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Niger

January 20, 2023

This article is about the country. For other uses, see Niger (disambiguation). For the state in Nigeria, see Niger State.

Coordinates: 16°N 8°E / 16°N 8°E / 16; 8

Niger or the Niger[13][14] (/niːˈʒɛər, ˈnaɪdʒər/ nee-ZHAIR, NY-jər,[15][16] French: [niʒɛʁ]),[a] officially the Republic of the Niger[13][14] (French: République du Niger, Hausa: Jamhuriyar Nijar), is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is a unitary state bordered by Libya to the northeast, Chad to the east, Nigeria to the south, Benin and Burkina Faso to the southwest, Mali to the west, and Algeria to the northwest. It covers a land area of almost 1,270,000 km2 (490,000 sq mi), making it the second-largest landlocked country in West Africa, after Chad. Over 80% of its land area lies in the Sahara. Its predominantly Muslim population of about 25 million[17][18] live mostly in clusters in the further south and west of the country. The capital Niamey is located in Niger's southwest corner.

Republic of the Niger
République du Niger (French)
Motto: 
  • "Fraternité, Travail, Progrès" (French)
  • "Fraternity, Work, Progress"
Anthem: La Nigérienne
(English: "The Song of Niger")
Location of Niger (dark green)
Capital
and largest city
Niamey
13°32′N 2°05′E / 13.533°N 2.083°E / 13.533; 2.083
Official languages
National languages[1]
Ethnic groups
(2021)[2]
Religion
(2012)[3]
Demonym(s)Nigerien[4]
GovernmentUnitary semi-presidential republic
• President
Mohamed Bazoum
Ouhoumoudou Mahamadou
Seyni Oumarou
LegislatureNational Assembly
Independence 
from France
• Republic proclaimed
18 December 1958
• Declared
3 August 1960
Area
• Total
1,267,000 km2 (489,000 sq mi) (21st)
• Water (%)
0.02
Population
• 2022 estimate
24,484,587[5] (56th)
• Density
12.1/km2 (31.3/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)2018 estimate
• Total
$23.475 billion[6] (140th)
• Per capita
$1,213[7] (183rd)
GDP (nominal)2018 estimate
• Total
$9.869 billion[8] (136th)
• Per capita
$510[9] (179th)
Gini (2014) 34.0[10]
medium · 70th
HDI (2021) 0.400[11]
low · 189th
CurrencyWest African CFA franc (XOF)
Time zoneUTC+1 (WAT)
Driving sideright[12]
Calling code+227
ISO 3166 codeNE
Internet TLD.ne

It is listed in the least developed countries group. Some non-desert portions of the country underwent periodic drought and desertification. The economy is concentrated around subsistence agriculture, with some export agriculture in the more fertile south, and export of raw materials, including uranium ore. It faces challenges to development due to its landlocked position, desert terrain, higher fertility rates without birth control and resulting overpopulation.[19]

The society reflects a diversity drawn from the independent histories of some ethnic groups and regions and their period living in a single state. Historically, Niger has been on the fringes of some states. Since independence, Nigeriens have lived under 5 constitutions and 3 periods of military rule. After the military coup in 2010, Niger became a democratic, multi-party state. A majority of the population lives in rural areas.

Etymology

The name comes from the Niger River which flows through the west of the country; a theory about the origin of the river's name is that it comes from the Tuareg n'eghirren meaning 'flowing water'.[20] The pronunciation is the French one of /niːˈʒɛər/, while in Anglophone media /ˈnaɪdʒər/ is also used.

History

Main article: History of Niger

Prehistory

 
Rock engraving showing herds of giraffe, ibex, and other animals in the southern Sahara near Tiguidit, Niger

Stone tools, some dating as far back as 280,000 BC, have been found in Adrar Bous, Bilma and Djado in the northern Agadez Region.[21] Some of these finds have been linked with the Aterian and Mousterian tool cultures of the Middle Paleolithic period, which flourished in northern Africa circa 90,000 BC–20,000 BC.[22][21] It is thought that these humans lived a hunter-gatherer lifestyle.[21] In prehistoric times the climate of the Sahara was wetter and more fertile, a phenomenon archaeologists refer to as the 'Green Sahara' which provided "favourable" conditions for hunting and later agriculture and livestock herding.[23][24]

The Neolithic era began circa 10,000 BC; this period saw a number of changes, such as the introduction of pottery (as evidenced at Tagalagal, Temet and Tin Ouffadene), the spread of cattle husbandry, and the burying of the dead in stone tumuli.[21] As the climate changed in the period 4000–2800 BC the Sahara gradually began drying out, forcing a change in settlement patterns to the south and east.[25] Agriculture spread, including the planting of millet and sorghum, and pottery production.[21] Iron and copper items appear in this era, with finds including those at Azawagh, Takedda, Marendet and the Termit Massif.[26][27][28] The Kiffian (circa 8000–6000 BC) and later Tenerian (circa 5000–2500 BC) cultures, centred on Adrar Bous and Gobero where skeletons have been uncovered, flourished during this period.[29][30][31][32][33]

Societies continued to grow with regional differentiation in agricultural and funerary practices. A culture of this period is the Bura culture (circa 200–1300 AD) named for the Bura archaeological site. where a burial replete with iron and ceramic statuettes were discovered.[34] The Neolithic era saw the flourishing of Saharan rock art, including in the Aïr Mountains, Termit Massif, Djado Plateau, Iwelene, Arakao, Tamakon, Tzerzait, Iferouane, Mammanet and Dabous; the art spans the period from 10,000BC to 100AD and depicts a range of subjects, from the varied fauna of the landscape to depictions of spear-carrying figures dubbed 'Libyan warriors'.[35][36][37]

Empires and kingdoms in pre-colonial Niger

By at least the 5th century BC the territory of what later is Niger had become an area of trans-Saharan trade. Led by Tuareg tribes from the north, camels were used as a means of transportation through what is later a desert.[38][39] This mobility which would continue in waves for centuries was accompanied with further migration to the south and intermixing between sub-Saharan African and North African populations, and the spread of Islam.[40] It was aided by the Arab invasion of North Africa in the 7th century, which resulted in population movements to the south.[25] Empires and kingdoms existed in the Sahel during this era. The following adopts a roughly chronological account of some empires.

Mali Empire (1200s–1400s)

Main article: Mali Empire

The Mali Empire was a Mandinka empire founded by Sundiata Keita (r. 1230–1255) in circa 1230 and existed up to 1600. As detailed in the Epic of Sundiata, Mali emerged as a breakaway region of the Sosso Empire which itself had split from the earlier Ghana Empire. Thereafter Mali defeated the Sosso at the Battle of Kirina in 1235 and then Ghana in 1240.[41][42] From its heartland around the later Guinea-Mali border region, the empire expanded under successive kings and came to dominate the Trans-Saharan trade routes, reaching its greatest extent during the rule of Mansa Musa (r. 1312–1337).[citation needed] At this point parts of what are now Niger's Tillabéri Region fell under Malian rule.[41] A Muslim, Mansa Musa performed the hajj in 1324–25 and encouraged the spread of Islam in the empire, and it "appears that most ordinary citizens continued to maintain their traditional animist beliefs instead of or alongside the new religion".[41][43] The empire began "declining" in the 15th century due to a combination of internecine strife over the royal succession, weak kings, the shift of European trade routes to the coast, and rebellions in the empire's periphery by Mossi, Wolof, Tuareg and Songhai peoples.[43] A rump Mali kingdom continued to exist until 1600s.[citation needed]

Songhai Empire (1000s–1591)

 
Map of the Songhai Empire, overlaid over modern boundaries
Main article: Songhai Empire

The Songhai Empire was named for its main ethnic group, the Songhai or Sonrai, and was centred on the bend of the Niger River in Mali. Songhai began settling this region from the 7th to 9th centuries;[citation needed] by the 11th century Gao (capital of the former Kingdom of Gao) had become the empire's capital.[44][45] From 1000 to 1325, the Songhai Empire managed to maintain peace with the Mali Empire, its neighbour to the west. In 1325 Songhai was conquered by Mali until regaining its independence in 1375.[citation needed] Under king Sonni Ali (r. 1464–1492) Songhai adopted an expansionist policy which reached its apogee during the reign of Askia Mohammad I (r. 1493–1528); at this point the empire had expanded from its Niger-bend heartland, including to the east where most of later western Niger fell under its rule, including Agadez which was conquered in 1496.[21][46][47] The empire was unable to withstand repeated attacks from the Saadi dynasty of Morocco and was decisively defeated at the Battle of Tondibi in 1591; it then collapsed into a number of smaller kingdoms.[45]

Sultanate of Aïr (1400s–1906)

Main article: Sultanate of Aïr

In c. 1449 in the north of what is now Niger, the Sultanate of Aïr was founded by Sultan Ilisawan, based in Agadez.[21] Formerly a trading post inhabited by a mixture of Hausa and Tuaregs, it grew as a strategic position on the Trans-Saharan trade routes. In 1515 Aïr was conquered by Songhai, remaining a part of that empire until its collapse in 1591.[21][40] The following centuries, it "seems that the sultanate entered a decline" marked by internecine wars and clan conflicts.[40] When Europeans began exploring the region in the 19th century most of Agadez lay in ruins and was taken over by the French (see below).[21][40]

Kanem–Bornu Empire (700s–1700s)

Main articles: Kanem–Bornu Empire and Sultanate of Damagaram

To the east, the Kanem–Bornu Empire dominated the region around Lake Chad for a period.[45] It was founded by the Zaghawa around the 8th century and based in Njimi, north-east of the lake. The kingdom gradually expanded, including during the rule of the Sayfawa dynasty which began in c. 1075 under Mai (king) Hummay.[48][49] The kingdom reached its greatest extent in the 1200s, partly due to the effort of Mai Dunama Dibbalemi (r. 1210–1259), and grew "richer" from its control of some Trans-Saharan trade routes; most of eastern and south-eastern Niger, including Bilma and Kaouar, was under Kanem's control in this period.[50] Islam had been introduced to the kingdom by Arab traders from the 11th century, gaining more converts over the following centuries.[48] Attacks by the Bulala people in the 14th century forced Kanem to shift westwards of Lake Chad where it became known as the Bornu Empire ruled from its capital Ngazargamu on what is later the Niger-Nigeria border.[51][48][52] Bornu "prospered" during the rule of Mai Idris Alooma (r. circa 1575–1610) and re-conquered most of the "traditional lands" of Kanem, hence the designation 'Kanem–Bornu' for the empire. By the 17th century and into the 18th the Bornu kingdom had entered a "period of decline", shrinking back to its Lake Chad heartland.[45][48]

Circa 1730–40 a group of Kanuri settlers led by Mallam Yunus left Kanem and founded the Sultanate of Damagaram, centred on the town of Zinder.[40] The sultanate remained nominally subject to the Borno Empire until the reign of Sultan Tanimoune Dan Souleymane in the 19th century, who declared independence and initiated a phase of expansion.[21] The sultanate managed to resist the advance of the Sokoto Caliphate (see below), and was later captured by the French in 1899.[21]

The Hausa states and other smaller kingdoms (1400s–1800s)

 
Overlooking the town of Zinder and the Sultan's Palace from the French fort (1906). The arrival of the French spelled an end for precolonial states like the Sultanate of Damagaram which carried on only as ceremonial "chiefs" appointed by the colonial government.
Main articles: Hausa Kingdoms, Dosso Kingdom, and Dendi Kingdom

Between the Niger River and Lake Chad lay Hausa Kingdoms, encompassing the cultural-linguistic area known as Hausaland which straddles what later is the Niger-Nigeria border.[53] The Hausa are thought to be a mixture of autochthonous peoples and migrant peoples from the north and/or east, emerging as a distinct people sometime in the 900s–1400s when the kingdoms were founded.[53][21][54] They gradually adopted Islam from the 14th century, and sometimes this existed alongside other religions, developing into syncretic forms; some Hausa groups such as the Azna resisted Islam altogether (the area of Dogondoutchi remains an animist stronghold).[21][45] The Hausa kingdoms were not a compact entity but several federations of kingdoms more or less independent of one other. Their organisation was hierarchical and somewhat democratic: the Hausa kings were elected by the notables of the country and could be removed by them.[44] The Hausa Kingdoms began as seven states founded, according to the Bayajidda legend, by the six sons of Bawo.[53][45] Bawo was the only son of the Hausa queen Daurama and Bayajidda or (Abu Yazid according to certain historians) who came from Baghdad. The seven original Hausa states (also referred to as the 'Hausa bakwai') were: Daura (state of queen Daurama), Kano, Rano, Zaria, Gobir, Katsina and Biram.[44][21][54] An extension of the legend states that Bawo had a further seven sons with a concubine, who went on to the found the so-called 'Banza (illegitimate) Bakwai': Zamfara, Kebbi, Nupe, Gwari, Yauri, Ilorin and Kwararafa.[54] A smaller state not fitting into this scheme was Konni, centred on Birni-N'Konni.[40]

The Fulani (also called Peul, Fulbe etc.), a pastoral people found throughout the Sahel, began migrating to Hausaland during the 1200s–1500s.[45][53] During the later 18th century some Fulani were unhappy with the syncretic form of Islam practised there; exploiting also the populace's disdain with corruption amongst the Hausa elite, the Fulani scholar Usman Dan Fodio (from Gobir) declared a jihad in 1804.[40][21][55] After conquering most of Hausaland (and not the Bornu Kingdom which remained independent) he proclaimed the Sokoto Caliphate in 1809.[53] Some of the Hausa states survived by fleeing south, such as the Katsina who moved to Maradi in the south of what later is Niger.[45] Some of these surviving states harassed the Caliphate and a period of wars and skirmishes commenced, with some states (such as Katsina and Gobir) maintaining independence whereas elsewhere newer ones were formed (such as the Sultanate of Tessaoua). The Caliphate managed to survive until, "fatally weakened" by the invasions of Chad-based warlord Rabih az-Zubayr, it finally fell to the British in 1903, with its lands later being partitioned between Britain and France.[56]

Other smaller kingdoms of the period include the Dosso Kingdom, a Zarma polity founded in 1750 which resisted the rule of Hausa and Sokoto states.[40]

