déby on 20 April 2021, following an incursion in the northern region by the FACT group, during which the president was killed amid fighting on the front lines.[42] Déby's son, General Mahamat Idriss Déby, has been named interim president by a Transitional Council of military officers. That transitional council has replaced the Constitution with a new charter, granting Mahamat Déby the powers of the presidency and naming him head of the armed forces.[13]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Chad
 
Chad is divided into three distinct zones, the Sudanian Savanna in the south, the Sahara Desert in the north, and the Sahelian belt in the center.

Chad is a large landlocked country spanning north-central Africa. It covers an area of 1,284,000 square kilometres (496,000 sq mi),[4] lying between latitudes 7° and 24°N, and 13° and 24°E,[43] and is the twentieth-largest country in the world. Chad is, by size, slightly smaller than Peru and slightly larger than South Africa.[44][45]

Chad is bounded to the north by Libya, to the east by Sudan, to the west by Niger, Nigeria and Cameroon, and to the south by the Central African Republic. The country's capital is 1,060 kilometres (660 mi) from the nearest seaport, Douala, Cameroon.[43][46] Because of this distance from the sea and the country's largely desert climate, Chad is sometimes referred to as the "Dead Heart of Africa".[47]

The dominant physical structure is a wide basin bounded to the north and east by the Ennedi Plateau and Tibesti Mountains, which include Emi Koussi, a dormant volcano that reaches 3,414 metres (11,201 ft) above sea level. Lake Chad, after which the country is named (and which in turn takes its name from the Kanuri word for "lake"[48]), is the remains of an immense lake that occupied 330,000 square kilometres (130,000 sq mi) of the Chad Basin 7,000 years ago.[43] Although in the 21st century it covers only 17,806 square kilometres (6,875 sq mi), and its surface area is subject to heavy seasonal fluctuations,[49] the lake is Africa's second largest wetland.[50]

Chad is home to six terrestrial ecoregions: East Sudanian savanna, Sahelian Acacia savanna, Lake Chad flooded savanna, East Saharan montane xeric woodlands, South Saharan steppe and woodlands, and Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands.[51] The region's tall grasses and extensive marshes make it favourable for birds, reptiles, and large mammals. Chad's major rivers—the Chari, Logone and their tributaries—flow through the southern savannas from the southeast into Lake Chad.[43][52]

Each year a tropical weather system known as the intertropical front crosses Chad from south to north, bringing a wet season that lasts from May to October in the south, and from June to September in the Sahel.[53] Variations in local rainfall create three major geographical zones. The Sahara lies in the country's northern third. Yearly precipitations throughout this belt are under 50 millimetres (2.0 in); only occasional spontaneous palm groves survive, all of them south of the Tropic of Cancer.[46]

The Sahara gives way to a Sahelian belt in Chad's centre; precipitation there varies from 300 to 600 mm (11.8 to 23.6 in) per year. In the Sahel, a steppe of thorny bushes (mostly acacias) gradually gives way to the south to East Sudanian savanna in Chad's Sudanese zone. Yearly rainfall in this belt is over 900 mm (35.4 in).[46]

Wildlife

Main article: Wildlife of Chad

Chad's animal and plant life correspond to the three climatic zones. In the Saharan region, the only flora is the date-palm groves of the oasis. Palms and acacia trees grow in the Sahelian region. The southern, or Sudanic, zone consists of broad grasslands or prairies suitable for grazing. As of 2002, there were at least 134 species of mammals, 509 species of birds (354 species of residents and 155 migrants), and over 1,600 species of plants throughout the country.[54][55]

Elephants, lions, buffalo, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, giraffes, antelopes, leopards, cheetahs, hyenas, and many species of snakes are found here, although most large carnivore populations have been drastically reduced since the early 20th century.[54][56] Elephant poaching, particularly in the south of the country in areas such as Zakouma National Park, is a severe problem. The small group of surviving West African crocodiles in the Ennedi Plateau represents one of the last colonies known in the Sahara today.[57]

Chad had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.18/10, ranking it 83rd globally out of 172 countries.[58] Extensive deforestation has resulted in loss of trees such as acacias, baobab, dates and palm trees. This has also caused loss of natural habitat for wild animals; one of the main reasons for this is also hunting and livestock farming by increasing human settlements. Populations of animals like lions, leopards and rhino have fallen significantly.[59]

Efforts have been made by the Food and Agriculture Organization to improve relations between farmers, agro-pastoralists and pastoralists in the Zakouma National Park (ZNP), Siniaka-Minia, and Aouk reserve in southeastern Chad to promote sustainable development.[60] As part of the national conservation effort, more than 1.2 million trees have been replanted to check the advancement of the desert, which incidentally also helps the local economy by way of financial return from acacia trees, which produce gum arabic, and also from fruit trees.[59]

Poaching is a serious problem in the country, particularly of elephants for the profitable ivory industry and a threat to lives of rangers even in the national parks such as Zakouma. Elephants are often massacred in herds in and around the parks by organized poaching.[61] The problem is worsened by the fact that the parks are understaffed and that a number of wardens have been murdered by poachers.[62]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Chad
 
Toubou nomads in the Ennedi Mountains

Chad's national statistical agency projected the country's 2015 population between 13,630,252 and 13,679,203, with 13,670,084 as its medium projection; based on the medium projection, 3,212,470 people lived in urban areas and 10,457,614 people lived in rural areas.[63] The country's population is young: an estimated 47% is under 15. The birth rate is estimated at 42.35 births per 1,000 people, and the mortality rate at 16.69. The life expectancy is 52 years.[64]

Chad's population is unevenly distributed. Density is 0.1/km2 (0.26/sq mi) in the Saharan Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region but 52.4/km2 (136/sq mi) in the Logone Occidental Region. In the capital, it is even higher.[46] About half of the nation's population lives in the southern fifth of its territory, making this the most densely populated region.[65]

Urban life is concentrated in the capital, whose population is mostly engaged in commerce. The other major towns are Sarh, Moundou, Abéché and Doba, which are considerably smaller but growing rapidly in population and economic activity.[43] Since 2003, 230,000 Sudanese refugees have fled to eastern Chad from war-ridden Darfur. With the 172,600 Chadians displaced by the civil war in the east, this has generated increased tensions among the region's communities.[66][67]

Polygamy is common, with 39% of women living in such unions. This is sanctioned by law, which automatically permits polygamy unless spouses specify that this is unacceptable upon marriage.[68] Although violence against women is prohibited, domestic violence is common. Female genital mutilation is also prohibited, but the practice is widespread and deeply rooted in tradition; 45% of Chadian women undergo the procedure, with the highest rates among Arabs, Hadjarai, and Ouaddaians (90% or more). Lower percentages were reported among the Sara (38%) and the Toubou (2%). Women lack equal opportunities in education and training, making it difficult for them to compete for the relatively few formal-sector jobs. Although property and inheritance laws based on the French code do not discriminate against women, local leaders adjudicate most inheritance cases in favour of men, according to traditional practice.[69]

Largest cities, towns, and municipalities

Cities of Chad
Rank City Population Region
1993 Census[70] 2009 Census[70]
1. N'Djaména 530,965 951,418 N'Djaména
2. Moundou 99,530 137,251 Logone Occidental
3. Abéché 54,628 97,963 Ouaddaï
4. Sarh 75,496 97,224 Moyen-Chari
5. Kélo 31,319 57,859 Tandjilé
6. Am Timan 21,269 52,270 Salamat
7. Doba 17,920 49,647 Logone Oriental
8. Pala 26,116 49,461 Mayo-Kebbi Ouest
9. Bongor 20,448 44,578 Mayo-Kebbi Est
10. Goz Beïda 3,083 41,248 Sila

Ethnic groups

Main article: Ethnic groups in Chad
 
Mboum girls dancing in Chad

The peoples of Chad carry significant ancestry from Eastern, Central, Western, and Northern Africa.[71]

Chad has more than 200 distinct ethnic groups,[72] which create diverse social structures. The colonial administration and independent governments have attempted to impose a national society, but for most Chadians the local or regional society remains the most important influence outside the immediate family. Nevertheless, Chad's people may be classified according to the geographical region in which they live.[15][43]

In the south live sedentary people such as the Sara, the nation's main ethnic group, whose essential social unit is the lineage. In the Sahel sedentary peoples live side by side with nomadic ones, such as the Arabs, the country's second major ethnic group. The north is inhabited by nomads, mostly Toubous.[15][43]

Languages

Main article: Languages of Chad

Chad's official languages are Arabic and French, but over 100 languages and dialects are spoken. Due to the important role played by itinerant Arab traders and settled merchants in local communities, Chadian Arabic has become a lingua franca.[15]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Chad

Chad is a religiously diverse country. Various estimates, including from Pew Research Center in 2010, found that 52–58% of the population was Muslim, while 39–44% were Christian,[9] with 22% being Catholic and a further 17% being Protestant.[73][74] According to a 2012 Pew Research survey, 48% of Muslim Chadians professed to be Sunni, 21% Shia, 4% Ahmadi and 23% non-denominational Muslim. Islam is expressed in diverse ways; for example, 55% of Muslim Chadians belong to Sufi orders. Its most common expression is the Tijaniyah, an order followed by the 35% of Chadian Muslims which incorporates some local African religious elements.[75] In 2020, the ARDA estimated the vast majority of Muslims Chadians to be Sunni belonging to the Sufi brotherhood Tijaniyah.[76] A small minority of the country's Muslims (5-10%) hold more fundamentalist practices, which, in some cases, may be associated with Saudi-oriented Salafi movements.[76][77]

