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Islam

April 14, 2023

This article is about the religion. For other uses, see Islam (disambiguation).

Islam (/ˈɪslɑːm/; Arabic: ۘالِإسلَام, al-ʾIslām [ɪsˈlaːm] (listen), transl. "Submission [to God]")[7][8] is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered around the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad.[9][10] Adherents of Islam, called Muslims,[11] number approximately 1.9 billion globally and are the world's second-largest religious population after Christians.[6][12][13][14]

Islam
الاسلام‎
al-’Islām
TypeUniversal religion
ClassificationAbrahamic
ScriptureQuran
TheologyMonotheism
LanguageClassical Arabic
TerritoryMuslim world
FounderMuhammad
Origin7th century CE
Jabal al-Nour, near Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia
SeparationsAhl-e Haqq,[1] Bábism,[2] Baháʼí Faith,[3] Din-i Ilahi, Druzism,[4][5] Ahmadiyya
Number of followersc. 1.9 billion[6] (referred to as Muslims, who are collectively called the ummah)

Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times through earlier prophets such as Adam, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, among others;[15][16] these earlier revelations are attributed to Judaism and Christianity, which are regarded in Islam as spiritual predecessor faiths.[17] Muslims consider the Quran to be the verbatim word of Allah and the unaltered, final revelation.[18] They also consider Muhammad as the main and final Islamic prophet. The teachings and normative example of Muhammad, called the sunnah, documented in accounts called the hadith, provide a constitutional model for Muslims.[19] Islam teaches that Allah is one and incomparable.[20] It states that there will be a "Final Judgement" wherein the righteous will be rewarded in paradise (Jannah) and the unrighteous will be punished in hell (Jahannam).[21] The Five Pillars—considered obligatory acts of worship—comprise the Islamic oath and creed (shahada); daily prayers (salah); almsgiving (zakat); fasting (sawm) in the month of Ramadan; and a pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca.[22] Islamic law, sharia, touches on virtually every aspect of life, from banking and finance and welfare to men's and women's roles and the environment.[23][24] Prominent religious festivals include Eid al-Fitr, and Eid al-Adha. The three holiest sites in Islam in descending order are Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina, and Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[25]

Islam originated in the 7th century in Mecca.[26] Muslim rule expanded outside Arabia under the Rashidun Caliphate and the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate ruled from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley. In the Islamic Golden Age, mostly during the reign of the Abbasid Caliphate, much of the Muslim world experienced a scientific, economic and cultural flourishing.[27] The expansion of the Muslim world involved various states and caliphates as well as extensive trade and religious conversion as a result of Islamic missionary activities (dawah),[28] and through conquests.[29][30]

There are two major Islamic denominations: Sunni Islam (85–90%)[31] and Shia Islam (10–15%).[32][33][34] While Sunni–Shia differences initially arose from disagreements over the succession to Muhammad, they grew to cover a broader dimension, both theologically and juridically.[35] Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries.[36][37] Approximately 12% of the world's Muslims live in Indonesia, the most populous Muslim-majority country;[38] 31% live in South Asia;[39] 20% live in the Middle East–North Africa; and 15% live in sub-Saharan Africa.[40] Sizable Muslim communities are also present in the Americas, China, and Europe.[41][42] Due largely to a higher fertility rate,[43] Islam is the world's fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world's largest religion by the end of the 21st century.[44]

Etymology

See also: Muslims § Etymology

In Arabic, Islam (Arabic: إسلام, lit. 'submission [to God]') is the verbal noun of Form IV originating from the verb سلم (salama), from the triliteral root س-ل-م (S-L-M), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission, safeness, and peace.[45] In a religious context, it refers to the total surrender to the will of Allah.[46][47] A Muslim (مُسْلِم), the word for a follower of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to Allah)" or "one who surrenders (to Allah)". In the Hadith of Gabriel, Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence).[48][49]

Islam itself was historically called Mohammedanism in the English-speaking world. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be offensive, as it suggests that a human being, rather than Allah, is central to Muslims' religion, parallel to Buddha in Buddhism.[50]

Articles of faith

Main articles: Aqidah and Iman

The Islamic creed (aqidah) requires belief in six articles: God, angels, revelation, prophets, the Day of Resurrection, and the divine decree.[51]

God

Main article: God in Islam

The central concept of Islam is tawḥīd (Arabic: توحيد), the oneness of God. Usually thought of as a precise monotheism, but also panentheistic in Islamic mystical teachings.[52][53][54][55] God is seen as incomparable and without partners such as in the Christian Trinity, and associating partners to God or attributing God's attributes to others is seen as idolatory, called shirk. God is seen as transcendent of creation and so is beyond comprehension. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several names or attributes, the most common being Ar-Rahmān (الرحمان) meaning "The Entirely Merciful," and Ar-Rahīm (الرحيم) meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.[56][57]

Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, "Be, and it is,"[i][58] and that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[59] He is viewed as a personal god[58] and there are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as Taqwa. Allāh is a term with no plural or gender being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas ʾilāh (إله) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.[60][61][62]

Angels

 
A 16th century Siyer-i Nebi image of angel Gabriel visiting Muhammad
Main article: Angels in Islam

Angels (Arabic: ملك, malak) are beings described in the Quran[63] and hadith.[64] They are described as created to worship God and also to serve other specific duties such as communicating revelations from God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are described as being created variously from 'light' (nūr)[65][66][67] or 'fire' (nār).[68][69][70][71] Islamic angels are often represented in anthropomorphic forms combined with supernatural images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles.[72][73][74][75] Common characteristics for angels are their missing needs for bodily desires, such as eating and drinking.[76] Some of them, such as Gabriel and Michael, are mentioned by name in the Quran. Angels play a significant role in the literature about the Mi'raj, where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens.[64] Further angels have often been featured in Islamic eschatology, theology and philosophy.[77]

Scripture

 
A Qur'an manuscript resting on a rehal, a book rest for the holy text
Main articles: Quran, Wahy, and Islamic holy books
See also: History of the Quran

The pre-eminent holy text of Islam is the Qur'an. Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God, through the archangel Gabriel (Jibrīl), on multiple occasions between 610 CE and 632, the year Muhammad died.[78] While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by his companions, although the prime method of transmission was orally through memorization.[79] The Quran is divided into 114 chapters (sūrah) which combined contain 6,236 verses (āyāt). The chronologically earlier chapters, revealed at Mecca, are concerned primarily with spiritual topics, while the later Medinan chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community.[58][80] Muslim jurists consult the hadith ('accounts'), or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[81][82] In addition to its religious significance, it is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature,[83][84] and has influenced art and the Arabic language.[85]

Islam also holds that God has sent revelations, called wahy, to different prophets numerous times throughout history. However, Islam teaches that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, such as the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospel), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both,[86][87][88][89] while the Quran (lit. 'Recitation') is viewed as the final, verbatim and unaltered word of God.[80][90][91]

Prophets

Main articles: Prophets and messengers in Islam, Sunnah, and Hadith
 
A Persian miniature depicting Muhammad leading Abraham, Moses, Jesus and other prophets in prayer

Prophets (Arabic: أنبياء, anbiyāʾ) are believed to have been chosen by God to receive and preach a divine message. Additionally, a prophet delivering a new book to a nation is called a rasul (رسول‎, rasūl), meaning "messenger".[92] Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine. All of the prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam – submission to the will of God – to various nations in the past and that this accounts for many similarities among religions. The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.[58]

Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet ("Seal of the prophets") to convey the completed message of Islam. In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the sunnah (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's moral behaviors in their daily lives, and the Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran.[93][94][95] This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which are accounts of his words, actions, and personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called sanad, and the actual wording, called matn. There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths, with the commonly used grading being: "authentic" or "correct" (صحيح, ṣaḥīḥ); "good", hasan (حسن, ḥasan); or "weak" (ضعيف, ḍaʻīf), among others. The Kutub al-Sittah are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in Sunni Islam. Among them is Sahih al-Bukhari, often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most authentic sources after the Quran.[96] Another famous source of hadiths is known as The Four Books, which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.[97][98][99]

Resurrection and judgment

 
The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, where Islamic tradition holds the Prophet Isa (Jesus) will reappear on the Day of Judgment
Main article: Islamic eschatology

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection" or Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم القيامة), is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God, but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as in the commentaries of scholars, describe the trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah. The Quran emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[100][101][102]

On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to Jannah (paradise) or Jahannam (hell). The Quran in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quran lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals,[103][104] will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[105][106][107][108] Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn (يوم الدين "Day of Religion");[ii] as-Sāʿah (الساعة "the Last Hour");[iii] and al-Qāriʿah (القارعة "The Clatterer");[iv]

Divine predestination

Main article: Predestination in Islam

The concept of divine decree and destiny in Islam (Arabic: القضاء والقدر, al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar) means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God. Al-qadar, meaning "power", derives from a root that means "to measure" or "calculating".[109][110][111][112] Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase "Insha-Allah" meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events.[113][114] In addition to loss, gain is also seen as a test of believers – whether they would still recognize that the gain originates only from God.[115]

Acts of worship

Main articles: Five Pillars of Islam and Ibadah

There are five acts of worship that are considered duties – the Shahada declaration of faith, the five daily prayers, the Zakat alms-giving, fasting during Ramadan and the Hajj pilgrimage – collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (Arkān al-Islām).[22] Apart from these, Muslims also perform other optional supererogatory acts that are encouraged but not considered to be duties.[116]

Declaration of faith

 
Silver coin of the Mughal Emperor Akbar, inscribed with the Shahadah
Main article: Shahada

The shahadah,[117] is an oath declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is "ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh" (أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله), or, "I testify that there is no deity except God and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God."[118] Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses.[119][120][121]

Prayer

Main article: Salah
See also: Mosque and Jumu'ah
 
Muslim men prostrating in prayer, at the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus

Prayer in Islam, called as-salah or aṣ-ṣalāt (Arabic: الصلاة), is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called rakat that include bowing and prostrating to God. There are five timed prayers each day that are considered duties. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed in the direction of the Kaaba. The act also requires a state ritual purity achieved by means of the either a routine wudu ritual wash or, in certain circumstancees, a ghusl full body ritual wash.[122][123][124][125]

A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important social center to the Muslim community. For example, the Masjid an-Nabawi ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina, Saudi Arabia, used to also serve as a shelter for the poor.[126] Minarets are towers used to call the adhan, a vocal call to signal the prayer time.[127][128]

Almsgiving

 
A slot for giving zakat at the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II in Fez, Morocco
Main article: Zakat
See also: Sadaqah

Zakat (Arabic: زكاة, zakāh), also spelled Zakāt or Zakah, is a type of almsgiving characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually)[129] of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in debt, or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat. It acts as a form of welfare in Muslim societies.[130] It is considered a religious obligation that the well-off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God's bounty[131] and is seen as a purification of one's excess wealth.[132] The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations, using conservative estimates.[133] Sadaqah, as opposed to Zakat, is a much encouraged optional charity.[134][135] A waqf is a perpetual charitable trust, which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies.[136]

Fasting

 
A fast-breaking feast, known as Iftar, is served traditionally with dates.
Main article: Fasting in Islam
See also: Fasting during Ramadan

During the month of Ramadan, it is considered a duty for Muslims to fast. The Ramadan fast (Arabic: صوم, ṣawm) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such as smoking, and is performed from dawn to sunset.[137] The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God's sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. In addition, there are other days, such as the Day of Arafah, when fasting is optional.[138]

Pilgrimage

Main articles: Hajj and Umrah
See also: Holiest sites in Islam
 
Pilgrims at the Great Mosque of Mecca during the Hajj season

The Islamic pilgrimage called the "ḥajj" (Arabic: حج) is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of Abraham. Pilgrims spend a day and a night on the plains of Mina, then a day praying and worshipping in the plain of Mount Arafat, then spending a night on the plain of Muzdalifah; then moving to Jamarat, symbolically stoning the Devil,[139] then going to the city of Mecca and walking seven times around the Kaaba, which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, then walking seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, Hagar, while she was looking for water for her baby Ishmael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.[140][141][142] All Muslim men should wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called ihram, intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin.[143][144] Another form of pilgrimage, Umrah, is optional and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Other sites of Islamic pilgrimage are Medina, where Muhammad died, as well as Jerusalem, a city of many Islamic prophets and the site of the Al-Aqsa Mosque, which used to be the direction of prayer before Mecca.[145]

Quranic recitation and memorization

 
Muslim men reading the Quran
Main article: Quran § Recitation
 
Al-Ikhlas
Sincerity is the Quran's 112th chapter as recited by Imam Mishary Rashid Alafasy
Problems playing this file? See media help.

Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. Tajwid refers to the set of rules for the proper elocution of the Quran.[146] Pious Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan.[147] One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer") and hadiths mention that that person will be able to intercede for others on the Last Judgment Day.[148]

Supplication and remembrance

Main articles: Dua and Dhikr

Supplication to God, called in Arabic ad-duʿāʾ (Arabic: الدعاء  IPA: [duˈʕæːʔ]) has its own etiquette such as raising hands as if begging.[149]

Remembrance of God (ذكر, Dhikr') refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring praise be due to God (الحمد لله, al-Ḥamdu lillāh) during prayer or when feeling thankful, Tasbih, declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying 'in the name of God' (بسملة, basmalah) before starting an act such as eating.[150]

History

Main article: History of Islam
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Islamic history.
See also: List of Muslim empires and dynasties
 
A panoramic view of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Hejaz region, today's Saudi Arabia, the second most sacred Mosque in Islam

Muhammad and the birth of Islam (570–632)

Main articles: Muhammad and Muhammad in Islam
See also: Early social changes under Islam

According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE and was orphaned early in life. Growing up as a trader, he became known as the "trusted one" (Arabic: الامين), [151] and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator. He later married his employer, the businesswoman Khadija.