Colonial (1900–58)

Main articles: Senegambia and Niger, Upper Senegal and Niger, French West Africa, and Colony of Niger

In the 19th century some European explorers travelled in the area of what later is Niger, such as Mungo Park (in 1805–06), the Oudney-Denham-Clapperton expedition (1822–25), Heinrich Barth (1850–55; with James Richardson and Adolf Overweg), Friedrich Gerhard Rohlfs (1865–67), Gustav Nachtigal (1869–74) and Parfait-Louis Monteil (1890–92).[21]

Some European countries already possessed littoral colonies in Africa, and in the latter half of the century they began to turn their eyes towards the interior of the continent. This process, known as the 'Scramble for Africa', culminated in the 1885 Berlin conference in which the colonial powers outlined the division of Africa into spheres of influence. As a result of this, France gained control of the upper valley of the Niger River (roughly equivalent to the areas of what later is Mali and Niger).[57] France then set about making a reality of their rule on the ground. In 1897 the French officer Marius Gabriel Cazemajou was sent to Niger; he reached the Sultanate of Damagaram in 1898 and stayed in Zinder at the court of Sultan Amadou Kouran Daga—he was later killed as Daga feared he would ally with the Chad-based warlord Rabih az-Zubayr.[40] In 1899–1900 France coordinated three expeditions—the Gentil Mission from French Congo, the Foureau-Lamy Mission from Algeria and the Voulet–Chanoine Mission from Timbuktu—with the aim of linking France's African possessions.[57] The three eventually met at Kousséri (in the further north of Cameroon) and defeated Rabih az-Zubayr's forces at the Battle of Kousséri. The Voulet-Chanoine Mission was "marred by atrocities", and "became notorious" for pillaging, looting, raping and killing local civilians on its passage throughout southern Niger.[40][21] On 8 May 1899, in retaliation for the resistance of queen Sarraounia, captain Voulet and his men murdered all the inhabitants of the village of Birni-N'Konni in what is regarded as "one of the worst massacres in French colonial history".[40] The "brutal" methods of Voulet and Chanoine caused a "scandal" and Paris was forced to intervene; when Lieutenant-Colonel Jean-François Klobb caught up with the mission near Tessaoua to relieve them of command he was killed. Lt. Paul Joalland, Klobb's former officer, and Lt. Octave Meynier eventually took over the mission following a mutiny in which Voulet and Chanoine were killed.[21]

The Military Territory of Niger was subsequently created within the Upper Senegal and Niger colony (what later is Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger) in December 1904 with its capital at Niamey.[21] The border with Britain's colony of Nigeria to the south was finalised in 1910, a rough delimitation having already been agreed by the two powers via treaties during the period 1898–1906.[57] The capital of the territory was moved to Zinder in 1912 when the Niger Military Territory was split off from Upper Senegal and Niger, before being moved back to Niamey in 1922 when Niger became a fully-fledged colony within French West Africa.[21][40] The borders of Niger were drawn up in stages and had been fixed at their later position by the 1930s. Territorial adjustments took place in this period: the areas west of the Niger river were attached to Niger in 1926–27, and during the dissolution of Upper Volta (modern Burkina Faso) in 1932–47 most of the east of that territory was added to Niger;[58][40] and in the east the Tibesti Mountains were transferred to Chad in 1931.[59]

The French generally adopted a form of indirect rule, allowing existing native structures to continue to exist within the colonial framework of governance providing that they acknowledged French supremacy.[21] The Zarma of the Dosso Kingdom in particular proved amenable to French rule, using them as allies against the encroachments of Hausa and other nearby states; over time the Zarma thus became one of the "more educated and westernised" groups in Niger.[40] Perceived threats to French rule, such as the Kobkitanda rebellion in Dosso Region (1905–06), led by the blind cleric Alfa Saibou, and the Karma revolt in the Niger valley (December 1905–March 1906) led by Oumarou Karma were suppressed with force, as were the latter Hamallayya and Hauka religious movements.[21][40][60] While "largely successful" in subduing the "sedentary" populations of the south, the French faced "considerably more difficulty" with the Tuareg in the north (centered on the Sultanate of Aïr in Agadez), and France was unable to occupy Agadez until 1906.[21] Tuareg resistance continued, culminating in the Kaocen revolt of 1916–17, led by Ag Mohammed Wau Teguidda Kaocen, with backing from the Senussi in Fezzan; the revolt was violently suppressed and Kaocen fled to Fezzan where he was later killed.[40] A puppet sultan was set up by the French and the "decline and marginalisation" of the north of the colony continued, exacerbated by a series of droughts.[40] While it remained "something of a backwater", some limited economic development took place in Niger during the colonial years, such as the introduction of groundnut cultivation.[21] Measures to improve food security following a series of devastating famines in 1913, 1920 and 1931 were introduced.[21][40]

During the Second World War, during which time mainland France was occupied by Nazi Germany, Charles de Gaulle issued the Brazzaville Declaration, declaring that the French colonial empire would be replaced post-war with a less centralised French Union.[61] The French Union which lasted from 1946 to 1958 conferred a limited form of French citizenship on the inhabitants of the colonies, with some decentralisation of power and limited participation in political life for local advisory assemblies. It was during this period that the Nigerien Progressive Party (Parti Progressiste Nigérien, or PPN, originally a branch of the African Democratic Rally, or Rassemblement Démocratique Africain – RDA) was formed under the leadership of former teacher Hamani Diori, and the left-wing Mouvement Socialiste Africain-Sawaba (MSA) led by Djibo Bakary. Following the Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre) of 23 July 1956 and the establishment of the Fifth French Republic on 4 December 1958, Niger became an autonomous state within the French Community. On 18 December 1958, an autonomous Republic of Niger was officially created under the leadership of Hamani Diori. MSA was banned in 1959 for its perceived excessive anti-French stance.[62] On 11 July 1960, Niger decided to leave the French Community and acquired full independence at midnight, local time, on 3 August 1960;[63] Diori thus became the first president of the country.

Post-colonial (1960–)

Diori years (1960–74)

 
President Hamani Diori and visiting German President Heinrich Lübke greet crowds on a state visit to Niamey, 1969. Diori's single party rule was characterised by "good" relations with the West and a preoccupation with foreign affairs.

For its first 14 years as an independent state Niger was run by a single-party civilian regime under the presidency of Hamani Diori.[64] The 1960s saw an expansion of the education system and some limited economic development and industrialisation.[40] Links with France remained, with Diori allowing the development of French-led uranium mining in Arlit and supporting France in the Algerian War.[40] Relations with other African states were mostly "positive", with the exception of Dahomey (Benin), owing to a border dispute. Niger remained a one-party state throughout this period, with Diori surviving a planned coup in 1963 and an assassination attempt in 1965; most of this activity was masterminded by Djibo Bakary's MSA-Sawaba group which had launched an abortive rebellion in 1964.[40][65] In the 1970s, a combination of economic difficulties, droughts and accusations of rampant corruption and mismanagement of food supplies resulted in a coup d'état that overthrew the Diori regime.

First military regime (1974–1991)

The coup had been masterminded by Col. Seyni Kountché and a military group under the name of the Conseil Militaire Supreme, with Kountché going on to rule the country until his death in 1987.[40] The first action of the military government was to address the food crisis.[66] Whilst political prisoners of the Diori regime were released after the coup, political and individual freedoms "in general deteriorated" during this period. There were attempted coups (in 1975, 1976 and 1984) which were thwarted, their instigators being punished.[40]

Kountché sought to create a 'development society', funded mostly by the uranium mines in Agadez Region.[40] Parastatal companies were created, infrastructure (building and new roads, schools, health centres) constructed, and there was corruption in government agencies, which Kountché did not hesitate to punish.[67] In the 1980s Kountché began cautiously loosening the grip of the military, with some relaxation of state censorship and attempts made to 'civilianise' the regime.[40] The economic boom ended following the collapse in uranium prices, and IMF-led austerity and privatisation measures provoked opposition by some Nigeriens.[40] In 1985 a Tuareg revolt in Tchintabaraden was suppressed.[40] Kountché died in November 1987 from a brain tumour, and was succeeded by his chief of staff, Col. Ali Saibou who was confirmed as Chief of the Supreme Military Council four days later.[40]

Saibou curtailed the most repressive aspects of the Kountché era (such as the secret police and media censorship), and set about introducing a process of political reform under the overall direction of a single party (the Mouvement National pour la Société du Développement, or MNSD).[40] A Second Republic was declared and a new constitution was drawn up, which was adopted following a referendum in 1989.[40] General Saibou became the first president of the Second Republic after winning the presidential election on 10 December 1989.[68]

President Saibou's efforts to control political reforms failed in the face of trade union and student demands to institute a multi-party democratic system. On 9 February 1990, a violently repressed student march in Niamey led to the death of three students, which led to increased national and international pressure for further democratic reform.[40] The Saibou regime acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990.[40] Meanwhile, trouble re-emerged in Agadez Region when a group of armed Tuaregs attacked the town of Tchintabaraden (seen by some as the start of the first Tuareg Rebellion), prompting a military crackdown which led to deaths (the precise numbers are disputed, with estimates ranging from 70 to up to 1,000).[40]

 
Ali Saibou, President 1987–93, helped oversee the transition from military to civilian rule

National Conference and Third Republic (1991–1996)

The National Sovereign Conference of 1991 brought about multi-party democracy. From 29 July to 3 November, a national conference gathered together all elements of society to make recommendations for the future direction of the country. The conference was presided over by Prof. André Salifou and developed a plan for a transitional government; this was then installed in November 1991 to manage the affairs of state until the institutions of the Third Republic were put into place in April 1993. After the National Sovereign Conference, the transitional government drafted a constitution that eliminated the previous single-party system of the 1989 Constitution and guaranteed more freedoms. The new constitution was adopted by a referendum on 26 December 1992.[69] Following this, presidential elections were held and Mahamane Ousmane became the first president of the Third Republic on 27 March 1993.[40][68] Ousmane's presidency saw four government changes and legislative elections in 1995, and an economic slump.[40]

The violence in Agadez Region continued during this period, prompting the Nigerien government to sign a truce with Tuareg rebels in 1992 which was ineffective owing to internal dissension within the Tuareg ranks.[40] Another rebellion, led by dissatisfied Toubou peoples claiming that, like the Tuareg, the Nigerien government had neglected their region, broke out in the east of the country.[40] In April 1995 a peace deal with a Tuareg rebel group was signed, with the government agreeing to absorb some former rebels into the military and, with French assistance, help others return to a productive civilian life.[70]

Second military regime and third military regime (1996–1999)

The governmental paralysis prompted the military to intervene; on 27 January 1996, Col. Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara led a coup that deposed President Ousmane and ended the Third Republic.[71][72] Maïnassara headed a Conseil de Salut National (National Salvation Council) composed of military officials which carried out a six-month transition period, during which a constitution was drafted and adopted on 12 May 1996.[40]

Presidential campaigns were organised in the months that followed. Maïnassara entered the campaign as an independent candidate and won the election on 8 July 1996, the elections were viewed nationally and internationally by some as irregular, as the electoral commission was replaced during the campaign.[40] Meanwhile, Maïnassara instigated an IMF and World Bank-approved privatisation programme which enriched some of his supporters and were opposed by the trade unions.[40] Following fraudulent local elections in 1999 the opposition ceased any cooperation with the Maïnassara regime.[40] In a circumstance (possibly attempting to flee the country), Maïnassara was assassinated at Niamey Airport on 9 April 1999.[73][74]

Maj. Daouda Malam Wanké then took over, establishing a transitional National Reconciliation Council to oversee the drafting of a constitution with a French-style semi-presidential system. This was adopted on 9 August 1999 and was followed by presidential and legislative elections in October and November of the same year.[75] The elections were generally found to be free and fair by international observers. Wanké then withdrew from governmental affairs.[40]

Fifth Republic (1999–2009)

 
A Tuareg rebel fighter in northern Niger during the Second Tuareg Rebellion, 2008

After winning the election in November 1999, President Tandja Mamadou was sworn in office on 22 December 1999 as the first president of the Fifth Republic. Mamadou brought about administrative and economic reforms that had been halted due to the military coups since the Third Republic, and helped peacefully resolve a decades-long boundary dispute with Benin.[76][77] In August 2002, unrest within military camps occurred in Niamey, Diffa, and Nguigmi, and the government was able to restore order within days. On 24 July 2004, municipal elections were held to elect local representatives, previously appointed by the government. These elections were followed by presidential elections, in which Mamadou was re-elected for a second term, thus becoming the first president of the republic to win consecutive elections without being deposed by military coups.[40][78] The legislative and executive configuration remained somewhat similar to that of the first term of the president: Hama Amadou was reappointed as prime minister and Mahamane Ousmane, the head of the CDS party, was re-elected as the president of the National Assembly (parliament) by his peers.

By 2007, the relationship between President Tandja Mamadou and his prime minister had "deteriorated", leading to the replacement of the latter in June 2007 by Seyni Oumarou following a successful vote of no confidence at the Assembly.[40] President Tandja Mamadou sought out to extend his presidency by modifying the constitution which limited presidential terms. Proponents of the extended presidency, rallied behind the 'Tazartche' (Hausa for 'overstay') movement, were countered by opponents ('anti-Tazartche') composed of opposition party militants and civil society activists.[40]

The north saw the outbreak of a Second Tuareg Rebellion in 2007 led by the Mouvement des Nigériens pour la justice (MNJ). With a number of kidnappings the rebellion had "largely fizzled out inconclusively" by 2009.[40] The "poor" security situation in the region is thought to have allowed elements of Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) to gain a foothold in the country.[40]

Fourth military regime (2009–2010)

In 2009, President Tandja Mamadou decided to organize a constitutional referendum seeking to extend his presidency, which was opposed by other political parties, and being against the decision of the Constitutional Court which had ruled that the referendum would be unconstitutional. Mamadou then modified and adopted a new constitution by referendum, which was declared illegal by the Constitutional Court, prompting Mamadou to dissolve the Court and assume emergency powers.[79][80] The opposition boycotted the referendum and the constitution was adopted with 92.5% of voters and a 68% turnout, according to official results. The adoption of the constitution created a Sixth Republic, with a presidential system, and the suspension of the 1999 Constitution and a three-year interim government with Tandja Mamadou as president. The events generated political and social unrest.[40]

In a coup d'état in February 2010, a military junta led by captain Salou Djibo was established in response to Tandja's attempted extension of his political term by modifying the constitution.[81] The Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy, led by General Salou Djibo, carried out a one-year transition plan, drafted a constitution and held elections in 2011.