Roman Catholics represent the largest Christian denomination in the country.[76] Most Protestants, including the Nigeria-based "Winners' Chapel", are affiliated with various evangelical Christian groups. Members of the Baháʼí and Jehovah's Witnesses religious communities also are present in the country. Both faiths were introduced after independence in 1960 and therefore are considered to be "new" religions in the country.[78][77]

A small proportion of the population continues to practice indigenous religions. Animism includes a variety of ancestor and place-oriented religions whose expression is highly specific. Christianity arrived in Chad with the French and American missionaries; as with Chadian Islam, it syncretises aspects of pre-Christian religious beliefs.[15]

Religion in Chad (Pew Research)[44][79]
religion percent
Islam
 
 57%
Christianity
 
 39%
None
 
 2%
Folk
 
 1%
Other
 
 1%

Muslims are largely concentrated in northern and eastern Chad, and animists and Christians live primarily in southern Chad and Guéra.[43] Many Muslims also reside in southern Chad but the Christian presence in the north is minimal.[78] The constitution provides for a secular state and guarantees religious freedom; different religious communities generally co-exist without problems.[76][77]

Chad is home to foreign missionaries representing both Christian and Islamic groups. Itinerant Muslim preachers, primarily from Sudan, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan, also visit. Saudi Arabian funding generally supports social and educational projects and extensive mosque construction.[77]

Education

Educators face considerable challenges due to the nation's dispersed population and a certain degree of reluctance on the part of parents to send their children to school. Although attendance is compulsory, only 68 percent of boys attend primary school, and more than half of the population is illiterate. Higher education is provided at the University of N'Djamena.[43][72] At 33 percent, Chad has one of the lowest literacy rates of Sub-Saharan Africa.[80]

In 2013, the U.S. Department of Labor's Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor[81] in Chad reported that school attendance of children aged 5 to 14 was as low as 39%. This can also be related to the issue of child labor as the report also stated that 53% of children aged 5 to 14 were working, and that 30% of children aged 7 to 14 combined work and school. A more recent DOL report listed cattle herding as a major agricultural activity that employed underage children.[82]

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Chad
 
Chadian woman voting during the 2016 presidential election

Chad's constitution provides for a strong executive branch headed by a president who dominates the political system. The president has the power to appoint the prime minister and the cabinet, and exercises considerable influence over appointments of judges, generals, provincial officials and heads of Chad's para-statal firms.[83] In cases of grave and immediate threat, the president, in consultation with the National Assembly, may declare a state of emergency. The president is directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term; in 2005 constitutional term limits were removed,[84] allowing a president to remain in power beyond the previous two-term limit.[84] Most of Déby's key advisers are members of the Zaghawa ethnic group, although southern and opposition personalities are represented in government.[72][85]

Chad's legal system is based on French civil law and Chadian customary law where the latter does not interfere with public order or constitutional guarantees of equality. Despite the constitution's guarantee of judicial independence, the president names most key judicial officials. The legal system's highest jurisdictions, the Supreme Court and the Constitutional Council, have become fully operational since 2000. The Supreme Court is made up of a chief justice, named by the president, and 15 councillors, appointed for life by the president and the National Assembly. The Constitutional Court is headed by nine judges elected to nine-year terms. It has the power to review legislation, treaties and international agreements prior to their adoption.[72][85]

The National Assembly makes legislation. The body consists of 155 members elected for four-year terms who meet three times per year. The Assembly holds regular sessions twice a year, starting in March and October, and can hold special sessions when called by the prime minister. Deputies elect a National Assembly president every two years. The president must sign or reject newly passed laws within 15 days. The National Assembly must approve the prime minister's plan of government and may force the prime minister to resign through a majority vote of no confidence. However, if the National Assembly rejects the executive branch's programme twice in one year, the president may disband the Assembly and call for new legislative elections. In practice, the president exercises considerable influence over the National Assembly through his party, the Patriotic Salvation Movement (MPS), which holds a large majority.[72]

Until the legalisation of opposition parties in 1992, Déby's MPS was the sole legal party in Chad.[72] Since then, 78 registered political parties have become active.[69] In 2005, opposition parties and human rights organisations supported the boycott of the constitutional referendum that allowed Déby to stand for re-election for a third term[86] amid reports of widespread irregularities in voter registration and government censorship of independent media outlets during the campaign.[87] Correspondents judged the 2006 presidential elections a mere formality, as the opposition deemed the polls a farce and boycotted them.[88]

Chad is listed as a failed state by the Fund for Peace (FFP). Chad had the seventh-highest rank in the Fragile States Index in 2021.[89] Corruption is rife at all levels; Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index for 2021 ranked Chad 164th among the 180 countries listed.[90] Critics of former President Déby had accused him of cronyism and tribalism.[91]

In southern Chad, bitter conflicts over land are becoming more and more common. They frequently turn violent. Long-standing community culture is being eroded – and so are the livelihoods of many farmers.[92]

Longtime Chad President Idriss Déby's death on 20 April 2021, resulted in both the nation's National Assembly and government being dissolved and national leadership being replaced with a transitional military council consisting of military officers and led by his son Mahamat Kaka.[93][94][95] The constitution is currently suspended, pending replacement with one drafted by a civilian National Transitional Council, yet to be appointed. The military council has stated that elections will be held at the end of an 18-month transitional period.[96]

Internal opposition and foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Chad

Déby faced armed opposition from groups who are deeply divided by leadership clashes but were united in their intention to overthrow him.[97] These forces stormed the capital on 13 April 2006, but were ultimately repelled. Chad's greatest foreign influence is France, which maintains 1,000 soldiers in the country. Déby relied on the French to help repel the rebels, and France gives the Chadian army logistical and intelligence support for fear of a complete collapse of regional stability.[98] Nevertheless, Franco-Chadian relations were soured by the granting of oil drilling rights to the American Exxon company in 1999.[99]

There have been numerous rebel groups in Chad throughout the last few decades. In 2007, a peace treaty was signed that integrated United Front for Democratic Change soldiers into the Chadian Army.[100] The Movement for Justice and Democracy in Chad also clashed with government forces in 2003 in an attempt to overthrow President Idriss Déby. In addition, there have been various conflicts with Khartoum's Janjaweed rebels in eastern Chad, who killed civilians by use of helicopter gunships.[101] Presently, the Union of Resistance Forces (UFR) are a rebel group that continues to battle with the government of Chad. In 2010, the UFR reportedly had a force estimating 6,000 men and 300 vehicles.[102]

Military

Main article: Chad National Army

The CIA World Factbook estimates the military budget of Chad to be 4.2% of GDP as of 2006.[103] Given the then GDP ($7.095 bln) of the country, military spending was estimated to be about $300 million. This estimate however dropped after the end of the Civil war in Chad (2005–2010) to 2.0%[104] as estimated by the World Bank for the year 2011.

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Regions of Chad, Departments of Chad, and Sub-prefectures of Chad

Since 2012 Chad has been divided into 23 regions.[105] The subdivision of Chad in regions came about in 2003 as part of the decentralisation process, when the government abolished the previous 14 prefectures. Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor. Prefects administer the 61 departments within the regions.[106] The departments are divided into 200 sub-prefectures, which are in turn composed of 446 cantons.[107][108]

The cantons are scheduled to be replaced by communautés rurales, but the legal and regulatory framework has not yet been completed.[109] The constitution provides for decentralised government to compel local populations to play an active role in their own development.[110] To this end, the constitution declares that each administrative subdivision be governed by elected local assemblies,[111] but no local elections have taken place,[112] and communal elections scheduled for 2005 have been repeatedly postponed.[69]

Economy

Further information: Economy of Chad, Agriculture in Chad, and Petroleum industry in Chad
 
A proportional representation of Chad exports, 2019
 
GDP per capita development of Chad, since 1950

The United Nations' Human Development Index ranks Chad as the seventh poorest country in the world, with 80% of the population living below the poverty line. The GDP (purchasing power parity) per capita was estimated as US$1,651 in 2009.[6] Chad is part of the Bank of Central African States, the Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa (UDEAC) and the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).[113]

Chad's currency is the CFA franc. In the 1960s, the mining industry of Chad produced sodium carbonate, or natron. There have also been reports of gold-bearing quartz in the Biltine Prefecture. However, years of civil war have scared away foreign investors; those who left Chad between 1979 and 1982 have only recently begun to regain confidence in the country's future. In 2000 major direct foreign investment in the oil sector began, boosting the country's economic prospects.[44][72]

 
Women in Mao, where water is provided by a water tower. Access to clean water is often a problem in Chad.

