The Merchant of Venice

This article is about Shakespeare's play. For other uses, see The Merchant of Venice (disambiguation).

The Merchant of Venice is a play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1596 and 1598. A merchant in Venice named Antonio defaults on a large loan provided by a Jewish moneylender, Shylock.

The Merchant of Venice
Title page of the first quarto (1600)
Written by	William Shakespeare
Characters	Antonio Shylock Portia Bassanio Jessica
Original language	English
Series	First Folio
Subject	Debt
Genre	Shakespearean comedy
Setting	Venice, 16th century

Although classified as a comedy in the First Folio and sharing certain aspects with Shakespeare's other romantic comedies, the play is most remembered for its dramatic scenes, and it is best known for the character Shylock and his famous demand for a "pound of flesh" in retribution. The play contains two famous speeches, that of Shylock, "Hath not a Jew eyes?" on the subject of humanity, and that of Portia on "the quality of mercy". Debate exists on whether the play is anti-Semitic, with Shylock's insistence on his legal right to the pound of flesh being in opposition to Shylock's seemingly universal plea for the rights of all people suffering discrimination.

Characters

• Antonio – a prominent merchant of Venice in a melancholic mood.
• Bassanio – Antonio's close friend; suitor to Portia; later the husband of Portia
• Gratiano – friend of Antonio and Bassanio; in love with Nerissa; later the husband of Nerissa
• Lorenzo – friend of Antonio and Bassanio; in love with Jessica; later the husband of Jessica
• Portia – a rich heiress; later the wife of Bassanio
• Nerissa – Portia's waiting maid – in love with Gratiano; later the wife of Gratiano; disguises herself as Portia's clerk
• Balthazar – Portia's servant
• Stephano – Portia's servant
• Shylock – a miserly Jew; moneylender; father of Jessica
• Jessica – daughter of Shylock, later the wife of Lorenzo
• Tubal – a Jew; friend of Shylock
• Launcelot Gobbo – servant of Shylock; later a servant of Bassanio; son of Old Gobbo
• Old Gobbo – blind father of Launcelot
• Leonardo – servant to Bassanio
• Duke of Venice – authority who presides over the case of Shylock's bond
• Prince of Morocco – suitor to Portia
• Prince of Arragon – suitor to Portia
• Salarino and Salanio (also known as Solanio) – friends of Antonio and Bassanio^[1]
• Salerio – a messenger from Venice; friend of Antonio, Bassanio and others^[1]
• Magnificoes of Venice, officers of the Court of Justice, gaolers, servants to Portia, and other attendants and Doctor Bellario, cousin of Portia

Plot summary

 

Gilbert's Shylock After the Trial, an illustration to The Merchant of Venice

Bassanio, a young Venetian of noble rank, wishes to woo the beautiful and wealthy heiress Portia of Belmont. Having squandered his estate, he needs 3,000 ducats to subsidise his expenditures as a suitor. Bassanio approaches his friend Antonio, a wealthy merchant of Venice, who has previously and repeatedly bailed him out. Antonio agrees, but since he is cash-poor – his ships and merchandise are busy at sea to Tripolis, the Indies, Mexico and England – he promises to cover a bond if Bassanio can find a lender, so Bassanio turns to the Jewish moneylender Shylock and names Antonio as the loan's guarantor.

Antonio has already antagonized Shylock through his outspoken antisemitism and because Antonio's habit of lending money without interest forces Shylock to charge lower rates. Shylock is at first reluctant to grant the loan, citing abuse he has suffered at Antonio's hand. He finally agrees to lend the sum to Bassanio without interest upon one condition: if Antonio were unable to repay it at the specified date, Shylock may take a pound of Antonio's flesh. Bassanio does not want Antonio to accept such a risky condition; Antonio is surprised by what he sees as the moneylender's generosity (no "usance" – interest – is asked for), and he signs the contract. With money in hand, Bassanio leaves for Belmont with his friend Gratiano, who has asked to accompany him. Gratiano is a likeable young man, but he is often flippant, overly talkative, and tactless. Bassanio warns his companion to exercise self-control, and the two leave for Belmont.