Seventh Republic (2010–)

Following the adoption of a constitution in 2010 and presidential elections a year later, Mahamadou Issoufou was elected as the first president of the Seventh Republic; he was then re-elected in 2016.[82][40] The constitution restored the semi-presidential system which had been abolished a year earlier. An attempted coup against him in 2011 was thwarted and its ringleaders arrested.[83] Issoufou's time in office has been marked by threats to the country's security, stemming from the fallout from the Libyan Civil War and Northern Mali conflict, a rise in attacks by AQIM, the use of Niger as a transit country for migrants (sometimes organised by criminal gangs), and the spillover of Nigeria's Boko Haram insurgency into south-eastern Niger.[84] French and American forces are assisting Niger in countering these threats.[85]

On 27 December 2020, Nigeriens went to the polls after Issoufou announced he would step down, paving the way to a peaceful transition of power.[86] No candidate won an absolute majority in the vote: Mohamed Bazoum came closest with 39.33%. As per the constitution, a run-off election was held on 20 February 2021, with Bazoum taking 55.75% of the vote and opposition candidate (and former president) Mahamane Ousmane taking 44.25%, according to the electoral commission.[87]

On 31 March 2021, Niger's security forces thwarted an attempted coup by a military unit in the capital, Niamey. Gunfire was heard in the presidential palace. The attack took place two days before newly elected president Mohamed Bazoum was due to be sworn into office. The Presidential Guard arrested some people during the incident.[88] On 2 April 2021, Bazoum was sworn in as the President of Niger.[89]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Niger
 
A map of Niger
 
Satellite image of Niger

It is a landlocked nation in West Africa located along the border between the Sahara and Sub-Saharan regions. It borders Nigeria and Benin to the south, Burkina Faso and Mali to the west, Algeria and Libya to the north and Chad to the east.

It lies between latitudes 11° and 24°N, and longitudes 0° and 16°E. Its area is 1,267,000 square kilometres (489,191 sq mi) of which 300 square kilometres (116 sq mi) is water. This makes it less than twice the size of France, and the world's 22nd largest country.[90]

It borders seven countries and has a total perimeter of 5,697 kilometres (3,540 mi). The longest border is with Nigeria to the south (1,497 km or 930 mi). This is followed by Chad to the east, at 1,175 km (730 mi), Algeria to the north-northwest (956 km or 594 mi), and Mali at 821 km (510 mi). Niger has borders in its further southwest with Burkina Faso at 628 km (390 mi) and Benin at 266 km (165 mi) and to the north-northeast Libya at 354 km (220 mi).

The lowest point is the Niger River, with an elevation of 200 metres (656 ft). The highest point is Mont Idoukal-n-Taghès in the Aïr Mountains at 2,022 m (6,634 ft).

Climate

 
Map of Köppen climate classification

The hotter and drier climate with desert area causes more frequent fires in some regions.[91] In the south there is a tropical climate on the edges of the Niger River basin. The terrain is predominantly desert plains and sand dunes, with flat to rolling savanna in the south and hills in the north.

Biodiversity

Further information: Wildlife of Niger
 
An elephant in the W National Park

The territory of Niger contains five terrestrial ecoregions: Sahelian Acacia savanna, West Sudanian savanna, Lake Chad flooded savanna, South Saharan steppe and woodlands, and West Saharan montane xeric woodlands.[92]

The north is covered by deserts and semi-deserts. The typical mammal fauna consists of addax antelopes, scimitar-horned oryx, gazelles, and in the mountains, Barbary sheep. The Aïr and Ténéré National Nature Reserve was founded in the northern parts to protect these species.

The southern parts are naturally dominated savannahs. The W National Park, situated in the bordering area to Burkina Faso and Benin, belongs to "one of the most important areas" for wildlife in Western Africa, which is called the WAP (W–Arli–Pendjari) Complex. It has a population of the West African lion and one of the last populations of the Northwest African cheetah.

Other wildlife includes elephants, buffaloes, roan antelopes, kob antelopes and warthogs. The West African giraffe is found in the further north where it has its last relict population.

Environmental issues include destructive farming practices as a result of population pressure, illegal hunting, bush fires in some areas and human encroachment upon the flood plains of the Niger River for paddy cultivation. Dams constructed on the Niger River in the neighboring countries of Mali and Guinea and within Niger are cited as a reason for a reduction of water flow in the Niger River—which has a direct effect upon the environment. A "lack of adequate staff" to guard wildlife in the parks and reserves is another factor cited for loss of wildlife.[93]

Farmer-managed natural regeneration is practiced since 1983 to increase food and timber production, and resilience to climate extremes.[94]

Governance and politics

Main articles: Politics of Niger and Government of Niger

Niger's new constitution was approved on 31 October 2010. It restored the semi-presidential system of government of the 1999 constitution (Fifth Republic) in which the president of the republic, elected by universal suffrage for a five-year term, and a prime minister named by the president share executive power.

On 26 May 2009, President Tandja dissolved parliament after the country's constitutional court ruled against plans to hold a referendum on whether to allow him a third term in office. According to the constitution, a new parliament was elected within three months.[95] This began a political struggle between Tandja, trying to extend his term-limited authority beyond 2009 through the establishment of a Sixth Republic, and his opponents who demanded that he step down at the end of his second term in December 2009. See 2009 Nigerien constitutional crisis. The military took over the country and President Tandja was put in prison, charged with corruption.

The military kept their promise to return the country to democratic civilian rule. A constitutional referendum and national elections were held. A presidential election was held on 31 January 2011, but as no clear winner emerged, run-off elections were held on 12 March 2011. Mahamadou Issoufou of the Nigerien Party for Democracy and Socialism was elected president. A parliamentary election was held at the same time.[96][97][98]

Foreign relations

 
Niger's flag waving at the embassy in Paris
Main article: Foreign relations of Niger

Niger pursues a moderate foreign policy and maintains friendly relations with the West and the Islamic world as well as non-aligned countries. It belongs to the UN and its main specialized agencies and in 1980–81 served on the UN Security Council. Niger maintains a special relationship with former colonial power France and has close relations with its West African neighbors.

It is a charter member of the African Union and the West African Monetary Union and also belongs to the Niger Basin Authority and Lake Chad Basin Commission, the Economic Community of West African States, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). The westernmost regions of Niger are joined with contiguous regions of Mali and Burkina Faso under the Liptako-Gourma Authority.

The border dispute with Benin, inherited from colonial times and concerning inter alia Lété Island in the Niger River, was solved by the International Court of Justice in 2005 to Niger's advantage.

Military

Further information: Niger Armed Forces

The Niger Armed Forces (Forces armées nigériennes) are the military and paramilitary forces of Niger, under the president as supreme commander. They consist of the Niger Army (Armée de Terre), the Niger Air Force (Armée de l'Air) and the auxiliary paramilitary forces, such as the National Gendarmerie (Gendarmerie nationale) and the National Guard (Garde Nationale). Both paramilitary forces are trained in military fashion and have some military responsibilities in wartime. In peace time their duties are mostly policing duties.

The armed forces are composed of approximately 12,900 personnel, including 3,700 gendarmes, 3200 national guards, 300 air force personnel, and 6,000 army personnel. The armed forces of Niger have been involved several military coups over the years with the most recent in 2010. Niger's armed forces have a long history of military cooperation with France and the United States. As of 2013, Niamey is home to a U.S. drone base.

Judicial system

Main article: Judiciary of Niger

The current Judiciary of Niger was established with the creation of the Fourth Republic in 1999. The constitution of December 1992 was revised by national referendum on 12 May 1996 and, again, by referendum, revised to the current version on 18 July 1999. It is based on the Code Napoleon "Inquisitorial system", established in Niger during French colonial rule and the 1960 Constitution of Niger. The Court of Appeals reviews questions of fact and law, while the Supreme Court reviews application of the law and constitutional questions. The High Court of Justice (HCJ) deals with cases involving senior government officials. The justice system also includes civil criminal courts, customary courts, traditional mediation, and a military court.[99] The military court provides the same rights as civil criminal courts; however, customary courts do not. The military court cannot try civilians.[100]

Law enforcement

Main article: Law enforcement in Niger

Law enforcement in Niger is the responsibility of the Ministry of Defense through the National Gendarmerie and the Ministry of the Interior through the National Police and the National Guard. The National Police is primarily responsible for law enforcement in urban areas. Outside big cities and in rural areas, this responsibility falls on the National Gendarmerie and the National Guard.

Government finance

Government finance is derived revenue exports (Mining, oil and agricultural exports) as well as various forms of taxes collected by the government. In the past, foreign aid has contributed to large percentages of the budget. In 2013, Niger's government has adopted a zero-deficit budget of 1.279 trillion CFA francs ($2.53 billion) which is claimed to balance revenues and expenditures by an 11% reduction in the budget from the previous year.[101]

The 2014 budget was 1.867 trillion CFA which is distributed as follows according to: public debt (76,703,692,000 CFA), personnel expenditures (210,979,633,960 CFA), operating expenditures (128,988,777,711 CFA); subsidies and transfers: 308,379,641,366 CFA) and Investment (1,142,513,658,712 CFA).[102]

Foreign aid

The importance of external support for Niger's development is demonstrated by the fact that about 45% of the government's FY 2002 budget, including 80% of its capital budget, derives from donor resources.[103] The most important donors in Niger are France, the European Union, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and various United Nations agencies (UNDP, UNICEF, FAO, World Food Program, and United Nations Population Fund).

Other principal donors include the United States, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Canada, and Saudi Arabia. While USAID does not have an office in Niger, the United States is a major donor, contributing nearly $10 million each year to Niger's development. The U.S. also is a major partner in policy coordination in such areas as food security and HIV/AIDS.

Administrative divisions

 
Administrative divisions of Niger
Main articles: Regions of Niger, Departments of Niger, and Communes of Niger

Niger is divided into 7 Regions and one capital district. These Regions are subdivided into 36 departments. The 36 Departments are currently broken down into Communes of varying types. As of 2006 there were 265 communes, including communes urbaines (Urban Communes: as subdivisions of major cities), communes rurales (Rural Communes), in sparsely populated areas and postes administratifs (Administrative Posts) for largely uninhabited desert areas or military zones.

Rural communes may contain official villages and settlements, while Urban Communes are divided into quarters. Niger subvisions were renamed in 2002, in the implementation of a decentralisation project, first begun in 1998. Previously, Niger was divided into 7 Departments, 36 Arrondissements, and Communes. These subdivisions were administered by officials appointed by the national government. These offices will be replaced in the future by democratically elected councils at each level.

The pre-2002 departments (renamed as regions) and capital district are:

Largest cities and towns

Further information: List of cities in Niger
 
 
Largest cities or towns in Niger
According to the 2012 Census[104]
Rank Name Region Pop.
 
Niamey
 
Maradi 		1 Niamey Niamey 978,029  
Zinder
 
Tahoua
2 Maradi Maradi 267,249
3 Zinder Zinder 235,605
4 Tahoua Tahoua 117,826
5 Agadez Agadez 110,497
6 Arlit Agadez 78,651
7 Birni-N'Konni Tahoua 63,169
8 Dosso Dosso 58,671
9 Gaya Dosso 45,465
10 Tessaoua Maradi 43,409

Economy

Main article: Economy of Niger
 
A proportional representation of Niger exports, 2019
 
Niamey, Niger's capital and economic hub

The economy of Niger centers on subsistence crops, livestock, and some of the world's largest uranium deposits. Drought cycles, desertification, a 2.9% population growth rate, and the drop in world demand for uranium have undercut the economy.

Niger shares a common currency, the CFA franc, and a common central bank, the Central Bank of West African States (BCEAO), with seven other members of the West African Monetary Union. Niger is also a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).[105]

 
Niamey at night

In December 2000, Niger qualified for enhanced debt relief under the International Monetary Fund program for Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) and concluded an agreement with the Fund for Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). Debt relief provided under the enhanced HIPC initiative significantly reduces Niger's annual debt service obligations, freeing funds for expenditures on basic health care, primary education, HIV/AIDS prevention, rural infrastructure, and other programs geared at poverty reduction.