Uneven inclusion in the global political economy as a site for colonial resource extraction (primarily cotton and crude oil), a global economic system that does not promote nor encourage the development of Chadian industrialization,[114] and the failure to support local agricultural production has meant that the majority of Chadians live in daily uncertainty and hunger.[115][116] Over 80% of Chad's population relies on subsistence farming and livestock raising for its livelihood.[44] The crops grown and the locations of herds are determined by the local climate. In the southernmost 10% of the territory lies the nation's most fertile cropland, with rich yields of sorghum and millet. In the Sahel only the hardier varieties of millet grow, and with much lower yields than in the south. On the other hand, the Sahel is ideal pastureland for large herds of commercial cattle and for goats, sheep, donkeys and horses. The Sahara's scattered oases support only some dates and legumes.[15] Chad's cities face serious difficulties of municipal infrastructure; only 48% of urban residents have access to potable water and only 2% to basic sanitation.[43][109]

Before the development of oil industry, cotton dominated industry and the labour market accounted for approximately 80% of export earnings.[117] Cotton remains a primary export, although exact figures are not available. Rehabilitation of Cotontchad, a major cotton company weakened by a decline in world cotton prices, has been financed by France, the Netherlands, the European Union, and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). The parastatal is now expected to be privatised.[72] Other than cotton, cattle and gum arabic are dominant.[118]

According to the United Nations, Chad has been affected by a humanitarian crisis since at least 2001. As of 2008, the country of Chad hosts over 280,000 refugees from the Sudan's Darfur region, over 55,000 from the Central African Republic, as well as over 170,000 internally displaced persons.[119] In February 2008 in the aftermath of the Battle of N'Djamena, UN Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs John Holmes expressed "extreme concern" that the crisis would have a negative effect on the ability of humanitarians to deliver life-saving assistance to half a million beneficiaries, most of whom – according to him – heavily rely on humanitarian aid for their survival.[120] UN spokesperson Maurizio Giuliano stated to The Washington Post: "If we do not manage to provide aid at sufficient levels, the humanitarian crisis might become a humanitarian catastrophe".[121] In addition, organizations such as Save the Children have suspended activities due to killings of aid workers.[122]

Chad has made some progress in reducing poverty, there was a decline in the national poverty rate from 55% to 47% between 2003 and 2011. However, the amount of poor people increased from 4.7 million (2011) to 6.5 million (2019) in absolute amounts. By 2018, 4.2 out of 10 people still live below the poverty line.[123]

Infrastructure

Transport

Main article: Transport in Chad

Civil war crippled the development of transport infrastructure; in 1987, Chad had only 30 kilometres (19 mi) of paved roads. Successive road rehabilitation projects improved the network[124] to 550 kilometres (340 mi) by 2004.[125] Nevertheless, the road network is limited; roads are often unusable for several months of the year. With no railways of its own, Chad depends heavily on Cameroon's rail system for the transport of Chadian exports and imports to and from the seaport of Douala.[126]

As of 2013 Chad had an estimated 59 airports, only 9 of which had paved runways.[127] An international airport serves the capital and provides regular nonstop flights to Paris and several African cities.

Energy

See also: Energy in Chad

Chad's energy sector has had years of mismanagement by the parastatal Chad Water and Electric Society (STEE), which provides power for 15% of the capital's citizens and covers only 1.5% of the national population.[128] Most Chadians burn biomass fuels such as wood and animal manure for power.[129]

ExxonMobil leads a consortium of Chevron and Petronas that has invested $3.7 billion to develop oil reserves estimated at one billion barrels in southern Chad. Oil production began in 2003 with the completion of a pipeline (financed in part by the World Bank) that links the southern oilfields to terminals on the Atlantic coast of Cameroon. As a condition of its assistance, the World Bank insisted that 80% of oil revenues be spent on development projects. In January 2006 the World Bank suspended its loan programme when the Chadian government passed laws reducing this amount.[72][112] On 14 July 2006, the World Bank and Chad signed a memorandum of understanding under which the Government of Chad commits 70% of its spending to priority poverty reduction programmes.[130]

Telecommunications

See also: Telecommunications in Chad

The telecommunication system is basic and expensive, with fixed telephone services provided by the state telephone company SotelTchad. In 2000, there were only 14 fixed telephone lines per 10,000 inhabitants in the country, one of the lowest telephone densities in the world.[128]

Gateway Communications, a pan-African wholesale connectivity and telecommunications provider also has a presence in Chad.[131] In September 2013, Chad's Ministry for Posts and Information & Communication Technologies (PNTIC) announced that the country will be seeking a partner for fiber optic technology.

Chad is ranked last in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. Chad ranked number 148 out of 148 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking, down from 142 in 2013.[132] In September 2010 the mobile phone penetration rate was estimated at 24.3% over a population estimate of 10.7 million.[133]

Culture

Because of its great variety of peoples and languages, Chad possesses a rich cultural heritage. The Chadian government has actively promoted Chadian culture and national traditions by opening the Chad National Museum and the Chad Cultural Centre.[43] Six national holidays are observed throughout the year, and movable holidays include the Christian holiday of Easter Monday and the Muslim holidays of Eid ul-Fitr, Eid ul-Adha, and Eid Milad Nnabi.[128]

 
A Chadian tailor sells traditional dresses.

Cuisine

Main article: Cuisine of Chad

Millet is the staple food of Chadian cuisine. It is used to make balls of paste that are dipped in sauces. In the north this dish is known as alysh; in the south, as biya. Fish is popular, which is generally prepared and sold either as salanga (sun-dried and lightly smoked Alestes and Hydrocynus) or as banda (smoked large fish).[134] Carcaje is a popular sweet red tea extracted from hibiscus leaves. Alcoholic beverages, though absent in the north, are popular in the south, where people drink millet beer, known as billi-billi when brewed from red millet, and as coshate when from white millet.[135]

Music

Main article: Music of Chad

The music of Chad includes a number of instruments such as the kinde, a type of bow harp; the kakaki, a long tin horn; and the hu hu, a stringed instrument that uses calabashes as loudspeakers. Other instruments and their combinations are more linked to specific ethnic groups: the Sara prefer whistles, balafones, harps and kodjo drums; and the Kanembu combine the sounds of drums with those of flute-like instruments.[135]

The music group Chari Jazz formed in 1964 and initiated Chad's modern music scene. Later, more renowned groups such as African Melody and International Challal attempted to mix modernity and tradition. Popular groups such as Tibesti have clung faster to their heritage by drawing on sai, a traditional style of music from southern Chad. The people of Chad have customarily disdained modern music. However, in 1995 greater interest has developed and fostered the distribution of CDs and audio cassettes featuring Chadian artists. Piracy and a lack of legal protections for artists' rights remain problems to further development of the Chadian music industry.[135][136]

Literature

 
Criquets grillés ou fris

As in other Sahelian countries, literature in Chad has seen an economic, political and spiritual drought that has affected its best known writers. Chadian authors have been forced to write from exile or expatriate status and have generated literature dominated by themes of political oppression and historical discourse. Since 1962, 20 Chadian authors have written some 60 works of fiction. Among the most internationally renowned writers are Joseph Brahim Seïd, Baba Moustapha, Antoine Bangui and Koulsy Lamko. In 2003 Chad's sole literary critic, Ahmat Taboye, published his Anthologie de la littérature tchadienne to further knowledge of Chad's literature internationally and among youth and to make up for Chad's lack of publishing houses and promotional structure.[135][137][138]

Media and cinema

Main articles: Media of Chad and Cinema of Chad

Chad's television audience is limited to N'Djamena. The only television station is the state-owned Télé Tchad. Radio has a far greater reach, with 13 private radio stations.[139] Newspapers are limited in quantity and distribution, and circulation figures are small due to transportation costs, low literacy rates, and poverty.[87][129][140] While the constitution defends liberty of expression, the government has regularly restricted this right, and at the end of 2006 began to enact a system of prior censorship on the media.[141]

The development of a Chadian film industry, which began with the short films of Edouard Sailly in the 1960s, was hampered by the devastations of civil wars and from the lack of cinemas, of which there is currently only one in the whole country (the Normandie in N'Djamena).[142][143] The Chadian feature film industry began growing again in the 1990s, with the work of directors Mahamat-Saleh Haroun, Issa Serge Coelo and Abakar Chene Massar.[144] Haroun's film Abouna was critically acclaimed, and his Daratt won the Grand Special Jury Prize at the 63rd Venice International Film Festival. The 2010 feature film A Screaming Man won the Jury Prize at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival, making Haroun the first Chadian director to enter, as well as win, an award in the main Cannes competition.[145] Issa Serge Coelo directed the films Daresalam and DP75: Tartina City.[146][147][148][149]

Sports

Main article: Sports in Chad

Football is Chad's most popular sport.[150] The country's national team is closely followed during international competitions[135] and Chadian footballers have played for French teams. Basketball and freestyle wrestling are widely practiced, the latter in a form in which the wrestlers put on traditional animal hides and cover themselves with dust.[135]