In the year 610 CE, troubled by the moral decline and idolatry prevalent in Mecca, and seeking seclusion and spiritual contemplation, Muhammad retreated to the Cave of Hira in the mountain Jabal al-Nour, near Mecca. It was during his time in the cave that he is said to have received the first revelation of the Quran from the angel Jibreel.[152] The event of Muhammad's retreat to the cave and subsequent revelation is known as the "Night of Power" (Laylat al-Qadr) and is considered a significant event in Islamic history. During the next 22 years of his life, from age 40 onwards, Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God, becoming the last or seal of the prophets sent to mankind.[86][87][153]

During this time, while in Mecca, Muhammad preached first in secret and then in public, imploring his listeners to abandon polytheism and worship one God. Many early converts to Islam were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first muezzin Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi.[154] The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves because they profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba.[155][156][157]

In 623 CE, a Christian delegation from the Sinai requested a letter of protection from Mohammed for the continued activity of the Saint Catherine's Monastery, and regional Christianity per se. The prophet granted this request with a still existing document (آشتی‌نامه محمد), he personally touched (the Patent of Mohammed). The Ashtiname is an Ahtiname, derived from the Arabic words ahd, which signifies “obligation,” and “document, testament.” The Ashtiname has official character, and became the basis for permitted Christian activities in the Middle East and Northern Africa, and thus constitutes a legal obligation for Islam to protect Christians in their faithful activities. In AD 1517, Sultan Selim I validated the monastery’s legality, but transferred the original letter of protection for safekeeping to Constantinople. Certified copies still remain at the monastery there, and are part of the Scriptorium.[158]

After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans, Muhammad and his companions performed the Hijra ("emigration") in 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (the Muhajirun), Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority. The Constitution of Medina was signed by all the tribes of Medina establishing among the Muslim and non-Muslim communities religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws and agreeing to bar weapons from Medina and to defend it from external threats.[159] Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at the Battle of Badr in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the Battle of Uhud[160] before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the Battle of the Trench (March–April 627). In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims.[161][162] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.[163]

Early Islamic period (632–750)

Further information: Succession to Muhammad and Early Muslim conquests
See also: Event of Ghadir Khumm and Saqifa
 
Rashidun and Umayyad expansion
 
Dome of the Rock built by caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan; completed at the end of the Second Fitna

Muhammad died in 632 and the first successors, called Caliphs – Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and sometimes Hasan ibn Ali[164] – are known in Sunni Islam as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs").[165] Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in the Ridda wars.[166][167][168][169][170] Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily, often helped Muslims take over their lands,[171] resulting in rapid expansion of the caliphate into the Persian and Byzantine empires.[172][173] Uthman was elected in 644 and his assassination by rebels led to Ali being elected the next Caliph. In the First Civil War, Muhammad's widow, Aisha, raised an army against Ali, asking to avenge the death of Uthman, but was defeated at the Battle of the Camel. Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria, Mu'awiya, who was seen as corrupt. Mu'awiya then declared war on Ali and was defeated in the Battle of Siffin. Ali's decision to arbitrate angered the Kharijites, an extremist sect, who felt that by not fighting a sinner, Ali became a sinner as well. The Kharijites rebelled and were defeated in the Battle of Nahrawan but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali. Ali's son, Hasan ibn Ali, was elected Caliph and signed a peace treaty to avoid further fighting, abdicating to Mu'awiya in return for Mu'awiya not appointing a successor.[174] Mu'awiya began the Umayyad dynasty with the appointment of his son Yazid I as successor, sparking the Second Civil War. During the Battle of Karbala, Husayn ibn Ali was killed by Yazid's forces; the event has been annually commemorated by Shias ever since. Sunnis, led by Ibn al-Zubayr, opposed to a dynastic caliphate were defeated in the siege of Mecca. These disputes over leadership would give rise to the Sunni-Shia schism,[175] with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad's family through Ali, called the ahl al-bayt.[176]

Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Qur'an. The Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz set up the committee, The Seven Fuqaha of Medina,[177][178] and Malik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the Muwatta, as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.[179][180][181] The Kharijites believed there is no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who commits a grave sin becomes an unbeliever. The term is also used to refer to later groups such as Isis.[182] The Murji'ah taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers.[183] This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs.[184]

The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh.[185] The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military.[186] Since the jizya tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs as it reduced revenue.[184] While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official's possessions,[187] Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious.[184] The Kharijites led the Berber Revolt leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the Abbasid revolution, non-Arab converts (mawali), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.[188][189]

Classical era (750–1258)

Further information: Hadith studies and Islamic philosophy
See also: Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe and Turco-Persian tradition
 
The eye, according to Hunain ibn Ishaq from a manuscript dated c. 1200

Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.[190] During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as Muhammad al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj compiled the major Sunni hadith collections while scholars like Al-Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni Madh'habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i. In contrast, the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq formed the Ja'fari jurisprudence. In the 9th century Al-Tabari completed the first commentary of the Quran, that became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam, the Tafsir al-Tabari. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into tasawwuf or sufism.[191][192]

At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the devil.[193][a] Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as Muʿtazila, who famously advocated the notion of free-will, first originated by Wasil ibn Ata.[195] Caliphs such as Mamun al Rashid and Al-Mu'tasim made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force their position on the majority.[196] They carried out inquisitions with the traditionalist Ahmad ibn Hanbal notably refusing to conform to the Muʿtazila idea that the Quran was created rather than being eternal and was tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months.[197] However, other schools of speculative theology – Māturīdism founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi and Ash'ari founded by Al-Ash'ari – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as Al-Farabi, Avicenna and Averroes sought to harmonize Aristotle's ideas with the teachings of Islam, similar to later scholasticism within Christianity in Europe and Maimonides' work within Judaism, while others like Al-Ghazali argued against such syncretism and ultimately prevailed.[198][199]

This era is sometimes called the "Islamic Golden Age".[200][201][202][203][173] Islamic scientific achievements encompassed a wide range of subject areas especially medicine, mathematics, astronomy, agriculture as well as physics, economics, engineering and optics. [204][205][206][207] Avicenna was a pioneer in experimental medicine,[208][209] and his The Canon of Medicine was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and Europe for centuries. Rhazes was the first to distinguish the diseases smallpox and measles.[210] Public hospitals of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors.[211][212] Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist", in particular regarding his work in optics.[213][214][215][216] In engineering, the Banū Mūsā brothers' automatic flute player is considered to have been the first programmable machine.[217] In mathematics, the concept of the algorithm is named after Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, who is considered a founder of algebra, which is named after his book al-jabr,[218] while others developed the concept of a function.[219] The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.[220] The Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.[221] Many non-Muslims, such as Christians, Jews and Sabians,[222] contributed to the Islamic civilization in various fields,[223][224] and the institution known as the House of Wisdom employed Christian and Persian scholars to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge.[225][222]

Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties, such as the Tulunids in 868 in Egypt[226] and the Ghaznavid dynasty in 977 in Central Asia.[227] In this fragmentation came the Shi'a Century, roughly between 945 and 1055, which saw the rise of the millennialist Isma'ili Shi'a missionary movement. One Isma'ili group, the Fatimid dynasty, took control of North Africa in the 10th century[228] and another Isma'ili group, the Qarmatians, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, a rock placed within the Kaaba, in their unsuccessful rebellion.[229] Yet another Isma'ili group, the Buyid dynasty, conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty, campaigned to reassert Sunni Islam by promulgating the accumulated scholarly opinion of the time notably with the construction of educational institutions known as Nezamiyeh, which are associated with Al-Ghazali and Saadi Shirazi.[230]

The expansion of the Muslim world continued with religious missions converting Volga Bulgaria to Islam. The Delhi Sultanate reached deep into the Indian Subcontinent and many converted to Islam,[231][232] in particular low-caste Hindus whose descendents make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims.[233] Trade brought many Muslims to China and they virtually dominated the import and export industry of the Song dynasty[234] and Muslims were recruited as a governing minority class in the Yuan dynasty.[235]

Pre-Modern era (1258–18th century)

Further information: Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam
 
Ghazan Khan, 7th Ilkhanate ruler of the Mongol Empire, converts to Islam. 14th-century depiction

Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders, Islam spread into new areas[47][236] and Muslims assimilated into new cultures. Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to Southeast Europe.[237] Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of syncretism,[238] as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in Hindu folklore.[239] Muslim Turks incorporated elements of Turkish Shamanism beliefs to Islam.[b][241] Muslims in Ming Dynasty China who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated, sometimes through laws mandating assimilation,[242] by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.[243][244]

Cultural shifts were evident with the decrease in Arab influence after the Mongol destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate.[245] The Muslim Mongol Khanates in Iran and Central Asia benefited from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under Mongol rule and thus flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the Timurid Renaissance under the Timurid dynasty.[246] Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) proposed the mathematical model that was later adopted by Copernicus unrevised in his heliocentric model, and Jamshīd al-Kāshī's estimate of pi would not be surpassed for 180 years.[247]

The introduction of gunpowder weapons led to the rise of large centralized states and the Muslim gunpowder empires consolidated much of the previously splintered territories. The caliphate was claimed by the Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire since Murad I's conquest of Edirne in 1362,[248] and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as Selim I became the ruler of Mecca and Medina.[249] The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.[250] In South Asia, Babur founded the Mughal Empire.[251]

The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A symbiosis between Ottoman rulers and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. The Mevlevi Order and Bektashi Order had a close relation to the sultans,[252] as Sufi-mystical as well as heterodox and syncretic approaches to Islam flourished.[253][254] The often forceful Safavid conversion of Iran to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, help spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran.[255] Nader Shah, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth madhhab, called Ja'farism,[256] which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.[257]

Modern era (18th–20th centuries)

 
Abdülmecid II was the last Caliph of Islam from the Ottoman dynasty.

Earlier in the 14th century, Ibn Taymiyya promoted a puritanical form of Islam,[258] rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology[258] and called to open the gates of itjihad rather than blind imitation of scholars.[259] He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics[260] but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime.[261] During the 18th century in Arabia, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim, founded a movement, called Wahhabi with their self-designation as Muwahiddun, to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam.[262][263] He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later innovations and sinful[263] and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the tombs of Muhammad and his companions and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site.[264][265] He formed an alliance with the Saud family, which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become Saudi Arabia.[266] Ma Wanfu and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the 19th century such as Sailaifengye in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups.[267] Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the Senusiyya and Muhammad Ahmad both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively.[268] In India, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the Deobandi movement.[269] In response to the Deobandi movement, the Barelwi movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular Sufism and reforming its practices.[270][271]

The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially regarding non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the 15th century, the Reconquista succeeded in ending the Muslim presence in Iberia. By the 19th century, the British East India Company had formally annexed the Mughal dynasty in India.[272] As a response to Western Imperialism, many intellectuals sought to reform Islam.[273] Islamic modernism, initially labelled by Western scholars as Salafiyya, embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture-oriented.[274][275] Notable forerunners include Muhammad 'Abduh and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani.[276] Abul A'la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam.[277] Similar to contemporary codification, Shariah was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire's Mecelle code.[278]

The Ottoman Empire disintegrated after World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924[279] by the first President of the Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, as part of his secular reforms.[280][281] Pan-Islamists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as pan-Arabism. The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim-majority countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[282]

Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[283] Migration from Syria and Lebanon was the biggest contributor to the Muslim population in Latin America. The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.[284]

Contemporary era (20th century–present)

 
Leaders of Muslim countries during session of the Islamic Summit Conference in Istanbul, Turkey

Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood and related parties in the Arab world,[285][286] which performed well in elections following the Arab Spring,[287] Jamaat-e-Islami in South Asia and the AK Party, which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In Iran, revolution replaced a secular monarchy with an Islamic state. Others such as Sayyid Rashid Rida broke away from Islamic modernists[288] and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence.[289] While some were quietist, others believed in violence against those opposing them even other Muslims, such as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, who would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system.[290]

In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia.[291][292] In other places, religious authority was co-opted and are now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship[293] and, in Egypt, the state nationalized Al-Azhar University, previously an independent voice checking state power.[294] Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism.[295] Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.[296]

Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group.[297] This has been undertaken by communist forces like the Khmer Rouge, who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population[298] and the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang[299] and by nationalist forces such as during the Bosnian genocide.[300]

The globalization of communication has increased dissemination of religious information. The adoption of the hijab has grown more common[301] and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions.[302] Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular "televangelist" preachers, such as Amr Khaled, who compete with the traditional ulema in their reach and have decentralized religious authority.[303][304] More "individualized" interpretations of Islam[305] notably include Liberal Muslims who attempt to reconcile religious traditions with current secular governance[306] and women's issues.[307]

Demographics

 
Muslim distribution worldwide, based on latest available data[308]
Main articles: Muslim world and Ummah
See also: Islam by country and Muslim population growth

As of 2015, about 24% of the global population, or about 1.8 billion people, are Muslims.[309][6][310] In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%,[311] in 1990 it was 19.9%[40] and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050.[43] The Pew Research Center estimates that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia.[34] Approximately 49 countries are Muslim-majority,[312][313] with 62% of the world's Muslims living in Asia, and 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh alone.[314][315] Most estimates indicate China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).[316][317] Islam in Europe is the second-largest religion after Christianity in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005,[318] accounting 4.9% of all of Europe's population in 2016.[319] Religious conversion has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith."[320] Although, Islam is expected to experience a modest gain through religious conversion.[321][322]

According to a report by CNN, "Islam has drawn converts from all walks of life, most notably African-Americans".[323] In Britain, around 6,000 people convert to Islam per year and, according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey, the majority of new Muslim converts in Britain were women.[324] According to The Huffington Post, "observers estimate that as many as 20,000 Americans convert to Islam annually.", most of them are women and African-Americans.[325][326]

By both percentage and total numbers, Islam is the world's fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world's largest by the end of the 21st century, surpassing that of Christianity.[44] It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high fertility-rate of Muslims relative to other religious groups."[43]

Main branches or denominations

Main article: Islamic schools and branches § Main branches or denominations
See also: Shia–Sunni relations

Sunni Islam

Main article: Sunni Islam
 
The nine volumes of Sahih Al-Bukhari, one of the six Sunni hadith books

Sunni Islam or Sunnism is the name for the largest denomination in Islam.[327][328] The term is a contraction of the phrase "ahl as-sunna wa'l-jamaat", which means "people of the sunna (the traditions of the prophet Muhammad) and the community".[329] Sunnis, or sometimes Sunnites, believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference six major hadith works for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafi'i.[23][330]

Traditionalist theology is a Sunni school of thought, prominently advocated by Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE), that is characterized by its adherence to a textualist understanding of the Quran and the Sunnah, the belief that the Quran is uncreated and eternal, and opposition to speculative theology, called kalam, in religious and ethical matters.[331] Mu'tazilism is a Sunni school of thought inspired by Ancient Greek Philosophy. Maturidism, founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (853–944 CE), asserts that scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that good and evil can be understood by reason alone,[332] but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human's comprehension. Ash'arism, founded by Al-Ashʿarī (c. 874–936), holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.[333]

Salafism is a revival movement advocating the return to the practices of the earliest generations of Muslims. In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a Salafi movement, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia.[334] A similar movement called Ahl al-Hadith also de-emphasized the centuries' old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The Nurcu Sunni movement was by Said Nursi (1877–1960);[335] it incorporates elements of Sufism and science.[335][336]

Shia Islam

Main article: Shia Islam
 
The Imam Hussein Shrine in Iraq is a holy site for Shia Muslims.