 
Dolé Market

In December 2005, it was announced that Niger had received 100% multilateral debt relief from the IMF, which translates into the forgiveness of approximately US$86 million in debts to the IMF, excluding the remaining assistance under HIPC. Nearly half of the government's budget is derived from foreign donor resources. Future growth may be sustained by exploitation of oil, gold, coal, and other mineral resources. Uranium prices have recovered somewhat in the last few years. A drought and locust infestation in 2005 led to food shortages for as many as 2.5 million Nigeriens.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Niger
 
Fulani women with traditional facial tattoos

As of 2021, the population of Niger was 25,252,722[17][18]. Expanding from a population of 3.4 million in 1960, Niger's population has rapidly increased with a current growth rate of 3.3% (7.1 children per mother).[106][107]

This growth rate is one of the highest in the world and is a source of concern for the government and international agencies.[108] The population is predominantly young, with 49.2% under 15 years old and 2.7% over 65 years, and predominantly rural with only 21% living in urban areas.[106]

A 2005 study[which?] stated that over 800,000 people (nearly 8% of the population) in Niger are enslaved.[109][110][111]

Urban settlements

Cities of Niger
Rank City Population Region
2001 Census[112] 2012 Census[112]
1. Niamey 690,286 978,029 Niamey
2. Maradi 148,017 267,249 Maradi Region
3. Zinder 170,575 235,605 Zinder Region
4. Tahoua 73,002 117,826 Tahoua Region
5. Agadez 77,060 110,497 Agadez Region
6. Arlit 68,835 78,651 Agadez Region
7. Birni N'Konni 44,663 63,169 Tahoua Region
8. Dosso 43,561 58,671 Dosso Region
9. Gaya 28,385 45,465 Dosso Region
10. Tessaoua 31,667 43,409 Maradi Region

Ethnic groups

Ethnic Groups in Niger (2001 Census)[113]
Ethnic Groups percent
Hausa
 
 55.4%
Zarma & Songhai
 
 21%
Tuareg
 
 9.3%
Fula
 
 8.5%
Kanuri
 
 4.7%
Toubou
 
 0.4%
Arab
 
 0.4%
Gurma
 
 0.4%
Other
 
 0.1%
Main articles: Hausa people, Zarma people, Tuareg people, Fula people, Kanuri people, Tubu people, Diffa Arabs, and Gurma people

As in most West African countries, Niger has a wide variety of ethnic groups. The ethnic makeup of Niger in 2001 was as follows: Hausa (55.4%), Zarma & Songhay (21%), Tuareg (9.3%), Fula (French: Peuls; Fula: Fulɓe) (8.5%), Kanuri Manga (4.7%), Tubu (0.4%), Arab (0.4%), Gourmantche (0.4%), other (0.1%).[106] The Zarma and Songhay dominate the Dosso, Tillabéri, and Niamey régions, the Hausa dominate the Zinder, Maradi, and Tahoua regions, Kanuri Manga dominate the Diffa region, and Tuaregs dominate the Agadez region in Northern Niger.[113]

Languages

Main article: Languages of Niger

French, inherited from the colonial period, is the official language. It is spoken mainly as a second language by people who have received a formal western education and serves as the administrative language. Niger has been a member of the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie since 1970.

Niger has ten recognized national languages, namely Arabic, Buduma, Fulfulde, Gourmanchéma, Hausa, Kanuri, Zarma & Songhay, Tamasheq, Tassawaq, Tebu.[1] Each is spoken as a first language primarily by the ethnic group with which it is associated.[114][115] Hausa and Zarma-Songhai, the two most spoken languages, are widely spoken throughout the country as first or second languages.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Niger
Religion in Niger
religion percent[3]
Islam
 
 99.3%
Christianity
 
 0.3%
Animism
 
 0.2%
Irreligious
 
 0.1%

Niger is a secular country and separation of state and religion is guaranteed by Articles 3 and 175 of the 2010 Constitution, which dictate that future amendments or revisions may not modify the secular nature of the republic of Niger. Religious freedom is protected by Article 30 of the same constitution. Islam, widespread in the region since the 10th century, has greatly shaped the culture and mores of the people of Niger. Islam is the most dominant religion, practiced by 99.3% of the population according to the 2012 census.[3]

The other two main religions of Niger are Christianity, practiced by 0.3% of the population, and Animism (traditional indigenous religious beliefs), practiced by 0.2% of the population.[3] Christianity was established earlier in the country by missionaries during the French colonial years. Other urban Christian expatriate communities from Europe and West Africa are also present. Religious persecution has flared in recent years in Niger; Christian charity Open Doors now lists Niger as the 37th most difficult country in which to be a Christian on their World Watch List, 'reflecting how pressure is increasing on Christians in this [...] nation.'[116] Relations between Muslims and Christians have generally been cordial, according to the respective representatives of Christian and Muslim groups in Niger.[117]

The numbers of Animist practitioners are a point of contention. As recently as the late 19th century, much of the south center of the nation was unreached by Islam, and the conversion of some rural areas has been only partial. There are still areas where animist based festivals and traditions (such as the Bori religion) are practiced by syncretic Muslim communities (in some Hausa areas as well as among some Toubou and Wodaabe pastoralists), as opposed to several small communities who maintain their pre-Islamic religion. These include the Hausa-speaking Maouri (or Azna, the Hausa word for "pagan") community in Dogondoutci in the south-southwest and the Kanuri speaking Manga near Zinder, both of whom practice variations of the pre-Islamic Hausa Maguzawa religion. There are also some tiny Boudouma and Songhay animist communities in the southwest.[118] Over the past decade, syncretic practices have become less common among Muslim Nigerien communities.[117]

Islam

Main article: Islam in Niger

The majority of Muslims in Niger are Sunni, 7% are Shi'a, 5% are Ahmadiyya and 20% non-denominational.[119][120] Islam was spread into what is now Niger beginning in the 15th century, by both the expansion of the Songhai Empire in the west, and the influence of the Trans-Saharan trade traveling from the Maghreb and Egypt. Tuareg expansion from the north, culminating in their seizure of the far eastern oases from the Kanem–Bornu Empire in the 17th centuries, spread distinctively Berber practices.

 
Small mosque in Filingue

Both Zarma and Hausa areas were greatly influenced by the 18th- and 19th-century Fula led Sufi brotherhoods, most notably the Sokoto Caliphate (in today's Nigeria). Modern Muslim practice in Niger is often tied to the Tijaniya Sufi brotherhoods, although there are small minority groups tied to Hammallism and Nyassist Sufi orders in the west, and the Sanusiya in the far northeast.[118]

A small center of followers of Salafi movement within Sunni Islam have appeared in the last thirty years, in the capital and in Maradi.[121] These small groups, linked to similar groups in Jos, Nigeria, came to public prominence in the 1990s during a series of religious riots.[122][123][124]

Despite this, Niger maintains a tradition as a secular state, protected by law.[125] Interfaith relations are deemed very good, and the forms of Islam traditionally practiced in most of the country are marked by tolerance of other faiths and lack of restrictions on personal freedom.[126] Alcohol, such as the locally produced Bière Niger, is sold openly in most of the country.

Education

Main article: Education in Niger
 
A primary classroom in Niger

The literacy rate of Niger is among the lowest in the world; in 2005 it was estimated to be only 28.7% (42.9% male and 15.1% female).[127] Primary education in Niger is compulsory for six years.[128] The primary school enrollment and attendance rates are low, particularly for girls.[128] In 1997, the gross primary enrollment rate was 29.3 percent, and in 1996, the net primary enrollment rate was 24.5 percent.[128]

About 60 percent of children who finish primary schools are boys, as the majority of girls rarely attend school for more than a few years.[128] Children are often forced to work rather than attend school, particularly during planting or harvest periods.[128] Nomadic children in the north of the country often do not have access to schools.[128]

Health

Main article: Health in Niger

The child mortality rate in Niger (deaths among children between the ages of 1 and 4) is high (248 per 1,000) due to generally poor health conditions and inadequate nutrition for most of the country's children. According to the organization Save the Children, Niger has the world's highest infant mortality rate.[129]

 
Maradi Reference Hospital

Niger also has the highest fertility rate in the world (6.49 births per woman according to 2017 estimates);[130] this has resulted in nearly half (49.7%) of the Nigerien population being under age 15 in 2020.[131] Niger has the 11th highest maternal mortality rate in the world at 820 deaths/100,000 live births.[132] There were 3 physicians and 22 nurses per 100,000 persons in 2006.[133]

Clean drinking water is scarce by global standards, with significant differences between urban and rural areas. Niger is often located at the bottom of the UN Human Development Index. Roughly 92% of the population lives in rural areas in the Tillabéri region along the western frontier, and there is a chronic scarcity of clean water, particularly during the hot season, when temperatures regularly exceed 40 degrees Celsius.[134][135][136]

Just 40% of the 30,000 inhabitants in Téra, a city northwest of the country's capital of Niamey and near to the Burkina Faso border, have access to a working public water infrastructure.[134][137][138] Société de Patrimoine des Eaux du Niger (SPEN), Niger's water authority, opened ten boreholes and built a water treatment plant in 2018 to provide potable water to Téra and the surrounding areas. The water supply ran out about a year later, and the water treatment facility was forced to close.[134][139]

With the help of a donation fund from the Dutch government, the European Investment Bank is collaborating with the Niger water authority to find solutions to Niger's water issues. The World Bank identified Niger as one of the 18 fragile regions of Sub-Saharan Africa. The EU bank has a history of investing in regions like these.[140]

The European Investment Bank and the Niger Water Authority are looking at two options for dealing with Téra's water shortages. The first choice is to repair the water tank on the outskirts of town. Another choice is to treat and transport water from the Niger River, which is located more than 100 kilometres to the east. Villages between Téra and the Niger River will also have access to sewage. The European Investment Bank will also look at renewable energy as a way to save costs.[140]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Niger
 
Horsemen at the traditional Ramadan festival at the Sultan's Palace in the Hausa city of Zinder
 
A traditional home in Zinder

Nigerien culture is marked by variation, evidence of the cultural crossroads which French colonialism formed into a unified state from the beginning of the 20th century. What is now Niger was created from four distinct cultural areas in the pre-colonial era: the Zarma and Songhai dominated the Niger River valley in the southwest; the northern periphery of Hausaland, made mostly of those states which had resisted the Sokoto Caliphate, and ranged along the long southern border with Nigeria; the Lake Chad basin and Kaouar in the far east, populated by Kanuri farmers and Toubou pastoralists who had once been part of the Kanem–Bornu Empire; and the Tuareg nomads of the Aïr Mountains and the Sahara in the vast north.

Each of these communities, along with smaller ethnic groups like the pastoral Wodaabe Fula, brought their own cultural traditions to the new state of Niger. While successive post-independence governments have tried to forge a shared national culture, this has been slow forming, in part because the major Nigerien communities have their own cultural histories, and in part because Nigerien ethnic groups such as the Hausa, Tuareg and Kanuri are but part of larger ethnic communities which cross borders introduced under colonialism.

Until the 1990s, government and politics was inordinately dominated by Niamey and the Zarma people of the surrounding region. At the same time the plurality of the population, in the Hausa borderlands between Birni-N'Konni and Maine-Soroa, have often looked culturally more to Hausaland in Nigeria than Niamey. Between 1996 and 2003, primary school attendance was around 30%,[141] including 36% of males and only 25% of females. Additional education occurs through madrasas.

Festivals and cultural events

Guérewol festival

Main article: Guérewol
 
Participants in the Guérewol perform the Guérewol dance, 1997.

The Guérewol festival is a traditional Wodaabe cultural event that takes place in Abalak in Tahoua region or In'Gall in Agadez Region. It is an annual traditional courtship ritual practiced by the Wodaabe (Fula) people of Niger. During this ceremony, young men dressed in elaborate ornamentation and made up in traditional face painting gather in lines to dance and sing, vying for the attention of marriageable young women. The Guérewol festival is an international attraction and was featured in films and magazines as prominent as the National Geographic.

Cure Salée festival

Main article: Cure Salee

"La Cure salée" (English: Salt Cure) is a yearly festival of Tuareg and Wodaabe nomads in In'Gall in Agadez Region traditionally to celebrate the end of the rainy season. For three days, the festival features a parade of Tuareg camel riders followed with camel and horse races, songs, dances, and storytelling.

Media

Main article: Media of Niger

Niger began developing diverse media in the late 1990s. Prior to the Third Republic, Nigeriens only had access to tightly controlled state media.[142] Now Niamey contains scores of newspapers and magazines; some, like Le Sahel, are government operated, while many are critical of the government.[143][144] Radio is the most important medium, as television sets are beyond the buying power of many of the rural poor, and illiteracy prevents print media from becoming a mass medium.[93]

In addition to the national and regional radio services of the state broadcaster ORTN, there are four privately owned radio networks which total more than 100 stations. Three of them—the Anfani Group, Sarounia and Tenere—are urban-based commercial-format FM networks in the major towns.[145] There is also a network of over 80 community radio stations spread across all seven regions of the country, governed by the Comité de Pilotage de Radios de Proximité (CPRP), a civil society organisation. The independent-sector radio networks are collectively estimated by CPRP officials to cover some 7.6 million people, or about 73% of the population (2005).

Aside from Nigerien radio stations, the BBC's Hausa service is listened to on FM repeaters across wide parts of the country, particularly in the south, close to the border with Nigeria. Radio France Internationale also rebroadcasts in French through some of the commercial stations, via satellite. Tenere FM also runs a national independent television station of the same name.[145]

Despite relative freedom at the national level, Nigerien journalists say they are often pressured by local authorities.[146] The state ORTN network depends financially on the government, partly through a surcharge on electricity bills, and partly through direct subsidy. The sector is governed by the Conseil Supérieur de Communications, established as an independent body in the early 1990s, since 2007 headed by Daouda Diallo. International human rights groups have criticised the government since at least 1996 as using regulation and police to punish criticism of the state.[147][148]

See also

References

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Notes

  1. ^ Arabic: النيجر, Fula: Niiser Hausa: Nijar

Sources

  • Decalo, Samuel. Historical Dictionary of Niger, 3rd ed. (Scarecrow Press, 1997, ISBN 0-8108-3136-8) – a comprehensive collection of Niger topics
  • CIA World Factbook (entry on Niger)
  • US State Department "Niger". State.gov. 3 February 2010. from the original on 22 January 2017. Retrieved 3 May 2010. Note: This article contains material from the State Department website.
  • Unicef Niger statistics 30 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine

External links

Trade

  • 2012 Niger Trade Summary Statistics

January 20, 2023
niger, this, article, about, country, other, uses, disambiguation, state, state, coordinates, ɛər, zhair, jər, french, niʒɛʁ, officially, republic, french, république, hausa, jamhuriyar, nijar, landlocked, country, west, africa, unitary, state, bordered, libya. This article is about the country For other uses see Niger disambiguation For the state in Nigeria see Niger State Coordinates 16 N 8 E 16 N 8 E 16 8 Niger or the Niger 13 14 n iː ˈ ʒ ɛer ˈ n aɪ dʒ er nee ZHAIR NY jer 15 16 French niʒɛʁ a officially the Republic of the Niger 13 14 French Republique du Niger Hausa Jamhuriyar Nijar is a landlocked country in West Africa It is a unitary state bordered by Libya to the northeast Chad to the east Nigeria to the south Benin and Burkina Faso to the southwest Mali to the west and Algeria to the northwest It covers a land area of almost 1 270 000 km2 490 000 sq mi making it the second largest landlocked country in West Africa after Chad Over 80 of its land area lies in the Sahara Its predominantly Muslim population of about 25 million 17 18 live mostly in clusters in the further south and west of the country The capital Niamey is located in Niger s southwest corner Republic of the NigerRepublique du Niger French Flag Coat of armsMotto Fraternite Travail Progres French Fraternity Work Progress Anthem La Nigerienne English The Song of Niger Location of Niger dark green Capitaland largest cityNiamey13 32 N 2 05 E 13 533 N 2 083 E 13 533 2 083Official languagesFrenchNational languages 1 ArabicBuduma FulfuldeGourmanchema HausaKanuri ZarmaSonghaiTamasheqTassawaqTebuEthnic groups 2021 2 53 1 Hausa 21 2 Zarma amp Songhay 11 0 Tuareg 6 5 Fulani 5 9 Kanuri 0 8 Gurma 0 4 Toubou 0 4 Arab 0 9 OtherReligion 2012 3 99 3 Islam 0 3 Christianity 0 2 Animism 0 1 IrreligionDemonym s Nigerien 4 GovernmentUnitary semi presidential republic PresidentMohamed Bazoum Prime MinisterOuhoumoudou Mahamadou President of the National AssemblySeyni OumarouLegislatureNational AssemblyIndependence from France Republic proclaimed18 December 1958 Declared3 August 1960Area Total1 267 000 km2 489 000 sq mi 21st Water 0 02Population 2022 estimate24 484 587 5 56th Density12 1 km2 31 3 sq mi GDP PPP 2018 estimate Total 23 475 billion 6 140th Per capita 1 213 7 183rd GDP nominal 2018 estimate Total 9 869 billion 8 136th Per capita 510 9 179th Gini 2014 34 0 10 medium 70thHDI 2021 0 400 11 low 189thCurrencyWest African CFA franc XOF Time zoneUTC 1 WAT Driving sideright 12 Calling code 227ISO 3166 codeNEInternet TLD neIt is listed in the least developed countries group Some non desert portions of the country underwent periodic drought and desertification The economy is concentrated around subsistence agriculture with some export agriculture in the more fertile south and export of raw materials including uranium ore It faces challenges to development due to its landlocked position desert terrain higher fertility rates without birth control and resulting overpopulation 19 The society reflects a diversity drawn from the independent histories of some ethnic groups and regions and their period living in a single state Historically Niger has been on the fringes of some states Since independence Nigeriens have lived under 5 constitutions and 3 periods of military rule After the military coup in 2010 Niger became a democratic multi party state A majority of the population lives in rural areas Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Prehistory 2 2 Empires and kingdoms in pre colonial Niger 2 2 1 Mali Empire 1200s 1400s 2 2 2 Songhai Empire 1000s 1591 2 2 3 Sultanate of Air 1400s 1906 2 2 4 Kanem Bornu Empire 700s 1700s 2 2 5 The Hausa states and other smaller kingdoms 1400s 1800s 2 3 Colonial 1900 58 2 4 Post colonial 1960 2 4 1 Diori years 1960 74 2 4 2 First military regime 1974 1991 2 4 3 National Conference and Third Republic 1991 1996 2 4 4 Second military regime and third military regime 1996 1999 2 4 5 Fifth Republic 1999 2009 2 4 6 Fourth military regime 2009 2010 2 4 7 Seventh Republic 2010 3 Geography 3 1 Climate 3 2 Biodiversity 4 Governance and politics 4 1 Foreign relations 4 2 Military 4 3 Judicial system 4 4 Law enforcement 4 5 Government finance 4 5 1 Foreign aid 4 6 Administrative divisions 4 7 Largest cities and towns 5 Economy 6 Demographics 6 1 Urban settlements 6 2 Ethnic groups 6 3 Languages 6 4 Religion 6 4 1 Islam 6 5 Education 6 6 Health 7 Culture 7 1 Festivals and cultural events 7 1 1 Guerewol festival 7 1 2 Cure Salee festival 7 2 Media 8 See also 9 References 9 1 Notes 10 Sources 11 External linksEtymologyThe name comes from the Niger River which flows through the west of the country a theory about the origin of the river s name is that it comes from the Tuareg n eghirren meaning flowing water 20 The pronunciation is the French one of n iː ˈ ʒ ɛer while in Anglophone media ˈ n aɪ dʒ er is also used HistoryMain article History of Niger Prehistory Rock engraving showing herds of giraffe ibex and other animals in the southern Sahara near Tiguidit Niger Stone tools some dating as far back as 280 000 BC have been found in Adrar Bous Bilma and Djado in the northern Agadez Region 21 Some of these finds have been linked with the Aterian and Mousterian tool cultures of the Middle Paleolithic period which flourished in northern Africa circa 90 000 BC 20 000 BC 22 21 It is thought that these humans lived a hunter gatherer lifestyle 21 In prehistoric times the climate of the Sahara was wetter and more fertile a phenomenon archaeologists refer to as the Green Sahara which provided favourable conditions for hunting and later agriculture and livestock herding 23 24 The Neolithic era began circa 10 000 BC this period saw a number of changes such as the introduction of pottery as evidenced at Tagalagal Temet and Tin Ouffadene the spread of cattle husbandry and the burying of the dead in stone tumuli 21 As the climate changed in the period 4000 2800 BC the Sahara gradually began drying out forcing a change in settlement patterns to the south and east 25 Agriculture spread including the planting of millet and sorghum and pottery production 21 Iron and copper items appear in this era with finds including those at Azawagh Takedda Marendet and the Termit Massif 26 27 28 The Kiffian circa 8000 6000 BC and later Tenerian circa 5000 2500 BC cultures centred on Adrar Bous and Gobero where skeletons have been uncovered flourished during this period 29 30 31 32 33 Societies continued to grow with regional differentiation in agricultural and funerary practices A culture of this period is the Bura culture circa 200 1300 AD named for the Bura archaeological site where a burial replete with iron and ceramic statuettes were discovered 34 The Neolithic era saw the flourishing of Saharan rock art including in the Air Mountains Termit Massif Djado Plateau Iwelene Arakao Tamakon Tzerzait Iferouane Mammanet and Dabous the art spans the period from 10 000BC to 100AD and depicts a range of subjects from the varied fauna of the landscape to depictions of spear carrying figures dubbed Libyan warriors 35 36 37 Empires and kingdoms in pre colonial Niger By at least the 5th century BC the territory of what later is Niger had become an area of trans Saharan trade Led by Tuareg tribes from the north camels were used as a means of transportation through what is later a desert 38 39 This mobility which would continue in waves for centuries was accompanied with further migration to the south and intermixing between sub Saharan African and North African populations and the spread of Islam 40 It was aided by the Arab invasion of North Africa in the 7th century which resulted in population movements to the south 25 Empires and kingdoms existed in the Sahel during this era The following adopts a roughly chronological account of some empires Mali Empire 1200s 1400s Main article Mali Empire The Mali Empire was a Mandinka empire founded by Sundiata Keita r 1230 1255 in circa 1230 and existed up to 1600 As detailed in the Epic of Sundiata Mali emerged as a breakaway region of the Sosso Empire which itself had split from the earlier Ghana Empire Thereafter Mali defeated the Sosso at the Battle of Kirina in 1235 and then Ghana in 1240 41 42 From its heartland around the later Guinea Mali border region the empire expanded under successive kings and came to dominate the Trans Saharan trade routes reaching its greatest extent during the rule of Mansa Musa r 1312 1337 citation needed At this point parts of what are now Niger s Tillaberi Region fell under Malian rule 41 A Muslim Mansa Musa performed the hajj in 1324 25 and encouraged the spread of Islam in the empire and it appears that most ordinary citizens continued to maintain their traditional animist beliefs instead of or alongside the new religion 41 43 The empire began declining in the 15th century due to a combination of internecine strife over the royal succession weak kings the shift of European trade routes to the coast and rebellions in the empire s periphery by Mossi Wolof Tuareg and Songhai peoples 43 A rump Mali kingdom continued to exist until 1600s citation needed Songhai Empire 1000s 1591 Map of the Songhai Empire overlaid over modern boundaries Main article Songhai Empire The Songhai Empire was named for its main ethnic group the Songhai or Sonrai and was centred on the bend of the Niger River in Mali Songhai began settling this region from the 7th to 9th centuries citation needed by the 11th century Gao capital of the former Kingdom of Gao had become the empire s capital 44 45 From 1000 to 1325 the Songhai Empire managed to maintain peace with the Mali Empire its neighbour to the west In 1325 Songhai was conquered by Mali until regaining its independence in 1375 citation needed Under king Sonni Ali r 1464 1492 Songhai adopted an expansionist policy which reached its apogee during the reign of Askia Mohammad I r 1493 1528 at this point the empire had expanded from its Niger bend heartland including to the east where most of later western Niger fell under its rule including Agadez which was conquered in 1496 21 46 47 The empire was unable to withstand repeated attacks from the Saadi dynasty of Morocco and was decisively defeated at the Battle of Tondibi in 1591 it then collapsed into a number of smaller kingdoms 45 Sultanate of Air 1400s 1906 The Grand Mosque of Agadez Main article Sultanate of Air In c 1449 in the north of what is now Niger the Sultanate of Air was founded by Sultan Ilisawan based in Agadez 21 Formerly a trading post inhabited by a mixture of Hausa and Tuaregs it grew as a strategic position on the Trans Saharan trade routes In 1515 Air was conquered by Songhai remaining a part of that empire until its collapse in 1591 21 40 The following centuries it seems that the sultanate entered a decline marked by internecine wars and clan conflicts 40 When Europeans began exploring the region in the 19th century most of Agadez lay in ruins and was taken over by the French see below 21 40 Kanem Bornu Empire 700s 1700s Main articles Kanem Bornu Empire and Sultanate of Damagaram To the east the Kanem Bornu Empire dominated the region around Lake Chad for a period 45 It was founded by the Zaghawa around the 8th century and based in Njimi north east of the lake The kingdom gradually expanded including during the rule of the Sayfawa dynasty which began in c 1075 under Mai king Hummay 48 49 The kingdom reached its greatest extent in the 1200s partly due to the effort of Mai Dunama Dibbalemi r 1210 1259 and grew richer from its control of some Trans Saharan trade routes most of eastern and south eastern Niger including Bilma and Kaouar was under Kanem s control in this period 50 Islam had been introduced to the kingdom by Arab traders from the 11th century gaining more converts over the following centuries 48 Attacks by the Bulala people in the 14th century forced Kanem to shift westwards of Lake Chad where it became known as the Bornu Empire ruled from its capital Ngazargamu on what is later the Niger Nigeria border 51 48 52 Bornu prospered during the rule of Mai Idris Alooma r circa 1575 1610 and re conquered most of the traditional lands of Kanem hence the designation Kanem Bornu for the empire By the 17th century and into the 18th the Bornu kingdom had entered a period of decline shrinking back to its Lake Chad heartland 45 48 Circa 1730 40 a group of Kanuri settlers led by Mallam Yunus left Kanem and founded the Sultanate of Damagaram centred on the town of Zinder 40 The sultanate remained nominally subject to the Borno Empire until the reign of Sultan Tanimoune Dan Souleymane in the 19th century who declared independence and initiated a phase of expansion 21 The sultanate managed to resist the advance of the Sokoto Caliphate see below and was later captured by the French in 1899 21 The Hausa states and other smaller kingdoms 1400s 1800s Overlooking the town of Zinder and the Sultan s Palace from the French fort 1906 The arrival of the French spelled an end for precolonial states like the Sultanate of Damagaram which carried on only as ceremonial chiefs appointed by the colonial government Main articles Hausa Kingdoms Dosso Kingdom and Dendi Kingdom Between the Niger River and Lake Chad lay Hausa Kingdoms encompassing the cultural linguistic area known as Hausaland which straddles what later is the Niger Nigeria border 53 The Hausa are thought to be a mixture of autochthonous peoples and migrant peoples from the north and or east emerging as a distinct people sometime in the 900s 1400s when the kingdoms were founded 53 21 54 They gradually adopted Islam from the 14th century and sometimes this existed alongside other religions developing into syncretic forms some Hausa groups such as the Azna resisted Islam altogether the area of Dogondoutchi remains an animist stronghold 21 45 The Hausa kingdoms were not a compact entity but several federations of kingdoms more or less independent of one other Their organisation was hierarchical and somewhat democratic the Hausa kings were elected by the notables of the country and could be removed by them 44 The Hausa Kingdoms began as seven states founded according to the Bayajidda legend by the six sons of Bawo 53 45 Bawo was the only son of the Hausa queen Daurama and Bayajidda or Abu Yazid according to certain historians who came from Baghdad The seven original Hausa states also referred to as the Hausa bakwai were Daura state of queen Daurama Kano Rano Zaria Gobir Katsina and Biram 44 21 54 An extension of the legend states that Bawo had a further seven sons with a concubine who went on to the found the so called Banza illegitimate Bakwai Zamfara Kebbi Nupe Gwari Yauri Ilorin and Kwararafa 54 A smaller state not fitting into this scheme was Konni centred on Birni N Konni 40 The Fulani also called Peul Fulbe etc a pastoral people found throughout the Sahel began migrating to Hausaland during the 1200s 1500s 45 53 During the later 18th century some Fulani were unhappy with the syncretic form of Islam practised there exploiting also the populace s disdain with corruption amongst the Hausa elite the Fulani scholar Usman Dan Fodio from Gobir declared a jihad in 1804 40 21 55 After conquering most of Hausaland and not the Bornu Kingdom which remained independent he proclaimed the Sokoto Caliphate in 1809 53 Some of the Hausa states survived by fleeing south such as the Katsina who moved to Maradi in the south of what later is Niger 45 Some of these surviving states harassed the Caliphate and a period of wars and skirmishes commenced with some states such as Katsina and Gobir maintaining independence whereas elsewhere newer ones were formed such as the Sultanate of Tessaoua The Caliphate managed to survive until fatally weakened by the invasions of Chad based warlord Rabih az Zubayr it finally fell to the British in 1903 with its lands later being partitioned between Britain and France 56 Other smaller kingdoms of the period include the Dosso Kingdom a Zarma polity founded in 1750 which resisted the rule of Hausa and Sokoto states 40 Colonial 1900 58 Main articles Senegambia and Niger Upper Senegal and Niger French West Africa and Colony of Niger In the 19th century some European explorers travelled in the area of what later is Niger such as Mungo Park in 1805 06 the Oudney Denham Clapperton expedition 1822 25 Heinrich Barth 1850 55 with James Richardson and Adolf Overweg Friedrich Gerhard Rohlfs 1865 67 Gustav Nachtigal 1869 74 and Parfait Louis Monteil 1890 92 21 Some European countries already possessed littoral colonies in Africa and in the latter half of the century they began to turn their eyes towards the interior of the continent This process known as the Scramble for Africa culminated in the 1885 Berlin conference in which the colonial powers outlined the division of Africa into spheres of influence As a result of this France gained control of the upper valley of the Niger River roughly equivalent to the areas of what later is Mali and Niger 57 France then set about making a reality of their rule on the ground In 1897 the French officer Marius Gabriel Cazemajou was sent to Niger