See also

Notes

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External links

February 11, 2023
chad, this, article, about, country, given, name, name, other, uses, disambiguation, coordinates, listen, arabic, تشاد, tšād, arabic, pronunciation, tʃaːd, french, tchad, pronounced, tʃa, officially, republic, landlocked, country, crossroads, north, central, a. This article is about the country For the given name see Chad name For other uses see Chad disambiguation Coordinates 15 N 19 E 15 N 19 E 15 19 Chad tʃ ae d listen Arabic تشاد Tsad Arabic pronunciation tʃaːd French Tchad pronounced tʃa d officially the Republic of Chad a is a landlocked country at the crossroads of North and Central Africa It is bordered by Libya to the north Sudan to the east the Central African Republic to the south Cameroon to the southwest Nigeria to the southwest at Lake Chad and Niger to the west Chad has a population of 16 million of which 1 6 million live in the capital and largest city of N Djamena Republic of Chadجمهورية تشاد Arabic Jumhuriyyat TsadRepublique du Tchad French Flag Coat of armsMotto Unite Travail Progres French الاتحاد العمل التقدم Arabic Unity Work Progress Anthem La Tchadienne French نشيد تشاد الوطني Arabic The Song of Chad source source Capitaland largest cityN Djamena12 06 N 16 02 E 12 100 N 16 033 E 12 100 16 033Official languagesArabicFrenchEthnic groups 2009 Census 1 26 6 Sara12 9 Arab8 5 Kanembu7 2 Masalit6 9 Toubou4 8 Masa3 7 Bidiyo3 7 Bulala3 0 Maba2 6 Daju2 5 Mundang2 4 Gabri2 4 Zaghawa2 1 Fula2 0 Tupuri1 6 Tama1 4 Karo1 3 Bagirmi1 0 Masmaje2 6 Other Chadian0 7 ForeignReligion 2020 2 55 1 Islam41 1 Christianity2 4 No religion1 3 Animism0 1 OthersDemonym s ChadianGovernmentUnitary republic under a military junta 3 Transitional PresidentMahamat Deby Prime MinisterSaleh Kebzabo Vice PresidentDjimadoum TirainaLegislatureNone transitional administration 3 Independence Republic established28 November 1958 from France11 August 1960Area Total1 284 000 km2 496 000 sq mi 4 20th Water 1 9Population 2022 estimate17 963 211 5 67th Density8 6 km2 22 3 sq mi GDP PPP 2022 estimate Total 29 9 billion 6 147th Per capita 743 6 179th GDP nominal 2022 estimate Total 12 9 billion 6 145th Per capita 1 719 6 183nd Gini 2018 37 5 7 mediumHDI 2021 0 394 8 low 190thCurrencyCentral African CFA franc XAF Time zoneUTC 1 WAT Driving siderightCalling code 235ISO 3166 codeTDInternet TLD tdChad has several regions a desert zone in the north an arid Sahelian belt in the centre and a more fertile Sudanian Savanna zone in the south Lake Chad after which the country is named is the second largest wetland in Africa Chad s official languages are Arabic and French It is home to over 200 different ethnic and linguistic groups Islam 55 1 and Christianity 41 1 are the main religions practiced in Chad 2 9 Beginning in the 7th millennium BC human populations moved into the Chadian basin in great numbers By the end of the 1st millennium AD a series of states and empires had risen and fallen in Chad s Sahelian strip each focused on controlling the trans Saharan trade routes that passed through the region France conquered the territory by 1920 and incorporated it as part of French Equatorial Africa In 1960 Chad obtained independence under the leadership of Francois Tombalbaye Resentment towards his policies in the Muslim north culminated in the eruption of a long lasting civil war in 1965 In 1979 the rebels conquered the capital and put an end to the South s hegemony The rebel commanders then fought amongst themselves until Hissene Habre defeated his rivals The Chadian Libyan conflict erupted in 1978 by the Libyan invasion which stopped in 1987 with a French military intervention Operation Epervier Hissene Habre was overthrown in turn in 1990 by his general Idriss Deby With French support a modernization of the Chad National Army was initiated in 1991 From 2003 the Darfur crisis in Sudan spilt over the border and destabilised the nation Already poor the nation and people struggled to accommodate the hundreds of thousands of Sudanese refugees who live in and around camps in eastern Chad While many political parties participated in Chad s legislature the National Assembly power laid firmly in the hands of the Patriotic Salvation Movement during the presidency of Idriss Deby whose rule was described as authoritarian 10 11 12 After President Deby was killed by FACT rebels in April 2021 the Transitional Military Council led by his son Mahamat Deby assumed control of the government and dissolved the Assembly 13 Chad remains plagued by political violence and recurrent attempted coups d etat Chad ranks the 2nd lowest in the Human Development Index with 0 394 in 2021 placed 190th and a least developed country facing the effects of being one of the poorest and most corrupt countries in the world Most of its inhabitants live in poverty as subsistence herders and farmers Since 2003 crude oil has become the country s primary source of export earnings superseding the traditional cotton industry Chad has a poor human rights record with frequent abuses such as arbitrary imprisonment extrajudicial killings and limits on civil liberties by both security forces and armed militias Contents 1 History 2 Geography 2 1 Wildlife 3 Demographics 3 1 Largest cities towns and municipalities 3 2 Ethnic groups 3 3 Languages 3 4 Religion 3 5 Education 4 Government and politics 4 1 Internal opposition and foreign relations 4 2 Military 4 3 Administrative divisions 5 Economy 5 1 Infrastructure 5 1 1 Transport 5 1 2 Energy 5 1 3 Telecommunications 6 Culture 6 1 Cuisine 6 2 Music 6 3 Literature 6 4 Media and cinema 6 5 Sports 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External linksHistoryMain article History of Chad In the 7th millennium BC ecological conditions in the northern half of Chadian territory favored human settlement and its population increased considerably Some of the most important African archaeological sites are found in Chad mainly in the Borkou Ennedi Tibesti Region some date to earlier than 2000 BC 14 15 Group of Kanem Bu warriors The Kanem Bornu Empire controlled almost all of what is today Chad For more than 2 000 years the Chadian Basin has been inhabited by agricultural and sedentary people The region became a crossroads of civilizations The earliest of these was the legendary Sao known from artifacts and oral histories The Sao fell to the Kanem Empire 16 17 the first and longest lasting of the empires that developed in Chad s Sahelian strip by the end of the 1st millennium AD Two other states in the region Sultanate of Bagirmi and Wadai Empire emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries The power of Kanem and its successors was based on control of the trans Saharan trade routes that passed through the region 15 These states at least tacitly Muslim never extended their control to the southern grasslands except to raid for slaves 18 In Kanem about a third of the population were slaves 19 French colonial expansion led to the creation of the Territoire Militaire des Pays et Protectorats du Tchad in 1900 By 1920 France had secured full control of the colony and incorporated it as part of French Equatorial Africa 20 French rule in Chad was characterised by an absence of policies to unify the territory and sluggish modernisation compared to other French colonies 21 The French primarily viewed the colony as an unimportant source of untrained labour and raw cotton France introduced large scale cotton production in 1929 The colonial administration in Chad was critically understaffed and had to rely on the dregs of the French civil service Only the Sara of the south was governed effectively French presence in the Islamic north and east was nominal The educational system was affected by this neglect 15 21 A Chadian soldier fighting for Free France during World War II The Free French Forces included 15 000 soldiers from Chad 22 After World War II France granted Chad the status of overseas territory and its inhabitants the right to elect representatives to the National Assembly and a Chadian assembly The largest political party was the Chadian Progressive Party French Parti Progressiste Tchadien PPT based in the southern half of the colony Chad was granted independence on 11 August 1960 with the PPT s leader Francois Tombalbaye an ethnic Sara as its first president 15 23 24 Two years later Tombalbaye banned opposition parties and established a one party system Tombalbaye s autocratic rule and insensitive mismanagement exacerbated inter ethnic tensions In 1965 Muslims in the north led by the National Liberation Front of Chad French Front de liberation nationale du Tchad FRONILAT began a civil war Tombalbaye was overthrown and killed in 1975 25 but the insurgency continued In 1979 the rebel factions led by Hissene Habre took the capital and all central authority in the country collapsed Armed factions many from the north s rebellion contended for power 26 27 The disintegration of Chad caused the collapse of France s position in the country Libya moved to fill the power vacuum and became involved in Chad s civil war 28 Libya s adventure ended in disaster in 1987 the French supported president Hissene Habre evoked a united response from Chadians of a kind never seen before 29 and forced the Libyan army off Chadian soil 30 Habre consolidated his dictatorship through a power system that relied on corruption and violence with thousands of people estimated to have been killed under his rule 31 32 The president favoured his own Toubou ethnic group and discriminated against his former allies the Zaghawa His general Idriss Deby overthrew him in 1990 33 Attempts to prosecute Habre led to his placement under house arrest in Senegal in 2005 in 2013 Habre was formally charged with war crimes committed during his rule 34 In May 2016 he was found guilty of human rights abuses including rape sexual slavery and ordering the killing of 40 000 people and sentenced to life in prison 35 Despite internal political opposition coup attempts and a civil war Idriss Deby continuously ruled Chad from 1990 until his death in 2021 Deby attempted to reconcile the rebel groups and reintroduced multiparty politics Chadians approved a new constitution by referendum and in 1996 Deby easily won a competitive presidential election He won a second term five years later 36 Oil exploitation began in Chad in 2003 bringing with it hopes that Chad would at last have some chances of peace and prosperity Instead internal dissent worsened and a new civil war broke out Deby unilaterally modified the constitution to remove the two term limit on the presidency this caused an uproar among the civil society and opposition parties 37 In 2006 Deby won a third mandate in elections that the opposition boycotted Ethnic violence in eastern Chad has increased the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has warned that a genocide like that in Darfur