Shia Islam, or Shi'ism, is the second-largest Muslim denomination. Shias, or Shiites, split with Sunnis over Muhammad's successor as leader, who the Shia believed must be from certain descendants of Muhammad's family known as the Ahl al-Bayt and those leaders, referred to as Imams, have additional spiritual authority.[337] Shia recognise that Muhammad nominated Ali as his successor (khalīfa) and Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, most notably at the event of Ghadir Khumm.[338] Some of the first Imams are revered by all Shia groups and Sunnis, such as Ali. The Twelvers, the first and the largest Shia branch, believe in twelve Imams, the last of whom went into occultation to return one day. Zaidi, the second-oldest branch, reject special powers of Imams and are sometimes considered a 'fifth school' of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination.[339][340][341] The Isma'ilis split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have split into more groups over the status of successive Imams, with the largest group being the Nizaris.[342]

Ibadi Islam

Main article: Ibadi Islam

Ibadi Islam or Ibadism is practised by 1.45 million Muslims around the world (~ 0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in Oman.[343] Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the kharijites, though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. The kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with someone they viewed as a sinner. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as the Jami Sahih collection, uses chains of narrators from early Islamic history they considered trustworthy but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.[344]

 

Other denominations

  • The Ahmadiyya movement was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad[345] in India in 1889.[346][347][348][349] Ahmad claimed to be the "Promised Messiah" or "Imam Mahdi" of prophecy. Today the group has 10 to 20 million practitioners, but is rejected by most Muslims as heretical,[350] and Ahmadis have been subject to religious persecution and discrimination since the movement's inception.[351]

Non-denominational Muslims

Main article: Non-denominational Muslim

Non-denominational Muslims is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific Islamic denomination.[360][361][362] Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.[363][364][365] The Pew Research Center reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in Kazakhstan at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identify in this way.[366]

Mysticism

Main article: Sufism
See also: Sufi–Salafi relations
 
The Whirling Dervishes, or Mevlevi Order by the tomb of Sufi-mystic Rumi

Sufism (Arabic: تصوف, tasawwuf), is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct personal experience of God. Classical Sufi scholars defined tasawwuf as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[367][368][369][370][371][372] It is not a sect of Islam and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. Isma'ili Shias, whose teachings root in Gnosticism and Neoplatonism,[373] as well as by the Illuminationist and Isfahan schools of Islamic philosophy have developed mystical interpretations of Islam.[374] Hasan al-Basri, the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis,[375] emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as Mansur Al-Hallaj and Jalaluddin Rumi, emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with Rumi, still one of the best selling poets in America.[376][377]

Sufis see tasawwuf as an inseparable part of Islam, just like the sharia.[378] Traditional Sufis, such as Bayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Baghdadi, and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet.[379][378] Historian Nile Green argued that Islam in the Medieval period, was more or less Sufism.[380] Popular devotional practices such as the veneration of Sufi saints have been viewed as innovations from the original religion from followers of Salafism, who have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in Sufi–Salafi relations.[381]

Sufi congregations form orders (tariqa) centered around a teacher (wali) who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad.[382] Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.[191] Sufi influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or Barelvi movement defends Sufi practices and beliefs with over 200 million followers in south Asia.[383][384][385] Sufism is prominent in Central Asia,[386][387] as well as in African countries like Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Chad and Niger.[366][388]

Law and jurisprudence

Main articles: Sharia and Fiqh
See also: Logic in Islamic philosophy § Islamic law and theology

Sharia is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition.[23] It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith. In Arabic, the term sharīʿah refers to God's divine law and is contrasted with fiqh, which refers to its scholarly interpretations.[389][390] The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists.[23]

Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of sharia: the Quran, sunnah (Hadith and Sira), qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (juridical consensus).[391] Different legal schools developed methodologies for deriving sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ijtihad.[389] Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law,ʿibādāt (rituals) and muʿāmalāt (social relations), which together comprise a wide range of topics.[389] Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories called ahkam: mandatory (fard), recommended (mustahabb), permitted (mubah), abhorred (makruh), and prohibited (haram).[389][390] Forgiveness is much celebrated in Islam[392] and, in criminal law, while imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is considered permissible; forgiving the offender is better. To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded as the peak of excellence.[393] Some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God's will.[390]

Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists (muftis). Their legal opinions (fatwa) were taken into account by ruler-appointed judges who presided over qāḍī's courts, and by maẓālim courts, which were controlled by the ruler's council and administered criminal law.[389][390] In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models.[390] The Ottoman Empire's 19th century Tanzimat reforms lead to the Mecelle civil code and represented the first attempt to codify sharia.[394] While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in personal status (family) laws.[390] Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence.[390][395] The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for complete implementation of sharia.[390][395] The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and women's rights.[396][397]

Schools of jurisprudence

 
Islamic schools of law in the Muslim world
Main article: Madhhab

A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a madhhab (Arabic: مذهب). The four major Sunni schools are the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali madhahs while the three major Shia schools are the Ja'fari, Zaidi and Isma'ili madhahib. Each differs in their methodology, called Usul al-fiqh ("principles of jurisprudence"). The following of decisions by a religious expert without necessarily examining the decision's reasoning is called taqlid. The term ghair muqallid literally refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab.[398] The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ijtihad.[399]

Society

Religious personages

Main article: Ulama
 
Crimean Tatar Muslim students (1856)

Islam, like Judaism, has no clergy in the sacerdotal sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. Imam (إمام) is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position, often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service.[400] Religious interpretation is presided over by the 'ulama (Arabic: علماء), a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training in Islamic studies. A scholar of the hadith is called a muhaddith, a scholar of jurisprudence is called a faqih (فقيه), a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions or fatwas is called a mufti, and a qadi is an Islamic judge. Honorific titles given to scholars include sheikh, mullah and mawlawi. Some Muslims also venerate saints associated with miracles (كرامات, karāmāt).[401]

Governance

See also: Political aspects of Islam, Islamic economics, Islamic military jurisprudence, and Jihad

In Islamic economic jurisprudence, hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus monopolistic behavior is frowned upon.[402] Attempts to comply with shariah has led to the development of Islamic banking. Islam prohibits riba, usually translated as usury, which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean interest.[403] Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling[404] and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which substantially protected them from the 2008 financial crisis.[405] The state used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known as Bayt al-mal, before it became a largely individual pursuit. The first Caliph, Abu Bakr, distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a guaranteed minimum income, with each man, woman and child getting 10 to 20 dirhams annually.[406] During the reign of the second Caliph Umar, child support was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends,[407][408][409] while the Umayyad Caliph Umar II assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.[410]

Jihad means "to strive or struggle [in the way of God]" and, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation".[411] This could refer to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection[412][413][414] with the Shia and Sufis in particular, distinguishing between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.[415][416] When used without a qualifier, jihad is often understood in its military form.[411][412] Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.[415][416] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.[417] Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[416] For most Twelver Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's occultation is 868 CE.[418][419]

Daily and family life

See also: Adab (Islam), Islamic dietary laws, Islam and children, Marriage in Islam, Women in Islam, and Polygyny in Islam
 
Islamic veils represent modesty in Islam.

Many daily practices fall in the category of adab, or etiquette. Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and carrion. Health is viewed as a trust from God and intoxicants, such as alcoholic drinks, are prohibited.[420] All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for themself.[421][422][423] Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural[424][425][better source needed] and body modifications, such as permanent tattoos, are usually forbidden as violating the creation.[c][427] Gold and silk for men are prohibited.[428] Haya, often translated as "shame" or "modesty", is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam[429] and informs much of Muslim daily life. For example, clothing in Islam emphasizes a standard of modesty, which has included the hijab for women. Similarly, personal hygiene is encouraged with certain requirements.[430]

In Islamic marriage, the groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr).[431][432][433] Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.[434][435] However, Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny and can have up to four wives at the same time. There are also cultural variations in weddings.[436] Polyandry, a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.[437]

After the birth of a child, the adhan is pronounced in the right ear.[438] On the seventh day, the aqiqah ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.[439] The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor.[439] Male circumcision, called khitan,[440] is often practised in the Muslim world.[441][442] Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation.[443][444]

A dying Muslim is encouraged to pronounce the Shahada as their last words. Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts. In Islamic burial rituals, burial is encouraged as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours. The body is washed, except for martyrs, by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate called kafan.[445] A "funeral prayer" called Salat al-Janazah is performed. Wailing, or loud, mournful outcrying, is discouraged. Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked, even for kings.[446] Regarding inheritance, a son's share is double that of a daughter's.[v]

Arts and culture

Main article: Islamic culture
See also: Islamic art, Islamic architecture, Islamic literature, and Cultural Muslims

The term "Islamic culture" can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals and dress code. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.[447] Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,[448] sometimes referred to as "Islamicate".[449]

Islamic art encompasses the visual arts including fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.[450][451] While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with laws against idolatry, this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation, and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.[452] In Islamic architecture, varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the Great Mosque of Kairouan containing marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,[453] while mosques in Indonesia often have multi-tiered roofs from local Javanese styles.[454]

The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar that begins with the Hijra of 622 CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes.[455] Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the end of the Hajj (pilgrimage).[456]

Cultural Muslims are religiously non-practicing individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up, with certain national and ethnic rituals, rather than merely religious faith.[457][458]

Derived religions

See also: Islam and Druze

Some movements, such as the Druze,[459][460][461][462] Berghouata and Ha-Mim, either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial.[463] Yazdânism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century.[464] Bábism stems from Twelver Shia passed through Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri Baha'u'llah founded the Baháʼí Faith.[465] Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late 15th century Punjab, primarily incorporates aspects of Hinduism, with some Islamic influences.[466]

Criticism

Main article: Criticism of Islam
 
John of Damascus, under the Umayyad Caliphate, viewed Islamic doctrines as a hodgepodge from the Bible.[467]

Criticism of Islam has existed since Islam's formative stages. Early criticism came from Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry, often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.[468] Later, criticism from Jewish writers and from ecclesiastical Christians.[469]

Christian writers criticized Islamic salvation optimism and its carnality. Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise led many Christians to conclude that Islam was not a spiritual religion. Although sensual pleasure was also present in early Christianity, as seen in the writings of Irenaeus, the doctrines of the former Manichaean, Augustine of Hippo, led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife. Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the Gospel of Matthew.[470]

Defamatory images of Muhammad, derived from early 7th century depictions of the Byzantine Church,[471] appear in the 14th century epic poem Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri.[472] Here, Muhammad appears in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of schism, by establishing another religion after Christianity.[472]

Other criticisms focus on the question of human rights in modern Muslim-majority countries, and the treatment of women in Islamic law and practice.[473] In the wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized.[474] Western criticism of Islam grew after the September 11 attacks and other terrorist incidents.[475]

See also

References

Footnotes

  1. ^ "Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God's determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view.[194]
  2. ^ "In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the 16th century.[240]
  3. ^ Some Muslims in dynastic era China resisted footbinding of girls for the same reason.[426]

Qur'an and hadith

  1. ^ Q2:117 Quran 2:117
  2. ^ Quran 1:4;
  3. ^ Quran 6:31;
  4. ^ Quran 101:1
  5. ^ Quran 4:11.

