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Ibn al-Haytham

November 27, 2023

"Alhazen" redirects here. For other uses, see Alhazen (disambiguation) and Ibn al-Haytham (disambiguation).

Ḥasan Ibn al-Haytham (Latinized as Alhazen; /ælˈhæzən/; full name Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham أبو علي، الحسن بن الحسن بن الهيثم; c. 965 – c. 1040) was a medieval mathematician, astronomer, and physicist of the Islamic Golden Age from present-day Iraq.[6][7][8][9] Referred to as "the father of modern optics",[10][11][12] he made significant contributions to the principles of optics and visual perception in particular. His most influential work is titled Kitāb al-Manāẓir (Arabic: كتاب المناظر, "Book of Optics"), written during 1011–1021, which survived in a Latin edition.[13] The works of Alhazen were frequently cited during the scientific revolution by Isaac Newton, Johannes Kepler, Christiaan Huygens, and Galileo Galilei.

Ibn al-Haytham was the first to correctly explain the theory of vision,[14] and to argue that vision occurs in the brain, pointing to observations that it is subjective and affected by personal experience.[15] He also stated the principle of least time for refraction which would later become the Fermat's principle.[16] He made major contributions to catoptrics and dioptrics by studying reflection, refraction and nature of images formed by light rays.[17][18] Ibn al-Haytham was an early proponent of the concept that a hypothesis must be supported by experiments based on confirmable procedures or mathematical reasoning—an early pioneer in the scientific method five centuries before Renaissance scientists.[19][20][21][22] On account of this, he is sometimes described as the world's "first true scientist".[12] He was also a polymath, writing on philosophy, theology and medicine.[23]

Born in Basra, he spent most of his productive period in the Fatimid capital of Cairo and earned his living authoring various treatises and tutoring members of the nobilities.[24] Ibn al-Haytham is sometimes given the byname al-Baṣrī after his birthplace,[25] or al-Miṣrī ("the Egyptian").[26][27] Al-Haytham was dubbed the "Second Ptolemy" by Abu'l-Hasan Bayhaqi[28] and "The Physicist" by John Peckham.[29] Ibn al-Haytham paved the way for the modern science of physical optics.[30]

Biography

Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) was born c. 965 to a family of Arab[9][31][32][33][34] or Persian[35][36][37][38][39] origin in Basra, Iraq, which was at the time part of the Buyid emirate. His initial influences were in the study of religion and service to the community. At the time, society had a number of conflicting views of religion that he ultimately sought to step aside from religion. This led to him delving into the study of mathematics and science.[40] He held a position with the title vizier in his native Basra, and made a name for himself on his knowledge of applied mathematics. As he claimed to be able to regulate the flooding of the Nile, he was invited to meet the Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim in order to realise a hydraulic project at Aswan. However, Ibn al-Haytham was forced to concede the impracticability of his project.[41]

Upon his return to Cairo, he was given an administrative post. After he proved unable to fulfill this task as well, he contracted the ire of the caliph al-Hakim,[42] and is said to have been forced into hiding until the caliph's death in 1021, after which his confiscated possessions were returned to him.[43] Legend has it that Alhazen feigned madness and was kept under house arrest during this period.[44] During this time, he wrote his influential Book of Optics. Alhazen continued to live in Cairo, in the neighborhood of the famous University of al-Azhar, and lived from the proceeds of his literary production[45] until his death in c. 1040.[41] (A copy of Apollonius' Conics, written in Ibn al-Haytham's own handwriting exists in Aya Sofya: (MS Aya Sofya 2762, 307 fob., dated Safar 415 A.H. [1024]).)[46]: Note 2 

Among his students were Sorkhab (Sohrab), a Persian from Semnan, and Abu al-Wafa Mubashir ibn Fatek, an Egyptian prince.[47][verification needed]

Book of Optics

Main article: Book of Optics

Alhazen's most famous work is his seven-volume treatise on optics Kitab al-Manazir (Book of Optics), written from 1011 to 1021.[48] In it, Ibn al-Haytham was the first to explain that vision occurs when light reflects from an object and then passes to one's eyes,[14] and to argue that vision occurs in the brain, pointing to observations that it is subjective and affected by personal experience.[15]

Optics was translated into Latin by an unknown scholar at the end of the 12th century or the beginning of the 13th century.[49][a]

This work enjoyed a great reputation during the Middle Ages. The Latin version of De aspectibus was translated at the end of the 14th century into Italian vernacular, under the title De li aspecti.[50]

It was printed by Friedrich Risner in 1572, with the title Opticae thesaurus: Alhazeni Arabis libri septem, nuncprimum editi; Eiusdem liber De Crepusculis et nubium ascensionibus (English: Treasury of Optics: seven books by the Arab Alhazen, first edition; by the same, on twilight and the height of clouds).[51] Risner is also the author of the name variant "Alhazen"; before Risner he was known in the west as Alhacen.[52] Works by Alhazen on geometric subjects were discovered in the Bibliothèque nationale in Paris in 1834 by E. A. Sedillot. In all, A. Mark Smith has accounted for 18 full or near-complete manuscripts, and five fragments, which are preserved in 14 locations, including one in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and one in the library of Bruges.[53]

Theory of optics

See also: Horopter
 
Front page of the Opticae Thesaurus, which included the first printed Latin translation of Alhazen's Book of Optics. The illustration incorporates many examples of optical phenomena including perspective effects, the rainbow, mirrors, and refraction.

Two major theories on vision prevailed in classical antiquity. The first theory, the emission theory, was supported by such thinkers as Euclid and Ptolemy, who believed that sight worked by the eye emitting rays of light. The second theory, the intromission theory supported by Aristotle and his followers, had physical forms entering the eye from an object. Previous Islamic writers (such as al-Kindi) had argued essentially on Euclidean, Galenist, or Aristotelian lines. The strongest influence on the Book of Optics was from Ptolemy's Optics, while the description of the anatomy and physiology of the eye was based on Galen's account.[54] Alhazen's achievement was to come up with a theory that successfully combined parts of the mathematical ray arguments of Euclid, the medical tradition of Galen, and the intromission theories of Aristotle. Alhazen's intromission theory followed al-Kindi (and broke with Aristotle) in asserting that "from each point of every colored body, illuminated by any light, issue light and color along every straight line that can be drawn from that point".[55] This left him with the problem of explaining how a coherent image was formed from many independent sources of radiation; in particular, every point of an object would send rays to every point on the eye.

What Alhazen needed was for each point on an object to correspond to one point only on the eye.[55] He attempted to resolve this by asserting that the eye would only perceive perpendicular rays from the object—for any one point on the eye, only the ray that reached it directly, without being refracted by any other part of the eye, would be perceived. He argued, using a physical analogy, that perpendicular rays were stronger than oblique rays: in the same way that a ball thrown directly at a board might break the board, whereas a ball thrown obliquely at the board would glance off, perpendicular rays were stronger than refracted rays, and it was only perpendicular rays which were perceived by the eye. As there was only one perpendicular ray that would enter the eye at any one point, and all these rays would converge on the centre of the eye in a cone, this allowed him to resolve the problem of each point on an object sending many rays to the eye; if only the perpendicular ray mattered, then he had a one-to-one correspondence and the confusion could be resolved.[56] He later asserted (in book seven of the Optics) that other rays would be refracted through the eye and perceived as if perpendicular.[57] His arguments regarding perpendicular rays do not clearly explain why only perpendicular rays were perceived; why would the weaker oblique rays not be perceived more weakly?[58] His later argument that refracted rays would be perceived as if perpendicular does not seem persuasive.[59] However, despite its weaknesses, no other theory of the time was so comprehensive, and it was enormously influential, particularly in Western Europe. Directly or indirectly, his De Aspectibus (Book of Optics) inspired much activity in optics between the 13th and 17th centuries. Kepler's later theory of the retinal image (which resolved the problem of the correspondence of points on an object and points in the eye) built directly on the conceptual framework of Alhazen.[60]

Alhazen showed through experiment that light travels in straight lines, and carried out various experiments with lenses, mirrors, refraction, and reflection.[61] His analyses of reflection and refraction considered the vertical and horizontal components of light rays separately.[62]

Alhazen studied the process of sight, the structure of the eye, image formation in the eye, and the visual system. Ian P. Howard argued in a 1996 Perception article that Alhazen should be credited with many discoveries and theories previously attributed to Western Europeans writing centuries later. For example, he described what became in the 19th century Hering's law of equal innervation. He wrote a description of vertical horopters 600 years before Aguilonius that is actually closer to the modern definition than Aguilonius's—and his work on binocular disparity was repeated by Panum in 1858.[63] Craig Aaen-Stockdale, while agreeing that Alhazen should be credited with many advances, has expressed some caution, especially when considering Alhazen in isolation from Ptolemy, with whom Alhazen was extremely familiar. Alhazen corrected a significant error of Ptolemy regarding binocular vision, but otherwise his account is very similar; Ptolemy also attempted to explain what is now called Hering's law.[64] In general, Alhazen built on and expanded the optics of Ptolemy.[65]

In a more detailed account of Ibn al-Haytham's contribution to the study of binocular vision based on Lejeune[66] and Sabra,[67] Raynaud[68] showed that the concepts of correspondence, homonymous and crossed diplopia were in place in Ibn al-Haytham's optics. But contrary to Howard, he explained why Ibn al-Haytham did not give the circular figure of the horopter and why, by reasoning experimentally, he was in fact closer to the discovery of Panum's fusional area than that of the Vieth-Müller circle. In this regard, Ibn al-Haytham's theory of binocular vision faced two main limits: the lack of recognition of the role of the retina, and obviously the lack of an experimental investigation of ocular tracts.

 
The structure of the human eye according to Ibn al-Haytham. Note the depiction of the optic chiasm. —Manuscript copy of his Kitāb al-Manāẓir (MS Fatih 3212, vol. 1, fol. 81b, Süleymaniye Mosque Library, Istanbul)

Alhazen's most original contribution was that, after describing how he thought the eye was anatomically constructed, he went on to consider how this anatomy would behave functionally as an optical system.[69] His understanding of pinhole projection from his experiments appears to have influenced his consideration of image inversion in the eye,[70] which he sought to avoid.[71] He maintained that the rays that fell perpendicularly on the lens (or glacial humor as he called it) were further refracted outward as they left the glacial humor and the resulting image thus passed upright into the optic nerve at the back of the eye.[72] He followed Galen in believing that the lens was the receptive organ of sight, although some of his work hints that he thought the retina was also involved.[73]

Alhazen's synthesis of light and vision adhered to the Aristotelian scheme, exhaustively describing the process of vision in a logical, complete fashion.[74]

His research in catoptrics (the study of optical systems using mirrors) was centred on spherical and parabolic mirrors and spherical aberration. He made the observation that the ratio between the angle of incidence and refraction does not remain constant, and investigated the magnifying power of a lens.[61]

Law of reflection

Main article: Specular reflection

Alhazen was the first physicist to give complete statement of the law of reflection.[75][76][77] He was first to state that the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface all lie in a same plane perpendicular to reflecting plane.[17][78]

Alhazen's problem

Main article: Alhazen's problem
 
The theorem of Ibn Haytham

His work on catoptrics in Book V of the Book of Optics contains a discussion of what is now known as Alhazen's problem, first formulated by Ptolemy in 150 AD. It comprises drawing lines from two points in the plane of a circle meeting at a point on the circumference and making equal angles with the normal at that point. This is equivalent to finding the point on the edge of a circular billiard table at which a player must aim a cue ball at a given point to make it bounce off the table edge and hit another ball at a second given point. Thus, its main application in optics is to solve the problem, "Given a light source and a spherical mirror, find the point on the mirror where the light will be reflected to the eye of an observer." This leads to an equation of the fourth degree.[79] This eventually led Alhazen to derive a formula for the sum of fourth powers, where previously only the formulas for the sums of squares and cubes had been stated. His method can be readily generalized to find the formula for the sum of any integral powers, although he did not himself do this (perhaps because he only needed the fourth power to calculate the volume of the paraboloid he was interested in). He used his result on sums of integral powers to perform what would now be called an integration, where the formulas for the sums of integral squares and fourth powers allowed him to calculate the volume of a paraboloid.[80] Alhazen eventually solved the problem using conic sections and a geometric proof. His solution was extremely long and complicated and may not have been understood by mathematicians reading him in Latin translation. Later mathematicians used Descartes' analytical methods to analyse the problem.[81] An algebraic solution to the problem was finally found in 1965 by Jack M. Elkin, an actuarian.[82] Other solutions were discovered in 1989, by Harald Riede[83] and in 1997 by the Oxford mathematician Peter M. Neumann.[84][85] Recently, Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories (MERL) researchers solved the extension of Alhazen's problem to general rotationally symmetric quadric mirrors including hyperbolic, parabolic and elliptical mirrors.[86]

Camera Obscura

The camera obscura was known to the ancient Chinese, and was described by the Han Chinese polymath Shen Kuo in his scientific book Dream Pool Essays, published in the year 1088 C.E. Aristotle had discussed the basic principle behind it in his Problems, but Alhazen's work contained the first clear description of camera obscura.[87] and early analysis[88] of the device.

Ibn al-Haytham used a camera obscura mainly to observe a partial solar eclipse.[89] In his essay, Ibn al-Haytham writes that he observed the sickle-like shape of the sun at the time of an eclipse. The introduction reads as follows: "The image of the sun at the time of the eclipse, unless it is total, demonstrates that when its light passes through a narrow, round hole and is cast on a plane opposite to the hole it takes on the form of a moonsickle."

It is admitted that his findings solidified the importance in the history of the camera obscura[90] but this treatise is important in many other respects.

Ancient optics and medieval optics were divided into optics and burning mirrors. Optics proper mainly focused on the study of vision, while burning mirrors focused on the properties of light and luminous rays. On the shape of the eclipse is probably one of the first attempts made by Ibn al-Haytham to articulate these two sciences.