may yet occur in Chad 38 In 2006 and in 2008 rebel forces attempted to take the capital by force but failed on both occasions 39 An agreement for the restoration of harmony between Chad and Sudan signed 15 January 2010 marked the end of a five year war 40 The fix in relations led to the Chadian rebels from Sudan returning home the opening of the border between the two countries after seven years of closure and the deployment of a joint force to secure the border In May 2013 security forces in Chad foiled a coup against President Idriss Deby that had been in preparation for several months 41 Chad is currently one of the leading partners in a West African coalition in the fight against Boko Haram and other Islamist militants 42 Chad s army announced the death of Deby on 20 April 2021 following an incursion in the northern region by the FACT group during which the president was killed amid fighting on the front lines 42 Deby s son General Mahamat Idriss Deby has been named interim president by a Transitional Council of military officers That transitional council has replaced the Constitution with a new charter granting Mahamat Deby the powers of the presidency and naming him head of the armed forces 13 GeographyMain article Geography of Chad Chad is divided into three distinct zones the Sudanian Savanna in the south the Sahara Desert in the north and the Sahelian belt in the center Chad is a large landlocked country spanning north central Africa It covers an area of 1 284 000 square kilometres 496 000 sq mi 4 lying between latitudes 7 and 24 N and 13 and 24 E 43 and is the twentieth largest country in the world Chad is by size slightly smaller than Peru and slightly larger than South Africa 44 45 Chad is bounded to the north by Libya to the east by Sudan to the west by Niger Nigeria and Cameroon and to the south by the Central African Republic The country s capital is 1 060 kilometres 660 mi from the nearest seaport Douala Cameroon 43 46 Because of this distance from the sea and the country s largely desert climate Chad is sometimes referred to as the Dead Heart of Africa 47 The dominant physical structure is a wide basin bounded to the north and east by the Ennedi Plateau and Tibesti Mountains which include Emi Koussi a dormant volcano that reaches 3 414 metres 11 201 ft above sea level Lake Chad after which the country is named and which in turn takes its name from the Kanuri word for lake 48 is the remains of an immense lake that occupied 330 000 square kilometres 130 000 sq mi of the Chad Basin 7 000 years ago 43 Although in the 21st century it covers only 17 806 square kilometres 6 875 sq mi and its surface area is subject to heavy seasonal fluctuations 49 the lake is Africa s second largest wetland 50 Chad is home to six terrestrial ecoregions East Sudanian savanna Sahelian Acacia savanna Lake Chad flooded savanna East Saharan montane xeric woodlands South Saharan steppe and woodlands and Tibesti Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands 51 The region s tall grasses and extensive marshes make it favourable for birds reptiles and large mammals Chad s major rivers the Chari Logone and their tributaries flow through the southern savannas from the southeast into Lake Chad 43 52 Each year a tropical weather system known as the intertropical front crosses Chad from south to north bringing a wet season that lasts from May to October in the south and from June to September in the Sahel 53 Variations in local rainfall create three major geographical zones The Sahara lies in the country s northern third Yearly precipitations throughout this belt are under 50 millimetres 2 0 in only occasional spontaneous palm groves survive all of them south of the Tropic of Cancer 46 The Sahara gives way to a Sahelian belt in Chad s centre precipitation there varies from 300 to 600 mm 11 8 to 23 6 in per year In the Sahel a steppe of thorny bushes mostly acacias gradually gives way to the south to East Sudanian savanna in Chad s Sudanese zone Yearly rainfall in this belt is over 900 mm 35 4 in 46 Wildlife Main article Wildlife of Chad An African bush elephant Chad s animal and plant life correspond to the three climatic zones In the Saharan region the only flora is the date palm groves of the oasis Palms and acacia trees grow in the Sahelian region The southern or Sudanic zone consists of broad grasslands or prairies suitable for grazing As of 2002 there were at least 134 species of mammals 509 species of birds 354 species of residents and 155 migrants and over 1 600 species of plants throughout the country 54 55 Elephants lions buffalo hippopotamuses rhinoceroses giraffes antelopes leopards cheetahs hyenas and many species of snakes are found here although most large carnivore populations have been drastically reduced since the early 20th century 54 56 Elephant poaching particularly in the south of the country in areas such as Zakouma National Park is a severe problem The small group of surviving West African crocodiles in the Ennedi Plateau represents one of the last colonies known in the Sahara today 57 Chad had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6 18 10 ranking it 83rd globally out of 172 countries 58 Extensive deforestation has resulted in loss of trees such as acacias baobab dates and palm trees This has also caused loss of natural habitat for wild animals one of the main reasons for this is also hunting and livestock farming by increasing human settlements Populations of animals like lions leopards and rhino have fallen significantly 59 Efforts have been made by the Food and Agriculture Organization to improve relations between farmers agro pastoralists and pastoralists in the Zakouma National Park ZNP Siniaka Minia and Aouk reserve in southeastern Chad to promote sustainable development 60 As part of the national conservation effort more than 1 2 million trees have been replanted to check the advancement of the desert which incidentally also helps the local economy by way of financial return from acacia trees which produce gum arabic and also from fruit trees 59 Poaching is a serious problem in the country particularly of elephants for the profitable ivory industry and a threat to lives of rangers even in the national parks such as Zakouma Elephants are often massacred in herds in and around the parks by organized poaching 61 The problem is worsened by the fact that the parks are understaffed and that a number of wardens have been murdered by poachers 62 DemographicsMain article Demographics of Chad Toubou nomads in the Ennedi Mountains Chad s national statistical agency projected the country s 2015 population between 13 630 252 and 13 679 203 with 13 670 084 as its medium projection based on the medium projection 3 212 470 people lived in urban areas and 10 457 614 people lived in rural areas 63 The country s population is young an estimated 47 is under 15 The birth rate is estimated at 42 35 births per 1 000 people and the mortality rate at 16 69 The life expectancy is 52 years 64 Chad s population is unevenly distributed Density is 0 1 km2 0 26 sq mi in the Saharan Borkou Ennedi Tibesti Region but 52 4 km2 136 sq mi in the Logone Occidental Region In the capital it is even higher 46 About half of the nation s population lives in the southern fifth of its territory making this the most densely populated region 65 Urban life is concentrated in the capital whose population is mostly engaged in commerce The other major towns are Sarh Moundou Abeche and Doba which are considerably smaller but growing rapidly in population and economic activity 43 Since 2003 230 000 Sudanese refugees have fled to eastern Chad from war ridden Darfur With the 172 600 Chadians displaced by the civil war in the east this has generated increased tensions among the region s communities 66 67 Polygamy is common with 39 of women living in such unions This is sanctioned by law which automatically permits polygamy unless spouses specify that this is unacceptable upon marriage 68 Although violence against women is prohibited domestic violence is common Female genital mutilation is also prohibited but the practice is widespread and deeply rooted in tradition 45 of Chadian women undergo the procedure with the highest rates among Arabs Hadjarai and Ouaddaians 90 or more Lower percentages were reported among the Sara 38 and the Toubou 2 Women lack equal opportunities in education and training making it difficult for them to compete for the relatively few formal sector jobs Although property and inheritance laws based on the French code do not discriminate against women local leaders adjudicate most inheritance cases in favour of men according to traditional practice 69 Largest cities towns and municipalities Cities of Chad Rank City Population Region1993 Census 70 2009 Census 70 1 N Djamena 530 965 951 418 N Djamena2 Moundou 99 530 137 251 Logone Occidental3 Abeche 54 628 97 963 Ouaddai4 Sarh 75 496 97 224 Moyen Chari5 Kelo 31 319 57 859 Tandjile6 Am Timan 21 269 52 270 Salamat7 Doba 17 920 49 647 Logone Oriental8 Pala 26 116 49 461 Mayo Kebbi Ouest9 Bongor 20 448 44 578 Mayo Kebbi Est10 Goz Beida 3 083 41 248 SilaEthnic groups Main article Ethnic groups in Chad Mboum girls dancing in Chad The peoples of Chad carry significant ancestry from Eastern Central Western and Northern Africa 71 Chad has more than 200 distinct ethnic groups 72 which create diverse social structures The colonial administration and independent governments have attempted to impose a national society but for most Chadians the local or regional society remains the most important influence outside the immediate family Nevertheless Chad s people may be classified according to the geographical region in which they live 15 43 In the south live sedentary people such as the Sara the nation s main ethnic group whose essential social unit is the lineage In the Sahel sedentary peoples live side by side with nomadic ones such as the Arabs the country s second major ethnic group The north is inhabited by nomads mostly Toubous 15 43 Languages Main article Languages of Chad Chad s official languages are Arabic and French but over 100 languages and dialects are spoken Due to the important role played by itinerant Arab traders and settled merchants in local communities Chadian Arabic has become a lingua franca 15 Religion Main article Religion in Chad Chad is a religiously diverse country Various estimates including from Pew Research Center in 2010 found that 52 58 of the population was Muslim while 39 44 were Christian 9 with 22 being Catholic and a further 17 being Protestant 73 74 According to a 2012 Pew Research survey 48 of Muslim Chadians professed to be Sunni 21 Shia 4 Ahmadi and 23 non denominational Muslim Islam is expressed in diverse ways for example 55 of Muslim Chadians belong to Sufi orders Its most common expression is the Tijaniyah an order followed by the 35 of Chadian Muslims which incorporates some local