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  5. ^ Yazbeck Haddad, Yvonne (2014). The Oxford Handbook of American Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 142. ISBN 9780199862634. While they appear parallel to those of normative Islam, in the Druze religion they are different in meaning and interpretation. The religion is consider distinct from the Isma'ili as well as from other Muslims belief and practice... Most Druze do not identify as Muslims...
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April 14, 2023
islam, this, article, about, religion, other, uses, disambiguation, ɑː, arabic, ال, إسل, ام, ʾislām, ɪsˈlaːm, listen, transl, submission, abrahamic, monotheistic, religion, centered, around, quran, teachings, muhammad, adherents, called, muslims, number, appro. This article is about the religion For other uses see Islam disambiguation Islam ˈ ɪ s l ɑː m Arabic ال إسل ام al ʾIslam ɪsˈlaːm listen transl Submission to God 7 8 is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered around the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad 9 10 Adherents of Islam called Muslims 11 number approximately 1 9 billion globally and are the world s second largest religious population after Christians 6 12 13 14 Islamالاسلام al IslamThe Kaaba at Masjid al Haram in Mecca Saudi Arabia the holiest Islamic siteTypeUniversal religionClassificationAbrahamicScriptureQuranTheologyMonotheismLanguageClassical ArabicTerritoryMuslim worldFounderMuhammadOrigin7th century CE Jabal al Nour near Mecca Hejaz ArabiaSeparationsAhl e Haqq 1 Babism 2 Bahaʼi Faith 3 Din i Ilahi Druzism 4 5 AhmadiyyaNumber of followersc 1 9 billion 6 referred to as Muslims who are collectively called the ummah Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times through earlier prophets such as Adam Abraham Moses and Jesus among others 15 16 these earlier revelations are attributed to Judaism and Christianity which are regarded in Islam as spiritual predecessor faiths 17 Muslims consider the Quran to be the verbatim word of Allah and the unaltered final revelation 18 They also consider Muhammad as the main and final Islamic prophet The teachings and normative example of Muhammad called the sunnah documented in accounts called the hadith provide a constitutional model for Muslims 19 Islam teaches that Allah is one and incomparable 20 It states that there will be a Final Judgement wherein the righteous will be rewarded in paradise Jannah and the unrighteous will be punished in hell Jahannam 21 The Five Pillars considered obligatory acts of worship comprise the Islamic oath and creed shahada daily prayers salah almsgiving zakat fasting sawm in the month of Ramadan and a pilgrimage Hajj to Mecca 22 Islamic law sharia touches on virtually every aspect of life from banking and finance and welfare to men s and women s roles and the environment 23 24 Prominent religious festivals include Eid al Fitr and Eid al Adha The three holiest sites in Islam in descending order are Masjid al Haram in Mecca Al Masjid an Nabawi in Medina and Al Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem 25 Islam originated in the 7th century in Mecca 26 Muslim rule expanded outside Arabia under the Rashidun Caliphate and the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate ruled from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley In the Islamic Golden Age mostly during the reign of the Abbasid Caliphate much of the Muslim world experienced a scientific economic and cultural flourishing 27 The expansion of the Muslim world involved various states and caliphates as well as extensive trade and religious conversion as a result of Islamic missionary activities dawah 28 and through conquests 29 30 There are two major Islamic denominations Sunni Islam 85 90 31 and Shia Islam 10 15 32 33 34 While Sunni Shia differences initially arose from disagreements over the succession to Muhammad they grew to cover a broader dimension both theologically and juridically 35 Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries 36 37 Approximately 12 of the world s Muslims live in Indonesia the most populous Muslim majority country 38 31 live in South Asia 39 20 live in the Middle East North Africa and 15 live in sub Saharan Africa 40 Sizable Muslim communities are also present in the Americas China and Europe 41 42 Due largely to a higher fertility rate 43 Islam is the world s fastest growing major religious group and is projected to be the world s largest religion by the end of the 21st century 44 Contents 1 Etymology 2 Articles of faith 2 1 God 2 2 Angels 2 3 Scripture 2 4 Prophets 2 5 Resurrection and judgment 2 6 Divine predestination 3 Acts of worship 3 1 Declaration of faith 3 2 Prayer 3 3 Almsgiving 3 4 Fasting 3 5 Pilgrimage 3 6 Quranic recitation and memorization 3 7 Supplication and remembrance 4 History 4 1 Muhammad and the birth of Islam 570 632 4 2 Early Islamic period 632 750 4 3 Classical era 750 1258 4 4 Pre Modern era 1258 18th century 4 5 Modern era 18th 20th centuries 4 6 Contemporary era 20th century present 5 Demographics 6 Main branches or denominations 6 1 Sunni Islam 6 2 Shia Islam 6 3 Ibadi Islam 6 4 Other denominations 6 5 Non denominational Muslims 7 Mysticism 8 Law and jurisprudence 8 1 Schools of jurisprudence 9 Society 9 1 Religious personages 9 2 Governance 9 3 Daily and family life 9 4 Arts and culture 10 Derived religions 11 Criticism 12 See also 13 References 13 1 Footnotes 13 2 Qur an and hadith 13 3 Citations 13 4 Sources 13 5 Encyclopedias and dictionaries 14 Further readingEtymologySee also Muslims Etymology In Arabic Islam Arabic إسلام lit submission to God is the verbal noun of Form IV originating from the verb سلم salama from the triliteral root س ل م S L M which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission safeness and peace 45 In a religious context it refers to the total surrender to the will of Allah 46 47 A Muslim م س ل م the word for a follower of Islam is the active participle of the same verb form and means submitter to Allah or one who surrenders to Allah In the Hadith of Gabriel Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includes iman faith and ihsan excellence 48 49 Islam itself was historically called Mohammedanism in the English speaking world This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be offensive as it suggests that a human being rather than Allah is central to Muslims religion parallel to Buddha in Buddhism 50 Articles of faithMain articles Aqidah and Iman The Islamic creed aqidah requires belief in six articles God angels revelation prophets the Day of Resurrection and the divine decree 51 God Main article God in Islam The central concept of Islam is tawḥid Arabic توحيد the oneness of God Usually thought of as a precise monotheism but also panentheistic in Islamic mystical teachings 52 53 54 55 God is seen as incomparable and without partners such as in the Christian Trinity and associating partners to God or attributing God s attributes to others is seen as idolatory called shirk God is seen as transcendent of creation and so is beyond comprehension Thus Muslims are not iconodules and do not attribute forms to God God is instead described and referred to by several names or attributes the most common being Ar Rahman الرحمان meaning The Entirely Merciful and Ar Rahim الرحيم meaning The Especially Merciful which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran 56 57 Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God s command as expressed by the wording Be and it is i 58 and that the purpose of existence is to worship God 59 He is viewed as a personal god 58 and there are no intermediaries such as clergy to contact God Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as Taqwa Allah is a term with no plural or gender being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God whereas ʾilah إله is a term used for a deity or a god in general 60 61 62 Angels A 16th century Siyer i Nebi image of angel Gabriel visiting Muhammad Main article Angels in Islam Angels Arabic ملك malak are beings described in the Quran 63 and hadith 64 They are described as created to worship God and also to serve other specific duties such as communicating revelations from God recording every person s actions and taking a person s soul at the time of death They are described as being created variously from light nur 65 66 67 or fire nar 68 69 70 71 Islamic angels are often represented in anthropomorphic forms combined with supernatural images such as wings being of great size or wearing heavenly articles 72 73 74 75 Common characteristics for angels are their missing needs for bodily desires such as eating and drinking 76 Some of them such as Gabriel and Michael are mentioned by name in the Quran Angels play a significant role in the literature about the Mi raj where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens 64 Further angels have often been featured in Islamic eschatology theology and philosophy 77 Scripture A Qur an manuscript resting on a rehal a book rest for the holy text Main articles Quran Wahy and Islamic holy books See also History of the Quran The pre eminent holy text of Islam is the Qur an Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the archangel Gabriel Jibril on multiple occasions between 610 CE and 632 the year Muhammad died 78 While Muhammad was alive these revelations were written down by his companions although the prime method of transmission was orally through memorization 79 The Quran is divided into 114 chapters surah which combined contain 6 236 verses ayat The chronologically earlier chapters revealed at Mecca are concerned primarily with spiritual topics while the later Medinan chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community 58 80 Muslim jurists consult the hadith accounts or the written record of Prophet Muhammad s life to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir 81 82 In addition to its religious significance it is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature 83 84 and has influenced art and the Arabic language 85 Islam also holds that God has sent revelations called wahy to different prophets numerous times throughout history However Islam teaches that parts of the previously revealed scriptures such as the Tawrat Torah and the Injil Gospel had become distorted either in interpretation in text or both 86 87 88 89 while the Quran lit Recitation is viewed as the final verbatim and unaltered word of God 80 90 91 Prophets Main articles Prophets and messengers in Islam Sunnah and Hadith A Persian miniature depicting Muhammad leading Abraham Moses Jesus and other prophets in prayer Prophets Arabic أنبياء anbiyaʾ are believed to have been chosen by God to receive and preach a divine message Additionally a prophet delivering a new book to a nation is called a rasul رسول rasul meaning messenger 92 Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine All of the prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam submission to the will of God to various nations in the past and that this accounts for many similarities among religions The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam including Adam Noah Abraham Moses and Jesus among others 58 Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet Seal of the prophets to convey the completed message of Islam In Islam the normative example of Muhammad s life is called the sunnah literally trodden path Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad s moral behaviors in their daily lives and the Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran 93 94 95 This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith which are accounts of his words actions and personal characteristics Hadith Qudsi is a sub category of hadith regarded as God s verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran A hadith involves two elements a chain of narrators called sanad and the actual wording called matn There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths with the commonly used grading being authentic or correct صحيح ṣaḥiḥ good hasan حسن ḥasan or weak ضعيف ḍaʻif among others The Kutub al Sittah are a collection of six books regarded as the most authentic reports in Sunni Islam Among them is Sahih al Bukhari often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most authentic sources after the Quran 96 Another famous source of hadiths is known as The Four Books which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference 97 98 99 Resurrection and judgment The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus where Islamic tradition holds the Prophet Isa Jesus will reappear on the Day of Judgment Main article Islamic eschatology Belief in the Day of Resurrection or Yawm al Qiyamah Arabic يوم القيامة is also crucial for Muslims It is believed that the time of Qiyamah is preordained by God but unknown to man The Quran and the hadith as well as in the commentaries of scholars describe the trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyamah The Quran emphasizes bodily resurrection a break from the pre Islamic Arabian understanding of death 100 101 102 On Yawm al Qiyamah Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to Jannah paradise or Jahannam hell The Quran in Surat al Zalzalah describes this as So whoever does an atom s weight of good will see it And whoever does an atom s weight of evil will see it The Quran lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell However the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes Good deeds like charity prayer and compassion towards animals 103 104 will be rewarded with entry to heaven Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings with Quranic references describing its features Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God 105 106 107 108 Yawm al Qiyamah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad Din يوم الدين Day of Religion ii as Saʿah الساعة the Last Hour iii and al Qariʿah القارعة The Clatterer iv Divine predestination Main article Predestination in Islam The concept of divine decree and destiny in Islam Arabic القضاء والقدر al qadaʾ wa l qadar means that every matter good or bad is believed to have been decreed by God Al qadar meaning power derives from a root that means to measure or calculating 109 110 111 112 Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase Insha Allah meaning if God wills when speaking on future events 113 114 In addition to loss gain is also seen as a test of believers whether they would still recognize that the gain originates only from God 115 Acts of worshipMain articles Five Pillars of Islam and Ibadah There are five acts of worship that are considered duties the Shahada declaration of faith the five daily prayers the Zakat alms giving fasting during Ramadan and the Hajj pilgrimage collectively known as The Pillars of Islam Arkan al Islam 22 Apart from these Muslims also perform other optional supererogatory acts that are encouraged but not considered to be duties 116 Declaration of faith Silver coin of the Mughal Emperor Akbar inscribed with the Shahadah Main article Shahada The shahadah 117 is an oath declaring belief in Islam The expanded statement is ʾashadu ʾal la ʾilaha ʾilla llahu wa ʾashadu ʾanna muħammadan rasulu llah أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمدا رسول الله or I testify that there is no deity except God and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God 118 Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion Non Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses 119 120 121 Prayer Main article Salah See also Mosque and Jumu ah Muslim men prostrating in prayer at the Umayyad Mosque Damascus Prayer in Islam called as salah or aṣ ṣalat Arabic الصلاة is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called rakat that include bowing and prostrating to God There are five timed prayers each day that are considered duties The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed in the direction of the Kaaba The act also requires a state ritual purity achieved by means of the either a routine wudu ritual wash or in certain circumstancees a ghusl full body ritual wash 122 123 124 125 A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer it is also important social center to the Muslim community For example the Masjid an Nabawi Prophetic Mosque in Medina Saudi Arabia used to also serve as a shelter for the poor 126 Minarets are towers used to call the adhan a vocal call to signal the prayer time 127 128 Almsgiving A slot for giving zakat at the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II in Fez Morocco Main article Zakat See also Sadaqah Zakat Arabic زكاة zakah also spelled Zakat or Zakah is a type of almsgiving characterized by the giving of a fixed portion 2 5 annually 129 of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy such as for freeing captives those in debt or for stranded travellers and for those employed to collect zakat It acts as a form of welfare in Muslim societies 130 It is considered a religious obligation that the well off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God s bounty 131 and is seen as a purification of one s excess wealth 132 The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations using conservative estimates 133 Sadaqah as opposed to Zakat is a much encouraged optional charity 134 135 A waqf is a perpetual charitable trust which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies 136 Fasting A fast breaking feast known as Iftar is served traditionally with dates Main article Fasting in Islam See also Fasting during Ramadan During the month of Ramadan it is considered a duty for Muslims to fast The Ramadan fast Arabic صوم ṣawm precludes food and drink as well as other forms of consumption such as smoking and is performed from dawn to sunset 137 The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God s sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy In addition there are other days such as the Day of Arafah when fasting is optional 138 Pilgrimage Main articles Hajj and Umrah See also Holiest sites in Islam Pilgrims at the Great Mosque of Mecca during the Hajj season The Islamic pilgrimage called the ḥajj Arabic حج is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the Islamic month of Dhu al Hijjah Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of Abraham Pilgrims spend a day and a night on the plains of Mina then a day praying and worshipping in the plain of Mount Arafat then spending a night on the plain of Muzdalifah then moving to Jamarat symbolically stoning the Devil 139 then going to the city of Mecca and walking seven times around the Kaaba which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship then walking seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah recounting the steps of Abraham s wife Hagar while she was looking for water for her baby Ishmael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement 140 141 142 All Muslim men should wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called ihram intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin 143 144 Another form of pilgrimage Umrah is optional and can be undertaken at any time of the year Other sites of Islamic pilgrimage are Medina where Muhammad died as well as Jerusalem a city of many Islamic prophets and the site of the Al Aqsa Mosque which used to be the direction of prayer before Mecca 145 Quranic recitation and memorization Muslim men reading the Quran Main article Quran Recitation Al Ikhlas source source track track track Sincerity is the Quran s 112th chapter as recited by Imam Mishary Rashid Alafasy Problems playing this file See media help Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue Tajwid refers to the set of rules for the proper elocution of the Quran 146 Pious Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan 147 One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz memorizer and hadiths mention that that person will be able to intercede for others on the Last Judgment Day 148 Supplication and remembrance Main articles Dua and Dhikr Supplication to God called in Arabic ad duʿaʾ Arabic الدعاء IPA duˈʕaeːʔ has its own etiquette such as raising hands as if begging 149 Remembrance of God ذكر Dhikr refers to phrases repeated referencing God Commonly this includes Tahmid declaring praise be due to God الحمد لله al Ḥamdu lillah during prayer or when feeling thankful Tasbih declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying in the name of God بسملة basmalah before starting an act such as eating 150 HistoryMain article History of Islam For a chronological guide see Timeline of Islamic history See also List of Muslim empires and dynasties A panoramic view of Al Masjid al Nabawi the Mosque of the Prophet in Medina Hejaz region today s Saudi Arabia the second most sacred Mosque in Islam Muhammad and the birth of Islam 570 632 Main articles Muhammad and Muhammad in Islam See also Early social changes under Islam According to Islamic tradition Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE and was orphaned early in life Growing up as a trader he became known as the trusted one Arabic الامين 151 and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator He later married his employer the businesswoman Khadija In the year 610 CE troubled by the moral decline and idolatry prevalent in Mecca and seeking seclusion and spiritual contemplation Muhammad retreated to the Cave of Hira in the mountain Jabal al Nour near Mecca It was during his time in the cave that he is said to have received the first revelation of the Quran from the angel Jibreel 152 The event of Muhammad s retreat to the cave and subsequent revelation is known as the Night of Power Laylat al Qadr and is considered a significant event in Islamic history During the next 22 years of his life from age 40 onwards Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God becoming the last or seal of the prophets sent to mankind 86 87 153 During this time while in Mecca Muhammad preached first in secret and then in public imploring his listeners to abandon polytheism and worship one God Many early converts to Islam were women the poor foreigners and slaves like the first muezzin Bilal ibn Rabah al Habashi 154 The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves because they profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba 155 156 157 In 623 CE a Christian delegation from the Sinai requested a letter of protection from Mohammed for the continued activity of the Saint Catherine s Monastery and regional Christianity per se The prophet granted this request with a still existing document آشتی نامه محمد he personally touched the Patent of Mohammed The Ashtiname is an Ahtiname derived from the Arabic words ahd which signifies obligation and document testament The Ashtiname has official character and became the basis for permitted Christian activities in the Middle East and Northern Africa and thus constitutes a legal obligation for Islam to protect Christians in their faithful activities In AD 1517 Sultan Selim I validated the monastery s legality but transferred the original letter of protection for safekeeping to Constantinople Certified copies still remain at the monastery there and are part of the Scriptorium 158 After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans Muhammad and his companions performed the Hijra emigration in 622 to the city of Yathrib current day Medina There with the Medinan converts the Ansar and the Meccan migrants the Muhajirun Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority The Constitution of Medina was signed by all the tribes of Medina establishing among the Muslim and non Muslim communities religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws and agreeing to bar weapons from Medina and to defend it from external threats 159 Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at the Battle of Badr in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the Battle of Uhud 160 before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the Battle of the Trench March April 627 In 628 the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims but it was broken by Mecca two years later As more tribes converted to Islam Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims 161 162 By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca and by the time of his death in 632 at age 62 he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity 163 Early Islamic period 632 750 Further information Succession to Muhammad and Early Muslim conquests See also Event of Ghadir Khumm and Saqifa Rashidun and Umayyad expansion Dome of the Rock built by caliph Abd al Malik ibn Marwan completed at the end of the Second Fitna Muhammad died in 632 and the first successors called Caliphs Abu Bakr Umar Uthman ibn al Affan Ali ibn Abi Talib and sometimes Hasan ibn Ali 164 are known in Sunni Islam as al khulafa ar rashidun Rightly Guided Caliphs 165 Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in the Ridda wars 166 167 168 169 170 Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily often helped Muslims take over their lands 171 resulting in rapid expansion of the caliphate into the Persian and Byzantine empires 172 173 Uthman was elected in 644 and his assassination by rebels led to Ali being elected the next Caliph In the First Civil War Muhammad s widow Aisha raised an army against Ali asking to avenge the death of Uthman but was defeated at the Battle of the Camel Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria Mu awiya who was seen as corrupt Mu awiya then declared war on Ali and was defeated in the Battle of Siffin Ali s decision to arbitrate angered the Kharijites an extremist sect who felt that by not fighting a sinner Ali became a sinner as well The Kharijites rebelled and were defeated in the Battle of Nahrawan but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali Ali s son Hasan ibn Ali was elected Caliph and signed a peace treaty to avoid further fighting abdicating to Mu awiya in return for Mu awiya not appointing a successor 174 Mu awiya began the Umayyad dynasty with the appointment of his son Yazid I as successor sparking the Second Civil War During the Battle of Karbala Husayn ibn Ali was killed by Yazid s forces the event has been annually commemorated by Shias ever since Sunnis led by Ibn al Zubayr opposed to a dynastic caliphate were defeated in the siege of Mecca These disputes over leadership would give rise to the Sunni Shia schism 175 with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad s family through Ali called the ahl al bayt 176 Abu Bakr s leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Qur an The Caliph Umar ibn Abd al Aziz set up the committee The Seven Fuqaha of Medina 177 178 and Malik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence the Muwatta as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists 179 180 181 The Kharijites believed there is no compromised middle ground between good and evil and any Muslim who commits a grave sin becomes an unbeliever The term is also used to refer to later groups such as Isis 182 The Murji ah taught that people s righteousness could be judged by God alone Therefore wrongdoers might be considered misguided but not denounced as unbelievers 183 This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs 184 The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghreb the Iberian Peninsula Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh 185 The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military 186 Since the jizya tax was a tax paid by non Muslims which exempted them from military service the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non Arabs as it reduced revenue 184 While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official s possessions 187 Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious 184 The Kharijites led the Berber Revolt leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate In the Abbasid revolution non Arab converts mawali Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan and some Shi a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750 188 189 Classical era 750 1258 Further information Hadith studies and Islamic philosophy See also Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe and Turco Persian tradition The eye according to Hunain ibn Ishaq from a manuscript dated c 1200 Al Shafi i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith 190 During the early Abbasid era scholars such as Muhammad al Bukhari and Muslim ibn al Hajjaj compiled the major Sunni hadith collections while scholars like Al Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh compiled major Shia hadith collections The four Sunni Madh habs the Hanafi Hanbali Maliki and Shafi i were established around the teachings of Abu Ḥanifa Ahmad ibn Hanbal Malik ibn Anas and al Shafi i In contrast the teachings of Ja far al Sadiq formed the Ja fari jurisprudence In the 9th century Al Tabari completed the first commentary of the Quran that became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam the Tafsir al Tabari Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires Ascetics such as Hasan al Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into tasawwuf or sufism 191 192 At this time theological problems notably on free will were prominently tackled with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people s actions good and evil come from abuse of free will and the devil 193 a Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as Muʿtazila who famously advocated the notion of free will first originated by Wasil ibn Ata 195 Caliphs such as Mamun al Rashid and Al Mu tasim made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force their position on the majority 196 They carried out inquisitions with the traditionalist Ahmad ibn Hanbal notably refusing to conform to the Muʿtazila idea that the Quran was created rather than being eternal and was tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months 197 However other schools of speculative theology Maturidism founded by Abu Mansur al Maturidi and Ash ari founded by Al Ash ari were more successful in being widely adopted Philosophers such as Al Farabi Avicenna and Averroes sought to harmonize Aristotle s ideas with the teachings of Islam similar to later scholasticism within Christianity in Europe and Maimonides work within Judaism while others like Al Ghazali argued against such syncretism and ultimately prevailed 198 199 This era is sometimes called the Islamic Golden Age 200 201 202 203 173 Islamic scientific achievements encompassed a wide range of subject areas especially medicine mathematics astronomy agriculture as well as physics economics engineering and optics 204 205 206 207 Avicenna was a pioneer in experimental medicine 208 209 and his The Canon of Medicine was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and Europe for centuries Rhazes was the first to distinguish the diseases smallpox and measles 210 Public hospitals of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors 211 212 Ibn al Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the world s first true scientist in particular regarding his work in optics 213 214 215 216 In engineering the Banu Musa brothers automatic flute player is considered to have been the first programmable machine 217 In mathematics the concept of the algorithm is named after Muhammad ibn Musa al Khwarizmi who is considered a founder of algebra which is named after his book al jabr 218 while others developed the concept of a function 219 The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today 220 The Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine founded in 859 as the world s oldest degree granting university 221 Many non Muslims such as Christians Jews and Sabians 222 contributed to the Islamic civilization in various fields 223 224 and the institution known as the House of Wisdom employed Christian and Persian scholars to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge 225 222 Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties such as the Tulunids in 868 in Egypt 226 and the Ghaznavid dynasty in 977 in Central Asia 227 In this fragmentation came the Shi a Century roughly between 945 and 1055 which saw the rise of the millennialist Isma ili Shi a missionary movement One Isma ili group the Fatimid dynasty took control of North Africa in the 10th century 228 and another Isma ili group the Qarmatians sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone a rock placed within the Kaaba in their unsuccessful rebellion 229 Yet another Isma ili group the Buyid dynasty conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy The Sunni Seljuk dynasty campaigned to reassert Sunni Islam by promulgating the accumulated scholarly opinion of the time notably with the construction of educational institutions known as Nezamiyeh which are associated with Al Ghazali and Saadi Shirazi 230 The expansion of the Muslim world continued with religious missions converting Volga Bulgaria to Islam The Delhi Sultanate reached deep into the Indian Subcontinent and many converted to Islam 231 232 in particular low caste Hindus whose descendents make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims 233 Trade brought many Muslims to China and they virtually dominated the import and export industry of the Song dynasty 234 and Muslims were recruited as a governing minority class in the Yuan dynasty 235 Pre Modern era 1258 18th century Further information Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam Ghazan Khan 7th Ilkhanate ruler of the Mongol Empire converts to Islam 14th century depiction Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders Islam spread into new areas 47 236 and Muslims assimilated into new cultures Under the Ottoman Empire Islam spread to Southeast Europe 237 Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of syncretism 238 as illustrated by Muhammad s appearance in Hindu folklore 239 Muslim Turks incorporated elements of Turkish Shamanism beliefs to Islam b 241 Muslims in Ming Dynasty China who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated sometimes through laws mandating assimilation 242 by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study 243 244 Cultural shifts were evident with the decrease in Arab influence after the Mongol destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate 245 The Muslim Mongol Khanates in Iran and Central Asia benefited from increased cross cultural access to East Asia under Mongol rule and thus flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence such as the Timurid Renaissance under the Timurid dynasty 246 Nasir al Din al Tusi 1201 1274 proposed the mathematical model that was later adopted by Copernicus unrevised in his heliocentric model and Jamshid al Kashi s estimate of pi would not be surpassed for 180 years 247 The introduction of gunpowder weapons led to the rise of large centralized states and the Muslim gunpowder empires consolidated much of the previously splintered territories The caliphate was claimed by the Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire since Murad I s conquest of Edirne in 1362 248 and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as Selim I became the ruler of Mecca and Medina 249 The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran 250 In South Asia Babur founded the Mughal Empire 251 The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations A symbiosis between Ottoman rulers and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning The Mevlevi Order and Bektashi Order had a close relation to the sultans 252 as Sufi mystical as well as heterodox and syncretic approaches to Islam flourished 253 254 The often forceful Safavid conversion of Iran to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shia Islam Persian migrants to South Asia as influential bureaucrats and landholders help spread Shia Islam forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran 255 Nader Shah who overthrew the Safavids attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth madhhab called Ja farism 256 which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans 257 Modern era 18th 20th centuries Abdulmecid II was the last Caliph of Islam from the Ottoman dynasty Earlier in the 14th century Ibn Taymiyya promoted a puritanical form of Islam 258 rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology 258 and called to open the gates of itjihad rather than blind imitation of scholars 259 He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics 260 but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime 261 During the 18th century in Arabia Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al Qayyim founded a movement called Wahhabi with their self designation as Muwahiddun to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam 262 263 He condemned many local Islamic customs such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints as later innovations and sinful 263 and destroyed sacred rocks and trees Sufi shrines the tombs of Muhammad and his companions and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala a major Shia pilgrimage site 264 265 He formed an alliance with the Saud family which by the 1920s completed their conquest of the area that would become Saudi Arabia 266 Ma Wanfu and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the 19th century such as Sailaifengye