Very often Ibn al-Haytham's discoveries benefited from the intersection of mathematical and experimental contributions. This is the case with On the shape of the eclipse. Besides the fact that this treatise allowed more people to study partial eclipses of the sun, it especially allowed to better understand how the camera obscura works. This treatise is a physico-mathematical study of image formation inside the camera obscura. Ibn al-Haytham takes an experimental approach, and determines the result by varying the size and the shape of the aperture, the focal length of the camera, the shape and intensity of the light source.[91]

In his work he explains the inversion of the image in the camera obscura,[92] the fact that the image is similar to the source when the hole is small, but also the fact that the image can differ from the source when the hole is large. All these results are produced by using a point analysis of the image.[93]

Refractometer

Main article: Refractometer

In the seventh tract of his book of optics, Alhazen described an apparatus for experimenting with various cases of refraction, in order to investigate the relations between the angle of incidence, the angle of refraction and the angle of deflection. This apparatus was a modified version of an apparatus used by Ptolemy for similar purpose.[94][95][96]

Unconscious inference

Main article: Unconscious inference

Alhazen basically states the concept of unconscious inference in his discussion of colour before adding that the inferential step between sensing colour and differentiating it is shorter than the time taken between sensing and any other visible characteristic (aside from light), and that "time is so short as not to be clearly apparent to the beholder." Naturally, this suggests that the colour and form are perceived elsewhere. Alhazen goes on to say that information must travel to the central nerve cavity for processing and:

the sentient organ does not sense the forms that reach it from the visible objects until after it has been affected by these forms; thus it does not sense color as color or light as light until after it has been affected by the form of color or light. Now the affectation received by the sentient organ from the form of color or of light is a certain change; and change must take place in time; …..and it is in the time during which the form extends from the sentient organ's surface to the cavity of the common nerve, and in (the time) following that, that the sensitive faculty, which exists in the whole of the sentient body will perceive color as color…Thus the last sentient's perception of color as such and of light as such takes place at a time following that in which the form arrives from the surface of the sentient organ to the cavity of the common nerve.[97]

Color constancy

Main article: Color constancy

Alhazen explained color constancy by observing that the light reflected from an object is modified by the object's color. He explained that the quality of the light and the color of the object are mixed, and the visual system separates light and color. In Book II, Chapter 3 he writes:

Again the light does not travel from the colored object to the eye unaccompanied by the color, nor does the form of the color pass from the colored object to the eye unaccompanied by the light. Neither the form of the light nor that of the color existing in the colored object can pass except as mingled together and the last sentient can only perceive them as mingled together. Nevertheless, the sentient perceives that the visible object is luminous and that the light seen in the object is other than the color and that these are two properties.[98]

Other contributions

The Kitab al-Manazir (Book of Optics) describes several experimental observations that Alhazen made and how he used his results to explain certain optical phenomena using mechanical analogies. He conducted experiments with projectiles and concluded that only the impact of perpendicular projectiles on surfaces was forceful enough to make them penetrate, whereas surfaces tended to deflect oblique projectile strikes. For example, to explain refraction from a rare to a dense medium, he used the mechanical analogy of an iron ball thrown at a thin slate covering a wide hole in a metal sheet. A perpendicular throw breaks the slate and passes through, whereas an oblique one with equal force and from an equal distance does not.[99] He also used this result to explain how intense, direct light hurts the eye, using a mechanical analogy: Alhazen associated 'strong' lights with perpendicular rays and 'weak' lights with oblique ones. The obvious answer to the problem of multiple rays and the eye was in the choice of the perpendicular ray, since only one such ray from each point on the surface of the object could penetrate the eye.[100]

Sudanese psychologist Omar Khaleefa has argued that Alhazen should be considered the founder of experimental psychology, for his pioneering work on the psychology of visual perception and optical illusions.[101] Khaleefa has also argued that Alhazen should also be considered the "founder of psychophysics", a sub-discipline and precursor to modern psychology.[101] Although Alhazen made many subjective reports regarding vision, there is no evidence that he used quantitative psychophysical techniques and the claim has been rebuffed.[102]

Alhazen offered an explanation of the Moon illusion, an illusion that played an important role in the scientific tradition of medieval Europe.[103] Many authors repeated explanations that attempted to solve the problem of the Moon appearing larger near the horizon than it does when higher up in the sky. Alhazen argued against Ptolemy's refraction theory, and defined the problem in terms of perceived, rather than real, enlargement. He said that judging the distance of an object depends on there being an uninterrupted sequence of intervening bodies between the object and the observer. When the Moon is high in the sky there are no intervening objects, so the Moon appears close. The perceived size of an object of constant angular size varies with its perceived distance. Therefore, the Moon appears closer and smaller high in the sky, and further and larger on the horizon. Through works by Roger Bacon, John Pecham and Witelo based on Alhazen's explanation, the Moon illusion gradually came to be accepted as a psychological phenomenon, with the refraction theory being rejected in the 17th century.[104] Although Alhazen is often credited with the perceived distance explanation, he was not the first author to offer it. Cleomedes (c. 2nd century) gave this account (in addition to refraction), and he credited it to Posidonius (c. 135–50 BCE).[105] Ptolemy may also have offered this explanation in his Optics, but the text is obscure.[106] Alhazen's writings were more widely available in the Middle Ages than those of these earlier authors, and that probably explains why Alhazen received the credit.

Scientific method

Further information: Scientific method

Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. The duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and ... attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency.

— Alhazen[67]

An aspect associated with Alhazen's optical research is related to systemic and methodological reliance on experimentation (i'tibar)(Arabic: اختبار) and controlled testing in his scientific inquiries. Moreover, his experimental directives rested on combining classical physics (ilm tabi'i) with mathematics (ta'alim; geometry in particular). This mathematical-physical approach to experimental science supported most of his propositions in Kitab al-Manazir (The Optics; De aspectibus or Perspectivae)[107] and grounded his theories of vision, light and colour, as well as his research in catoptrics and dioptrics (the study of the reflection and refraction of light, respectively).[108]

According to Matthias Schramm,[109] Alhazen "was the first to make a systematic use of the method of varying the experimental conditions in a constant and uniform manner, in an experiment showing that the intensity of the light-spot formed by the projection of the moonlight through two small apertures onto a screen diminishes constantly as one of the apertures is gradually blocked up."[110] G. J. Toomer expressed some skepticism regarding Schramm's view,[111] partly because at the time (1964) the Book of Optics had not yet been fully translated from Arabic, and Toomer was concerned that without context, specific passages might be read anachronistically. While acknowledging Alhazen's importance in developing experimental techniques, Toomer argued that Alhazen should not be considered in isolation from other Islamic and ancient thinkers.[111] Toomer concluded his review by saying that it would not be possible to assess Schramm's claim that Ibn al-Haytham was the true founder of modern physics without translating more of Alhazen's work and fully investigating his influence on later medieval writers.[112]

Other works on physics

Optical treatises

Besides the Book of Optics, Alhazen wrote several other treatises on the same subject, including his Risala fi l-Daw' (Treatise on Light). He investigated the properties of luminance, the rainbow, eclipses, twilight, and moonlight. Experiments with mirrors and the refractive interfaces between air, water, and glass cubes, hemispheres, and quarter-spheres provided the foundation for his theories on catoptrics.[113]

Celestial physics

Alhazen discussed the physics of the celestial region in his Epitome of Astronomy, arguing that Ptolemaic models must be understood in terms of physical objects rather than abstract hypotheses—in other words that it should be possible to create physical models where (for example) none of the celestial bodies would collide with each other. The suggestion of mechanical models for the Earth centred Ptolemaic model "greatly contributed to the eventual triumph of the Ptolemaic system among the Christians of the West". Alhazen's determination to root astronomy in the realm of physical objects was important, however, because it meant astronomical hypotheses "were accountable to the laws of physics", and could be criticised and improved upon in those terms.[114]

He also wrote Maqala fi daw al-qamar (On the Light of the Moon).

Mechanics

In his work, Alhazen discussed theories on the motion of a body.[113] In his Treatise on Place, Alhazen disagreed with Aristotle's view that nature abhors a void, and he used geometry in an attempt to demonstrate that place (al-makan) is the imagined three-dimensional void between the inner surfaces of a containing body.[115]

Astronomical works

On the Configuration of the World

In his On the Configuration of the World Alhazen presented a detailed description of the physical structure of the earth:

The earth as a whole is a round sphere whose center is the center of the world. It is stationary in its [the world's] middle, fixed in it and not moving in any direction nor moving with any of the varieties of motion, but always at rest.[116]

The book is a non-technical explanation of Ptolemy's Almagest, which was eventually translated into Hebrew and Latin in the 13th and 14th centuries and subsequently had an influence on astronomers such as Georg von Peuerbach[117] during the European Middle Ages and Renaissance.[118]

Doubts Concerning Ptolemy

In his Al-Shukūk ‛alā Batlamyūs, variously translated as Doubts Concerning Ptolemy or Aporias against Ptolemy, published at some time between 1025 and 1028, Alhazen criticized Ptolemy's Almagest, Planetary Hypotheses, and Optics, pointing out various contradictions he found in these works, particularly in astronomy. Ptolemy's Almagest concerned mathematical theories regarding the motion of the planets, whereas the Hypotheses concerned what Ptolemy thought was the actual configuration of the planets. Ptolemy himself acknowledged that his theories and configurations did not always agree with each other, arguing that this was not a problem provided it did not result in noticeable error, but Alhazen was particularly scathing in his criticism of the inherent contradictions in Ptolemy's works.[119] He considered that some of the mathematical devices Ptolemy introduced into astronomy, especially the equant, failed to satisfy the physical requirement of uniform circular motion, and noted the absurdity of relating actual physical motions to imaginary mathematical points, lines and circles:[120]

Ptolemy assumed an arrangement (hay'a) that cannot exist, and the fact that this arrangement produces in his imagination the motions that belong to the planets does not free him from the error he committed in his assumed arrangement, for the existing motions of the planets cannot be the result of an arrangement that is impossible to exist... [F]or a man to imagine a circle in the heavens, and to imagine the planet moving in it does not bring about the planet's motion.[121]

Having pointed out the problems, Alhazen appears to have intended to resolve the contradictions he pointed out in Ptolemy in a later work. Alhazen believed there was a "true configuration" of the planets that Ptolemy had failed to grasp. He intended to complete and repair Ptolemy's system, not to replace it completely.[119] In the Doubts Concerning Ptolemy Alhazen set out his views on the difficulty of attaining scientific knowledge and the need to question existing authorities and theories:

Truth is sought for itself [but] the truths, [he warns] are immersed in uncertainties [and the scientific authorities (such as Ptolemy, whom he greatly respected) are] not immune from error...[67]

He held that the criticism of existing theories—which dominated this book—holds a special place in the growth of scientific knowledge.

Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets

Alhazen's The Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets was written c. 1038. Only one damaged manuscript has been found, with only the introduction and the first section, on the theory of planetary motion, surviving. (There was also a second section on astronomical calculation, and a third section, on astronomical instruments.) Following on from his Doubts on Ptolemy, Alhazen described a new, geometry-based planetary model, describing the motions of the planets in terms of spherical geometry, infinitesimal geometry and trigonometry. He kept a geocentric universe and assumed that celestial motions are uniformly circular, which required the inclusion of epicycles to explain observed motion, but he managed to eliminate Ptolemy's equant. In general, his model didn't try to provide a causal explanation of the motions, but concentrated on providing a complete, geometric description that could explain observed motions without the contradictions inherent in Ptolemy's model.[122]

Other astronomical works

Alhazen wrote a total of twenty-five astronomical works, some concerning technical issues such as Exact Determination of the Meridian, a second group concerning accurate astronomical observation, a third group concerning various astronomical problems and questions such as the location of the Milky Way; Alhazen made the first systematic effort of evaluating the Milky Way's parallax, combining Ptolemy's data and his own. He concluded that the parallax is (probably very much) smaller than Lunar parallax, and the Milky way should be a celestial object. Though he was not the first who argued that the Milky Way does not belong to the atmosphere, he is the first who did quantitative analysis for the claim.[123] The fourth group consists of ten works on astronomical theory, including the Doubts and Model of the Motions discussed above.[124]

Mathematical works

 
Alhazen's geometrically proven summation formula

In mathematics, Alhazen built on the mathematical works of Euclid and Thabit ibn Qurra and worked on "the beginnings of the link between algebra and geometry".[125]

He developed a formula for summing the first 100 natural numbers, using a geometric proof to prove the formula.[126]

Geometry

 
The lunes of Alhazen. The two blue lunes together have the same area as the green right triangle.

Alhazen explored what is now known as the Euclidean parallel postulate, the fifth postulate in Euclid's Elements, using a proof by contradiction,[127] and in effect introducing the concept of motion into geometry.[128] He formulated the Lambert quadrilateral, which Boris Abramovich Rozenfeld names the "Ibn al-Haytham–Lambert quadrilateral".[129] He was criticised by Omar Khayyam who pointed that Aristotle had condemned the use of motion in geometry.[130]

In elementary geometry, Alhazen attempted to solve the problem of squaring the circle using the area of lunes (crescent shapes), but later gave up on the impossible task.[131] The two lunes formed from a right triangle by erecting a semicircle on each of the triangle's sides, inward for the hypotenuse and outward for the other two sides, are known as the lunes of Alhazen; they have the same total area as the triangle itself.[132]

Number theory

Alhazen's contributions to number theory include his work on perfect numbers. In his Analysis and Synthesis, he may have been the first to state that every even perfect number is of the form 2n−1(2n − 1) where 2n − 1 is prime, but he was not able to prove this result; Euler later proved it in the 18th century, and it is now called the Euclid–Euler theorem.[131]

Alhazen solved problems involving congruences using what is now called Wilson's theorem. In his Opuscula, Alhazen considers the solution of a system of congruences, and gives two general methods of solution. His first method, the canonical method, involved Wilson's theorem, while his second method involved a version of the Chinese remainder theorem.[131]

Calculus

Alhazen discovered the sum formula for the fourth power, using a method that could be generally used to determine the sum for any integral power. He used this to find the volume of a paraboloid. He could find the integral formula for any polynomial without having developed a general formula.[133]

Other works

Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals

Alhazen also wrote a Treatise on the Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals, although no copies have survived. It appears to have been concerned with the question of whether animals could react to music, for example whether a camel would increase or decrease its pace.