he reached the Sultanate of Damagaram in 1898 and stayed in Zinder at the court of Sultan Amadou Kouran Daga he was later killed as Daga feared he would ally with the Chad based warlord Rabih az Zubayr 40 In 1899 1900 France coordinated three expeditions the Gentil Mission from French Congo the Foureau Lamy Mission from Algeria and the Voulet Chanoine Mission from Timbuktu with the aim of linking France s African possessions 57 The three eventually met at Kousseri in the further north of Cameroon and defeated Rabih az Zubayr s forces at the Battle of Kousseri The Voulet Chanoine Mission was marred by atrocities and became notorious for pillaging looting raping and killing local civilians on its passage throughout southern Niger 40 21 On 8 May 1899 in retaliation for the resistance of queen Sarraounia captain Voulet and his men murdered all the inhabitants of the village of Birni N Konni in what is regarded as one of the worst massacres in French colonial history 40 The brutal methods of Voulet and Chanoine caused a scandal and Paris was forced to intervene when Lieutenant Colonel Jean Francois Klobb caught up with the mission near Tessaoua to relieve them of command he was killed Lt Paul Joalland Klobb s former officer and Lt Octave Meynier eventually took over the mission following a mutiny in which Voulet and Chanoine were killed 21 The Military Territory of Niger was subsequently created within the Upper Senegal and Niger colony what later is Burkina Faso Mali and Niger in December 1904 with its capital at Niamey 21 The border with Britain s colony of Nigeria to the south was finalised in 1910 a rough delimitation having already been agreed by the two powers via treaties during the period 1898 1906 57 The capital of the territory was moved to Zinder in 1912 when the Niger Military Territory was split off from Upper Senegal and Niger before being moved back to Niamey in 1922 when Niger became a fully fledged colony within French West Africa 21 40 The borders of Niger were drawn up in stages and had been fixed at their later position by the 1930s Territorial adjustments took place in this period the areas west of the Niger river were attached to Niger in 1926 27 and during the dissolution of Upper Volta modern Burkina Faso in 1932 47 most of the east of that territory was added to Niger 58 40 and in the east the Tibesti Mountains were transferred to Chad in 1931 59 The French generally adopted a form of indirect rule allowing existing native structures to continue to exist within the colonial framework of governance providing that they acknowledged French supremacy 21 The Zarma of the Dosso Kingdom in particular proved amenable to French rule using them as allies against the encroachments of Hausa and other nearby states over time the Zarma thus became one of the more educated and westernised groups in Niger 40 Perceived threats to French rule such as the Kobkitanda rebellion in Dosso Region 1905 06 led by the blind cleric Alfa Saibou and the Karma revolt in the Niger valley December 1905 March 1906 led by Oumarou Karma were suppressed with force as were the latter Hamallayya and Hauka religious movements 21 40 60 While largely successful in subduing the sedentary populations of the south the French faced considerably more difficulty with the Tuareg in the north centered on the Sultanate of Air in Agadez and France was unable to occupy Agadez until 1906 21 Tuareg resistance continued culminating in the Kaocen revolt of 1916 17 led by Ag Mohammed Wau Teguidda Kaocen with backing from the Senussi in Fezzan the revolt was violently suppressed and Kaocen fled to Fezzan where he was later killed 40 A puppet sultan was set up by the French and the decline and marginalisation of the north of the colony continued exacerbated by a series of droughts 40 While it remained something of a backwater some limited economic development took place in Niger during the colonial years such as the introduction of groundnut cultivation 21 Measures to improve food security following a series of devastating famines in 1913 1920 and 1931 were introduced 21 40 During the Second World War during which time mainland France was occupied by Nazi Germany Charles de Gaulle issued the Brazzaville Declaration declaring that the French colonial empire would be replaced post war with a less centralised French Union 61 The French Union which lasted from 1946 to 1958 conferred a limited form of French citizenship on the inhabitants of the colonies with some decentralisation of power and limited participation in political life for local advisory assemblies It was during this period that the Nigerien Progressive Party Parti Progressiste Nigerien or PPN originally a branch of the African Democratic Rally or Rassemblement Democratique Africain RDA was formed under the leadership of former teacher Hamani Diori and the left wing Mouvement Socialiste Africain Sawaba MSA led by Djibo Bakary Following the Overseas Reform Act Loi Cadre of 23 July 1956 and the establishment of the Fifth French Republic on 4 December 1958 Niger became an autonomous state within the French Community On 18 December 1958 an autonomous Republic of Niger was officially created under the leadership of Hamani Diori MSA was banned in 1959 for its perceived excessive anti French stance 62 On 11 July 1960 Niger decided to leave the French Community and acquired full independence at midnight local time on 3 August 1960 63 Diori thus became the first president of the country Post colonial 1960 Diori years 1960 74 President Hamani Diori and visiting German President Heinrich Lubke greet crowds on a state visit to Niamey 1969 Diori s single party rule was characterised by good relations with the West and a preoccupation with foreign affairs For its first 14 years as an independent state Niger was run by a single party civilian regime under the presidency of Hamani Diori 64 The 1960s saw an expansion of the education system and some limited economic development and industrialisation 40 Links with France remained with Diori allowing the development of French led uranium mining in Arlit and supporting France in the Algerian War 40 Relations with other African states were mostly positive with the exception of Dahomey Benin owing to a border dispute Niger remained a one party state throughout this period with Diori surviving a planned coup in 1963 and an assassination attempt in 1965 most of this activity was masterminded by Djibo Bakary s MSA Sawaba group which had launched an abortive rebellion in 1964 40 65 In the 1970s a combination of economic difficulties droughts and accusations of rampant corruption and mismanagement of food supplies resulted in a coup d etat that overthrew the Diori regime First military regime 1974 1991 The coup had been masterminded by Col Seyni Kountche and a military group under the name of the Conseil Militaire Supreme with Kountche going on to rule the country until his death in 1987 40 The first action of the military government was to address the food crisis 66 Whilst political prisoners of the Diori regime were released after the coup political and individual freedoms in general deteriorated during this period There were attempted coups in 1975 1976 and 1984 which were thwarted their instigators being punished 40 Kountche sought to create a development society funded mostly by the uranium mines in Agadez Region 40 Parastatal companies were created infrastructure building and new roads schools health centres constructed and there was corruption in government agencies which Kountche did not hesitate to punish 67 In the 1980s Kountche began cautiously loosening the grip of the military with some relaxation of state censorship and attempts made to civilianise the regime 40 The economic boom ended following the collapse in uranium prices and IMF led austerity and privatisation measures provoked opposition by some Nigeriens 40 In 1985 a Tuareg revolt in Tchintabaraden was suppressed 40 Kountche died in November 1987 from a brain tumour and was succeeded by his chief of staff Col Ali Saibou who was confirmed as Chief of the Supreme Military Council four days later 40 Saibou curtailed the most repressive aspects of the Kountche era such as the secret police and media censorship and set about introducing a process of political reform under the overall direction of a single party the Mouvement National pour la Societe du Developpement or MNSD 40 A Second Republic was declared and a new constitution was drawn up which was adopted following a referendum in 1989 40 General Saibou became the first president of the Second Republic after winning the presidential election on 10 December 1989 68 President Saibou s efforts to control political reforms failed in the face of trade union and student demands to institute a multi party democratic system On 9 February 1990 a violently repressed student march in Niamey led to the death of three students which led to increased national and international pressure for further democratic reform 40 The Saibou regime acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990 40 Meanwhile trouble re emerged in Agadez Region when a group of armed Tuaregs attacked the town of Tchintabaraden seen by some as the start of the first Tuareg Rebellion prompting a military crackdown which led to deaths the precise numbers are disputed with estimates ranging from 70 to up to 1 000 40 Ali Saibou President 1987 93 helped oversee the transition from military to civilian rule National Conference and Third Republic 1991 1996 The National Sovereign Conference of 1991 brought about multi party democracy From 29 July to 3 November a national conference gathered together all elements of society to make recommendations for the future direction of the country The conference was presided over by Prof Andre Salifou and developed a plan for a transitional government this was then installed in November 1991 to manage the affairs of state until the institutions of the Third Republic were put into place in April 1993 After the National Sovereign Conference the transitional government drafted a constitution that eliminated the previous single party system of the 1989 Constitution and guaranteed more freedoms The new constitution was adopted by a referendum on 26 December 1992 69 Following this presidential elections were held and Mahamane Ousmane became the first president of the Third Republic on 27 March 1993 40 68 Ousmane s presidency saw four government changes and legislative elections in 1995 and an economic slump 40 The violence in Agadez Region continued during this period prompting the Nigerien government to sign a truce with Tuareg rebels in 1992 which was ineffective owing to internal dissension within the Tuareg ranks 40 Another rebellion led by dissatisfied Toubou peoples claiming that like the Tuareg the Nigerien government had neglected their region broke out in the east of the country 40 In April 1995 a peace deal with a Tuareg rebel group was signed with the government agreeing to absorb some former rebels into the military and with French assistance help others return to a productive civilian life 70 Second military regime and third military regime 1996 1999 The governmental paralysis prompted the military to intervene on 27 January 1996 Col Ibrahim Bare Mainassara led a coup that deposed President Ousmane and ended the Third Republic 71 72 Mainassara headed a Conseil de Salut National National Salvation Council composed of military officials which carried out a six month transition period during which a constitution was drafted and adopted on 12 May 1996 40 Presidential campaigns were organised in the months that followed Mainassara entered the campaign as an independent candidate and won the election on 8 July 1996 the elections were viewed nationally and internationally by some as irregular as the electoral commission was replaced during the campaign 40 Meanwhile Mainassara instigated an IMF and World Bank approved privatisation programme which enriched some of his supporters and were opposed by the trade unions 40 Following fraudulent local elections in 1999 the opposition ceased any cooperation with the Mainassara regime 40 In a circumstance possibly attempting to flee the country Mainassara was assassinated at Niamey Airport on 9 April 1999 73 74 Maj Daouda Malam Wanke then took over establishing a transitional National Reconciliation Council to oversee the drafting of a constitution with a French style semi presidential system This was adopted on 9 August 1999 and was followed by presidential and legislative elections in October and November of the same year 75 The elections were generally found to be free and fair by international observers Wanke then withdrew from governmental affairs 40 Fifth Republic 1999 2009 A Tuareg rebel fighter in northern Niger during the Second Tuareg Rebellion 2008 After winning the election in November 1999 President Tandja Mamadou was sworn in office on 22 December 1999 as the first president of the Fifth Republic Mamadou brought about administrative and economic reforms that had been halted due to the military coups since the Third Republic and helped peacefully resolve a decades long boundary dispute with Benin 76 77 In August 2002 unrest within military camps occurred in Niamey Diffa and Nguigmi and the government was able to restore order within days On 24 July 2004 municipal elections were held to elect local representatives previously appointed by the government These elections were followed by presidential elections in which Mamadou was re elected for a second term thus becoming the first president of the republic to win consecutive elections without being deposed by military coups 40 78 The legislative and executive configuration remained somewhat similar to that of the first term of the president Hama Amadou was reappointed as prime minister and Mahamane Ousmane the head of the CDS party was re elected as the president of the National Assembly parliament by his peers By 2007 the relationship between President Tandja Mamadou and his prime minister had deteriorated leading to the replacement of the latter in June 2007 by Seyni Oumarou following a successful vote of no confidence at the Assembly 40 President Tandja Mamadou sought out to extend his presidency by modifying the constitution which limited presidential terms Proponents of the extended presidency rallied behind the Tazartche Hausa for overstay movement were countered by opponents anti Tazartche composed of opposition party militants and civil society activists 40 The north saw the outbreak of a Second Tuareg Rebellion in 2007 led by the Mouvement des Nigeriens pour la justice MNJ With a number of kidnappings the rebellion had largely fizzled out inconclusively by 2009 40 The poor security situation in the region is thought to have allowed elements of Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb AQIM to gain a foothold in the country 40 Fourth military regime 2009 2010 In 2009 President Tandja Mamadou decided to organize a constitutional referendum seeking to extend his presidency which was opposed by other political parties and being against the decision of the Constitutional Court which had ruled that the referendum would be unconstitutional Mamadou then modified and adopted a new constitution by referendum which was declared illegal by the Constitutional Court prompting Mamadou to dissolve the Court and assume emergency powers 79 80 The opposition boycotted the referendum and the constitution was adopted with 92 5 of voters and a 68 turnout according to official results The adoption of the constitution created a Sixth Republic with a presidential system and the suspension of the 1999 Constitution and a three year interim government with Tandja Mamadou as president The events generated political and social unrest 40 In a coup d etat in February 2010 a military junta led by captain Salou Djibo was established in response to Tandja s attempted extension of his political term by modifying the constitution 81 The Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy led by General Salou Djibo carried out a one year transition plan drafted a constitution and held elections in 2011 Seventh Republic 2010 Following the adoption of a constitution in 2010 and presidential elections a year later Mahamadou Issoufou was elected as the first president of the Seventh Republic he was then re elected in 2016 82 40 The constitution restored the semi presidential system which had been abolished a year earlier An attempted coup against him in 2011 was thwarted and its ringleaders arrested 83 Issoufou s time in office has been marked by threats to the country s security stemming from the fallout from the Libyan Civil War and Northern Mali conflict a rise in attacks by AQIM the use of Niger as a transit country for migrants sometimes organised by criminal gangs and the spillover of Nigeria s Boko Haram insurgency into south eastern Niger 84 French and American forces are assisting Niger in countering these threats 85 On 27 December 2020 Nigeriens went to the polls after Issoufou announced he would step down paving the way to a peaceful transition