African religious elements 75 In 2020 the ARDA estimated the vast majority of Muslims Chadians to be Sunni belonging to the Sufi brotherhood Tijaniyah 76 A small minority of the country s Muslims 5 10 hold more fundamentalist practices which in some cases may be associated with Saudi oriented Salafi movements 76 77 Roman Catholics represent the largest Christian denomination in the country 76 Most Protestants including the Nigeria based Winners Chapel are affiliated with various evangelical Christian groups Members of the Bahaʼi and Jehovah s Witnesses religious communities also are present in the country Both faiths were introduced after independence in 1960 and therefore are considered to be new religions in the country 78 77 A small proportion of the population continues to practice indigenous religions Animism includes a variety of ancestor and place oriented religions whose expression is highly specific Christianity arrived in Chad with the French and American missionaries as with Chadian Islam it syncretises aspects of pre Christian religious beliefs 15 Religion in Chad Pew Research 44 79 religion percentIslam 57 Christianity 39 None 2 Folk 1 Other 1 Muslims are largely concentrated in northern and eastern Chad and animists and Christians live primarily in southern Chad and Guera 43 Many Muslims also reside in southern Chad but the Christian presence in the north is minimal 78 The constitution provides for a secular state and guarantees religious freedom different religious communities generally co exist without problems 76 77 Chad is home to foreign missionaries representing both Christian and Islamic groups Itinerant Muslim preachers primarily from Sudan Saudi Arabia and Pakistan also visit Saudi Arabian funding generally supports social and educational projects and extensive mosque construction 77 Education Educators face considerable challenges due to the nation s dispersed population and a certain degree of reluctance on the part of parents to send their children to school Although attendance is compulsory only 68 percent of boys attend primary school and more than half of the population is illiterate Higher education is provided at the University of N Djamena 43 72 At 33 percent Chad has one of the lowest literacy rates of Sub Saharan Africa 80 In 2013 the U S Department of Labor s Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor 81 in Chad reported that school attendance of children aged 5 to 14 was as low as 39 This can also be related to the issue of child labor as the report also stated that 53 of children aged 5 to 14 were working and that 30 of children aged 7 to 14 combined work and school A more recent DOL report listed cattle herding as a major agricultural activity that employed underage children 82 Government and politicsMain article Politics of Chad Chadian woman voting during the 2016 presidential election Chad s constitution provides for a strong executive branch headed by a president who dominates the political system The president has the power to appoint the prime minister and the cabinet and exercises considerable influence over appointments of judges generals provincial officials and heads of Chad s para statal firms 83 In cases of grave and immediate threat the president in consultation with the National Assembly may declare a state of emergency The president is directly elected by popular vote for a five year term in 2005 constitutional term limits were removed 84 allowing a president to remain in power beyond the previous two term limit 84 Most of Deby s key advisers are members of the Zaghawa ethnic group although southern and opposition personalities are represented in government 72 85 Chad s legal system is based on French civil law and Chadian customary law where the latter does not interfere with public order or constitutional guarantees of equality Despite the constitution s guarantee of judicial independence the president names most key judicial officials The legal system s highest jurisdictions the Supreme Court and the Constitutional Council have become fully operational since 2000 The Supreme Court is made up of a chief justice named by the president and 15 councillors appointed for life by the president and the National Assembly The Constitutional Court is headed by nine judges elected to nine year terms It has the power to review legislation treaties and international agreements prior to their adoption 72 85 The National Assembly makes legislation The body consists of 155 members elected for four year terms who meet three times per year The Assembly holds regular sessions twice a year starting in March and October and can hold special sessions when called by the prime minister Deputies elect a National Assembly president every two years The president must sign or reject newly passed laws within 15 days The National Assembly must approve the prime minister s plan of government and may force the prime minister to resign through a majority vote of no confidence However if the National Assembly rejects the executive branch s programme twice in one year the president may disband the Assembly and call for new legislative elections In practice the president exercises considerable influence over the National Assembly through his party the Patriotic Salvation Movement MPS which holds a large majority 72 Until the legalisation of opposition parties in 1992 Deby s MPS was the sole legal party in Chad 72 Since then 78 registered political parties have become active 69 In 2005 opposition parties and human rights organisations supported the boycott of the constitutional referendum that allowed Deby to stand for re election for a third term 86 amid reports of widespread irregularities in voter registration and government censorship of independent media outlets during the campaign 87 Correspondents judged the 2006 presidential elections a mere formality as the opposition deemed the polls a farce and boycotted them 88 Chad is listed as a failed state by the Fund for Peace FFP Chad had the seventh highest rank in the Fragile States Index in 2021 89 Corruption is rife at all levels Transparency International s Corruption Perceptions Index for 2021 ranked Chad 164th among the 180 countries listed 90 Critics of former President Deby had accused him of cronyism and tribalism 91 In southern Chad bitter conflicts over land are becoming more and more common They frequently turn violent Long standing community culture is being eroded and so are the livelihoods of many farmers 92 Longtime Chad President Idriss Deby s death on 20 April 2021 resulted in both the nation s National Assembly and government being dissolved and national leadership being replaced with a transitional military council consisting of military officers and led by his son Mahamat Kaka 93 94 95 The constitution is currently suspended pending replacement with one drafted by a civilian National Transitional Council yet to be appointed The military council has stated that elections will be held at the end of an 18 month transitional period 96 Internal opposition and foreign relations Main article Foreign relations of Chad Embassy of Chad in Washington D C Deby faced armed opposition from groups who are deeply divided by leadership clashes but were united in their intention to overthrow him 97 These forces stormed the capital on 13 April 2006 but were ultimately repelled Chad s greatest foreign influence is France which maintains 1 000 soldiers in the country Deby relied on the French to help repel the rebels and France gives the Chadian army logistical and intelligence support for fear of a complete collapse of regional stability 98 Nevertheless Franco Chadian relations were soured by the granting of oil drilling rights to the American Exxon company in 1999 99 There have been numerous rebel groups in Chad throughout the last few decades In 2007 a peace treaty was signed that integrated United Front for Democratic Change soldiers into the Chadian Army 100 The Movement for Justice and Democracy in Chad also clashed with government forces in 2003 in an attempt to overthrow President Idriss Deby In addition there have been various conflicts with Khartoum s Janjaweed rebels in eastern Chad who killed civilians by use of helicopter gunships 101 Presently the Union of Resistance Forces UFR are a rebel group that continues to battle with the government of Chad In 2010 the UFR reportedly had a force estimating 6 000 men and 300 vehicles 102 Military Main article Chad National Army The CIA World Factbook estimates the military budget of Chad to be 4 2 of GDP as of 2006 103 Given the then GDP 7 095 bln of the country military spending was estimated to be about 300 million This estimate however dropped after the end of the Civil war in Chad 2005 2010 to 2 0 104 as estimated by the World Bank for the year 2011 Administrative divisions Main articles Regions of Chad Departments of Chad and Sub prefectures of Chad Since 2012 Chad has been divided into 23 regions 105 The subdivision of Chad in regions came about in 2003 as part of the decentralisation process when the government abolished the previous 14 prefectures Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor Prefects administer the 61 departments within the regions 106 The departments are divided into 200 sub prefectures which are in turn composed of 446 cantons 107 108 The cantons are scheduled to be replaced by communautes rurales but the legal and regulatory framework has not yet been completed 109 The constitution provides for decentralised government to compel local populations to play an active role in their own development 110 To this end the constitution declares that each administrative subdivision be governed by elected local assemblies 111 but no local elections have taken place 112 and communal elections scheduled for 2005 have been repeatedly postponed 69 EconomyFurther information Economy of Chad Agriculture in Chad and Petroleum industry in Chad A proportional representation of Chad exports 2019 GDP per capita development of Chad since 1950 The United Nations Human Development Index ranks Chad as the seventh poorest country in the world with 80 of the population living below the poverty line The GDP purchasing power parity per capita was estimated as US 1 651 in 2009 6 Chad is part of the Bank of Central African States the Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa UDEAC and the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa OHADA 113 Chad s currency is the CFA franc In the 1960s the mining industry of Chad produced sodium carbonate or natron There have also been reports of gold bearing quartz in the Biltine Prefecture However years of civil war have scared away foreign investors those who left Chad between 1979 and 1982 have only recently begun to regain confidence in the country s future In 2000 major direct foreign investment in the oil sector began boosting the country s economic prospects 