Engineering

In engineering, one account of his career as a civil engineer has him summoned to Egypt by the Fatimid Caliph, Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, to regulate the flooding of the Nile River. He carried out a detailed scientific study of the annual inundation of the Nile River, and he drew plans for building a dam, at the site of the modern-day Aswan Dam. His field work, however, later made him aware of the impracticality of this scheme, and he soon feigned madness so he could avoid punishment from the Caliph.[134]

Philosophy

In his Treatise on Place, Alhazen disagreed with Aristotle's view that nature abhors a void, and he used geometry in an attempt to demonstrate that place (al-makan) is the imagined three-dimensional void between the inner surfaces of a containing body.[115] Abd-el-latif, a supporter of Aristotle's philosophical view of place, later criticized the work in Fi al-Radd 'ala Ibn al-Haytham fi al-makan (A refutation of Ibn al-Haytham's place) for its geometrization of place.[115]

Alhazen also discussed space perception and its epistemological implications in his Book of Optics. In "tying the visual perception of space to prior bodily experience, Alhazen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and, therefore, the autonomy of vision. Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things."[135] Alhazen came up with many theories that shattered what was known of reality at the time. These ideas of optics and perspective did not just tie into physical science, rather existential philosophy. This led to religious viewpoints being upheld to the point that there is an observer and their perspective, which in this case is reality.[40]

Theology

Alhazen was a Muslim and most sources report that he was a Sunni and a follower of the Ash'ari school.[136][137][138][139] Ziauddin Sardar says that some of the greatest Muslim scientists, such as Ibn al-Haytham and Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, who were pioneers of the scientific method, were themselves followers of the Ashʿari school of Islamic theology.[138] Like other Ashʿarites who believed that faith or taqlid should apply only to Islam and not to any ancient Hellenistic authorities,[140] Ibn al-Haytham's view that taqlid should apply only to prophets of Islam and not to any other authorities formed the basis for much of his scientific skepticism and criticism against Ptolemy and other ancient authorities in his Doubts Concerning Ptolemy and Book of Optics.[141]

Alhazen wrote a work on Islamic theology in which he discussed prophethood and developed a system of philosophical criteria to discern its false claimants in his time.[142] He also wrote a treatise entitled Finding the Direction of Qibla by Calculation in which he discussed finding the Qibla, where prayers (salat) are directed towards, mathematically.[143]

There are occasional references to theology or religious sentiment in his technical works, e.g. in Doubts Concerning Ptolemy:

Truth is sought for its own sake ... Finding the truth is difficult, and the road to it is rough. For the truths are plunged in obscurity. ... God, however, has not preserved the scientist from error and has not safeguarded science from shortcomings and faults. If this had been the case, scientists would not have disagreed upon any point of science...[144]

In The Winding Motion:

From the statements made by the noble Shaykh, it is clear that he believes in Ptolemy's words in everything he says, without relying on a demonstration or calling on a proof, but by pure imitation (taqlid); that is how experts in the prophetic tradition have faith in Prophets, may the blessing of God be upon them. But it is not the way that mathematicians have faith in specialists in the demonstrative sciences.[145]

Regarding the relation of objective truth and God:

I constantly sought knowledge and truth, and it became my belief that for gaining access to the effulgence and closeness to God, there is no better way than that of searching for truth and knowledge.[146]

Legacy

 
Cover page of the Latin translation of Kitāb al-Manāẓir

Alhazen made significant contributions to optics, number theory, geometry, astronomy and natural philosophy. Alhazen's work on optics is credited with contributing a new emphasis on experiment.

His main work, Kitab al-Manazir (Book of Optics), was known in the Muslim world mainly, but not exclusively, through the thirteenth-century commentary by Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī, the Tanqīḥ al-Manāẓir li-dhawī l-abṣār wa l-baṣā'ir.[147] In al-Andalus, it was used by the eleventh-century prince of the Banu Hud dynasty of Zaragossa and author of an important mathematical text, al-Mu'taman ibn Hūd. A Latin translation of the Kitab al-Manazir was made probably in the late twelfth or early thirteenth century.[148] This translation was read by and greatly influenced a number of scholars in Christian Europe including: Roger Bacon,[149] Robert Grosseteste,[150] Witelo, Giambattista della Porta,[151] Leonardo da Vinci,[152] Galileo Galilei,[153] Christiaan Huygens,[154] René Descartes,[155] and Johannes Kepler.[156] Meanwhile, in the Islamic world, Alhazen's work influenced Averroes' writings on optics,[citation needed] and his legacy was further advanced through the 'reforming' of his Optics by Persian scientist Kamal al-Din al-Farisi (died c. 1320) in the latter's Kitab Tanqih al-Manazir (The Revision of [Ibn al-Haytham's] Optics).[108] Alhazen wrote as many as 200 books, although only 55 have survived. Some of his treatises on optics survived only through Latin translation. During the Middle Ages his books on cosmology were translated into Latin, Hebrew and other languages.

Although only one commentary on Alhazen's optics has survived the Islamic Middle Ages, Geoffrey Chaucer mentions the work in The Canterbury Tales:[157]

"They spoke of Alhazen and Vitello,
And Aristotle, who wrote, in their lives,
On strange mirrors and optical instruments."

The impact crater Alhazen on the Moon is named in his honour,[158] as was the asteroid 59239 Alhazen.[159] In honour of Alhazen, the Aga Khan University (Pakistan) named its Ophthalmology endowed chair as "The Ibn-e-Haitham Associate Professor and Chief of Ophthalmology".[160] Alhazen, by the name Ibn al-Haytham, is featured on the obverse of the Iraqi 10,000-dinar banknote issued in 2003,[161] and on 10-dinar notes from 1982.

The 2015 International Year of Light celebrated the 1000th anniversary of the works on optics by Ibn Al-Haytham.[162]

Commemorations

 
Hevelius's Selenographia, showing Alhasen [sic] representing reason, and Galileo representing the senses

In 2014, the "Hiding in the Light" episode of Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey, presented by Neil deGrasse Tyson, focused on the accomplishments of Ibn al-Haytham. He was voiced by Alfred Molina in the episode.

Over forty years previously, Jacob Bronowski presented Alhazen's work in a similar television documentary (and the corresponding book), The Ascent of Man. In episode 5 (The Music of the Spheres), Bronowski remarked that in his view, Alhazen was "the one really original scientific mind that Arab culture produced", whose theory of optics was not improved on till the time of Newton and Leibniz.

H. J. J. Winter, a British historian of science, summing up the importance of Ibn al-Haytham in the history of physics wrote:

After the death of Archimedes no really great physicist appeared until Ibn al-Haytham. If, therefore, we confine our interest only to the history of physics, there is a long period of over twelve hundred years during which the Golden Age of Greece gave way to the era of Muslim Scholasticism, and the experimental spirit of the noblest physicist of Antiquity lived again in the Arab Scholar from Basra.[163]

UNESCO declared 2015 the International Year of Light and its Director-General Irina Bokova dubbed Ibn al-Haytham 'the father of optics'.[164] Amongst others, this was to celebrate Ibn Al-Haytham's achievements in optics, mathematics and astronomy. An international campaign, created by the 1001 Inventions organisation, titled 1001 Inventions and the World of Ibn Al-Haytham featuring a series of interactive exhibits, workshops and live shows about his work, partnering with science centers, science festivals, museums, and educational institutions, as well as digital and social media platforms.[165] The campaign also produced and released the short educational film 1001 Inventions and the World of Ibn Al-Haytham.

List of works

According to medieval biographers, Alhazen wrote more than 200 works on a wide range of subjects, of which at least 96 of his scientific works are known. Most of his works are now lost, but more than 50 of them have survived to some extent. Nearly half of his surviving works are on mathematics, 23 of them are on astronomy, and 14 of them are on optics, with a few on other subjects.[166] Not all his surviving works have yet been studied, but some of the ones that have are given below.[167]

  1. Book of Optics (كتاب المناظر)
  2. Analysis and Synthesis (مقالة في التحليل والتركيب)
  3. Balance of Wisdom (ميزان الحكمة)
  4. Corrections to the Almagest (تصويبات على المجسطي)
  5. Discourse on Place (مقالة في المكان)
  6. Exact Determination of the Pole (التحديد الدقيق للقطب)
  7. Exact Determination of the Meridian (رسالة في الشفق)
  8. Finding the Direction of Qibla by Calculation (كيفية حساب اتجاه القبلة)
  9. Horizontal Sundials (المزولة الأفقية)
  10. Hour Lines (خطوط الساعة)
  11. Doubts Concerning Ptolemy (شكوك على بطليموس)
  12. Maqala fi'l-Qarastun (مقالة في قرسطون)
  13. On Completion of the Conics (إكمال المخاريط)
  14. On Seeing the Stars (رؤية الكواكب)
  15. On Squaring the Circle (مقالة فی تربیع الدائرة)
  16. On the Burning Sphere (المرايا المحرقة بالدوائر)
  17. On the Configuration of the World (تكوين العالم)
  18. On the Form of Eclipse (مقالة فی صورة ‌الکسوف)
  19. On the Light of Stars (مقالة في ضوء النجوم)[168]
  20. On the Light of the Moon (مقالة في ضوء القمر)
  21. On the Milky Way (مقالة في درب التبانة)
  22. On the Nature of Shadows (كيفيات الإظلال)
  23. On the Rainbow and Halo (مقالة في قوس قزح)
  24. Opuscula (Minor Works)
  25. Resolution of Doubts Concerning the Almagest (تحليل شكوك حول الجست)
  26. Resolution of Doubts Concerning the Winding Motion
  27. The Correction of the Operations in Astronomy (تصحيح العمليات في الفلك)
  28. The Different Heights of the Planets (اختلاف ارتفاع الكواكب)
  29. The Direction of Mecca (اتجاه القبلة)
  30. The Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets (نماذج حركات الكواكب السبعة)
  31. The Model of the Universe (نموذج الكون)
  32. The Motion of the Moon (حركة القمر)
  33. The Ratios of Hourly Arcs to their Heights
  34. The Winding Motion (الحركة المتعرجة)
  35. Treatise on Light (رسالة في الضوء)[169]
  36. Treatise on Place (رسالة في المكان)
  37. Treatise on the Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals (تأثير اللحون الموسيقية في النفوس الحيوانية)
  38. كتاب في تحليل المسائل الهندسية (A book in engineering analysis)
  39. الجامع في أصول الحساب (The whole in the assets of the account)
  40. قول فی مساحة الکرة (Say in the sphere)
  41. القول المعروف بالغریب فی حساب المعاملات (Saying the unknown in the calculation of transactions)
  42. خواص المثلث من جهة العمود (Triangle properties from the side of the column)
  43. رسالة فی مساحة المسجم المکافی (A message in the free space)
  44. شرح أصول إقليدس (Explain the origins of Euclid)
  45. المرايا المحرقة بالقطوع (The burning mirrors of the rainbow)
  46. مقالة في القرصتن (Treatise on Centers of Gravity)

Lost works

  1. A Book in which I have Summarized the Science of Optics from the Two Books of Euclid and Ptolemy, to which I have added the Notions of the First Discourse which is Missing from Ptolemy's Book[170]
  2. Treatise on Burning Mirrors
  3. Treatise on the Nature of [the Organ of] Sight and on How Vision is Achieved Through It

See also

Notes

  1. ^ A. Mark Smith has determined that there were at least two translators, based on their facility with Arabic; the first, more experienced scholar began the translation at the beginning of Book One, and handed it off in the middle of Chapter Three of Book Three. Smith 2001 91 Volume 1: Commentary and Latin text pp.xx-xxi. See also his 2006, 2008, 2010 translations.

References

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  2. ^ O'Connor & Robertson 1999.
  3. ^ El-Bizri 2010, p. 11: "Ibn al-Haytham's groundbreaking studies in optics, including his research in catoptrics and dioptrics (respectively the sciences investigating the principles and instruments pertaining to the reflection and refraction of light), were principally gathered in his monumental opus: Kitåb al-manåóir (The Optics; De Aspectibus or Perspectivae; composed between 1028 CE and 1038 CE)."
  4. ^ Rooney 2012, p. 39: "As a rigorous experimental physicist, he is sometimes credited with inventing the scientific method."
  5. ^ Baker 2012, p. 449: "As shown earlier, Ibn al-Haytham was among the first scholars to experiment with animal psychology.
  6. ^ Also Alhacen, Avennathan, Avenetan, etc.; the identity of "Alhazen" with Ibn al-Haytham al-Basri "was identified towards the end of the 19th century". (Vernet 1996, p. 788)
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  9. ^ a b For the description of his main fields, see e.g. Vernet 1996, p. 788 ("He is one of the principal Arab mathematicians and, without any doubt, the best physicist.") Sabra 2008, Kalin, Ayduz & Dagli 2009 ("Ibn al-Ḥaytam was an eminent eleventh-century Arab optician, geometer, arithmetician, algebraist, astronomer, and engineer."), Dallal 1999 ("Ibn al-Haytham (d. 1039), known in the West as Alhazan, was a leading Arab mathematician, astronomer, and physicist. His optical compendium, Kitab al-Manazir, is the greatest medieval work on optics.")
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  25. ^ O'Connor & Robertson 1999
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  28. ^ Noted by Abu'l-Hasan Bayhaqi (c. 1097–1169), and by
    • Sabra 1994 p. 197
    • Carl Boyer 1959 p. 80
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  • Smith, A. Mark, ed. (2010), Alhacen on Refraction: a critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of Book 7 of Alhacen's De aspectibus, [the Medieval Latin version of Ibn-al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāẓir], Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 100–3, translated by Smith, A. Mark, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society (Book 7 (2010) 100(#3, section 1) – Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR; 100(#3, section 2) – Vol 2 English translation VII: TOC pp. 213–18, Notes, Bibl. via JSTOR)
  • Smith, A. Mark (2015), From Sight to Light: The Passage from Ancient to Modern Optics, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-17476-1
  • Smith, John D. (1 March 1992), "The Remarkable Ibn al-Haytham", The Mathematical Gazette, Mathematical Association, 76 (475): 189–98, doi:10.2307/3620392, ISSN 0025-5572, JSTOR 3620392, S2CID 118597450
  • Toomer, G. J. (December 1964), "Review: Ibn al-Haythams Weg zur Physik by Matthias Schramm", Isis, 55 (4): 463–65, doi:10.1086/349914
  • Topdemir, Huseyin Gazi (18 July 2007), Ibn al-Haytham (965–1039): His Life and Works
  • Vernet, J. (1996) [1960], "Ibn al-Haytham", in Gibb, H. A. R.; Bearman, P. (eds.), Encyclopaedia of Islam (First ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 978-9004161214
  • Vernet, J. (2012), "Ibn al-Haytham", in Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.), Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.), Brill Online: Brill Publishers, retrieved 16 September 2008
  • Wade, Nicholas J. (1998), A Natural History of Vision, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
  • Wade, Nicholas J.; Finger, Stanley (2001), "The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to Helmholtz's perspective", Perception, 30 (10): 1157–77, doi:10.1068/p3210, PMID 11721819, S2CID 8185797
  • Weisstein, Eric (2008), Alhazen's Billiard Problem, Mathworld, retrieved 24 September 2008
  • Whitaker, Brian (23 September 2004), "Centuries in the House of Wisdom", The Guardian, retrieved 16 September 2008
  • Zewail, Ahmed H.; Thomas, John Meurig (2010), 4D Electron Microscopy: Imaging in Space and Time, World Scientific, ISBN 978-1-84816-390-4