of power 86 No candidate won an absolute majority in the vote Mohamed Bazoum came closest with 39 33 As per the constitution a run off election was held on 20 February 2021 with Bazoum taking 55 75 of the vote and opposition candidate and former president Mahamane Ousmane taking 44 25 according to the electoral commission 87 On 31 March 2021 Niger s security forces thwarted an attempted coup by a military unit in the capital Niamey Gunfire was heard in the presidential palace The attack took place two days before newly elected president Mohamed Bazoum was due to be sworn into office The Presidential Guard arrested some people during the incident 88 On 2 April 2021 Bazoum was sworn in as the President of Niger 89 GeographyMain article Geography of Niger A map of Niger Satellite image of Niger It is a landlocked nation in West Africa located along the border between the Sahara and Sub Saharan regions It borders Nigeria and Benin to the south Burkina Faso and Mali to the west Algeria and Libya to the north and Chad to the east It lies between latitudes 11 and 24 N and longitudes 0 and 16 E Its area is 1 267 000 square kilometres 489 191 sq mi of which 300 square kilometres 116 sq mi is water This makes it less than twice the size of France and the world s 22nd largest country 90 It borders seven countries and has a total perimeter of 5 697 kilometres 3 540 mi The longest border is with Nigeria to the south 1 497 km or 930 mi This is followed by Chad to the east at 1 175 km 730 mi Algeria to the north northwest 956 km or 594 mi and Mali at 821 km 510 mi Niger has borders in its further southwest with Burkina Faso at 628 km 390 mi and Benin at 266 km 165 mi and to the north northeast Libya at 354 km 220 mi The lowest point is the Niger River with an elevation of 200 metres 656 ft The highest point is Mont Idoukal n Taghes in the Air Mountains at 2 022 m 6 634 ft Climate Map of Koppen climate classification The hotter and drier climate with desert area causes more frequent fires in some regions 91 In the south there is a tropical climate on the edges of the Niger River basin The terrain is predominantly desert plains and sand dunes with flat to rolling savanna in the south and hills in the north Biodiversity Further information Wildlife of Niger An elephant in the W National Park The territory of Niger contains five terrestrial ecoregions Sahelian Acacia savanna West Sudanian savanna Lake Chad flooded savanna South Saharan steppe and woodlands and West Saharan montane xeric woodlands 92 The north is covered by deserts and semi deserts The typical mammal fauna consists of addax antelopes scimitar horned oryx gazelles and in the mountains Barbary sheep The Air and Tenere National Nature Reserve was founded in the northern parts to protect these species The southern parts are naturally dominated savannahs The W National Park situated in the bordering area to Burkina Faso and Benin belongs to one of the most important areas for wildlife in Western Africa which is called the WAP W Arli Pendjari Complex It has a population of the West African lion and one of the last populations of the Northwest African cheetah Other wildlife includes elephants buffaloes roan antelopes kob antelopes and warthogs The West African giraffe is found in the further north where it has its last relict population Environmental issues include destructive farming practices as a result of population pressure illegal hunting bush fires in some areas and human encroachment upon the flood plains of the Niger River for paddy cultivation Dams constructed on the Niger River in the neighboring countries of Mali and Guinea and within Niger are cited as a reason for a reduction of water flow in the Niger River which has a direct effect upon the environment A lack of adequate staff to guard wildlife in the parks and reserves is another factor cited for loss of wildlife 93 Farmer managed natural regeneration is practiced since 1983 to increase food and timber production and resilience to climate extremes 94 Governance and politicsThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Niger news newspapers books scholar JSTOR August 2020 Learn how and when to remove this template message Main articles Politics of Niger and Government of Niger Niger s new constitution was approved on 31 October 2010 It restored the semi presidential system of government of the 1999 constitution Fifth Republic in which the president of the republic elected by universal suffrage for a five year term and a prime minister named by the president share executive power On 26 May 2009 President Tandja dissolved parliament after the country s constitutional court ruled against plans to hold a referendum on whether to allow him a third term in office According to the constitution a new parliament was elected within three months 95 This began a political struggle between Tandja trying to extend his term limited authority beyond 2009 through the establishment of a Sixth Republic and his opponents who demanded that he step down at the end of his second term in December 2009 See 2009 Nigerien constitutional crisis The military took over the country and President Tandja was put in prison charged with corruption The military kept their promise to return the country to democratic civilian rule A constitutional referendum and national elections were held A presidential election was held on 31 January 2011 but as no clear winner emerged run off elections were held on 12 March 2011 Mahamadou Issoufou of the Nigerien Party for Democracy and Socialism was elected president A parliamentary election was held at the same time 96 97 98 Foreign relations Niger s flag waving at the embassy in Paris Main article Foreign relations of Niger Niger pursues a moderate foreign policy and maintains friendly relations with the West and the Islamic world as well as non aligned countries It belongs to the UN and its main specialized agencies and in 1980 81 served on the UN Security Council Niger maintains a special relationship with former colonial power France and has close relations with its West African neighbors It is a charter member of the African Union and the West African Monetary Union and also belongs to the Niger Basin Authority and Lake Chad Basin Commission the Economic Community of West African States the Non Aligned Movement the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa OHADA The westernmost regions of Niger are joined with contiguous regions of Mali and Burkina Faso under the Liptako Gourma Authority The border dispute with Benin inherited from colonial times and concerning inter alia Lete Island in the Niger River was solved by the International Court of Justice in 2005 to Niger s advantage Military Further information Niger Armed Forces The Niger Armed Forces Forces armees nigeriennes are the military and paramilitary forces of Niger under the president as supreme commander They consist of the Niger Army Armee de Terre the Niger Air Force Armee de l Air and the auxiliary paramilitary forces such as the National Gendarmerie Gendarmerie nationale and the National Guard Garde Nationale Both paramilitary forces are trained in military fashion and have some military responsibilities in wartime In peace time their duties are mostly policing duties The armed forces are composed of approximately 12 900 personnel including 3 700 gendarmes 3200 national guards 300 air force personnel and 6 000 army personnel The armed forces of Niger have been involved several military coups over the years with the most recent in 2010 Niger s armed forces have a long history of military cooperation with France and the United States As of 2013 update Niamey is home to a U S drone base Judicial system Main article Judiciary of Niger The current Judiciary of Niger was established with the creation of the Fourth Republic in 1999 The constitution of December 1992 was revised by national referendum on 12 May 1996 and again by referendum revised to the current version on 18 July 1999 It is based on the Code Napoleon Inquisitorial system established in Niger during French colonial rule and the 1960 Constitution of Niger The Court of Appeals reviews questions of fact and law while the Supreme Court reviews application of the law and constitutional questions The High Court of Justice HCJ deals with cases involving senior government officials The justice system also includes civil criminal courts customary courts traditional mediation and a military court 99 The military court provides the same rights as civil criminal courts however customary courts do not The military court cannot try civilians 100 Law enforcement Main article Law enforcement in Niger Law enforcement in Niger is the responsibility of the Ministry of Defense through the National Gendarmerie and the Ministry of the Interior through the National Police and the National Guard The National Police is primarily responsible for law enforcement in urban areas Outside big cities and in rural areas this responsibility falls on the National Gendarmerie and the National Guard Government finance Government finance is derived revenue exports Mining oil and agricultural exports as well as various forms of taxes collected by the government In the past foreign aid has contributed to large percentages of the budget In 2013 Niger s government has adopted a zero deficit budget of 1 279 trillion CFA francs 2 53 billion which is claimed to balance revenues and expenditures by an 11 reduction in the budget from the previous year 101 The 2014 budget was 1 867 trillion CFA which is distributed as follows according to public debt 76 703 692 000 CFA personnel expenditures 210 979 633 960 CFA operating expenditures 128 988 777 711 CFA subsidies and transfers 308 379 641 366 CFA and Investment 1 142 513 658 712 CFA 102 Foreign aid The importance of external support for Niger s development is demonstrated by the fact that about 45 of the government s FY 2002 budget including 80 of its capital budget derives from donor resources 103 The most important donors in Niger are France the European Union the World Bank the International Monetary Fund and various United Nations agencies UNDP UNICEF FAO World Food Program and United Nations Population Fund Other principal donors include the United States Belgium Germany Switzerland Canada and Saudi Arabia While USAID does not have an office in Niger the United States is a major donor contributing nearly 10 million each year to Niger s development The U S also is a major partner in policy coordination in such areas as food security and HIV AIDS Administrative divisions Administrative divisions of Niger Main articles Regions of Niger Departments of Niger and Communes of Niger Niger is divided into 7 Regions and one capital district These Regions are subdivided into 36 departments The 36 Departments are currently broken down into Communes of varying types As of 2006 update there were 265 communes including communes urbaines Urban Communes as subdivisions of major cities communes rurales Rural Communes in sparsely populated areas and postes administratifs Administrative Posts for largely uninhabited desert areas or military zones Rural communes may contain official villages and settlements while Urban Communes are divided into quarters Niger subvisions were renamed in 2002 in the implementation of a decentralisation project first begun in 1998 Previously Niger was divided into 7 Departments 36 Arrondissements and Communes These subdivisions were administered by officials appointed by the national government These offices will be replaced in the future by democratically elected councils at each level The pre 2002 departments renamed as regions and capital district are Agadez Region Diffa Region Dosso Region Maradi Region Tahoua Region Tillaberi Region Zinder Region Niamey capital district Largest cities and towns Further information List of cities in Niger Largest cities or towns in Niger According to the 2012 Census 104 Rank Name Region Pop Niamey Maradi 1 Niamey Niamey 978 029 Zinder Tahoua2 Maradi Maradi 267 2493 Zinder Zinder 235 6054 Tahoua Tahoua 117 8265 Agadez Agadez 110 4976 Arlit Agadez 78 6517 Birni N Konni Tahoua 63 1698 Dosso Dosso 58 6719 Gaya Dosso 45 46510 Tessaoua Maradi 43 409EconomyMain article Economy of Niger A proportional representation of Niger exports 2019 Niamey Niger s capital and economic hub The economy of Niger centers on subsistence crops livestock and some of the world s largest uranium deposits Drought cycles desertification a 2 9 population growth rate and the drop in world demand for uranium have undercut the economy Niger shares a common currency the CFA franc and a common central bank the Central Bank of West African States BCEAO with seven other members of the West African Monetary Union Niger is also a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa OHADA 105 Niamey at night In December 2000 Niger qualified for enhanced debt relief under the International Monetary Fund program for Heavily Indebted Poor Countries HIPC and concluded an agreement with the Fund for Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility PRGF Debt relief provided under the enhanced HIPC initiative significantly reduces Niger s annual debt service obligations freeing funds for expenditures on basic health care primary education HIV AIDS prevention rural infrastructure and other programs geared at poverty reduction Dole Market In December 2005 it was announced that Niger had received 100 multilateral debt relief from the IMF which translates into the forgiveness of approximately US 86 million in debts to the IMF excluding the remaining assistance under HIPC Nearly half of the government s budget is derived from foreign donor resources Future growth may be sustained by exploitation of oil gold coal and other mineral resources Uranium prices have recovered somewhat in the last few years A drought and locust infestation in 2005 led to food shortages for as many as 2 5 million Nigeriens DemographicsMain article Demographics of Niger Fulani women with traditional facial tattoos As of 2021 update the population of Niger was 25 252 722 17 18 Expanding from a population of 3 4 million in 1960 Niger s population has rapidly increased with a current growth rate of 3 3 7 1 children per mother 106 107 This growth rate is one of the highest in the world and is a source of concern for the government and international agencies 108 The population is predominantly young with 49 2 under 15 years old and 2 7 over 65 years and predominantly rural with only 21 living in urban areas 106 A 2005 study which stated that over 800 000 people nearly 8 of the population in Niger are enslaved 109 110 111 Urban settlements Cities of Niger Rank City Population Region2001 Census 112 2012 Census 112 1 Niamey 690 286 978 029 Niamey2 Maradi 148 017 267 249 Maradi Region3 Zinder 170 575 235 605 Zinder Region4 Tahoua 73 002 117 826 Tahoua Region5 Agadez 77 060 110 497 Agadez Region6 Arlit 68 835 78 651 Agadez Region7 Birni N Konni 44 663 63 169 Tahoua Region8 Dosso 43 561 58 671 Dosso Region9 Gaya 28 385 45 465 Dosso Region10 Tessaoua 31 667 43 409 Maradi RegionEthnic groups Ethnic Groups in Niger 2001 Census 113 Ethnic Groups percentHausa 55 4 Zarma amp Songhai 21 Tuareg 9 3 Fula 8 5 Kanuri 4 7 Toubou 0 4 Arab 0 4 Gurma 0 4 Other 0 1 Main articles Hausa people Zarma people Tuareg people Fula people Kanuri people Tubu people Diffa Arabs and Gurma people As in most West African countries Niger has a wide variety of ethnic groups The ethnic makeup of Niger in 2001 was as follows Hausa 55 4 Zarma amp Songhay 21 Tuareg 9 3 Fula French Peuls Fula Fulɓe 8 5 Kanuri Manga 4 7 Tubu 0 4 Arab 0 4 Gourmantche 0 4 other 0 1 106 The Zarma and Songhay dominate the Dosso Tillaberi and Niamey regions the Hausa dominate the Zinder Maradi and Tahoua regions Kanuri Manga dominate the Diffa region and Tuaregs dominate the Agadez region in Northern Niger 113 Languages Main article Languages of Niger French inherited from the colonial period is the official language It is spoken mainly as a second language by people who have received a formal western education and serves as the administrative language Niger has been a member of the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie since 1970 Niger has ten recognized national languages namely Arabic Buduma Fulfulde Gourmanchema Hausa Kanuri Zarma amp Songhay Tamasheq Tassawaq Tebu 1 Each is spoken as a first language primarily by the ethnic group with which it is associated 114 115 Hausa and Zarma Songhai the two most spoken languages are widely spoken throughout the country as first or second languages Religion Main article Religion in Niger Religion in Nigerreligion percent 3 Islam 99 3 Christianity 0 3 Animism 0 2 Irreligious 0 1 Niger is a secular country and separation of state and religion is guaranteed by Articles 3 and 175 of the 2010 Constitution which dictate that future amendments or revisions may not modify the secular nature of the republic of Niger Religious freedom is protected by Article 30 of the same constitution Islam widespread in the region since the 10th century has greatly shaped the culture and