44 72 Women in Mao where water is provided by a water tower Access to clean water is often a problem in Chad Uneven inclusion in the global political economy as a site for colonial resource extraction primarily cotton and crude oil a global economic system that does not promote nor encourage the development of Chadian industrialization 114 and the failure to support local agricultural production has meant that the majority of Chadians live in daily uncertainty and hunger 115 116 Over 80 of Chad s population relies on subsistence farming and livestock raising for its livelihood 44 The crops grown and the locations of herds are determined by the local climate In the southernmost 10 of the territory lies the nation s most fertile cropland with rich yields of sorghum and millet In the Sahel only the hardier varieties of millet grow and with much lower yields than in the south On the other hand the Sahel is ideal pastureland for large herds of commercial cattle and for goats sheep donkeys and horses The Sahara s scattered oases support only some dates and legumes 15 Chad s cities face serious difficulties of municipal infrastructure only 48 of urban residents have access to potable water and only 2 to basic sanitation 43 109 Before the development of oil industry cotton dominated industry and the labour market accounted for approximately 80 of export earnings 117 Cotton remains a primary export although exact figures are not available Rehabilitation of Cotontchad a major cotton company weakened by a decline in world cotton prices has been financed by France the Netherlands the European Union and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development IBRD The parastatal is now expected to be privatised 72 Other than cotton cattle and gum arabic are dominant 118 According to the United Nations Chad has been affected by a humanitarian crisis since at least 2001 As of 2008 update the country of Chad hosts over 280 000 refugees from the Sudan s Darfur region over 55 000 from the Central African Republic as well as over 170 000 internally displaced persons 119 In February 2008 in the aftermath of the Battle of N Djamena UN Under Secretary General for Humanitarian Affairs John Holmes expressed extreme concern that the crisis would have a negative effect on the ability of humanitarians to deliver life saving assistance to half a million beneficiaries most of whom according to him heavily rely on humanitarian aid for their survival 120 UN spokesperson Maurizio Giuliano stated to The Washington Post If we do not manage to provide aid at sufficient levels the humanitarian crisis might become a humanitarian catastrophe 121 In addition organizations such as Save the Children have suspended activities due to killings of aid workers 122 Chad has made some progress in reducing poverty there was a decline in the national poverty rate from 55 to 47 between 2003 and 2011 However the amount of poor people increased from 4 7 million 2011 to 6 5 million 2019 in absolute amounts By 2018 4 2 out of 10 people still live below the poverty line 123 Infrastructure Transport Main article Transport in Chad Civil war crippled the development of transport infrastructure in 1987 Chad had only 30 kilometres 19 mi of paved roads Successive road rehabilitation projects improved the network 124 to 550 kilometres 340 mi by 2004 125 Nevertheless the road network is limited roads are often unusable for several months of the year With no railways of its own Chad depends heavily on Cameroon s rail system for the transport of Chadian exports and imports to and from the seaport of Douala 126 As of 2013 update Chad had an estimated 59 airports only 9 of which had paved runways 127 An international airport serves the capital and provides regular nonstop flights to Paris and several African cities Energy See also Energy in Chad Chad s energy sector has had years of mismanagement by the parastatal Chad Water and Electric Society STEE which provides power for 15 of the capital s citizens and covers only 1 5 of the national population 128 Most Chadians burn biomass fuels such as wood and animal manure for power 129 ExxonMobil leads a consortium of Chevron and Petronas that has invested 3 7 billion to develop oil reserves estimated at one billion barrels in southern Chad Oil production began in 2003 with the completion of a pipeline financed in part by the World Bank that links the southern oilfields to terminals on the Atlantic coast of Cameroon As a condition of its assistance the World Bank insisted that 80 of oil revenues be spent on development projects In January 2006 the World Bank suspended its loan programme when the Chadian government passed laws reducing this amount 72 112 On 14 July 2006 the World Bank and Chad signed a memorandum of understanding under which the Government of Chad commits 70 of its spending to priority poverty reduction programmes 130 Telecommunications See also Telecommunications in Chad The telecommunication system is basic and expensive with fixed telephone services provided by the state telephone company SotelTchad In 2000 there were only 14 fixed telephone lines per 10 000 inhabitants in the country one of the lowest telephone densities in the world 128 Gateway Communications a pan African wholesale connectivity and telecommunications provider also has a presence in Chad 131 In September 2013 Chad s Ministry for Posts and Information amp Communication Technologies PNTIC announced that the country will be seeking a partner for fiber optic technology Chad is ranked last in the World Economic Forum s Network Readiness Index NRI an indicator for determining the development level of a country s information and communication technologies Chad ranked number 148 out of 148 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking down from 142 in 2013 132 In September 2010 the mobile phone penetration rate was estimated at 24 3 over a population estimate of 10 7 million 133 CultureBecause of its great variety of peoples and languages Chad possesses a rich cultural heritage The Chadian government has actively promoted Chadian culture and national traditions by opening the Chad National Museum and the Chad Cultural Centre 43 Six national holidays are observed throughout the year and movable holidays include the Christian holiday of Easter Monday and the Muslim holidays of Eid ul Fitr Eid ul Adha and Eid Milad Nnabi 128 A Chadian tailor sells traditional dresses Cuisine Main article Cuisine of Chad Millet is the staple food of Chadian cuisine It is used to make balls of paste that are dipped in sauces In the north this dish is known as alysh in the south as biya Fish is popular which is generally prepared and sold either as salanga sun dried and lightly smoked Alestes and Hydrocynus or as banda smoked large fish 134 Carcaje is a popular sweet red tea extracted from hibiscus leaves Alcoholic beverages though absent in the north are popular in the south where people drink millet beer known as billi billi when brewed from red millet and as coshate when from white millet 135 Music Main article Music of Chad The music of Chad includes a number of instruments such as the kinde a type of bow harp the kakaki a long tin horn and the hu hu a stringed instrument that uses calabashes as loudspeakers Other instruments and their combinations are more linked to specific ethnic groups the Sara prefer whistles balafones harps and kodjo drums and the Kanembu combine the sounds of drums with those of flute like instruments 135 The music group Chari Jazz formed in 1964 and initiated Chad s modern music scene Later more renowned groups such as African Melody and International Challal attempted to mix modernity and tradition Popular groups such as Tibesti have clung faster to their heritage by drawing on sai a traditional style of music from southern Chad The people of Chad have customarily disdained modern music However in 1995 greater interest has developed and fostered the distribution of CDs and audio cassettes featuring Chadian artists Piracy and a lack of legal protections for artists rights remain problems to further development of the Chadian music industry 135 136 Literature Criquets grilles ou fris As in other Sahelian countries literature in Chad has seen an economic political and spiritual drought that has affected its best known writers Chadian authors have been forced to write from exile or expatriate status and have generated literature dominated by themes of political oppression and historical discourse Since 1962 20 Chadian authors have written some 60 works of fiction Among the most internationally renowned writers are Joseph Brahim Seid Baba Moustapha Antoine Bangui and Koulsy Lamko In 2003 Chad s sole literary critic Ahmat Taboye published his Anthologie de la litterature tchadienne to further knowledge of Chad s literature internationally and among youth and to make up for Chad s lack of publishing houses and promotional structure 135 137 138 Media and cinema Main articles Media of Chad and Cinema of Chad Chad s television audience is limited to N Djamena The only television station is the state owned Tele Tchad Radio has a far greater reach with 13 private radio stations 139 Newspapers are limited in quantity and distribution and circulation figures are small due to transportation costs low literacy rates and poverty 87 129 140 While the constitution defends liberty of expression the government has regularly restricted this right and at the end of 2006 began to enact a system of prior censorship on the media 141 The development of a Chadian film industry which began with the short films of Edouard Sailly in the 1960s was hampered by the devastations of civil wars and from the lack of cinemas of which there is currently only one in the whole country the Normandie in N Djamena 142 143 The Chadian feature film industry began growing again in the 1990s with the work of directors Mahamat Saleh Haroun Issa Serge Coelo and Abakar Chene Massar 144 Haroun s film Abouna was critically acclaimed and his Daratt won the Grand Special Jury Prize at the 63rd Venice International Film Festival The 2010 feature film A Screaming Man won the Jury Prize at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival making Haroun the first Chadian director to enter as well as win an award in the main Cannes competition 145 Issa Serge Coelo directed the films Daresalam and DP75 Tartina City 146 147 148 149 Sports Main article Sports in Chad Football is Chad s most popular sport 150 The country s national team is closely followed during international competitions 135 and Chadian footballers have played for French teams Basketball and freestyle wrestling are widely practiced the latter in a form in which the wrestlers put on traditional animal hides and cover themselves with dust 135 See also Africa portalOutline of Chad Index of Chad related articlesNotes Arabic جمهورية ت ش اد Jumhuriyyat Tsad French Republique