Further reading

Primary

  • Sabra, A. I, ed. (1983), The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham, Books I-II-III: On Direct Vision. The Arabic text, edited and with Introduction, Arabic-Latin Glossaries and Concordance Tables, Kuwait: National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters
  • Sabra, A. I, ed. (2002), The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. Edition of the Arabic Text of Books IV–V: On Reflection and Images Seen by Reflection. 2 vols, Kuwait: National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters
  • Smith, A. Mark, ed. and trans. (2006), "Alhacen on the principles of reflection: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of books 4 and 5 of Alhacen's De Aspectibus, the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāẓir, 2 vols.", Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 95 (2–3){{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 2 vols: . (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society), 2006 – 95(#2) Books 4–5 Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR; 95(#3) Vol 2 English translation, Notes, Bibl. via JSTOR
  • Smith, A. Mark, ed. and trans. (2008) Alhacen on Image-formation and distortion in mirrors : a critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of Book 6 of Alhacen's De aspectibus, [the Medieval Latin version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāzir], Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 2 vols: Vol 1 98(#1, section 1 – Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text); 98(#1, section 2 – Vol 2 English translation). (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society), 2008. Book 6 (2008) Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR; Vol 2 English translation, Notes, Bibl. via JSTOR
  • Smith, A. Mark, ed. and trans. (2010) Alhacen on Refraction : a critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of Book 7 of Alhacen's De aspectibus, [the Medieval Latin version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāzir], Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 2 vols: 100(#3, section 1 – Vol 1, Introduction and Latin text); 100(#3, section 2 – Vol 2 English translation). (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society), 2010. Book 7 (2010) Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR;Vol 2 English translation, Notes, Bibl. via JSTOR

Secondary

  • Belting, Hans, , in: Variantology 4. On Deep Time Relations of Arts, Sciences and Technologies in the Arabic-Islamic World and Beyond, ed. by Siegfried Zielinski and Eckhard Fürlus in cooperation with Daniel Irrgang and Franziska Latell (Cologne: Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König, 2010), pp. 19–42.
  • El-Bizri, Nader (2009b), "Ibn al-Haytham et le problème de la couleur", Oriens Occidens, Paris: CNRS, 7 (1): 201–26
  • El-Bizri, Nader (2016), "Grosseteste's Meteorological Optics: Explications of the Phenomenon of the Rainbow after Ibn al-Haytham", in Cunningham, Jack P.; Hocknull, Mark (eds.), Robert Grosseteste and the Pursuit of Religious and Scientific Knowledge in the Middle Ages, Studies in the History of Philosophy of Mind, vol. 18, Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 21–39, ISBN 978-3-319-33466-0
  • Falco, Charles M. (12–15 February 2007), (PDF), presented at a plenary session at the International Conference on Information Sciences, Signal Processing and its Applications, archived from the original (PDF) on 4 December 2020, retrieved 23 January 2008
  • Gazı Topdemır, Hüseyın (2000). İBNÜ'l-HEYSEM – An article published in 21st volume of Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam (in Turkish). Vol. 21. Istanbul: TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi. pp. 82–87. ISBN 978-97-53-89448-7.
  • Graham, Mark. How Islam Created the Modern World. Amana Publications, 2006.
  • Omar, Saleh Beshara (June 1975), Ibn al-Haytham and Greek optics: a comparative study in scientific methodology, PhD Dissertation, University of Chicago, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations
  • Roshdi Rashed, Optics and Mathematics: Research on the history of scientific thought in Arabic, Variorum reprints, Aldershot, 1992.
  • Roshdi Rashed, Geometry and Dioptrics the tenth century: Ibn Sahl al-Quhi and Ibn al-Haytham (in French), Les Belles Lettres, Paris, 1993
  • Roshdi Rashed, Infinitesimal Mathematics, vols. 1–5, al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation, London, 1993–2006
  • Saliba, George (2007), Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance, MIT Press, ISBN 978-0-262-19557-7
  • Siegfried Zielinski & Franziska Latell, How One Sees, in: Variantology 4. On Deep Time Relations of Arts, Sciences and Technologies in the Arabic-Islamic World and Beyond, ed. by Siegfried Zielinski and Eckhard Fürlus in cooperation with Daniel Irrgang and Franziska Latell (Cologne: Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König, 2010), pp. 19–42.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ibn al-Haytham.
  • Works by Ibn al-Haytham at Open Library
  • Langermann, Y. Tzvi (2007). "Ibn al‐Haytham: Abū ʿAlī al‐Ḥasan ibn al‐Ḥasan". In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. pp. 556–67. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0. ()
  • 'A Brief Introduction on Ibn al-Haytham' based on a lecture delivered at the Royal Society in London by Nader El-Bizri
  • Ibn al-Haytham on two Iraqi banknotes
  • The Miracle of Light – a UNESCO article on Ibn al-Haytham
  • Biography from Malaspina Global Portal
  • Short biographies on several "Muslim Heroes and Personalities" including Ibn al-Haytham
  • at the Wayback Machine (archived 13 October 1999)
  • . Archived from the original on 11 February 2006. Retrieved 16 September 2008.
  • Biography from Molecular Expressions
  • The First True Scientist from BBC News
  • Over the Moon From The UNESCO Courier on the occasion of the International Year of Astronomy 2009
  • The Mechanical Water Clock Of Ibn Al-Haytham, Muslim Heritage
  • Alhazen's (1572) Opticae thesaurus (English) – digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library