mores of the people of Niger Islam is the most dominant religion practiced by 99 3 of the population according to the 2012 census 3 The other two main religions of Niger are Christianity practiced by 0 3 of the population and Animism traditional indigenous religious beliefs practiced by 0 2 of the population 3 Christianity was established earlier in the country by missionaries during the French colonial years Other urban Christian expatriate communities from Europe and West Africa are also present Religious persecution has flared in recent years in Niger Christian charity Open Doors now lists Niger as the 37th most difficult country in which to be a Christian on their World Watch List reflecting how pressure is increasing on Christians in this nation 116 Relations between Muslims and Christians have generally been cordial according to the respective representatives of Christian and Muslim groups in Niger 117 The numbers of Animist practitioners are a point of contention As recently as the late 19th century much of the south center of the nation was unreached by Islam and the conversion of some rural areas has been only partial There are still areas where animist based festivals and traditions such as the Bori religion are practiced by syncretic Muslim communities in some Hausa areas as well as among some Toubou and Wodaabe pastoralists as opposed to several small communities who maintain their pre Islamic religion These include the Hausa speaking Maouri or Azna the Hausa word for pagan community in Dogondoutci in the south southwest and the Kanuri speaking Manga near Zinder both of whom practice variations of the pre Islamic Hausa Maguzawa religion There are also some tiny Boudouma and Songhay animist communities in the southwest 118 Over the past decade syncretic practices have become less common among Muslim Nigerien communities 117 Islam Main article Islam in Niger The majority of Muslims in Niger are Sunni 7 are Shi a 5 are Ahmadiyya and 20 non denominational 119 120 Islam was spread into what is now Niger beginning in the 15th century by both the expansion of the Songhai Empire in the west and the influence of the Trans Saharan trade traveling from the Maghreb and Egypt Tuareg expansion from the north culminating in their seizure of the far eastern oases from the Kanem Bornu Empire in the 17th centuries spread distinctively Berber practices Small mosque in Filingue Both Zarma and Hausa areas were greatly influenced by the 18th and 19th century Fula led Sufi brotherhoods most notably the Sokoto Caliphate in today s Nigeria Modern Muslim practice in Niger is often tied to the Tijaniya Sufi brotherhoods although there are small minority groups tied to Hammallism and Nyassist Sufi orders in the west and the Sanusiya in the far northeast 118 A small center of followers of Salafi movement within Sunni Islam have appeared in the last thirty years in the capital and in Maradi 121 These small groups linked to similar groups in Jos Nigeria came to public prominence in the 1990s during a series of religious riots 122 123 124 Despite this Niger maintains a tradition as a secular state protected by law 125 Interfaith relations are deemed very good and the forms of Islam traditionally practiced in most of the country are marked by tolerance of other faiths and lack of restrictions on personal freedom 126 Alcohol such as the locally produced Biere Niger is sold openly in most of the country Education Main article Education in Niger A primary classroom in Niger The literacy rate of Niger is among the lowest in the world in 2005 it was estimated to be only 28 7 42 9 male and 15 1 female 127 Primary education in Niger is compulsory for six years 128 The primary school enrollment and attendance rates are low particularly for girls 128 In 1997 the gross primary enrollment rate was 29 3 percent and in 1996 the net primary enrollment rate was 24 5 percent 128 About 60 percent of children who finish primary schools are boys as the majority of girls rarely attend school for more than a few years 128 Children are often forced to work rather than attend school particularly during planting or harvest periods 128 Nomadic children in the north of the country often do not have access to schools 128 Health Main article Health in Niger The child mortality rate in Niger deaths among children between the ages of 1 and 4 is high 248 per 1 000 due to generally poor health conditions and inadequate nutrition for most of the country s children According to the organization Save the Children Niger has the world s highest infant mortality rate 129 Maradi Reference Hospital Niger also has the highest fertility rate in the world 6 49 births per woman according to 2017 estimates 130 this has resulted in nearly half 49 7 of the Nigerien population being under age 15 in 2020 131 Niger has the 11th highest maternal mortality rate in the world at 820 deaths 100 000 live births 132 There were 3 physicians and 22 nurses per 100 000 persons in 2006 133 Clean drinking water is scarce by global standards with significant differences between urban and rural areas Niger is often located at the bottom of the UN Human Development Index Roughly 92 of the population lives in rural areas in the Tillaberi region along the western frontier and there is a chronic scarcity of clean water particularly during the hot season when temperatures regularly exceed 40 degrees Celsius 134 135 136 Just 40 of the 30 000 inhabitants in Tera a city northwest of the country s capital of Niamey and near to the Burkina Faso border have access to a working public water infrastructure 134 137 138 Societe de Patrimoine des Eaux du Niger SPEN Niger s water authority opened ten boreholes and built a water treatment plant in 2018 to provide potable water to Tera and the surrounding areas The water supply ran out about a year later and the water treatment facility was forced to close 134 139 With the help of a donation fund from the Dutch government the European Investment Bank is collaborating with the Niger water authority to find solutions to Niger s water issues The World Bank identified Niger as one of the 18 fragile regions of Sub Saharan Africa The EU bank has a history of investing in regions like these 140 The European Investment Bank and the Niger Water Authority are looking at two options for dealing with Tera s water shortages The first choice is to repair the water tank on the outskirts of town Another choice is to treat and transport water from the Niger River which is located more than 100 kilometres to the east Villages between Tera and the Niger River will also have access to sewage The European Investment Bank will also look at renewable energy as a way to save costs 140 CultureMain article Culture of Niger Horsemen at the traditional Ramadan festival at the Sultan s Palace in the Hausa city of Zinder A traditional home in Zinder Nigerien culture is marked by variation evidence of the cultural crossroads which French colonialism formed into a unified state from the beginning of the 20th century What is now Niger was created from four distinct cultural areas in the pre colonial era the Zarma and Songhai dominated the Niger River valley in the southwest the northern periphery of Hausaland made mostly of those states which had resisted the Sokoto Caliphate and ranged along the long southern border with Nigeria the Lake Chad basin and Kaouar in the far east populated by Kanuri farmers and Toubou pastoralists who had once been part of the Kanem Bornu Empire and the Tuareg nomads of the Air Mountains and the Sahara in the vast north Each of these communities along with smaller ethnic groups like the pastoral Wodaabe Fula brought their own cultural traditions to the new state of Niger While successive post independence governments have tried to forge a shared national culture this has been slow forming in part because the major Nigerien communities have their own cultural histories and in part because Nigerien ethnic groups such as the Hausa Tuareg and Kanuri are but part of larger ethnic communities which cross borders introduced under colonialism Until the 1990s government and politics was inordinately dominated by Niamey and the Zarma people of the surrounding region At the same time the plurality of the population in the Hausa borderlands between Birni N Konni and Maine Soroa have often looked culturally more to Hausaland in Nigeria than Niamey Between 1996 and 2003 primary school attendance was around 30 141 including 36 of males and only 25 of females Additional education occurs through madrasas Festivals and cultural events Guerewol festival Main article Guerewol Participants in the Guerewol perform the Guerewol dance 1997 The Guerewol festival is a traditional Wodaabe cultural event that takes place in Abalak in Tahoua region or In Gall in Agadez Region It is an annual traditional courtship ritual practiced by the Wodaabe Fula people of Niger During this ceremony young men dressed in elaborate ornamentation and made up in traditional face painting gather in lines to dance and sing vying for the attention of marriageable young women The Guerewol festival is an international attraction and was featured in films and magazines as prominent as the National Geographic Cure Salee festival Main article Cure Salee La Cure salee English Salt Cure is a yearly festival of Tuareg and Wodaabe nomads in In Gall in Agadez Region traditionally to celebrate the end of the rainy season For three days the festival features a parade of Tuareg camel riders followed with camel and horse races songs dances and storytelling Media Main article Media of Niger Niger began developing diverse media in the late 1990s Prior to the Third Republic Nigeriens only had access to tightly controlled state media 142 Now Niamey contains scores of newspapers and magazines some like Le Sahel are government operated while many are critical of the government 143 144 Radio is the most important medium as television sets are beyond the buying power of many of the rural poor and illiteracy prevents print media from becoming a mass medium 93 In addition to the national and regional radio services of the state broadcaster ORTN there are four privately owned radio networks which total more than 100 stations Three of them the Anfani Group Sarounia and Tenere are urban based commercial format FM networks in the major towns 145 There is also a network of over 80 community radio stations spread across all seven regions of the country governed by the Comite de Pilotage de Radios de Proximite CPRP a civil society organisation The independent sector radio networks are collectively estimated by CPRP officials to cover some 7 6 million people or about 73 of the population 2005 Aside from Nigerien radio stations the BBC s Hausa service is listened to on FM repeaters across wide parts of the country particularly in the south close to the border with Nigeria Radio France Internationale also rebroadcasts in French through some of the commercial stations via satellite Tenere FM also runs a national independent television station of the same name 145 Despite relative freedom at the national level Nigerien journalists say they are often pressured by local authorities 146 The state ORTN network depends financially on the government partly through a surcharge on electricity bills and partly through direct subsidy The sector is governed by the Conseil Superieur de Communications established as an independent body in the early 1990s since 2007 headed by Daouda Diallo International human rights groups have criticised the government since at least 1996 as using regulation and police to punish criticism of the state 147 148 See alsoOutline of NigerReferences a b Republique du Niger Loi n 2001 037 du 31 decembre 2001 fixant les modalites de promotion et de developpement des langues nationales L amenagement linguistique dans le monde Archived 19 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine accessed 21 September 2016 Africa Niger The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency www cia gov 27 April 2021 Retrieved 1 May 2021 a b c d Institut national de la statistique November 2015 Recensement general de la population et de l habitat 2012 PDF Archived PDF from the original on 13 July 2018 Retrieved 12 July 2018 Nigerien definition of Nigerien in English from the Oxford Dictionaries Archived from the original on 1 March 2018 Retrieved 1 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prevention net International Religious Freedom Report 2001 Niger Archived 4 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine United States Bureau of Democracy Human Rights and Labor 26 October 2001 t Sas Vincent Islam is thriving in impoverished Niger Archived 28 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine Reuters 6 December 1997 The World Factbook Cia gov Retrieved 25 April 2014 a b c d e f Niger Archived 5 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine 2001 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor Bureau of International Labor Affairs U S Department of Labor 2002 This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain Green Jeff 10 May 2006 U S has second worst newborn death rate in modern world report says CNN Archived from the original on 9 February 2019 Retrieved 3 May 2010 The World Factbook Cia gov Archived from the original on 28 October 2009 Retrieved 28 October 2018 Niger 2020 populationpyramid net Retrieved 26 August 2021 The World Factbook Cia gov Archived from the original on 26 April 2014 Retrieved 25 April 2014 Niger Archived from the original on 23 November 2011 Retrieved 20 May 2012 a b c Fresh water in Niger undercuts violence as well as offering better living conditions European Investment Bank Retrieved 26 May 2021 Water Sanitation and Hygiene www unicef org Retrieved 26 May 2021 Delivering water and sanitation services in Niger challenges and results blogs worldbank org Retrieved 26 May 2021 Niger OECD www oecd org Retrieved 26 May 2021 Development Projects Niger Basin Water Resources Development and Sustainable Ecosystems Management Project P093806 World Bank Retrieved 26 May 2021 Niger EIB finances drinking water supply project EUR 21m European Investment Bank Retrieved 26 May 2021 a b Fresh water in Niger undercuts violence as well as offering better living conditions European Investment Bank Retrieved 18 May 2021 At a glance Niger Archived from the original on 30 November 2009 Retrieved 22 June 2007 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link SEMINAIRE ATELIER DE FORMATION ET DE SENSIBILISATION Mission de service public dans les entreprises de presse d Etat et privee Archived 19 January 2017 at Archive It Historical introduction to Press Laws in conference proceedings Organised by FIJ SAINFO LO TCO CCOG NIAMEY June 2002 Media in Niger the African Development Information Database Archived 13 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine Medias Status Report Niger Archived 4 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Summary document written for the African Media Partners Network Guy Michel Boluvi Les Echos du Sahel Niamey January 2001 a b U S Department of State Report on Human Rights Practices Niger 1993 1995 Archived 16 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine to 2006 Archived 21 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine Niger Conseil de presse Les journalistes refusent la mise sous tutelle Archived 10 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine Ousseini Issa Medi ctions n 37 Institut PANOS Afrique de l Ouest March 2004 Attacks on the press Niger 2006 Archived 20 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine Committee to Protect Journalists 2007 Retrieved 23 February 2009 Niger Emergency legislation infringes non derogable human rights Archived 11 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL Public Statement AI Index AFR 43 001 2007 Public Document Press Service Number 181 07 21 September 2007 Notes Arabic النيجر Fula Niiser Hausa NijarSourcesDecalo Samuel Historical Dictionary of Niger 3rd ed Scarecrow Press 1997 ISBN 0 8108 3136 8 a comprehensive collection of Niger topics CIA World Factbook entry on Niger US State Department Niger State gov 3 February 2010 Archived from the original on 22 January 2017 Retrieved 3 May 2010 Note This article contains material from the State Department website Unicef Niger statistics Archived 30 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine Unesco manuscript on child work and schooling in NigerExternal linksNiger at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel information from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Official website Niger The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency Niger from UCB Libraries GovPubs Niger at Curlie Niger profile from the BBC News Wikimedia Atlas of Niger Key Development Forecasts for Niger from International FuturesTrade 2012 Niger Trade Summary Statistics Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Niger amp oldid 1133062171, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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