du Tchad Analyse Thematique des Resultats Definitifs Etat et Structures de la Population Institut National de la Statistique des Etudes Economiques et Demographiques du Tchad Archived from the original on 28 December 2019 Retrieved 3 May 2020 a b Religions in Chad PEW GRF a b Ramadane Mahamat 2 October 2022 Junta set to stay in power after Chad delays elections by two years Reuters N Djamena Retrieved 20 October 2022 a b Le TCHAD en bref in French INSEED 22 July 2013 Archived from the original on 22 December 2015 Retrieved 18 December 2015 Chad The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Retrieved 24 September 2022 a b c d e World Economic Outlook Database October 2022 IMF org International Monetary Fund October 2022 Retrieved 11 October 2022 Gini Index World Bank Retrieved 15 July 2022 Human Development Report 2021 2022 PDF United Nations Development Programme 8 September 2022 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 30 September 2022 a b Enquete Demographique et de Sante 1996 1997 PDF Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Chad s authoritarian Deby unwilling to quit Deutsche Welle 8 April 2016 Retrieved 4 August 2020 Haynes Suyin 28 March 2019 This African Country Has Had a Yearlong Ban on Social Media Here s What s Behind the Blackout Time Retrieved 4 August 2020 Werman Marco 5 June 2012 ExxonMobil and Chad s Authoritarian Regime An Unholy Bargain The World Public Radio International Retrieved 4 August 2020 a b Ramadane Madjiasra Nako Mahamat 21 April 2021 Chad in turmoil after Deby death as rebels opposition challenge military Reuters Retrieved 21 April 2021 Decalo pp 44 45 a b c d e f g h i S Collelo Chad D Lange 1988 Decalo p 6 Decalo pp 7 8 Welcome to Encyclopaedia Britannica s Guide to Black History Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on 6 October 2014 Retrieved 29 August 2010 Decalo pp 8 309 a b Decalo pp 8 9 Decalo p 53 Decalo pp 248 249 Nolutshungu p 17 Death of a Dictator Time 28 April 1975 Accessed on 3 September 2007 Decalo pp 12 16 Nolutshungu p 268 Nolutshungu p 150 Nolutshungu p 230 Pollack Kenneth M 2002 Arabs at War Military Effectiveness 1948 1991 Lincoln University of Nebraska Press ISBN 0 8032 3733 2 pp 391 397 Macedo Stephen 2006 Universal Jurisdiction National Courts and the Prosecution of Serious Crimes Under International Law University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 0 8122 1950 3 pp 133 134 Chad the Habre Legacy Archived 13 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine Amnesty International 16 October 2001 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Archived from the original on 3 December 2012 Retrieved 23 May 2010 in French Bambe Naygotimti April 2007 Issa Serge Coelo cineaste tchadien On a encore du travail a faire Archived 30 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine Tchad et Culture 256 Young Neil 23 March 2004 An interview with Mahamet Saleh Haroun writer and director of Abouna Our Father jigsawlounge co uk Mirren crowned queen at Venice BBC News 9 September 2006 in French Alphonse Dokalyo 2003 Cinema un avenir plein d espoir Archived 28 September 2013 at archive today Tchad et Culture 214 Staff 2 July 2007 Chad FIFA Goal Programme Archived from the original on 29 June 2007 Retrieved 10 August 2006 References in French Alphonse Dokalyo 2003 Cinema un avenir plein d espoir Archived 28 September 2013 at archive today Tchad et Culture 214 Background Note Chad September 2006 United States Department of State in French Bambe Naygotimti April 2007 Issa Serge Coelo cineaste tchadien On a encore du travail a faire Tchad et Culture 256 Botha D J J December 1992 S H Frankel Reminiscences of an Economist The South African Journal of Economics 60 4 246 255 Boyd Buggs Debra amp Joyce Hope Scott 1999 Camel Tracks Critical Perspectives on Sahelian Literatures Lawrenceville Africa World Press ISBN 0 86543 757 2 Chad The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Retrieved 28 January 2010 Archived 2010 edition Chad Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2006 6 March 2007 Bureau of Democracy Human Rights and Labor U S Department of State Chad Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2004 28 February 2005 Bureau of Democracy Human Rights and Labor U S Department of State Chad International Monetary Fund Retrieved 18 April 2012 Chad International Religious Freedom Report 2006 15 September 2006 Bureau of Democracy Human Rights and Labor U S Department of State Amnesty International Report 2006 Archived 13 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine Amnesty International Publications Chad PDF African Economic Outlook 2007 OECD May 2007 ISBN 978 92 64 02510 3 Chad The World Factbook United States Central Intelligence Agency 15 May 2007 Chad PDF Women of the World Laws and Policies Affecting Their Reproductive Lives Francophone Africa Center for Reproductive Rights 2000 Chad 2006 Archived from the original on 4 June 2011 Retrieved 6 May 2007 Freedom of the Press 2007 Edition Freedom House Inc Chad Human Rights Instruments United Nations Commission on Human Rights 12 December 1997 Chad Encyclopaedia Britannica 2000 Chicago Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc Chad Lake Encyclopaedia Britannica 2000 Chad Community Based Integrated Ecosystem Management Project PDF 24 September 2002 World Bank Chad A Cultural Profile PDF Archived from the original PDF on 1 October 2006 Retrieved 4 June 2007 PDF Cultural Profiles Project Citizenship and Immigration Canada ISBN 0 7727 9102 3 Chad Urban Development Project PDF 21 October 2004 World Bank Chad Humanitarian Profile 2006 2007 PDF 8 January 2007 Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs Chad Livelihood Profiles PDF March 2005 United States Agency for International Development Chad Poverty Assessment Constraints to Rural Development PDF World Bank 21 October 1997 Chad 2006 Archived 12 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine Country Report 2006 Edition Freedom House Inc Chad and Cameroon Archived from the original on 13 January 2009 Retrieved 17 May 2007 Country Analysis Briefs January 2007 Energy Information Administration Chad leader s victory confirmed BBC News 14 May 2006 Chad may face genocide UN warns BBC News 16 February 2007 in French Chapelle Jean 1981 Le Peuple Tchadien ses racines et sa vie quotidienne Paris L Harmattan ISBN 2 85802 169 4 Chowdhury Anwarul Karim amp Sandagdorj Erdenbileg 2006 Geography Against Development A Case for Landlocked Developing Countries PDF Archived from the original PDF on 5 February 2009 Retrieved 5 May 2007 New York United Nations ISBN 92 1 104540 1 Collelo Thomas 1990 Chad A Country Study 2d ed Washington U S GPO ISBN 0 16 024770 5 in French Dadnaji Dimrangar 1999 La decentralisation au Tchad Archived from the original on 8 March 2008 Retrieved 19 June 2007 Decalo Samuel 1987 Historical Dictionary of Chad 2 ed Metuchen The Scarecrow Press ISBN 978 0 8108 1937 5 East Roger amp Richard J Thomas 2003 Profiles of People in Power The World s Government Leaders Routledge ISBN 1 85743 126 X Dinar Ariel 1995 Restoring and Protecting the World s Lakes and Reservoirs World Bank Publications ISBN 0 8213 3321 6 in French Gondje Laoro 2003 La musique recherche son identite Tchad et Culture 214 Chad the Habre Legacy Archived 13 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine Amnesty International 16 October 2001 Lange Dierk 1988 The Chad region as a crossroad PDF in UNESCO General History of Africa Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century vol 3 436 460 University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 03914 8 in French Lettre d information PDF Delegation de la Commission Europeenne au Tchad N 3 September 2004 Macedo Stephen 2006 Universal Jurisdiction National Courts and the Prosecution of Serious Crimes Under International Law University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 0 8122 1950 3 in French Malo Nestor H 2003 Litterature tchadienne Jeune mais riche Tchad et Culture 214 Manley Andrew Chad s vulnerable president BBC News 15 March 2006 Mirren crowned queen at Venice BBC News 9 September 2006 in French Ndang Tabo Symphorien 2005 A qui Profitent les Depenses Sociales au Tchad Une Analyse d Incidence a Partir des Donnees d Enquete Archived 12 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine PDF 4th PEP Research Network General Meeting Poverty and Economic Policy Nolutshungu Sam C 1995 Limits of Anarchy Intervention and State Formation in Chad Charlottesville University of Virginia Press ISBN 978 0 8139 1628 6 Pollack Kenneth M 2002 Arabs at War Military Effectiveness 1948 1991 Lincoln University of Nebraska Press ISBN 0 8032 3733 2 Rank Order Area Archived 9 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine The World Factbook United States Central Intelligence Agency 10 May 2007 Republic of Chad Public Administration Country Profile Archived 14 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine PDF United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs November 2004 Circonscriptions Administratives PDF in French Government of Chad 3 July 2007 Archived from the original PDF on 3 July 2007 Spera Vincent 8 February 2004 Chad Country Commercial Guide FY 2005 Archived from the original on 15 October 2007 Retrieved 6 May 2007 United States Department of Commerce Symposium on the evaluation of fishery resources in the development and management of inland fisheries CIFA Technical Paper No 2 FAO 29 November 1 December 1972 in French Tchad L evaluation de l education pour tous a l an 2000 Rapport des pays UNESCO Education for All in French Tchad vers le retour de la guerre PDF International Crisis Group 1 June 2006 Wolfe Adam Instability on the March in Sudan Chad and Central African Republic Archived from the original on 5 January 2007 Retrieved 3 May 2007 PINR 6 December 2006 World Bank 14 July 2006 World Bank Govt of Chad Sign Memorandum of Understanding on Poverty Reduction Press release World Population Prospects The 2006 Revision Population Database 2006 United Nations Population Division Worst corruption offenders named BBC News 18 November 2005 Young Neil August 2002 An interview with Mahamet Saleh Haroun writer and director of Abouna Our Father External linksChad at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel information from Wikivoyage Resources from WikiversityChad The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency Chad country study from Library of Congress Chad web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries Chad at Curlie Chad profile from the BBC News Wikimedia Atlas of Chad Geographic data related to Chad at OpenStreetMap Key Development Forecasts for Chad from International Futures Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Chad amp oldid 1133995297, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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