November 27, 2023
haytham, alhazen, redirects, here, other, uses, alhazen, disambiguation, disambiguation, Ḥasan, latinized, alhazen, full, name, abū, ʿalī, Ḥasan, Ḥasan, haytham, أبو, علي, الحسن, بن, الحسن, بن, الهيثم, 1040, medieval, mathematician, astronomer, physicist, isla. Alhazen redirects here For other uses see Alhazen disambiguation and Ibn al Haytham disambiguation Ḥasan Ibn al Haytham Latinized as Alhazen ae l ˈ h ae z en full name Abu ʿAli al Ḥasan ibn al Ḥasan ibn al Haytham أبو علي الحسن بن الحسن بن الهيثم c 965 c 1040 was a medieval mathematician astronomer and physicist of the Islamic Golden Age from present day Iraq 6 7 8 9 Referred to as the father of modern optics 10 11 12 he made significant contributions to the principles of optics and visual perception in particular His most influential work is titled Kitab al Manaẓir Arabic كتاب المناظر Book of Optics written during 1011 1021 which survived in a Latin edition 13 The works of Alhazen were frequently cited during the scientific revolution by Isaac Newton Johannes Kepler Christiaan Huygens and Galileo Galilei AlhazenḤasan Ibn al Haythamابن الهيثمBornc 965 0965 c 354 AH 1 Basra Buyid EmirateDiedc 1040 1041 c 430 AH 1 aged around 75 Cairo Fatimid CaliphateKnown forBook of Optics Doubts Concerning Ptolemy Alhazen s problem analysis 2 Catoptrics 3 horopter Spherical aberration intromission theory of visual perception moon illusion experimental science scientific methodology 4 animal psychology 5 Scientific careerFieldsPhysics mathematics astronomyIbn al Haytham was the first to correctly explain the theory of vision 14 and to argue that vision occurs in the brain pointing to observations that it is subjective and affected by personal experience 15 He also stated the principle of least time for refraction which would later become the Fermat s principle 16 He made major contributions to catoptrics and dioptrics by studying reflection refraction and nature of images formed by light rays 17 18 Ibn al Haytham was an early proponent of the concept that a hypothesis must be supported by experiments based on confirmable procedures or mathematical reasoning an early pioneer in the scientific method five centuries before Renaissance scientists 19 20 21 22 On account of this he is sometimes described as the world s first true scientist 12 He was also a polymath writing on philosophy theology and medicine 23 Born in Basra he spent most of his productive period in the Fatimid capital of Cairo and earned his living authoring various treatises and tutoring members of the nobilities 24 Ibn al Haytham is sometimes given the byname al Baṣri after his birthplace 25 or al Miṣri the Egyptian 26 27 Al Haytham was dubbed the Second Ptolemy by Abu l Hasan Bayhaqi 28 and The Physicist by John Peckham 29 Ibn al Haytham paved the way for the modern science of physical optics 30 Contents 1 Biography 2 Book of Optics 2 1 Theory of optics 2 2 Law of reflection 2 3 Alhazen s problem 2 4 Camera Obscura 2 5 Refractometer 2 6 Unconscious inference 2 7 Color constancy 2 8 Other contributions 3 Scientific method 4 Other works on physics 4 1 Optical treatises 4 2 Celestial physics 4 3 Mechanics 5 Astronomical works 5 1 On the Configuration of the World 5 2 Doubts Concerning Ptolemy 5 3 Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets 5 4 Other astronomical works 6 Mathematical works 6 1 Geometry 6 2 Number theory 6 3 Calculus 7 Other works 7 1 Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals 7 2 Engineering 7 3 Philosophy 7 4 Theology 8 Legacy 9 Commemorations 10 List of works 10 1 Lost works 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Sources 15 Further reading 15 1 Primary 15 2 Secondary 16 External linksBiographyIbn al Haytham Alhazen was born c 965 to a family of Arab 9 31 32 33 34 or Persian 35 36 37 38 39 origin in Basra Iraq which was at the time part of the Buyid emirate His initial influences were in the study of religion and service to the community At the time society had a number of conflicting views of religion that he ultimately sought to step aside from religion This led to him delving into the study of mathematics and science 40 He held a position with the title vizier in his native Basra and made a name for himself on his knowledge of applied mathematics As he claimed to be able to regulate the flooding of the Nile he was invited to meet the Fatimid Caliph al Hakim in order to realise a hydraulic project at Aswan However Ibn al Haytham was forced to concede the impracticability of his project 41 Upon his return to Cairo he was given an administrative post After he proved unable to fulfill this task as well he contracted the ire of the caliph al Hakim 42 and is said to have been forced into hiding until the caliph s death in 1021 after which his confiscated possessions were returned to him 43 Legend has it that Alhazen feigned madness and was kept under house arrest during this period 44 During this time he wrote his influential Book of Optics Alhazen continued to live in Cairo in the neighborhood of the famous University of al Azhar and lived from the proceeds of his literary production 45 until his death in c 1040 41 A copy of Apollonius Conics written in Ibn al Haytham s own handwriting exists in Aya Sofya MS Aya Sofya 2762 307 fob dated Safar 415 A H 1024 46 Note 2 Among his students were Sorkhab Sohrab a Persian from Semnan and Abu al Wafa Mubashir ibn Fatek an Egyptian prince 47 verification needed Book of OpticsMain article Book of Optics Alhazen s most famous work is his seven volume treatise on optics Kitab al Manazir Book of Optics written from 1011 to 1021 48 In it Ibn al Haytham was the first to explain that vision occurs when light reflects from an object and then passes to one s eyes 14 and to argue that vision occurs in the brain pointing to observations that it is subjective and affected by personal experience 15 Optics was translated into Latin by an unknown scholar at the end of the 12th century or the beginning of the 13th century 49 a This work enjoyed a great reputation during the Middle Ages The Latin version of De aspectibus was translated at the end of the 14th century into Italian vernacular under the title De li aspecti 50 It was printed by Friedrich Risner in 1572 with the title Opticae thesaurus Alhazeni Arabis libri septem nuncprimum editi Eiusdem liber De Crepusculis et nubium ascensionibus English Treasury of Optics seven books by the Arab Alhazen first edition by the same on twilight and the height of clouds 51 Risner is also the author of the name variant Alhazen before Risner he was known in the west as Alhacen 52 Works by Alhazen on geometric subjects were discovered in the Bibliotheque nationale in Paris in 1834 by E A Sedillot In all A Mark Smith has accounted for 18 full or near complete manuscripts and five fragments which are preserved in 14 locations including one in the Bodleian Library at Oxford and one in the library of Bruges 53 Theory of optics See also Horopter nbsp Front page of the Opticae Thesaurus which included the first printed Latin translation of Alhazen s Book of Optics The illustration incorporates many examples of optical phenomena including perspective effects the rainbow mirrors and refraction Two major theories on vision prevailed in classical antiquity The first theory the emission theory was supported by such thinkers as Euclid and Ptolemy who believed that sight worked by the eye emitting rays of light The second theory the intromission theory supported by Aristotle and his followers had physical forms entering the eye from an object Previous Islamic writers such as al Kindi had argued essentially on Euclidean Galenist or Aristotelian lines The strongest influence on the Book of Optics was from Ptolemy s Optics while the description of the anatomy and physiology of the eye was based on Galen s account 54 Alhazen s achievement was to come up with a theory that successfully combined parts of the mathematical ray arguments of Euclid the medical tradition of Galen and the intromission theories of Aristotle Alhazen s intromission theory followed al Kindi and broke with Aristotle in asserting that from each point of every colored body illuminated by any light issue light and color along every straight line that can be drawn from that point 55 This left him with the problem of explaining how a coherent image was formed from many independent sources of radiation in particular every point of an object would send rays to every point on the eye What Alhazen needed was for each point on an object to correspond to one point only on the eye 55 He attempted to resolve this by asserting that the eye would only perceive perpendicular rays from the object for any one point on the eye only the ray that reached it directly without being refracted by any other part of the eye would be perceived He argued using a physical analogy that perpendicular rays were stronger than oblique rays in the same way that a ball thrown directly at a board might break the board whereas a ball thrown obliquely at the board would glance off perpendicular rays were stronger than refracted rays and it was only perpendicular rays which were perceived by the eye As there was only one perpendicular ray that would enter the eye at any one point and all these rays would converge on the centre of the eye in a cone this allowed him to resolve the problem of each point on an object sending many rays to the eye if only the perpendicular ray mattered then he had a one to one correspondence and the confusion could be resolved 56 He later asserted in book seven of the Optics that other rays would be refracted through the eye and perceived as if perpendicular 57 His arguments regarding perpendicular rays do not clearly explain why only perpendicular rays were perceived why would the weaker oblique rays not be perceived more weakly 58 His later argument that refracted rays would be perceived as if perpendicular does not seem persuasive 59 However despite its weaknesses no other theory of the time was so comprehensive and it was enormously influential particularly in Western Europe Directly or indirectly his De Aspectibus Book of Optics inspired much activity in optics between the 13th and 17th centuries Kepler s later theory of the retinal image which resolved the problem of the correspondence of points on an object and points in the eye built directly on the conceptual framework of Alhazen 60 Alhazen showed through experiment that light travels in straight lines and carried out various experiments with lenses mirrors refraction and reflection 61 His analyses of reflection and refraction considered the vertical and horizontal components of light rays separately 62 Alhazen studied the process of sight the structure of the eye image formation in the eye and the visual system Ian P Howard argued in a 1996 Perception article that Alhazen should be credited with many discoveries and theories previously attributed to Western Europeans writing centuries later For example he described what became in the 19th century Hering s law of equal innervation He wrote a description of vertical horopters 600 years before Aguilonius that is actually closer to the modern definition than Aguilonius s and his work on binocular disparity was repeated by Panum in 1858 63 Craig Aaen Stockdale while agreeing that Alhazen should be credited with many advances has expressed some caution especially when considering Alhazen in isolation from Ptolemy with whom Alhazen was extremely familiar Alhazen corrected a significant error of Ptolemy regarding binocular vision but otherwise his account is very similar Ptolemy also attempted to explain what is now called Hering s law 64 In general Alhazen built on and expanded the optics of Ptolemy 65 In a more detailed account of Ibn al Haytham s contribution to the study of binocular vision based on Lejeune 66 and Sabra 67 Raynaud 68 showed that the concepts of correspondence homonymous and crossed diplopia were in place in Ibn al Haytham s optics But contrary to Howard he explained why Ibn al Haytham did not give the circular figure of the horopter and why by reasoning experimentally he was in fact closer to the discovery of Panum s fusional area than that of the Vieth Muller circle In this regard Ibn al Haytham s theory of binocular vision faced two main limits the lack of recognition of the role of the retina and obviously the lack of an experimental investigation of ocular tracts nbsp The structure of the human eye according to Ibn al Haytham Note the depiction of the optic chiasm Manuscript copy of his Kitab al Manaẓir MS Fatih 3212 vol 1 fol 81b Suleymaniye Mosque Library Istanbul Alhazen s most original contribution was that after describing how he thought the eye was anatomically constructed he went on to consider how this anatomy would behave functionally as an optical system 69 His understanding of pinhole projection from his experiments appears to have influenced his consideration of image inversion in the eye 70 which he sought to avoid 71 He maintained that the rays that fell perpendicularly on the lens or glacial humor as he called it were further refracted outward as they left the glacial humor and the resulting image thus passed upright into the optic nerve at the back of the eye 72 He followed Galen in believing that the lens was the receptive organ of sight although some of his work hints that he thought the retina was also involved 73 Alhazen s synthesis of light and vision adhered to the Aristotelian scheme exhaustively describing the process of vision in a logical complete fashion 74 His research in catoptrics the study of optical systems using mirrors was centred on spherical and parabolic mirrors and spherical aberration He made the observation that the ratio between the angle of incidence and refraction does not remain constant and investigated the magnifying power of a lens 61 Law of reflection Main article Specular reflection Alhazen was the first physicist to give complete statement of the law of reflection 75 76 77 He was first to state that the incident ray the reflected ray and the normal to the surface all lie in a same plane perpendicular to reflecting plane 17 78 Alhazen s problem Main article Alhazen s problem nbsp The theorem of Ibn HaythamHis work on catoptrics in Book V of the Book of Optics contains a discussion of what is now known as Alhazen s problem first formulated by Ptolemy in 150 AD It comprises drawing lines from two points in the plane of a circle meeting at a point on the circumference and making equal angles with the normal at that point This is equivalent to finding the point on the edge of a circular billiard table at which a player must aim a cue ball at a given point to make it bounce off the table edge and hit another ball at a second given point Thus its main application in optics is to solve the problem Given a light source and a spherical mirror find the point on the mirror where the light will be reflected to the eye of an observer This leads to an equation of the fourth degree 79 This eventually led Alhazen to derive a formula for the sum of fourth powers where previously only the formulas for the sums of squares and cubes had been stated His method can be readily generalized to find the formula for the sum of any integral powers although he did not himself do this perhaps because he only needed the fourth power to calculate the volume of the paraboloid he was interested in He used his result on sums of integral powers to perform what would now be called an integration where the formulas for the sums of integral squares and fourth powers allowed him to calculate the volume of a paraboloid 80 Alhazen eventually solved the problem using conic sections and a geometric proof His solution was extremely long and complicated and may not have been understood by mathematicians reading him in Latin translation Later mathematicians used Descartes analytical methods to analyse the problem 81 An algebraic solution to the problem was finally found in 1965 by Jack M Elkin an actuarian 82 Other solutions were discovered in 1989 by Harald Riede 83 and in 1997 by the Oxford mathematician Peter M Neumann 84 85 Recently Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories MERL researchers solved the extension of Alhazen s problem to general rotationally symmetric quadric mirrors including hyperbolic parabolic and elliptical mirrors 86 Camera Obscura The camera obscura was known to the ancient Chinese and was described by the Han Chinese polymath Shen Kuo in his scientific book Dream Pool Essays published in the year 1088 C E Aristotle had discussed the basic principle behind it in his Problems but Alhazen s work contained the first clear description of camera obscura 87 and early analysis 88 of the device Ibn al Haytham used a camera obscura mainly to observe a partial solar eclipse 89 In his essay Ibn al Haytham writes that he observed the sickle like shape of the sun at the time of an eclipse The introduction reads as follows The image of the sun at the time of the eclipse unless it is total demonstrates that when its light passes through a narrow round hole and is cast on a plane opposite to the hole it takes on the form of a moonsickle It is admitted that his findings solidified the importance in the history of the camera obscura 90 but this treatise is important in many other respects Ancient optics and medieval optics were divided into optics and burning mirrors Optics proper mainly focused on the study of vision while burning mirrors focused on the properties of light and luminous rays On the shape of the eclipse is probably one of the first attempts made by Ibn al Haytham to articulate these two sciences Very often Ibn al Haytham s discoveries benefited from the intersection of mathematical and experimental contributions This is the case with On the shape of the eclipse Besides the fact that this treatise allowed more people to study partial eclipses of the sun it especially allowed to better understand how the camera obscura works This treatise is a physico mathematical study of image formation inside the camera obscura Ibn al Haytham takes an experimental approach and determines the result by varying the size and the shape of the aperture the focal length of the camera the shape and intensity of the light source 91 In his work he explains the inversion of the image in the camera obscura 92 the fact that the image is similar to the source when the hole is small but also the fact that the image can differ from the source when the hole is large All these results are produced by using a point analysis of the image 93 Refractometer Main article Refractometer In the seventh tract of his book of optics Alhazen described an apparatus for experimenting with various cases of refraction in order to investigate the relations between the angle of incidence the angle of refraction and the angle of deflection This apparatus was a modified version of an apparatus used by Ptolemy for similar purpose 94 95 96 Unconscious inference Main article Unconscious inferenceAlhazen basically states the concept of unconscious inference in his discussion of colour before adding that the inferential step between sensing colour and differentiating it is shorter than the time taken between sensing and any other visible characteristic aside from light and that time is so short as not to be clearly apparent to the beholder Naturally this suggests