in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups 267 Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it with the Senusiyya and Muhammad Ahmad both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively 268 In India Shah Waliullah Dehlawi attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the Deobandi movement 269 In response to the Deobandi movement the Barelwi movement was founded as a mass movement defending popular Sufism and reforming its practices 270 271 The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s especially regarding non Muslim European powers Earlier in the 15th century the Reconquista succeeded in ending the Muslim presence in Iberia By the 19th century the British East India Company had formally annexed the Mughal dynasty in India 272 As a response to Western Imperialism many intellectuals sought to reform Islam 273 Islamic modernism initially labelled by Western scholars as Salafiyya embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture oriented 274 275 Notable forerunners include Muhammad Abduh and Jamal al Din al Afghani 276 Abul A la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam 277 Similar to contemporary codification Shariah was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire s Mecelle code 278 The Ottoman Empire disintegrated after World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924 279 by the first President of the Turkish Republic Mustafa Kemal Ataturk as part of his secular reforms 280 281 Pan Islamists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces such as pan Arabism The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation OIC consisting of Muslim majority countries was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem 282 Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants mostly from India and Indonesia to the Caribbean forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas 283 Migration from Syria and Lebanon was the biggest contributor to the Muslim population in Latin America The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914 284 Contemporary era 20th century present Leaders of Muslim countries during session of the Islamic Summit Conference in Istanbul Turkey Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood and related parties in the Arab world 285 286 which performed well in elections following the Arab Spring 287 Jamaat e Islami in South Asia and the AK Party which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades In Iran revolution replaced a secular monarchy with an Islamic state Others such as Sayyid Rashid Rida broke away from Islamic modernists 288 and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence 289 While some were quietist others believed in violence against those opposing them even other Muslims such as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant who would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system 290 In opposition to Islamic political movements in 20th century Turkey the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments and headscarves were legally restricted as also happened in Tunisia 291 292 In other places religious authority was co opted and are now often seen as puppets of the state For example in Saudi Arabia the state monopolized religious scholarship 293 and in Egypt the state nationalized Al Azhar University previously an independent voice checking state power 294 Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism 295 Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East in opposition to Iran 296 Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group 297 This has been undertaken by communist forces like the Khmer Rouge who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population 298 and the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang 299 and by nationalist forces such as during the Bosnian genocide 300 The globalization of communication has increased dissemination of religious information The adoption of the hijab has grown more common 301 and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions 302 Among other groups this access to information has led to the rise of popular televangelist preachers such as Amr Khaled who compete with the traditional ulema in their reach and have decentralized religious authority 303 304 More individualized interpretations of Islam 305 notably include Liberal Muslims who attempt to reconcile religious traditions with current secular governance 306 and women s issues 307 Demographics Muslim distribution worldwide based on latest available data 308 Main articles Muslim world and Ummah See also Islam by country and Muslim population growth As of 2015 about 24 of the global population or about 1 8 billion people are Muslims 309 6 310 In 1900 this estimate was 12 3 311 in 1990 it was 19 9 40 and projections suggest the proportion will be 29 7 by 2050 43 The Pew Research Center estimates that 87 90 of Muslims are Sunni and 10 13 are Shia 34 Approximately 49 countries are Muslim majority 312 313 with 62 of the world s Muslims living in Asia and 683 million adherents in Indonesia Pakistan India and Bangladesh alone 314 315 Most estimates indicate China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims 1 5 to 2 of the population 316 317 Islam in Europe is the second largest religion after Christianity in many countries with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005 318 accounting 4 9 of all of Europe s population in 2016 319 Religious conversion has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith 320 Although Islam is expected to experience a modest gain through religious conversion 321 322 According to a report by CNN Islam has drawn converts from all walks of life most notably African Americans 323 In Britain around 6 000 people convert to Islam per year and according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey the majority of new Muslim converts in Britain were women 324 According to The Huffington Post observers estimate that as many as 20 000 Americans convert to Islam annually most of them are women and African Americans 325 326 By both percentage and total numbers Islam is the world s fastest growing major religious group and is projected to be the world s largest by the end of the 21st century surpassing that of Christianity 44 It is estimated that by 2050 the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world due to the young age and high fertility rate of Muslims relative to other religious groups 43 Main branches or denominationsMain article Islamic schools and branches Main branches or denominationsSee also Shia Sunni relations Sunni Islam Main article Sunni Islam The nine volumes of Sahih Al Bukhari one of the six Sunni hadith books Sunni Islam or Sunnism is the name for the largest denomination in Islam 327 328 The term is a contraction of the phrase ahl as sunna wa l jamaat which means people of the sunna the traditions of the prophet Muhammad and the community 329 Sunnis or sometimes Sunnites believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference six major hadith works for legal matters while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence Hanafi Hanbali Maliki or Shafi i 23 330 Traditionalist theology is a Sunni school of thought prominently advocated by Ahmad ibn Hanbal 780 855 CE that is characterized by its adherence to a textualist understanding of the Quran and the Sunnah the belief that the Quran is uncreated and eternal and opposition to speculative theology called kalam in religious and ethical matters 331 Mu tazilism is a Sunni school of thought inspired by Ancient Greek Philosophy Maturidism founded by Abu Mansur al Maturidi 853 944 CE asserts that scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that good and evil can be understood by reason alone 332 but people rely on revelation for matters beyond human s comprehension Ash arism founded by Al Ashʿari c 874 936 holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas 333 Salafism is a revival movement advocating the return to the practices of the earliest generations of Muslims In the 18th century Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab led a Salafi movement referred by outsiders as Wahhabism in modern day Saudi Arabia 334 A similar movement called Ahl al Hadith also de emphasized the centuries old Sunni legal tradition preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith The Nurcu Sunni movement was by Said Nursi 1877 1960 335 it incorporates elements of Sufism and science 335 336 Shia Islam Main article Shia Islam The Imam Hussein Shrine in Iraq is a holy site for Shia Muslims Shia Islam or Shi ism is the second largest Muslim denomination Shias or Shiites split with Sunnis over Muhammad s successor as leader who the Shia believed must be from certain descendants of Muhammad s family known as the Ahl al Bayt and those leaders referred to as Imams have additional spiritual authority 337 Shia recognise that Muhammad nominated Ali as his successor khalifa and Imam spiritual and political leader after him most notably at the event of Ghadir Khumm 338 Some of the first Imams are revered by all Shia groups and Sunnis such as Ali The Twelvers the first and the largest Shia branch believe in twelve Imams the last of whom went into occultation to return one day Zaidi the second oldest branch reject special powers of Imams and are sometimes considered a fifth school of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination 339 340 341 The Isma ilis split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have split into more groups over the status of successive Imams with the largest group being the Nizaris 342 Ibadi Islam Main article Ibadi Islam Ibadi Islam or Ibadism is practised by 1 45 million Muslims around the world 0 08 of all Muslims most of them in Oman 343 Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the kharijites though Ibadis themselves object to this classification The kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with someone they viewed as a sinner Unlike most Kharijite groups Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers Ibadi hadiths such as the Jami Sahih collection uses chains of narrators from early Islamic history they considered trustworthy but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections 344 Other denominations The Ahmadiyya movement was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad 345 in India in 1889 346 347 348 349 Ahmad claimed to be the Promised Messiah or Imam Mahdi of prophecy Today the group has 10 to 20 million practitioners but is rejected by most Muslims as heretical 350 and Ahmadis have been subject to religious persecution and discrimination since the movement s inception 351 Bektashi Alevism is a syncretic and heterodox local Islamic tradition whose adherents follow the mystical baṭeni teachings of Ali and Haji Bektash Veli 352 Alevism is a blend of traditional 14th century Turkish beliefs 322 with possible syncretist origins in Shamanism and Animism and Shias and Sufi beliefs It has been estimated that there are 10 million to over 20 million 0 5 1 of all Muslims Alevis worldwide 353 Quranism is a religious movement of Islam based on the belief that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the Qur an and not the Sunnah or Hadith 354 with Quranists notably differing in their approach to the five pillars of Islam 355 The movement developed from the 19th century onwards with thinkers like Syed Ahmad Khan Abdullah Chakralawi and Ghulam Ahmed Perwez in India questioning the hadith tradition 356 In Egypt Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi penned the article Islam is the Quran alone in the magazine Al Manar arguing for the sole authority of the Qur an 357 358 A prominent late 20th century Quranist was Rashad Khalifa an Egyptian American biochemist who claimed to have discovered a numerological code in the Quran and founded the Quranist organization United Submitters International 359 Non denominational Muslims Main article Non denominational Muslim Non denominational Muslims is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self identify with a specific Islamic denomination 360 361 362 Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self identify as just Muslim although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response 363 364 365 The Pew Research Center reports that respondents self identifying as just Muslim make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries and a plurality in three others with the highest proportion in Kazakhstan at 74 At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self identify in this way 366 MysticismMain article Sufism See also Sufi Salafi relations The Whirling Dervishes or Mevlevi Order by the tomb of Sufi mystic Rumi Sufism Arabic تصوف tasawwuf is a mystical ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct personal experience of God Classical Sufi scholars defined tasawwuf as a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God through intuitive and emotional faculties that one must be trained to use 367 368 369 370 371 372 It is not a sect of Islam and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations Isma ili Shias whose teachings root in Gnosticism and Neoplatonism 373 as well as by the Illuminationist and Isfahan schools of Islamic philosophy have developed mystical interpretations of Islam 374 Hasan al Basri the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis 375 emphasized fear of failing God s expectations of obedience In contrast later prominent Sufis such as Mansur Al Hallaj and Jalaluddin Rumi emphasized religiosity based on love towards God Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts with Rumi still one of the best selling poets in America 376 377 Sufis see tasawwuf as an inseparable part of Islam just like the sharia 378 Traditional Sufis such as Bayazid Bastami Jalaluddin Rumi Haji Bektash Veli Junaid Baghdadi and Al Ghazali argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet 379 378 Historian Nile Green argued that Islam in the Medieval period was more or less Sufism 380 Popular devotional practices such as the veneration of Sufi saints have been viewed as innovations from the original religion from followers of Salafism who have sometimes physically attacked Sufis leading to a deterioration in Sufi Salafi relations 381 Sufi congregations form orders tariqa centered around a teacher wali who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad 382 Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities 191 Sufi influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or Barelvi movement defends Sufi practices and beliefs with over 200 million followers in south Asia 383 384 385 Sufism is prominent in Central Asia 386 387 as well as in African countries like Tunisia Algeria Morocco Senegal Chad and Niger 366 388 Law and jurisprudenceMain articles Sharia and Fiqh See also Logic in Islamic philosophy Islamic law and theology Sharia is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition 23 It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam particularly the Quran and the Hadith In Arabic the term shariʿah refers to God s divine law and is contrasted with fiqh which refers to its scholarly interpretations 389 390 The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists 23 Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of sharia the Quran sunnah Hadith and Sira qiyas analogical reasoning and ijma juridical consensus 391 Different legal schools developed methodologies for deriving sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ijtihad 389 Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law ʿibadat rituals and muʿamalat social relations which together comprise a wide range of topics 389 Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories called ahkam mandatory fard recommended mustahabb permitted mubah abhorred makruh and prohibited haram 389 390 Forgiveness is much celebrated in Islam 392 and in criminal law while imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is considered permissible forgiving the offender is better To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded as the peak of excellence 393 Some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God s will 390 Historically sharia was interpreted by independent jurists muftis Their legal opinions fatwa were taken into account by ruler appointed judges who presided over qaḍi s courts and by maẓalim courts which were controlled by the ruler s council and administered criminal law 389 390 In the modern era sharia based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models 390 The Ottoman Empire s 19th century Tanzimat reforms lead to the Mecelle civil code and represented the first attempt to codify sharia 394 While the constitutions of most Muslim majority states contain references to sharia its classical rules were largely retained only in personal status family laws 390 Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence 390 395 The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for complete implementation of sharia 390 395 The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world There are ongoing debates whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government human rights freedom of thought and women s rights 396 397 Schools of jurisprudence Islamic schools of law in the Muslim world Main article Madhhab A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a madhhab Arabic مذهب The four major Sunni schools are the Hanafi Maliki Shafi i Hanbali madhahs while the three major Shia schools are the Ja fari Zaidi and Isma ili madhahib Each differs in their methodology called Usul al fiqh principles of jurisprudence The following of decisions by a religious expert without necessarily examining the decision s reasoning is called taqlid The term ghair muqallid literally refers to those who do not use taqlid and by extension do not have a madhab 398 The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ijtihad 399 SocietyReligious personages Main article Ulama Crimean Tatar Muslim students 1856 Islam like Judaism has no clergy in the sacerdotal sense such as priests who mediate between God and people Imam إمام is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service 400 Religious interpretation is presided over by the ulama Arabic علماء a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training in Islamic studies A scholar of the hadith is called a muhaddith a scholar of jurisprudence is called a faqih فقيه a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions or fatwas is called a mufti and a qadi is an Islamic judge Honorific titles given to scholars include sheikh mullah and mawlawi Some Muslims also venerate saints associated with miracles كرامات karamat 401 Governance See also Political aspects of Islam Islamic economics Islamic military jurisprudence and Jihad In Islamic economic jurisprudence hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus monopolistic behavior is frowned upon 402 Attempts to comply with shariah has led to the development of Islamic banking Islam prohibits riba usually translated as usury which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean interest 403 Instead Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty which is seen as gambling 404 and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which substantially protected them from the 2008 financial crisis 405 The state used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury known as Bayt al mal before it became a largely individual pursuit The first Caliph Abu Bakr distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a guaranteed minimum income with each man woman and child getting 10 to 20 dirhams annually 406 During the reign of the second Caliph Umar child support was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends 407 408 409 while the Umayyad Caliph Umar II assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons 410 Jihad means to strive or struggle in the way of God and in its broadest sense is exerting one s utmost power efforts endeavors or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation 411 This could refer to one s striving to attain religious and moral perfection 412 413 414 with the Shia and Sufis in particular distinguishing between the greater jihad which pertains to spiritual self perfection and the lesser jihad defined as warfare 415 416 When used without a qualifier jihad is often understood in its military form 411 412 Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works terrorists criminal groups rebels apostates and leaders or states who oppress Muslims 415 416 Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare 417 Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority For the rest of the populace this happens only in the case of a general mobilization 416 For most Twelver Shias offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community and as such is suspended since Muhammad al Mahdi s occultation is 868 CE 418 419 Daily and family life See also Adab Islam Islamic dietary laws Islam and children Marriage in Islam Women in Islam and Polygyny in Islam Islamic veils represent modesty in Islam Many daily practices fall in the category of adab or etiquette Specific prohibited foods include pork products blood and carrion Health is viewed as a trust from God and intoxicants such as alcoholic drinks are prohibited 420 All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim Jew or Christian except for game that one has hunted or fished for themself 421 422 423 Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural 424 425 better source needed and body modifications such as permanent tattoos are usually forbidden as violating the creation c 427 Gold and silk for men are prohibited 428 Haya often translated as shame or modesty is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam 429 and informs much of Muslim daily life For example clothing in Islam emphasizes a standard of modesty which has included the hijab for women Similarly personal hygiene is encouraged with certain requirements 430 In Islamic marriage the groom is required to pay a bridal gift mahr 431 432 433 Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous 434 435 However Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny and can have up to four wives at the same time There are also cultural variations in weddings 436 Polyandry a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands is prohibited in Islam 437 After the birth of a child the adhan is pronounced in the right ear 438 On the seventh day the aqiqah ceremony is performed in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor 439 The child s head is shaved and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor 439 Male circumcision called khitan 440 is often practised in the Muslim world 441 442 Respecting and obeying one s parents and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation 443 444 A dying Muslim is encouraged to pronounce the Shahada as their last words Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts In Islamic burial rituals burial is encouraged as soon as possible usually within 24 hours The body is washed except for martyrs by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate called kafan 445 A funeral prayer called Salat al Janazah is performed Wailing or loud mournful outcrying is discouraged Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked even for kings 446 Regarding inheritance a son s share is double that of a daughter s v Arts and culture Main article Islamic culture See also Islamic art Islamic architecture Islamic literature and Cultural Muslims The term Islamic culture can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion such as festivals and dress code It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people 447 Finally Islamic civilization may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates including that of non Muslims 448 sometimes referred to as Islamicate 449 Islamic art encompasses the visual arts including fields as varied as architecture calligraphy painting and ceramics among others 450 451 While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with laws against idolatry this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy tessellation and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture 452 In Islamic architecture varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the Great Mosque of Kairouan containing marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings 453 while mosques in Indonesia often have multi tiered roofs from local Javanese styles 454 The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar that begins with the Hijra of 622 CE a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad s fortunes 455 Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar meaning they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al Fitr Arabic عيد الفطر on the 1st of Shawwal marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan and Eid al Adha عيد الأضحى on the 10th of Dhu al Hijjah coinciding with the end of the Hajj pilgrimage 456 Cultural Muslims are religiously non practicing individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds personal experiences or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up with certain national and ethnic rituals rather than merely religious faith 457 458 14th century Sixty Dome Mosque in Khalifatabad Bangladesh Great Mosque of Djenne in the west African country of Mali Dome in Po i Kalyan Bukhara Uzbekistan 14th century Great Mosque of Xi an in China 16th century Menara Kudus Mosque in Indonesia showing Indian influence The phrase Bismillah in an 18th century Islamic calligraphy from the Ottoman region Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi s tomb in Shiraz IranDerived religionsSee also Islam and Druze Some movements such as the Druze 459 460 461 462 Berghouata and Ha Mim either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial 463 Yazdanism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century 464 Babism stems from Twelver Shia passed through Siyyid Ali Muhammad i Shirazi al Bab while one of his followers Mirza Husayn Ali Nuri Baha u llah founded the Bahaʼi Faith 465 Sikhism founded by Guru Nanak in late 15th century Punjab primarily incorporates aspects of Hinduism with some Islamic influences 466 CriticismMain article Criticism of Islam John of Damascus under the Umayyad Caliphate viewed Islamic doctrines as a hodgepodge from the Bible 467 Criticism of Islam has existed since Islam s formative stages Early criticism came from Christian authors many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry often explaining it in apocalyptic terms 468 Later criticism from Jewish writers and from ecclesiastical Christians 469 Christian writers criticized Islamic salvation optimism and its carnality Islam s sensual descriptions of paradise led many Christians to conclude that Islam was not a spiritual religion Although sensual pleasure was also present in early Christianity as seen in the writings of Irenaeus the doctrines of the former Manichaean Augustine of Hippo led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al Tabari defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas such as drinking wine in the Gospel of Matthew 470 Defamatory images of Muhammad derived from early 7th century depictions of the Byzantine Church 471 appear in the 14th century epic poem Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri 472 Here Muhammad appears in the eighth circle of hell along with Ali Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of schism by establishing another religion after Christianity 472 Other criticisms focus on the question of human rights in modern Muslim majority countries and the treatment of women in Islamic law and practice 473 In the wake of the recent multiculturalism trend Islam s influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized 474 Western criticism of Islam grew after the September 11 attacks and other terrorist incidents 475 See alsoGlossary of Islam Index of Islam related articles Islamic mythology Islamic studies Major religious groups Outline of IslamReferencesFootnotes Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil arguing that his fall was the result of his own free will not God s determination Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view 194 In recent years the idea of syncretism has been challenged Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs only prescribed practise in Islam before the 16th century 240 Some Muslims in dynastic era China resisted footbinding of girls for the same reason 426 Qur an and hadith Q2 117 Quran 2 117 Quran 1 4 Quran 6 31 Quran 101 1 Quran 4 11 Citations Hamzeh ee M Reza Fariborz 1995 Krisztina Kehl Bodrogi et al eds Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East Leiden Brill pp 101 117 ISBN 90 04 10861 0 Browne Edward G 1889 Babism World s Baha i connect with past in Israel Reuters 20 January 2007 via www reuters com Hunter Shireen 2010 The Politics of Islamic Revivalism Diversity and Unity Center for Strategic and International Studies Washington D C Georgetown University Center for Strategic and International Studies University of Michigan Press p 33 ISBN 9780253345493 Druze An offshoot of Shi ism its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims Yazbeck Haddad Yvonne 2014 The Oxford Handbook of American Islam Oxford University Press p 142 ISBN 9780199862634 While they appear parallel to those of normative Islam in the Druze religion they are different in meaning and interpretation The religion is consider distinct from the Isma ili as well as from other Muslims belief and practice Most Druze do not identify as Muslims a b c Muslims and Islam Key findings in the U S and around the world 9 August 2017 Islam Religion Beliefs Practices amp Facts Britannica www britannica com Retrieved 9 May 2022 Definition of Islam Dictionary com www dictionary com Retrieved 9 May 2022 Esposito John L 2009 Islam In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World edited by J L Esposito Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 530513 5 See also quick reference Profession of Faith affirms Islam s absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of Allah the last and final prophet Peters F E 2009 Allah In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World edited by J L Esposito Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 530513 5 See also quick reference T he Muslims understanding of Allah is based on the Qurʿan s public witness Allah is Unique the Creator Sovereign and Judge of mankind It is Allah who directs the universe through his direct action on nature and who has guided human history through his prophets Abraham with whom he made his covenant Moses Moosa Jesus Eesa and Muḥammad through all of whom he founded his chosen communities the Peoples of the Book Muslim Lexico UK Oxford University Press 2020 Muslim Population By Country 2021 World Population Review Retrieved 22 July 2021 Religious Composition by Country 2010 2050 Pew Research Center 2 April 2015 Archived from the original on 15 June 2020 Retrieved 5 May 2020 NW 1615 L St Suite 800Washington Inquiries DC 20036USA202 419 4300 Main202 857 8562 Fax202 419 4372 Media Religious Composition by Country 2010 2050 Pew Research Center s Religion amp Public Life Project Retrieved 26 January 2023 Reeves J C 2004 Bible and Qurʼan Essays in scriptural intertextuality Leiden Brill p 177 ISBN 90 04 12726 7 Ozdemir Ibrahim 2014 Environment In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Science and Technology in Islam edited by I Kalin Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 981257 8 When Meccan pagans demanded proofs signs or miracles for the existence of God the Qurʾan s response was to direct their gaze at nature s complexity regularity and order The early verses of the Qurʾan therefore reveal an invitation to examine and investigate the heavens and the earth and everything that can be seen in the environment The Qurʾan thus makes it clear that everything in Creation is a miraculous sign of God ayah inviting human beings to contemplate the Creator Global Connections Religion PBS www pbs org Retrieved 9 May 2022 Bennett 2010 p 101 Goldman Elizabeth 1995 Believers Spiritual Leaders of the World Oxford Oxford University Press p 63 ISBN 978 0 19 508240 1 Campo 2009 p 34 Allah Esposito John L ed Eschatology The Oxford Dictionary of Islam via Oxford Islamic Studies Online a b Pillars of Islam Islamic Beliefs amp Practices Britannica www britannica com a b c d Coulson Noel James Shariʿah Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 17 September 2021 See also sharia via Lexico Esposito 2002b pp 17 111 112 118 Trofimov Yaroslav 2008 The Siege of Mecca The 1979 Uprising at Islam s Holiest Shrine Knopf New York ISBN 978 0 307 47290 8 p 79 Watt William Montgomery 2003 Islam and the Integration of Society Psychology Press p 5 ISBN 978 0 415 17587 6 Saliba George 1994 A History of Arabic Astronomy Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam New York New York University Press ISBN 0 8147 8023 7 pp 245 250 256 57 Arnold 1896 pp 125 258 J Kuiper Matthew 2021 Da wa A Global History of Islamic Missionary Thought and Practice Edinburgh University Press p 85 ISBN 9781351510721 Lapidus Ira M 2014 A History of Islamic Societies Cambridge University Press p 60 61 ISBN 978 0 521 51430 9 Denny Frederick 2010 Sunni Islam Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide Oxford Oxford University Press p 3 Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority 85 to 90 of that community Field Listing Religions The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency Archived from the original on 6 July 2010 Retrieved 25 October 2010 Sunni Islam accounts for over 75 of the world s Muslim population Shia Islam represents 10 15 of Muslims worldwide Sunni Berkley Center for Religion Peace and World Affairs Archived from the original on 14 June 2020 Retrieved 24 May 2020 Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam comprising about 85 of the world s over 1 5 billion Muslims a b Pew Forum for Religion amp Public Life 2009 p 1 Of the total Muslim population 10 13 are Shia Muslims and 87 90 are Sunni Muslims Tayeb El Hibri Maysam J al Faruqi 2004 Sunni Islam In Philip Mattar ed The Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa 2nd ed MacMillan Reference Muslim Majority Countries 2021 worldpopulationreview com Retrieved 25 July 2021 The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life December 2012 The Global Religious Landscape A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World s Major Religious Groups as of 2010 DC Pew Research Center Article Pew Forum for Religion and Public Life April 2015 10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations 2010 and 2050 projections table Pew Research Center Pechilis Karen Raj Selva J 2013 South Asian Religions Tradition and Today Routledge p 193 ISBN 978 0 415 44851 2 a b The Future of the Global Muslim Population Report Pew Research Center 27 January 2011 Archived from the original on 9 February 2011 Retrieved 27 December 2017 Islam in Russia Al Jazeera Anadolu News Agency 7 March 2018 Retrieved 15 June 2021 Book review Russia s Muslim Heartlands reveals diverse population The National 21 April 2018 retrieved 13 January 2019 a b c Pew Forum for Religion amp Public Life April 2015 The Future of World Religions Population Growth Projections 2010 2050 Pew Research Center p 70 Article a b Lipka Michael Hackett Conrad 6 April 2017 Why Muslims are the world s fastest growing religious group Pew Research Center Retrieved 21 November 2022 Siin Lane 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December 2021 Hassan Mona 2018 Longing for the Lost Caliphate A Transregional History Princeton University Press Drews Robert August 2011 Chapter Thirty The Ottoman Empire Judaism and Eastern Europe to 1648 PDF Coursebook Judaism Christianity and Islam to the Beginnings of Modern Civilization Vanderbilt University Peter B Golden An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples In Osman Karatay Ankara 2002 p 321 Gilbert Marc Jason 2017 South Asia in World History Oxford University Press p 75 ISBN 978 0 19 066137 3 Ga bor A goston Bruce Alan Masters Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire Infobase Publishing 2010 ISBN 978 1 4381 1025 7 p 540 Algar Ayla Esen 1 January 1992 The Dervish Lodge Architecture Art and Sufism in Ottoman Turkey University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 07060 8 Retrieved 29 April 2020 via Google Books Wasserstein David J Ayalon Ami 17 June 2013 Mamluks and Ottomans Studies in Honour of Michael Winter Routledge ISBN 978 1 136 57917 2 Retrieved 29 April 2020 via Google Books CONVERSION To Imami Shiʿism in India Iranica Online Retrieved 6 October 2022 Ernest Tucker 1994 Nadir Shah and the Ja fari Madhhab Reconsidered Iranian Studies 27 1 4 163 179 doi 10 1080 00210869408701825 JSTOR 4310891 Ernest Tucker 29 March 2006 Nader Shah Encyclopaedia Iranica a b Mary Hawkesworth Maurice Kogan Encyclopedia of Government and Politics 2 volume set Routledge 2013 ISBN 978 1 136 91332 7 pp 270 271 Esposito 2010 p 150 Richard Gauvain Salafi Ritual Purity In the Presence of God Routledge 2013 ISBN 978 0 7103 1356 0 p 6 Spevack Aaron 2014 The Archetypal Sunni Scholar Law Theology and Mysticism