that the colour and form are perceived elsewhere Alhazen goes on to say that information must travel to the central nerve cavity for processing and the sentient organ does not sense the forms that reach it from the visible objects until after it has been affected by these forms thus it does not sense color as color or light as light until after it has been affected by the form of color or light Now the affectation received by the sentient organ from the form of color or of light is a certain change and change must take place in time and it is in the time during which the form extends from the sentient organ s surface to the cavity of the common nerve and in the time following that that the sensitive faculty which exists in the whole of the sentient body will perceive color as color Thus the last sentient s perception of color as such and of light as such takes place at a time following that in which the form arrives from the surface of the sentient organ to the cavity of the common nerve 97 Color constancy Main article Color constancyAlhazen explained color constancy by observing that the light reflected from an object is modified by the object s color He explained that the quality of the light and the color of the object are mixed and the visual system separates light and color In Book II Chapter 3 he writes Again the light does not travel from the colored object to the eye unaccompanied by the color nor does the form of the color pass from the colored object to the eye unaccompanied by the light Neither the form of the light nor that of the color existing in the colored object can pass except as mingled together and the last sentient can only perceive them as mingled together Nevertheless the sentient perceives that the visible object is luminous and that the light seen in the object is other than the color and that these are two properties 98 Other contributions The Kitab al Manazir Book of Optics describes several experimental observations that Alhazen made and how he used his results to explain certain optical phenomena using mechanical analogies He conducted experiments with projectiles and concluded that only the impact of perpendicular projectiles on surfaces was forceful enough to make them penetrate whereas surfaces tended to deflect oblique projectile strikes For example to explain refraction from a rare to a dense medium he used the mechanical analogy of an iron ball thrown at a thin slate covering a wide hole in a metal sheet A perpendicular throw breaks the slate and passes through whereas an oblique one with equal force and from an equal distance does not 99 He also used this result to explain how intense direct light hurts the eye using a mechanical analogy Alhazen associated strong lights with perpendicular rays and weak lights with oblique ones The obvious answer to the problem of multiple rays and the eye was in the choice of the perpendicular ray since only one such ray from each point on the surface of the object could penetrate the eye 100 Sudanese psychologist Omar Khaleefa has argued that Alhazen should be considered the founder of experimental psychology for his pioneering work on the psychology of visual perception and optical illusions 101 Khaleefa has also argued that Alhazen should also be considered the founder of psychophysics a sub discipline and precursor to modern psychology 101 Although Alhazen made many subjective reports regarding vision there is no evidence that he used quantitative psychophysical techniques and the claim has been rebuffed 102 Alhazen offered an explanation of the Moon illusion an illusion that played an important role in the scientific tradition of medieval Europe 103 Many authors repeated explanations that attempted to solve the problem of the Moon appearing larger near the horizon than it does when higher up in the sky Alhazen argued against Ptolemy s refraction theory and defined the problem in terms of perceived rather than real enlargement He said that judging the distance of an object depends on there being an uninterrupted sequence of intervening bodies between the object and the observer When the Moon is high in the sky there are no intervening objects so the Moon appears close The perceived size of an object of constant angular size varies with its perceived distance Therefore the Moon appears closer and smaller high in the sky and further and larger on the horizon Through works by Roger Bacon John Pecham and Witelo based on Alhazen s explanation the Moon illusion gradually came to be accepted as a psychological phenomenon with the refraction theory being rejected in the 17th century 104 Although Alhazen is often credited with the perceived distance explanation he was not the first author to offer it Cleomedes c 2nd century gave this account in addition to refraction and he credited it to Posidonius c 135 50 BCE 105 Ptolemy may also have offered this explanation in his Optics but the text is obscure 106 Alhazen s writings were more widely available in the Middle Ages than those of these earlier authors and that probably explains why Alhazen received the credit Scientific methodFurther information Scientific method Therefore the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and following his natural disposition puts his trust in them but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them the one who submits to argument and demonstration and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency The duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists if learning the truth is his goal is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads and attack it from every side He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency Alhazen 67 An aspect associated with Alhazen s optical research is related to systemic and methodological reliance on experimentation i tibar Arabic اختبار and controlled testing in his scientific inquiries Moreover his experimental directives rested on combining classical physics ilm tabi i with mathematics ta alim geometry in particular This mathematical physical approach to experimental science supported most of his propositions in Kitab al Manazir The Optics De aspectibus or Perspectivae 107 and grounded his theories of vision light and colour as well as his research in catoptrics and dioptrics the study of the reflection and refraction of light respectively 108 According to Matthias Schramm 109 Alhazen was the first to make a systematic use of the method of varying the experimental conditions in a constant and uniform manner in an experiment showing that the intensity of the light spot formed by the projection of the moonlight through two small apertures onto a screen diminishes constantly as one of the apertures is gradually blocked up 110 G J Toomer expressed some skepticism regarding Schramm s view 111 partly because at the time 1964 the Book of Optics had not yet been fully translated from Arabic and Toomer was concerned that without context specific passages might be read anachronistically While acknowledging Alhazen s importance in developing experimental techniques Toomer argued that Alhazen should not be considered in isolation from other Islamic and ancient thinkers 111 Toomer concluded his review by saying that it would not be possible to assess Schramm s claim that Ibn al Haytham was the true founder of modern physics without translating more of Alhazen s work and fully investigating his influence on later medieval writers 112 Other works on physicsOptical treatises Besides the Book of Optics Alhazen wrote several other treatises on the same subject including his Risala fi l Daw Treatise on Light He investigated the properties of luminance the rainbow eclipses twilight and moonlight Experiments with mirrors and the refractive interfaces between air water and glass cubes hemispheres and quarter spheres provided the foundation for his theories on catoptrics 113 Celestial physics Alhazen discussed the physics of the celestial region in his Epitome of Astronomy arguing that Ptolemaic models must be understood in terms of physical objects rather than abstract hypotheses in other words that it should be possible to create physical models where for example none of the celestial bodies would collide with each other The suggestion of mechanical models for the Earth centred Ptolemaic model greatly contributed to the eventual triumph of the Ptolemaic system among the Christians of the West Alhazen s determination to root astronomy in the realm of physical objects was important however because it meant astronomical hypotheses were accountable to the laws of physics and could be criticised and improved upon in those terms 114 He also wrote Maqala fi daw al qamar On the Light of the Moon Mechanics In his work Alhazen discussed theories on the motion of a body 113 In his Treatise on Place Alhazen disagreed with Aristotle s view that nature abhors a void and he used geometry in an attempt to demonstrate that place al makan is the imagined three dimensional void between the inner surfaces of a containing body 115 Astronomical worksOn the Configuration of the WorldIn his On the Configuration of the World Alhazen presented a detailed description of the physical structure of the earth The earth as a whole is a round sphere whose center is the center of the world It is stationary in its the world s middle fixed in it and not moving in any direction nor moving with any of the varieties of motion but always at rest 116 The book is a non technical explanation of Ptolemy s Almagest which was eventually translated into Hebrew and Latin in the 13th and 14th centuries and subsequently had an influence on astronomers such as Georg von Peuerbach 117 during the European Middle Ages and Renaissance 118 Doubts Concerning Ptolemy In his Al Shukuk ala Batlamyus variously translated as Doubts Concerning Ptolemy or Aporias against Ptolemy published at some time between 1025 and 1028 Alhazen criticized Ptolemy s Almagest Planetary Hypotheses and Optics pointing out various contradictions he found in these works particularly in astronomy Ptolemy s Almagest concerned mathematical theories regarding the motion of the planets whereas the Hypotheses concerned what Ptolemy thought was the actual configuration of the planets Ptolemy himself acknowledged that his theories and configurations did not always agree with each other arguing that this was not a problem provided it did not result in noticeable error but Alhazen was particularly scathing in his criticism of the inherent contradictions in Ptolemy s works 119 He considered that some of the mathematical devices Ptolemy introduced into astronomy especially the equant failed to satisfy the physical requirement of uniform circular motion and noted the absurdity of relating actual physical motions to imaginary mathematical points lines and circles 120 Ptolemy assumed an arrangement hay a that cannot exist and the fact that this arrangement produces in his imagination the motions that belong to the planets does not free him from the error he committed in his assumed arrangement for the existing motions of the planets cannot be the result of an arrangement that is impossible to exist F or a man to imagine a circle in the heavens and to imagine the planet moving in it does not bring about the planet s motion 121 Having pointed out the problems Alhazen appears to have intended to resolve the contradictions he pointed out in Ptolemy in a later work Alhazen believed there was a true configuration of the planets that Ptolemy had failed to grasp He intended to complete and repair Ptolemy s system not to replace it completely 119 In the Doubts Concerning Ptolemy Alhazen set out his views on the difficulty of attaining scientific knowledge and the need to question existing authorities and theories Truth is sought for itself but the truths he warns are immersed in uncertainties and the scientific authorities such as Ptolemy whom he greatly respected are not immune from error 67 He held that the criticism of existing theories which dominated this book holds a special place in the growth of scientific knowledge Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets Alhazen s The Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets was written c 1038 Only one damaged manuscript has been found with only the introduction and the first section on the theory of planetary motion surviving There was also a second section on astronomical calculation and a third section on astronomical instruments Following on from his Doubts on Ptolemy Alhazen described a new geometry based planetary model describing the motions of the planets in terms of spherical geometry infinitesimal geometry and trigonometry He kept a geocentric universe and assumed that celestial motions are uniformly circular which required the inclusion of epicycles to explain observed motion but he managed to eliminate Ptolemy s equant In general his model didn t try to provide a causal explanation of the motions but concentrated on providing a complete geometric description that could explain observed motions without the contradictions inherent in Ptolemy s model 122 Other astronomical works Alhazen wrote a total of twenty five astronomical works some concerning technical issues such as Exact Determination of the Meridian a second group concerning accurate astronomical observation a third group concerning various astronomical problems and questions such as the location of the Milky Way Alhazen made the first systematic effort of evaluating the Milky Way s parallax combining Ptolemy s data and his own He concluded that the parallax is probably very much smaller than Lunar parallax and the Milky way should be a celestial object Though he was not the first who argued that the Milky Way does not belong to the atmosphere he is the first who did quantitative analysis for the claim 123 The fourth group consists of ten works on astronomical theory including the Doubts and Model of the Motions discussed above 124 Mathematical works nbsp Alhazen s geometrically proven summation formulaIn mathematics Alhazen built on the mathematical works of Euclid and Thabit ibn Qurra and worked on the beginnings of the link between algebra and geometry 125 He developed a formula for summing the first 100 natural numbers using a geometric proof to prove the formula 126 Geometry nbsp The lunes of Alhazen The two blue lunes together have the same area as the green right triangle Alhazen explored what is now known as the Euclidean parallel postulate the fifth postulate in Euclid s Elements using a proof by contradiction 127 and in effect introducing the concept of motion into geometry 128 He formulated the Lambert quadrilateral which Boris Abramovich Rozenfeld names the Ibn al Haytham Lambert quadrilateral 129 He was criticised by Omar Khayyam who pointed that Aristotle had condemned the use of motion in geometry 130 In elementary geometry Alhazen attempted to solve the problem of squaring the circle using the area of lunes crescent shapes but later gave up on the impossible task 131 The two lunes formed from a right triangle by erecting a semicircle on each of the triangle s sides inward for the hypotenuse and outward for the other two sides are known as the lunes of Alhazen they have the same total area as the triangle itself 132 Number theory Alhazen s contributions to number theory include his work on perfect numbers In his Analysis and Synthesis he may have been the first to state that every even perfect number is of the form 2n 1 2n 1 where 2n 1 is prime but he was not able to prove this result Euler later proved it in the 18th century and it is now called the Euclid Euler theorem 131 Alhazen solved problems involving congruences using what is now called Wilson s theorem In his Opuscula Alhazen considers the solution of a system of congruences and gives two general methods of solution His first method the canonical method involved Wilson s theorem while his second method involved a version of the Chinese remainder theorem 131 Calculus Alhazen discovered the sum formula for the fourth power using a method that could be generally used to determine the sum for any integral power He used this to find the volume of a paraboloid He could find the integral formula for any polynomial without having developed a general formula 133 Other worksInfluence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals Alhazen also wrote a Treatise on the Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals although no copies have survived It appears to have been concerned with the question of whether animals could react to music for example whether a camel would increase or decrease its pace Engineering In engineering one account of his career as a civil engineer has him summoned to Egypt by the Fatimid Caliph Al Hakim bi Amr Allah to regulate the flooding of the Nile River He carried out a detailed scientific study of the annual inundation of the Nile River and he drew plans for building a dam at the site of the modern day Aswan Dam His field work however later made him aware of the impracticality of this scheme and he soon feigned madness so he could avoid punishment from the Caliph 134 Philosophy In his Treatise on Place Alhazen disagreed with Aristotle s view that nature abhors a void and he used geometry in an attempt to demonstrate that place al makan is the imagined three dimensional void between the inner surfaces of a containing body 115 Abd el latif a supporter of Aristotle s philosophical view of place later criticized the work in Fi al Radd ala Ibn al Haytham fi al makan A refutation of Ibn al Haytham s place for its geometrization of place 115 Alhazen also discussed space perception and its epistemological implications in his Book of Optics In tying the visual perception of space to prior bodily experience Alhazen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and therefore the autonomy of vision Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation sight can tell us next to nothing about such things 135 Alhazen came up with many theories that shattered what was known of reality at the time These ideas of optics and perspective did not just tie into physical science rather existential philosophy This led to religious viewpoints being upheld to the point that there is an observer and their perspective which in this case is reality 40 Theology Alhazen was a Muslim and most sources report that he was a Sunni and a follower of the Ash ari school 136 137 138 139 Ziauddin Sardar says that some of the greatest Muslim scientists such as Ibn al Haytham and Abu Rayhan al Biruni who were pioneers of the scientific method were themselves followers of the Ashʿari school of Islamic theology 138 Like other Ashʿarites who believed that faith or taqlid should apply only to Islam and not to any ancient Hellenistic authorities 140 Ibn al Haytham s view that taqlid should apply only to prophets of Islam and not to any other authorities formed the basis for much of his scientific skepticism and criticism against Ptolemy and other ancient authorities in his Doubts Concerning Ptolemy and Book of Optics 141 Alhazen wrote a work on Islamic theology in which he discussed prophethood and developed a system of philosophical criteria to discern its false claimants in his time 142 He also wrote a treatise entitled Finding the Direction of Qibla by Calculation in which he discussed finding the Qibla where prayers salat are directed towards mathematically 143 There are occasional references to theology or religious sentiment in his technical works e g in Doubts Concerning Ptolemy Truth is sought for its own sake Finding the truth is difficult and the road to it is rough For the truths are plunged in obscurity God however has not preserved the scientist from error and has not safeguarded science from shortcomings and faults If this had been the case scientists would not have disagreed upon any point of science 144 In The Winding Motion From the statements made by the noble Shaykh it is clear that he believes in Ptolemy s words in everything he says without relying on a demonstration or calling on a proof but by pure imitation taqlid that is how experts in the prophetic tradition have faith in Prophets may the blessing of God be upon them But it is not the way that mathematicians have faith in specialists in the demonstrative sciences 145 Regarding the relation of objective truth and God I constantly sought knowledge and truth and it became my belief that for gaining access to the effulgence and closeness to God there is no better way than that of searching for truth and knowledge 146 Legacy nbsp Cover page of the Latin translation of Kitab al ManaẓirAlhazen made significant contributions to optics number theory geometry astronomy and natural philosophy Alhazen s work on optics is credited with contributing a new emphasis on experiment His main work Kitab al Manazir Book of Optics was known in the Muslim world mainly but not exclusively through the thirteenth century commentary by Kamal al Din al Farisi the Tanqiḥal Manaẓirli dhawi l abṣar wa l baṣa ir 147 In al Andalus it was used by the eleventh century prince of the Banu Hud dynasty of Zaragossa and author of an important mathematical text al Mu taman ibn Hud A Latin translation of the Kitab al Manazir was made probably in the late twelfth or early thirteenth century 148 This translation was read by and greatly influenced a number of scholars in Christian Europe including Roger Bacon 149 Robert Grosseteste 150 Witelo Giambattista della Porta 151 Leonardo da Vinci 152 Galileo Galilei 153 Christiaan Huygens 154 Rene Descartes 155 and Johannes Kepler 156 Meanwhile in the Islamic world Alhazen s work influenced Averroes writings on optics citation needed and his legacy was further advanced through the reforming of his Optics by Persian scientist Kamal al Din al Farisi died c 1320 in the latter s Kitab Tanqih al Manazir The Revision of Ibn al Haytham s Optics 108 Alhazen wrote as many as 200 books although only 55 have survived Some of his treatises on optics survived only through Latin translation During the Middle Ages his books on cosmology were translated into Latin Hebrew and other languages Although only one commentary on Alhazen s optics has survived the Islamic Middle Ages Geoffrey Chaucer mentions the work in The Canterbury Tales 157 They spoke of Alhazen and Vitello And Aristotle who wrote in their lives On strange mirrors and optical instruments The impact crater Alhazen on the Moon is named in his honour 158 as was the asteroid 59239 Alhazen 159 In honour of Alhazen the Aga Khan University Pakistan named its Ophthalmology endowed chair as The Ibn e Haitham Associate Professor and Chief of Ophthalmology 160 Alhazen by the name Ibn al Haytham is featured on the obverse of the Iraqi 10 000 dinar banknote issued in 2003 161 and on 10 dinar notes from 1982 The 2015 International Year of Light celebrated the 1000th anniversary of the works on optics by Ibn Al Haytham 162 Commemorations nbsp Hevelius s Selenographia showing Alhasen sic representing reason and Galileo representing the sensesIn 2014 the Hiding in the Light episode of Cosmos A Spacetime Odyssey presented by Neil deGrasse Tyson focused on the accomplishments of Ibn al Haytham He was voiced by Alfred Molina in the episode Over forty years previously Jacob Bronowski presented Alhazen s work in a similar television documentary and the corresponding book The Ascent of Man In episode 5 The Music of the Spheres Bronowski remarked that in his view Alhazen was the one really original scientific mind that Arab culture produced whose theory of optics was not improved on till the time of Newton and Leibniz H J J Winter a British historian of science summing up the importance of Ibn al Haytham in the history of physics wrote After the death of Archimedes no really great physicist appeared until Ibn al Haytham If therefore we confine our interest only to the history of physics there is a long period of over twelve hundred years during which the Golden Age of Greece gave way to the era of Muslim Scholasticism and the experimental spirit of the noblest physicist of Antiquity lived again in the Arab Scholar from Basra 163 UNESCO declared 2015 the International Year of Light and its Director General Irina Bokova dubbed Ibn al Haytham the father of optics 164 Amongst others this was to celebrate Ibn Al Haytham s achievements in optics mathematics and astronomy An international campaign created by the 1001 Inventions organisation titled 1001 Inventions and the World of Ibn Al Haytham featuring a series of interactive exhibits workshops and live shows about his work partnering with science centers science festivals museums and educational institutions as well as digital and social media platforms 165 The campaign also produced and released the short educational film 1001 Inventions and the World of Ibn Al Haytham List of worksAccording to medieval biographers Alhazen wrote more than 200 works on a wide range of subjects of which at least 96 of his scientific works are known Most of his works are now lost but more than 50 of them have survived to some extent Nearly half of his surviving works are on mathematics 23 of them are on astronomy and 14 of them are on optics with a few on other subjects 166 Not all his surviving works have yet been studied but some of the ones that have are given below 167 Book of Optics كتاب المناظر Analysis and Synthesis مقالة في التحليل والتركيب Balance of Wisdom ميزان الحكمة Corrections to the Almagest تصويبات على المجسطي Discourse on Place مقالة في المكان Exact Determination of the Pole التحديد الدقيق للقطب Exact Determination of the Meridian رسالة في الشفق Finding the Direction of Qibla by Calculation كيفية حساب اتجاه القبلة Horizontal Sundials المزولة الأفقية Hour Lines خطوط الساعة Doubts Concerning Ptolemy شكوك على بطليموس Maqala fi l Qarastun مقالة في قرسطون On Completion of the Conics إكمال المخاريط On Seeing the Stars رؤية الكواكب On Squaring the Circle مقالة فی تربیع الدائرة On the Burning Sphere المرايا المحرقة بالدوائر On the Configuration of the World تكوين العالم On the Form of Eclipse مقالة فی صورة الکسوف On the Light of Stars مقالة في ضوء النجوم 168 On the Light of the Moon مقالة في ضوء القمر On the Milky Way مقالة في درب التبانة On the Nature of Shadows كيفيات الإظلال On the Rainbow and Halo مقالة في قوس قزح Opuscula Minor Works Resolution of Doubts Concerning the Almagest تحليل شكوك حول الجست Resolution of Doubts Concerning the Winding Motion The Correction of the Operations in Astronomy تصحيح العمليات في الفلك The Different Heights of the Planets اختلاف ارتفاع الكواكب The Direction of Mecca اتجاه القبلة The Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets نماذج حركات الكواكب السبعة The Model of the Universe نموذج الكون The Motion of the Moon حركة القمر The Ratios of Hourly Arcs to their Heights The Winding Motion الحركة المتعرجة Treatise on Light رسالة في الضوء 169 Treatise on Place رسالة في المكان Treatise on the Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals تأثير اللحون الموسيقية في النفوس الحيوانية كتاب في تحليل المسائل الهندسية A book in engineering analysis الجامع في أصول الحساب The whole in the assets of the account قول فی مساحة الکرة Say in the sphere القول المعروف بالغریب فی حساب المعاملات Saying the unknown in the calculation of transactions خواص المثلث من جهة العمود Triangle properties from the side of the column رسالة فی مساحة المسجم المکافی A message in the free space شرح أصول إقليدس Explain the origins of Euclid المرايا المحرقة بالقطوع The burning mirrors of the rainbow مقالة في القرصتن Treatise on Centers of Gravity Lost works A Book in which I have Summarized the Science of Optics from the Two Books of Euclid and Ptolemy to which I have added the Notions of the First Discourse which is Missing from Ptolemy s Book 170 Treatise on Burning Mirrors Treatise on the Nature of the Organ of Sight and on How Vision is Achieved Through ItSee also Hiding in the Light History of mathematics Theoretical physics History of optics History of physics History of science History of scientific method Hockney Falco thesis Mathematics in medieval Islam Physics in medieval Islam Science in the medieval Islamic world Fatima al Fihri Islamic Golden AgeNotes A Mark Smith has determined that there were at least two translators based on their facility with Arabic the first more experienced scholar began the translation at the beginning of Book One and handed it off in the middle of Chapter Three of Book Three Smith 2001 91 Volume 1 Commentary and Latin text pp xx xxi See also his 2006 2008 2010 translations References a b Lorch Richard 1 February 2017 Ibn al Haytham Arab astronomer and mathematician Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved 14 January 2022 O Connor amp Robertson 1999 El Bizri 2010 p 11 Ibn al Haytham s groundbreaking studies in optics including his research in catoptrics and dioptrics respectively the sciences investigating the principles and instruments pertaining to the reflection and refraction of light were principally gathered in his monumental opus Kitab al manaoir The Optics De Aspectibus or Perspectivae composed between 1028 CE and 1038 CE Rooney 2012 p 39 As a rigorous experimental physicist he is sometimes credited with inventing the scientific method Baker 2012 p 449 As shown earlier Ibn al Haytham was among the first scholars to experiment with animal psychology Also Alhacen Avennathan Avenetan etc the identity of Alhazen with Ibn al Haytham al Basri was identified towards the end of the 19th century Vernet 1996 p 788 Ibn al Haytham The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language 5th ed HarperCollins Retrieved 23 June 2019 Esposito John L 2000 The Oxford History of Islam Oxford University Press p 192 Ibn al Haytham d 1039 known in the West as Alhazan was a leading Arab mathematician astronomer and physicist His optical compendium Kitab al Manazir is the greatest medieval work on optics a b For the description of his main fields see e g Vernet 1996 p 788 He is one of the principal Arab mathematicians and without any doubt the best physicist Sabra 2008 Kalin Ayduz amp Dagli 2009 Ibn al Ḥaytam was an eminent eleventh century Arab optician geometer arithmetician algebraist astronomer and engineer Dallal 1999 Ibn al Haytham d 1039 known in the West as Alhazan was a leading Arab mathematician astronomer and physicist His optical compendium Kitab al Manazir is the greatest medieval work on optics Masic Izet 2008 Ibn al Haitham father of optics and describer of vision theory Medicinski Arhiv 62 3 183 188 PMID 18822953 International Year of Light Ibn al Haytham pioneer of modern optics celebrated at UNESCO UNESCO Retrieved 2 June 2018 a b Al Khalili Jim 4 January 2009 The first true scientist BBC News Retrieved 2 June 2018 Selin 2008 The three most recognizable Islamic contributors to meteorology were the Alexandrian mathematician astronomer Ibn al Haytham Alhazen 965 1039 the Arab speaking Persian physician Ibn Sina Avicenna 980 1037 and the Spanish Moorish physician jurist Ibn Rushd Averroes 1126 1198 He has been dubbed the father of modern optics by the UNESCO Impact of Science on Society UNESCO 26 27 140 1976 International Year of Light Ibn Al Haytham and the Legacy of Arabic Optics www light2015 org Archived from the original on 1 October 2014 Retrieved 9 October 2017 International Year of Light Ibn al Haytham pioneer of modern optics celebrated at UNESCO UNESCO Retrieved 9 October 2017 Specifically he was the first to explain that vision occurs when light bounces on an object and then enters an eye Adamson Peter 2016 Philosophy in the Islamic World A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps Oxford University Press p 77 ISBN 978 0 19 957749 1 a b Adamson Peter 2016 Philosophy in the Islamic World A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps Oxford University Press p 77 ISBN 978 0 19 957749 1 a b Baker 2012 p 445 Rashed Roshdi 1 April 2019 Fermat et le principe du moindre temps Comptes Rendus Mecanique 347 4 357 364 Bibcode 2019CRMec 347 357R doi 10 1016 j crme 2019 03 010 ISSN 1631 0721 S2CID 145904123 a b Selin 2008 p 1817 Boudrioua Azzedine Rashed Roshdi Lakshminarayanan Vasudevan 15 August 2017 Light Based Science Technology and Sustainable Development The Legacy of Ibn al Haytham CRC Press ISBN 978 1 351 65112 7 Haq Syed 2009 Science in Islam Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages ISSN 1703 7603 Retrievedn 22 October 2014 G J Toomer Review on JSTOR Toomer s 1964 review of Matthias Schramm 1963 Ibn Al Haythams Weg Zur Physik Toomer p 464 Schramm sums up Ibn Al Haytham s achievement in the development of scientific method International Year of Light Ibn Al Haytham and the Legacy of Arabic Optics Archived from the original on 1 October 2014 Retrieved 4 January 2015 Gorini Rosanna October 2003 Al Haytham the man of experience First steps in the science of vision PDF Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine 2 4 53 55 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 25 September 2008 Roshdi Rashed Ibn al Haytham s Geometrical Methods and the Philosophy of Mathematics A History of Arabic Sciences and Mathematics Volume 5 Routledge 2017 p 635 According to Al Qifti O Connor amp Robertson 1999 O Connor amp Robertson 1999 O Connor amp Robertson 1999 Disputed Corbin 1993 p 149 Noted by Abu l Hasan Bayhaqi c 1097 1169 and by Sabra 1994 p 197 Carl Boyer 1959 p 80 Lindberg 1967 p 331 Peckham continually bows to the authority of Alhazen whom he cites as the Author or the Physicist A Mark Smith 1996 Ptolemy s Theory of Visual Perception An English Translation of the Optics American Philosophical Society p 57 ISBN 978 0 87169 862 9 Simon 2006 Gregory Richard Langton 2004 The Oxford Companion to the Mind Oxford University Press p 24 ISBN 978 0 19 866224 2 Alhazen Arab mathematician and physicist who was born around 965 in what is now Iraq Critical Companion to Chaucer A Literary Reference to His Life and Work Esposito 2000 The Oxford History of Islam Oxford University Press P 192 Ibn al Haytham d 1039 known in the West as Alhazan was a leading Arab mathematician astronomer and physicist His optical compendium Kitab al Manazir is the greatest medieval work on optics History and Evolution of Concepts in Physics page 24 Chemical News and Journal of Industrial Science Volume 34 page 59 Renaissance Theories of Vision edited by John Shannon Hendrix Charles page 77 Quantum Mechanics for Beginners With Applications to Quantum Communication By M Suhail Zubairy page 81 Child Shuter amp Taylor 1992 p 70 Dessel Nehrich amp Voran 1973 p 164 Understanding History by John Child Paul Shuter David Taylor Page 70 Alhazen a Persian scientist showed that the eye saw light from other objects This started optics the science of light The Arabs also studied astronomy the study of the stars a b Tbakhi Abdelghani Amr Samir S 2007 Ibn Al Haytham Father of Modern Optics Annals of Saudi Medicine 27 6 464 67 doi 10 5144 0256 4947 2007 464 ISSN 0256 4947 PMC 6074172 PMID 18059131 a b Corbin 1993 p 149 The Prisoner of Al Hakim Clifton NJ Blue Dome Press 2017 ISBN 1682060160 Carl Brockelmann Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur vol 1 1898 p 469 the Great Islamic Encyclopedia Cgie org ir Archived from the original on 30 September 2011 Retrieved 27 May 2012 verification needed For Ibn al Haytham s life and works Smith 2001 p cxix recommends Sabra 1989 pp vol 2 xix lxxiii A I Sabra encyclopedia com Ibn Al Haytham Abu Sajjadi Sadegh Alhazen Great Islamic Encyclopedia Volume 1 Article No 1917 Al Khalili 2015 Crombie 1971 p 147 n 2 Enrico Narducci 1871 Nota intorno ad una traduzione italiana fatta nel secolo decimoquarto del trattato d ottica d Alhazen Bollettino di Bibliografia e di Storia delle Scienze Matematiche e Fisiche 4 1 40 On this version see Raynaud 2020 pp 139 153 Alhazen 965 1040 Library of Congress Citations Malaspina Great Books archived from the original on 27 September 2007 retrieved 23 January 2008 verification needed Smith 2001 p xxi Smith 2001 p xxii Smith 2001 p lxxix a b Lindberg 1976 p 73 Lindberg 1976 p 74 Lindberg 1976 p 76 Lindberg 1976 p 75 Lindberg 1976 pp 76 78 Lindberg 1976 p 86 a b Al Deek 2004 Heeffer 2003 Howard 1996 Aaen Stockdale 2008 Wade 1998 pp 240 316 334 367 Howard amp Wade 1996 pp 1195 1197 1200 Lejeune 1958 a b c Sabra 1989 Raynaud 2003 Russell 1996 p 691 Russell 1996 p 689 Lindberg 1976 pp 80 85 Smith 2004 pp 186 192 Wade 1998 p 14 Smith A Mark 2001 Alhacen s Theory of Visual Perception A Critical Edition with English Translation and Commentary of the First Three Books of Alhacen s De aspectibus the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al Haytham s Kitab al Manaẓir Volume Two Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 91 5 339 819 doi 10 2307 3657357 JSTOR 3657357 via JSTOR Stamnes J J 13 November 2017 Waves in Focal Regions Propagation Diffraction and Focusing of Light Sound and Water Waves Routledge ISBN 978 1 351 40468 6 Mach Ernst 23 January 2013 The Principles of Physical Optics An Historical and Philosophical Treatment Courier Corporation ISBN 978 0 486 17347 4 Iizuka Keigo 11 November 2013 Engineering Optics Springer Science amp Business Media ISBN 978 3 662 07032 1 Mach Ernst 23 January 2013 The Principles of Physical Optics An Historical and Philosophical Treatment Courier Corporation ISBN 978 0 486 17347 4 O Connor amp Robertson 1999 Weisstein 2008 Katz 1995 pp 165 69 173 74 Smith 1992 Elkin Jack M 1965 A deceptively easy problem Mathematics Teacher 58 3 194 99 doi 10 5951 MT 58 3 0194 JSTOR 27968003 Riede Harald 1989 Reflexion am Kugelspiegel Oder das Problem des Alhazen Praxis der Mathematik in German 31 2 65 70 Neumann Peter M 1998 Reflections on Reflection in a Spherical Mirror American Mathematical Monthly 105 6 523 28 doi 10 1080 00029890 1998 12004920 JSTOR 2589403 MR 1626185 Highfield Roger 1 April 1997 Don solves the last puzzle left by ancient Greeks Electronic Telegraph 676 archived from the original on 23 November 2004 Agrawal Taguchi amp Ramalingam 2011 Kelley Milone amp Aveni 2005 p 83 The first clear description of the device appears in the Book of Optics of Alhazen Wade amp Finger 2001 The principles of the camera obscura first began to be correctly analysed in the eleventh century when they were outlined by Ibn al Haytham German physicist Eilhard Wiedemann first provided an abridged German translation of On the shape of the eclipse Eilhard Wiedemann 1914 Uber der Camera obscura bei Ibn al Haiṭam Sitzungsberichte phys med Sozietat in Erlangen 46 155 169 The work is now available in full Raynaud 2016 Eder Josef 1945 History of Photography New York Columbia University Press p 37 Raynaud 2016 pp 130 160 Raynaud 2016 pp 114 116 Raynaud 2016 pp 91 94 History Of Science And Technology In Islam Fuat Sezgin 2011 Gaukroger Stephen 30 March 1995 Descartes An Intellectual