in the Synthesis of al Bajuri SUNY Press pp 129 130 ISBN 978 1 4384 5371 2 Donald Quataert The Ottoman Empire 1700 1922 Cambridge University Press 2005 ISBN 978 0 521 83910 5 p 50 a b Ga bor A goston Bruce Alan Masters Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire Infobase Publishing 2010 ISBN 978 1 4381 1025 7 p 260 Esposito 2010 p 146 Graves desecrated in Mizdah Libya Herald 4 September 2013 Retrieved 2 November 2013 Nicolas Laos The Metaphysics of World Order A Synthesis of Philosophy Theology and Politics Wipf and Stock Publishers 2015 ISBN 978 1 4982 0102 5 p 177 Rubin Barry M 2000 Guide to Islamist Movements M E Sharpe p 79 ISBN 0 7656 1747 1 Retrieved 28 June 2010 Esposito 2010 p 147 Esposito 2010 p 149 Robert L Canfield 2002 Turko Persia in Historical Perspective Cambridge University Press pp 131 ISBN 978 0 521 52291 5 Sanyal Usha 23 July 1998 Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl e Sunnat Movement in North India during the twentieth Century Modern Asian Studies 32 3 635 656 doi 10 1017 S0026749X98003059 via Cambridge Core Lapidus 2002 pp 358 378 380 624 Buzpinar S Tufan March 2007 Celal Nuri s Concepts of Westernization and Religion Middle Eastern Studies 43 2 247 258 doi 10 1080 00263200601114091 JSTOR 4284539 S2CID 144461915 Robert Rabil Salafism in Lebanon From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism Georgetown University Press 2014 ISBN 978 1 62616 118 4 chapter Doctrine Lauziere Henri 2016 The Making of Salafism ISLAMIC REFORM IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY New York Chichester West Sussex Columbia University Press pp 231 232 ISBN 978 0 231 17550 0 Beginning with Louis Massignon in 1919 it is true that Westerners played a leading role in labeling Islamic modernists as Salafis even though the term was a misnomer At the time European and American scholars felt the need for a useful conceptual box to place Muslim figures such as Jamal al Din al Afghani Muhammad Abduh and their epigones all of whom seemed inclined toward a scripturalist understanding of Islam but proved open to rationalism and Western modernity They chose to adopt salafiyya a technical term of theology which they mistook for a reformist slogan and wrongly associated with all kinds of modernist Muslim intellectuals Henri Lauziere The Making of Salafism Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century Columbia University Press 2015 ISBN 978 0 231 54017 9 Political Islam A movement in motion Economist Magazine 3 January 2014 Retrieved 1 January 2014 Ashk Dahlen Islamic Law Epistemology and Modernity Legal Philosophy in Contemporary Iran Routledge 2004 ISBN 978 1 135 94355 4 New Turkey Al Ahram Weekly No 488 29 June 5 July 2000 Archived from the original on 4 October 2010 Retrieved 16 May 2010 Mango Andrew 26 August 2002 Ataturk The Biography of the founder of Modern Turkey Abrams Books ISBN 978 1 59020 924 0 Retrieved 29 April 2020 via Google Books Inalcik Halil 29 April 1982 The Caliphate and Ataturk s Inkilab Turk Tarih Kurumu Retrieved 29 April 2020 via Google Books Organization of the Islamic Conference BBC News 26 December 2010 Retrieved 24 September 2013 Haddad amp Smith 2002 p 271 Bulliet 2005 p 722 Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring BBC News 9 August 2011 Retrieved 10 August 2011 Slackman Michael 23 December 2008 Jordanian students rebel embracing conservative Islam New York Times Retrieved 15 August 2011 Kirkpatrick David D 3 December 2011 Egypt s vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule The New York Times Retrieved 8 December 2011 Lauziere Henri 2016 The Making of Salafism ISLAMIC REFORM IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY New York Chichester West Sussex Columbia University Press p 237 ISBN 978 0 231 17550 0 Prior to the fall of the Ottoman Empire leading reformers who happened to be Salafi in creed were surprisingly open minded although they adhered to neo Hanbali theology However the aftermath of the First World War and the expansion of European colonialism paved the way for a series of shifts in thought and attitude The experiences of Rida offer many examples he turned against the Shi is who dared with reason to express doubts about the Saudi Wahhabi project Shi is were not the only victims Rida and his associates showed their readiness to turn against fellow Salafis who questioned some of the Wahhabis religious interpretations G Rabil Robert 2014 Salafism in Lebanon From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism Washington DC USA Georgetown University Press pp 32 33 ISBN 978 1 62616 116 0 Western colonialists established in these countries political orders that even though not professing enmity to Islam and its institutions left no role for Islam in society This caused a crisis among Muslim reformists who felt betrayed not only by the West but also by those nationalists many of whom were brought to power by the West Nothing reflects this crisis more than the ideological transformation of Rashid Rida 1865 1935 He also revived the works of Ibn Taymiyah by publishing his writings and promoting his ideas Subsequently taking note of the cataclysmic events brought about by Western policies in the Muslim world and shocked by the abolition of the caliphate he transformed into a Muslim intellectual mostly concerned about protecting Muslim culture identity and politics from Western influence He supported a theory that essentially emphasized the necessity of an Islamic state in which the scholars of Islam would have a leading role Rida was a forerunner of Islamist thought He apparently intended to provide a theoretical platform for a modern Islamic state His ideas were later incorporated into the works of Islamic scholars Significantly his ideas influenced none other than Hassan al Bannah founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt The Muslim Brethren have taken up Rida s Islamic fundamentalism a right wing radical movement founded in 1928 Isis to mint own Islamic dinar coins in gold silver and copper The Guardian 21 November 2014 Huge rally for Turkish secularism BBC News 29 April 2011 Retrieved 6 December 2011 Saleh Heba 15 October 2011 Tunisia moves against headscarves BBC News Retrieved 6 December 2011 Laying down the law Islam s authority deficit The Economist 28 June 2007 Retrieved 15 August 2011 Binder Leonard 1988 Islamic liberalism a critique of development ideologies University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0 226 05147 5 Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast MSNBC 18 October 2008 Retrieved 24 September 2013 Almukhtar Sarah Pecanha Sergio Wallace Tim 5 January 2016 Behind Stark Political Divisions a More Complex Map of Sunnis and Shiites The New York Times Retrieved 6 January 2016 Thames Knox Why the Persecution of Muslims Should Be on Biden s Agenda Foreign Policy Magazine Retrieved 5 February 2022 Perrin Andrew 10 October 2003 Weakness in numbers Time Retrieved 24 September 2013 Beydoun Khaled A For China Islam is a mental illness that needs to be cured Al Jazeera Archived from the original on 10 December 2018 Retrieved 5 February 2022 Mojzes Paul 2011 Balkan Genocides Holocaust and Ethnic Cleansing in the Twentieth Century Rowman amp Littlefield p 178 ISBN 978 1 4422 0663 2 Slackman Michael 28 January 2007 In Egypt a new battle begins over the veil The New York Times Retrieved 15 August 2011 Nigosian 2004 p 41 Islamic televangelist holy smoke The Economist Retrieved 5 February 2022 Esposito 2010 p 263 V Sisler The Internet and the Construction of Islamic Knowledge in Europe p 212 Esposito 2004 pp 118 119 179 Rippin 2001 p 288 Data taken from various sources see description in link Wikimedia Commons 22 August 2022 Retrieved 26 August 2022 The Future of the Global Muslim Population 27 January 2011 Lipka Michael and Conrad Hackett 2015 6 April 2017 Why Muslims are the world s fastest growing religious group data analysis Fact Tank Pew Research Center David B Barrett George T Kurian and Todd M Johnson World Christian Encyclopedia A comparative survey of churches and religions in the modern world Vol 1 The world by countries religionists churches ministries 2d ed New York Oxford Univ Press 2001 4 Pew Forum for Religion amp Public Life 2009 p 11 Ba Yunus Ilyas Kone Kassim 2006 Muslims in the United States Greenwood Publishing Group p 172 ISBN 978 0 313 32825 1 Secrets of Islam U S News amp World Report Retrieved 24 September 2013 Information provided by the International Population Center Department of Geography San Diego State University 2005 Pew Forum for Religion amp Public Life 2009 pp 15 17 Explore All Countries China The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency Retrieved 15 September 2009 China includes Hong Kong Macau and Tibet Archived Content U S Department of State Retrieved 24 September 2013 Muslims in Europe Country guide BBC News 23 December 2005 Retrieved 1 April 2010 Hackett Conrad 29 November 2017 5 facts about the Muslim population in Europe Pew Research Center Conversion The Future of the Global Muslim Population Report Pew Research Center 27 January 2011 there is no substantial net gain or loss in the number of Muslims through conversion globally the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith Cumulative Change Due to Religious Switching 2010 2050 p 43 PDF Archived from the original PDF on 29 April 2015 Retrieved 4 May 2016 a b The Changing Global Religious Landscape Pew Research Center 5 April 2017 Archived from the original on 18 February 2022 Retrieved 17 December 2022 Cite error The named reference ReferenceB was defined multiple times with different content see the help page Fast growing Islam winning converts in Western world CNN Archived from the original on 15 October 2018 Retrieved 6 May 2016 British Muslims Monthly Survey for June 2000 Vol VIII No 6 Women convert Archived from the original on 14 February 2008 Retrieved 28 September 2020 Conversion To Islam One Result Of Post 9 11 Curiosity HuffPost 24 August 2011 Archived from the original on 11 January 2021 Retrieved 26 November 2020 Why do Western Women Convert Standpoint 26 April 2010 Archived from the original on 6 October 2014 Retrieved 8 May 2016 Sunni Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 17 September 2021 John L Esposito ed 2014 Sunni Islam The Oxford Dictionary of Islam Oxford Oxford University Press Yavuz Yusuf Sevki 1994 Ahl as Sunnah Islam Ansiklopedisi in Turkish Vol 10 Istanbul Turkish Diyanet Foundation pp 525 530 Esposito 2003 pp 275 306 Hadi Enayat Islam and Secularism in Post Colonial Thought A Cartography of Asadian Genealogies Springer Publishing 30 June 2017 ISBN 978 3 319 52611 9 p 48 Rico Isaacs Alessandro Frigerio Theorizing Central Asian Politics The State Ideology and Power Springer Publishing 2018 ISBN 978 3 319 97355 5 p 108 Esposito 1999 p 280 Richard Gauvain Salafi Ritual Purity In the Presence of God Routledge 2013 ISBN 978 0 7103 1356 0 page 8 a b Svante E Cornell Azerbaijan Since Independence M E Sharpe ISBN 9780765630049 p 283 Robert W Hefner Shariʻa Politics Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World Indiana University Press 2011 ISBN 978 0 253 22310 4 p 170 Newman Andrew J Shiʿi Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved 28 December 2021 Foody Kathleen September 2015 Jain Andrea R ed Interiorizing Islam Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran Journal of the American Academy of Religion Oxford Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Academy of Religion 83 3 599 623 doi 10 1093 jaarel lfv029 eISSN 1477 4585 ISSN 0002 7189 JSTOR 24488178 LCCN sc76000837 OCLC 1479270 For Shiʿi Muslims Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend but appointed him as his successor as the lord or master of the new Muslim community Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities sinless and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess quite to the contrary their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight While in theory the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation In practice Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century McLaughlin Daniel February 2008 Yemen The Bradt Travel Guide Daniel McLaughlin Google Books ISBN 9781841622125 Retrieved 30 November 2013 Spencer C Tucker Priscilla Mary Roberts eds 2008 The Encyclopedia of the Arab Israeli Conflict A Political Social and Military History ABC CLIO p 917 ISBN 978 1 85109 842 2 Frederic M Wehrey 2010 The Iraq Effect The Middle East After the Iraq War Rand Corporation p 91 ISBN 978 0 8330 4788 5 Newman Andrew J 2013 Introduction Twelver Shiism Unity and Diversity in the Life of Islam 632 to 1722 Edinburgh University Press p 2 ISBN 978 0 7486 7833 4 Archived from the original on 1 May 2016 Retrieved 13 October 2015 Robert Brenton Betts 31 July 2013 The Sunni Shi a Divide Islam s Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences pp 14 15 ISBN 978 1 61234 522 2 Retrieved 7 January 2015 Hoffman Valerie Jon 2012 The Essentials of Ibadi Islam Syracuse Syracuse University Press pp 3 4 ISBN 9780815650843 Who Are the Ahmadi bbc co uk Retrieved 6 October 2013 Breach of Faith Human Rights Watch June 2005 p 8 Retrieved 29 March 2014 Estimates of around 20 million would be appropriate Larry DeVries Don Baker Dan Overmyer 1 November 2011 Asian Religions in British Columbia University of British Columbia Press ISBN 978 0 7748 1662 5 Retrieved 29 March 2014 The community currently numbers around 15 million spread around the world Campo 2009 p 24 Ahmadiyya Muslims Religion amp Ethics Newsweekly PBS 20 January 2012 Retrieved 6 October 2013 Esposito 2004 p 11 Dhume Sadanand 1 December 2017 Pakistan Persecutes a Muslim Minority Wall Street Journal ISSN 0099 9660 Retrieved 14 July 2018 BEKTASiYA Encyclopaedia Iranica www iranicaonline org John Shindeldecker Turkish Alevis Today II Alevi Population Size and Distribution PDF Datei See also Encyclopaedia of the Orient Alevi consulted on 30 May 2017 Musa Aisha Y 2010 The Qur anists Religion Compass John Wiley amp Sons 4 1 12 21 doi 10 1111 j 1749 8171 2009 00189 x Musa Aisha Y 2010 The Qur anists Religion Compass 4 1 12 21 doi 10 1111 j 1749 8171 2009 00189 x ISSN 1749 8171 Brown Daniel W 4 March 1999 Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought Cambridge University Press pp 7 45 68 ISBN 978 0 521 65394 7 Juynboll G H A 1969 The Authenticity of the Tradition Literature Discussions in Modern Egypt G H A Juynboll Brill Archive pp 23 25 Magazine Al Manar in Arabic Why the name change PDF Submission Perspective 57 1 September 1989 Benakis Theodoros 13 January 2014 Islamophoobia in Europe New Europe Brussels Archived from the original on 31 January 2016 Retrieved 20 October 2015 Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non denominational Muslims those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites but who accept Islam as a religion generally Pollack Kenneth 2014 Unthinkable Iran the Bomb and American Strategy p 29 ISBN 978 1 4767 3393 7 Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi a chauvinists Khomeini s ideology saw the revolution as pan Islamist and therefore embracing Sunni Shi a Sufi and other more nondenominational Muslims Tan Charlene 2014 Reforms in Islamic Education International Perspectives ISBN 9781441146175 This is due to the historical sociological cultural rational and non denominational non madhhabi approaches to Islam employed at IAINs STAINs and UINs as opposed to the theological normative and denominational approaches that were common in Islamic educational institutions in the past Burns Robert 2011 Christianity Islam and the West p 55 ISBN 978 0 7618 5560 6 40 per cent called themselves just a Muslim according to the Council of American Islamic relations Tatari Eren 2014 Muslims in British Local Government Representing Minority Interests in Hackney Newham and Tower Hamlets p 111 ISBN 978 90 04 27226 2 Nineteen said that they are Sunni Muslims six said they are just Muslim without specifying a sect two said they are Ahmadi and two said their families are Alevi Lopez Ralph 2008 Truth in the Age of Bushism p 65 ISBN 978 1 4348 9615 5 Many Iraqis take offense at reporters efforts to identify them as Sunni or Shiite A 2004 Iraq Centre for Research and Strategic Studies poll found the largest category of Iraqis classified themselves as just Muslim a b Chapter 1 Religious Affiliation The World s Muslims Unity and Diversity Pew Research Center s Religion amp Public Life Project 9 August 2012 Retrieved 4 September 2013 Esposito 2003 p 302 Malik amp Hinnells 2006 p 3 Turner 1998 p 145 Trimingham 1998 p 1 Afghanistan A Country Study Sufism Library of Congress Country Studies 1997 Retrieved 18 April 2007 Zarruq Ahmed Zaineb Istrabadi and Hamza Yusuf Hanson 2008 The Principles of Sufism Amal Press Andani Khalil A Survey of Ismaili Studies Part 1 Early Ismailism and Fatimid Ismailism Religion Compass 10 8 2016 191 206 Aminrazavi Mehdi 2009 2016 Mysticism in Arabic and Islamic Philosophy The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy edited by E N Zalta Retrieved 25 May 2020 Knysh Alexander 2015 Islam in Historical Perspective Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 34712 5 p 214 Haviland Charles 30 September 2007 The roar of Rumi 800 years on BBC News Retrieved 10 August 2011 Islam Jalaluddin Rumi BBC 1 September 2009 Retrieved 10 August 2011 a b Chittick 2008 pp 3 4 11 Nasr Seyyed Hossein 1993 An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines p 192 ISBN 978 0 7914 1515 3 Retrieved 17 January 2015 Peacock 2019 p 24 77 Cook David May 2015 Mysticism in Sufi Islam Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion Oxford Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 acrefore 9780199340378 013 51 ISBN 9780199340378 Archived from the original on 28 November 2018 Retrieved 15 January 2023 tariqa Islam Britannica com 4 February 2014 Retrieved 29 May 2015 Bowker John 2000 The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions doi 10 1093 acref 9780192800947 001 0001 ISBN 978 0 19 280094 7 Sanyal Usha 1998 Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century Modern Asian Studies 32 3 635 656 doi 10 1017 S0026749X98003059 Ahl al Sunnah wa l Jamaah In Esposito 2003 via Oxford Reference Alvi Farhat The Significant Role of Sufism in Central Asia PDF Johns Anthony H 1995 Sufism in Southeast Asia Reflections and Reconsiderations Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 26 1 169 183 doi 10 1017 S0022463400010560 JSTOR 20071709 S2CID 154870820 Babou Cheikh Anta 2007 Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal International Journal of African Historical Studies 40 1 184 186 a b c d e Esposito, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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