Biography Clarendon Press ISBN 978 0 19 151954 3 Newton Isaac 29 March 1984 The Optical Papers of Isaac Newton Volume 1 The Optical Lectures 1670 1672 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 25248 5 Boudrioua Azzedine Rashed Roshdi Lakshminarayanan Vasudevan 15 August 2017 Light Based Science Technology and Sustainable Development The Legacy of Ibn al Haytham CRC Press ISBN 978 1 4987 7940 1 Boudrioua Azzedine Rashed Roshdi Lakshminarayanan Vasudevan 15 August 2017 Light Based Science Technology and Sustainable Development The Legacy of Ibn al Haytham CRC Press ISBN 978 1 4987 7940 1 Russell 1996 p 695 Russell 1996 a b Khaleefa 1999 Aaen Stockdale 2008 Ross amp Plug 2002 Hershenson 1989 pp 9 10 Ross 2000 Ross amp Ross 1976 See for example De aspectibus Book 7 Archived 18 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine for his experiments in refraction a b El Bizri 2005a 2005b see Schramm s Habilitationsschrift Ibn al Haythams Weg zur Physik Steiner Wiesbaden 1963 as cited by Rudiger Thiele 2005 Historia Mathematica 32 271 74 In Memoriam Matthias Schramm 1928 2005 PDF Toomer 1964 pp 463 64 a b Toomer 1964 p 465 G J Toomer Review on JSTOR Toomer s 1964 review of Matthias Schramm 1963 Ibn Al Haythams Weg Zur Physik Toomer p 464 Schramm sums up Ibn Al Haytham s achievement in the development of scientific method p 465 Schramm has demonstrated beyond any dispute that Ibn al Haytham is a major figure in the Islamic scientific tradition particularly in the creation of experimental techniques p 465 Only when the influence of ibn al Haytam and others on the mainstream of later medieval physical writings has been seriously investigated can Schramm s claim that ibn al Haytam was the true founder of modern physics be evaluated a b El Bizri 2006 Duhem 1969 p 28 a b c El Bizri 2007 Langermann 1990 chap 2 sect 22 p 61 Lorch 2008 Langermann 1990 pp 34 41 Gondhalekar 2001 p 21 a b Sabra 1998 Langermann 1990 pp 8 10 Sabra 1978b p 121 n 13 Rashed 2007 Eckart 2018 Rashed 2007 pp 8 9 Faruqi 2006 pp 395 96 In seventeenth century Europe the problems formulated by Ibn al Haytham 965 1041 became known as Alhazen s problem Al Haytham s contributions to geometry and number theory went well beyond the Archimedean tradition Al Haytham also worked on analytical geometry and the beginnings of the link between algebra and geometry Subsequently this work led in pure mathematics to the harmonious fusion of algebra and geometry that was epitomised by Descartes in geometric analysis and by Newton in the calculus Al Haytham was a scientist who made major contributions to the fields of mathematics physics and astronomy during the latter half of the tenth century Rottman 2000 Chapter 1 Eder 2000 Katz 1998 p 269 In effect this method characterised parallel lines as lines always equidistant from one another and also introduced the concept of motion into geometry Rozenfeld 1988 p 65 Boyer Carl B Merzbach Uta C 25 January 2011 A History of Mathematics John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 0 470 63056 3 a b c O Connor amp Robertson 1999 Alsina amp Nelsen 2010 Katz Victor J 1995 Ideas of Calculus in Islam and India Mathematics Magazine 68 3 163 74 165 69 173 74 year 1995 doi 10 2307 2691411 JSTOR 2691411 Plott 2000 Pt II p 459 Smith 2005 pp 219 40 Ishaq Usep Mohamad and Wan Mohd Nor Wan Daud Tinjauan biografi bibliografi Ibn al haytham HISTORIA Jurnal Program Studi Pendidikan Sejarah 5 2 2017 107 24 Kaminski Joseph J The Trajectory of the Development of Islamic Thought A Comparison Between Two Earlier and Two Later Scholars The Contemporary Islamic Governed State Palgrave Macmillan Cham 2017 31 70 For example Ibn al Haytham and Abu Rayhan al Biruni were among the most important medieval scholars who used the scientific method in their approach to natural science and they were both Ash arites a b Sardar 1998 Bettany 1995 p 251 Anwar Sabieh October 2008 Is Ghazali really the Halagu of Science in Islam Monthly Renaissance 18 10 retrieved 14 October 2008 Rashed Roshdi 2007 The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al Haytham Arabic Sciences and Philosophy Cambridge University Press 17 1 7 55 11 doi 10 1017 S0957423907000355 Plott 2000 Pt II p 464 Topdemir 2007 pp 8 9 Translated by S Pines as quoted in Sambursky 1974 p 139 Rashed 2007 p 11 Plott 2000 Pt II p 465 Sabra 2007 Sabra 2007 pp 122 128 29 amp Grant 1974 p 392 notes the Book of Optics has also been denoted as Opticae Thesaurus Alhazen Arabis as De Aspectibus and also as Perspectiva Lindberg 1996 p 11 passim Authier 2013 p 23 Alhazen s works in turn inspired many scientists of the Middle Ages such as the English bishop Robert Grosseteste c 1175 1253 and the English Franciscan Roger Bacon c 1214 1294 Erazmus Ciolek Witelo or Witelon ca 1230 1280 a Silesian born Polish friar philosopher and scholar published in ca 1270 a treatise on optics Perspectiva largely based on Alhazen s works Magill amp Aves 1998 p 66 Roger Bacon John Peckham and Giambattista della Porta are only some of the many thinkers who were influenced by Alhazen s work Zewail amp Thomas 2010 p 5 The Latin translation of Alhazen s work influenced scientists and philosophers such as Roger Bacon and da Vinci and formed the foundation for the work by mathematicians like Kepler Descartes and Huygens El Bizri 2010 p 12 This Latin version of Ibn al Haytham s Optics which became available in print was read and consulted by scientists and philosophers of the caliber of Kepler Galileo Descartes and Huygens as discussed by Nader El Bizri Magill amp Aves 1998 p 66 Sabra discusses in detail the impact of Alhazen s ideas on the optical discoveries of such men as Descartes and Christiaan Huygens see also El Bizri 2005a El Bizri 2010 p 12 Magill amp Aves 1998 p 66 Even Kepler however used some of Alhazen s ideas for example the one to one correspondence between points on the object and points in the eye It would not be going too far to say that Alhazen s optical theories defined the scope and goals of the field from his day to ours Ibn al Haytham s scientific method UNESCO 14 May 2018 Chong Lim amp Ang 2002 Appendix 3 p 129 NASA 2006 AKU Research Publications 1995 98 Archived from the original PDF on 4 January 2015 Murphy 2003 Ibn Al Haytham and the Legacy of Arabic Optics 2015 International Year of Light 2015 Archived from the original on 1 October 2014 Retrieved 4 January 2015 Winter H J J September 1953 The Optical Researches of Ibn Al Haitham Centaurus 3 1 190 210 Bibcode 1953Cent 3 190W doi 10 1111 j 1600 0498 1953 tb00529 x ISSN 0008 8994 PMID 13209613 2015 International Year of Light PDF 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1996 Emergence of Physiological Optics in Rashid Rushdi Morelon Regis eds Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science Routledge pp 672 716 ISBN 0 415 12410 7 OCLC 34731151 Sabra A I 1971 The astronomical origin of Ibn al Haytham s concept of experiment Actes du XIIe congres international d histoire des sciences Paris Albert Blanchard 3 133 36 Reprinted in Sabra 1994 Sabra A I 1978a Ibn al Haytham and the Visual Ray Hypothesis in Nasr Seyyed Hossein ed Ismaili Contributions to Islamic Culture Boston Shambhala Publications pp 178 216 ISBN 0 87773 731 2 Sabra A I 1978b An Eleventh Century Refutation of Ptolemy s Planetary Theory in Hilfstein Erna Czartoryski Pawel Grande Frank D eds Science and History Studies in Honor of Edward Rosen Studia Copernicana vol XVI Ossolineum Wroclaw pp 117 31 Sabra A I ed 1989 The Optics of Ibn al Haytham Books I II III On Direct Vision English Translation and Commentary 2 vols Studies of the Warburg Institute vol 40 translated by Sabra A I London The Warburg Institute University of London ISBN 0 85481 072 2 OCLC 165564751 Sabra A I 1994 Optics Astronomy and Logic Studies in Arabic Science and Philosophy Collected Studies Series vol 444 Variorum Aldershot ISBN 0 86078 435 5 OCLC 29847104 Sabra A I 1998 Configuring the Universe Aporetic Problem Solving and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy Perspectives on Science 6 3 288 330 doi 10 1162 posc a 00552 S2CID 117426616 Sabra A I October December 2003 Ibn al Haytham Brief life of an Arab mathematician Harvard Magazine archived from the original on 27 September 2007 retrieved 23 January 2008 Sabra A I 2007 The Commentary That Saved the Text The Hazardous Journey of Ibn al Haytham s Arabic Optics Early Science and Medicine 12 2 117 33 doi 10 1163 157338207x194668 JSTOR 20617660 retrieved 22 January 2014 Sabra A I 2008 1970 80 Ibn Al Haytham Abu ʿAli Al Ḥasan Ibn Al Ḥasan Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography Charles Scribner s Sons Sambursky Samuel 1974 Physical Thought from the Presocratics to the Quantum Physicists Pica Press pp 51 ISBN 0 87663 712 8 Sardar Ziauddin 1998 Science in Islamic philosophy Islamic Philosophy Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy retrieved 3 February 2008 Selin Helaine ed 2008 M Encyclopaedia of the History of Science Technology and Medicine in Non Western Cultures vol 1 Springer p 1667 ISBN 978 1 4020 4559 2 Smith A Mark ed 2001 Alhacen s theory of visual perception a critical edition with English translation and commentary of the first three books of Alhacen s De aspectibus the medieval Latin version of Ibn al Haytham s Kitab al Manazir Transactions of the American Philosophical Society vol 91 4 91 5 translated by Smith A Mark Philadelphia American Philosophical Society amp DIANE Publishing ISBN 978 0 87169 914 5 OCLC 163278528 Books I III 2001 Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR Vol 2 English translation I TOC pp 339 41 II TOC pp 415 16 III TOC pp 559 60 Notes 681ff Bibl via JSTOR Smith A Mark June 2004 What is the History of Medieval Optics Really About PDF Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 148 2 180 94 JSTOR 1558283 PMID 15338543 archived from the original PDF on 18 October 2011 Smith A Mark 2005 The Alhacenian Account of Spatial Perception And Its Epistemological Implications Arabic Sciences and Philosophy Cambridge University Press 15 2 219 40 doi 10 1017 S0957423905000184 S2CID 171003284 Smith A Mark ed 2006 Alhacen on the principles of reflection a critical edition with English translation and commentary of books 4 and 5 of Alhacen sDe aspectibus the Medieval Latin version of Ibn al Haytham sKitab al Manaẓir Transactions of the American Philosophical Society vol 95 4 95 5 translated by Smith A Mark Philadelphia American Philosophical Society Books 4 5 2006 95 4 Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR 95 5 Vol 2 English translation IV TOC pp 289 94 V TOC pp 377 84 Notes Bibl via JSTOR Smith A Mark ed 2008 Alhacen on Image formation and distortion in mirrors a critical edition with English translation and commentary of Book 6 of Alhacen sDe aspectibus the Medieval Latin version of Ibn al Haytham sKitab al Manaẓir Transactions of the American Philosophical Society vol 98 1 translated by Smith A Mark Philadelphia American Philosophical Society Book 6 2008 98 1 section 1 Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR 98 1 section 2 Vol 2 English translation VI TOC pp 155 160 Notes Bibl via JSTOR Smith A Mark ed 2010 Alhacen on Refraction a critical edition with English translation and commentary of Book 7 of Alhacen sDe aspectibus the Medieval Latin version of Ibn al Haytham sKitab al Manaẓir Transactions of the American Philosophical Society vol 100 3 translated by Smith A Mark Philadelphia American Philosophical Society Book 7 2010 100 3 section 1 Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR 100 3 section 2 Vol 2 English translation VII TOC pp 213 18 Notes Bibl via JSTOR Smith A Mark 2015 From Sight to Light The Passage from Ancient to Modern Optics Chicago University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0 226 17476 1 Smith John D 1 March 1992 The Remarkable Ibn al Haytham The Mathematical Gazette Mathematical Association 76 475 189 98 doi 10 2307 3620392 ISSN 0025 5572 JSTOR 3620392 S2CID 118597450 Toomer G J December 1964 Review Ibn al Haythams Weg zur Physik by Matthias Schramm Isis 55 4 463 65 doi 10 1086 349914 Topdemir Huseyin Gazi 18 July 2007 Ibn al Haytham 965 1039 His Life and Works Vernet J 1996 1960 Ibn al Haytham in Gibb H A R Bearman P eds Encyclopaedia of Islam First ed Leiden Brill Publishers ISBN 978 9004161214 Vernet J 2012 Ibn al Haytham in Bearman P Bianquis Th Bosworth C E van Donzel E Heinrichs W P eds Encyclopaedia of Islam Second ed Brill Online Brill Publishers retrieved 16 September 2008 Wade Nicholas J 1998 A Natural History of Vision Cambridge MA MIT Press Wade Nicholas J Finger Stanley 2001 The eye as an optical instrument from camera obscura to Helmholtz s perspective Perception 30 10 1157 77 doi 10 1068 p3210 PMID 11721819 S2CID 8185797 Weisstein Eric 2008 Alhazen s Billiard Problem Mathworld retrieved 24 September 2008 Whitaker Brian 23 September 2004 Centuries in the House of Wisdom The Guardian retrieved 16 September 2008 Zewail Ahmed H Thomas John Meurig 2010 4D Electron Microscopy Imaging in Space and Time World Scientific ISBN 978 1 84816 390 4Further readingPrimary Sabra A I ed 1983 The Optics of Ibn al Haytham Books I II III On Direct Vision The Arabic text edited and with Introduction Arabic Latin Glossaries and Concordance Tables Kuwait National Council for Culture Arts and Letters Sabra A I ed 2002 The Optics of Ibn al Haytham Edition of the Arabic Text of Books IV V On Reflection and Images Seen by Reflection 2 vols Kuwait National Council for Culture Arts and Letters Smith A Mark ed and trans 2006 Alhacen on the principles of reflection A Critical Edition with English Translation and Commentary of books 4 and 5 of Alhacen s De Aspectibus the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al Haytham s Kitab al Manaẓir 2 vols Transactions of the American Philosophical Society Philadelphia American Philosophical Society 95 2 3 a href Template Citation html title Template Citation citation a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link 2 vols Philadelphia American Philosophical Society 2006 95 2 Books 4 5 Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR 95 3 Vol 2 English translation Notes Bibl via JSTOR Smith A Mark ed and trans 2008 Alhacen on Image formation and distortion in mirrors a critical edition with English translation and commentary of Book 6 of Alhacen s De aspectibus the Medieval Latin version of Ibn al Haytham s Kitab al Manazir Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 2 vols Vol 1 98 1 section 1 Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text 98 1 section 2 Vol 2 English translation Philadelphia American Philosophical Society 2008 Book 6 2008 Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR Vol 2 English translation Notes Bibl via JSTOR Smith A Mark ed and trans 2010 Alhacen on Refraction a critical edition with English translation and commentary of Book 7 of Alhacen s De aspectibus the Medieval Latin version of Ibn al Haytham s Kitab al Manazir Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 2 vols 100 3 section 1 Vol 1 Introduction and Latin text 100 3 section 2 Vol 2 English translation Philadelphia American Philosophical Society 2010 Book 7 2010 Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR Vol 2 English translation Notes Bibl via JSTOR Secondary Belting Hans Afterthoughts on Alhazen s Visual Theory and Its Presence in the Pictorial Theory of Western Perspective in Variantology 4 On Deep Time Relations of Arts Sciences and Technologies in the Arabic Islamic World and Beyond ed by Siegfried Zielinski and Eckhard Furlus in cooperation with Daniel Irrgang and Franziska Latell Cologne Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther Konig 2010 pp 19 42 El Bizri Nader 2009b Ibn al Haytham et le probleme de la couleur Oriens Occidens Paris CNRS 7 1 201 26 El Bizri Nader 2016 Grosseteste s Meteorological Optics Explications of the Phenomenon of the Rainbow after Ibn al Haytham in Cunningham Jack P Hocknull Mark eds Robert Grosseteste and the Pursuit of Religious and Scientific Knowledge in the Middle Ages Studies in the History of Philosophy of Mind vol 18 Dordrecht Springer pp 21 39 ISBN 978 3 319 33466 0 Falco Charles M 12 15 February 2007 Ibn al Haytham and the Origins of Modern Image Analysis PDF presented at a plenary session at the International Conference on Information Sciences Signal Processing and its Applications archived from the original PDF on 4 December 2020 retrieved 23 January 2008 Gazi Topdemir Huseyin 2000 IBNU l HEYSEM An article published in 21st volume of Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam in Turkish Vol 21 Istanbul TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi pp 82 87 ISBN 978 97 53 89448 7 Graham Mark How Islam Created the Modern World Amana Publications 2006 Omar Saleh Beshara June 1975 Ibn al Haytham and Greek optics a comparative study in scientific methodology PhD Dissertation University of Chicago Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations Roshdi Rashed Optics and Mathematics Research on the history of scientific thought in Arabic Variorum reprints Aldershot 1992 Roshdi Rashed Geometry and Dioptrics the tenth century Ibn Sahl al Quhi and Ibn al Haytham in French Les Belles Lettres Paris 1993 Roshdi Rashed Infinitesimal Mathematics vols 1 5 al Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation London 1993 2006 Saliba George 2007 Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance MIT Press ISBN 978 0 262 19557 7 Siegfried Zielinski amp Franziska Latell How One Sees in Variantology 4 On Deep Time Relations of Arts Sciences and Technologies in the Arabic Islamic World and Beyond ed by Siegfried Zielinski and Eckhard Furlus in cooperation with Daniel Irrgang and Franziska Latell Cologne Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther Konig 2010 pp 19 42 Buchhandlung Walther Konig KWB 45 Variantology 4External links nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ibn al Haytham Works by Ibn al Haytham at Open Library Langermann Y Tzvi 2007 Ibn al Haytham Abu ʿAli al Ḥasan ibn al Ḥasan In Thomas Hockey et al eds The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers New York Springer pp 556 67 ISBN 978 0 387 31022 0 PDF version A Brief Introduction on Ibn al Haytham based on a lecture delivered at the Royal Society in London by Nader El Bizri Ibn al Haytham on two Iraqi banknotes The Miracle of Light a UNESCO article on Ibn al Haytham Biography from Malaspina Global Portal Short biographies on several Muslim Heroes and Personalities including Ibn al Haytham Biography from ioNET at the Wayback Machine archived 13 October 1999 Biography from the BBC Archived from the original on 11 February 2006 Retrieved 16 September 2008 Biography from Trinity College Connecticut Biography from Molecular Expressions The First True Scientist from BBC News Over the Moon From The UNESCO Courier on the occasion of the International Year of Astronomy 2009 The Mechanical Water Clock Of Ibn Al Haytham Muslim Heritage Alhazen s 1572 Opticae thesaurus English digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library Portals nbsp Biography nbsp Mathematics nbsp Physics nbsp Astronomy nbsp Stars nbsp Outer space nbsp Solar System nbsp Science Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Ibn al Haytham amp oldid 1184831035, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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