Meanwhile, in Belmont, Portia is awash with suitors. Her father left a will stipulating that each of her suitors must choose correctly from one of three caskets, made of gold, silver and lead respectively. Whoever picks the right casket wins Portia's hand. The first suitor, the Prince of Morocco, chooses the gold casket, interpreting its slogan, "Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire", as referring to Portia. The second suitor, the conceited Prince of Aragon, chooses the silver casket, which proclaims, "Who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves", as he believes he is full of merit. Both suitors leave empty-handed, having rejected the lead casket because of the baseness of its material and the uninviting nature of its slogan, "Who chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath". The last suitor is Bassanio, whom Portia wishes to succeed, having met him before. As Bassanio ponders his choice, members of Portia's household sing a song that says that "fancy" (not true love) is "engend'red in the eyes, / With gazing fed";^[2] Bassanio chooses the lead casket and wins Portia's hand.

 

A depiction of Jessica, from The Graphic Gallery of Shakespeare's Heroines

At Venice, Antonio's ships are reported lost at sea, so the merchant cannot repay the bond. Shylock has become more determined to exact revenge from Christians because his daughter Jessica eloped with the Christian Lorenzo and converted. She took a substantial amount of Shylock's wealth with her, as well as a turquoise ring which Shylock had been given by his late wife, Leah. Shylock has Antonio brought before court.

At Belmont, Bassanio receives a letter telling him that Antonio has been unable to repay the loan from Shylock. Portia and Bassanio marry, as do Gratiano and Portia's handmaid Nerissa. Bassanio and Gratiano leave for Venice, with money from Portia, to save Antonio's life by offering the money to Shylock. Unknown to Bassanio and Gratiano, Portia sent her servant, Balthazar, to seek the counsel of Portia's cousin, Bellario, a lawyer, at Padua.

The climax of the play is set in the court of the Duke of Venice. Shylock refuses Bassanio's offer of 6,000 ducats, twice the amount of the loan. He demands his pound of flesh from Antonio. The Duke, wishing to save Antonio but unable to nullify a contract, refers the case to a visitor. He identifies himself as Balthazar, a young male "doctor of the law", bearing a letter of recommendation to the Duke from the learned lawyer Bellario. The doctor is Portia in disguise, and the law clerk who accompanies her is Nerissa, also disguised as a man. As Balthazar, Portia in a famous speech repeatedly asks Shylock to show mercy, advising him that mercy "is twice blest: It blesseth him that gives and him that takes" (Act IV, Sc 1, Line 185). However, Shylock adamantly refuses any compensations and insists on the pound of flesh.

As the court grants Shylock his bond and Antonio prepares for Shylock's knife, Portia deftly appropriates Shylock's argument for "specific performance". She says that the contract allows Shylock to remove only the flesh, not the blood, of Antonio (see quibble). Thus, if Shylock were to shed any drop of Antonio's blood, his "lands and goods" would be forfeited under Venetian laws. She tells him that he must cut precisely one pound of flesh, no more, no less; she advises him that "if the scale do turn, But in the estimation of a hair, Thou diest and all thy goods are confiscate."

Defeated, Shylock consents to accept Bassanio's offer of money for the defaulted bond: first his offer to pay "the bond thrice", which Portia rebuffs, telling him to take his bond, and then merely the principal; but Portia also prevents him from doing this, on the ground that he has already refused it "in the open court". She cites a law under which Shylock, as a Jew and therefore an "alien", having attempted to take the life of a citizen, has forfeited his property, half to the government and half to Antonio, leaving his life at the mercy of the Duke. The Duke spares Shylock's life and says he may remit the forfeiture. Portia says the Duke may waive the state's share, but not Antonio's. Antonio says he is content that the state waive its claim to half Shylock's wealth if he can have his one-half share "in use" until Shylock's death, when the principal would be given to Lorenzo and Jessica. Antonio also asks that "for this favor" Shylock convert to Christianity and bequeath his entire estate to Lorenzo and Jessica. The Duke then threatens to recant his pardon of Shylock's life unless he accepts these conditions. Shylock, re-threatened with death, accepts with the words, "I am content." (IV, i).

Bassanio does not recognise his disguised wife, but offers to give a present to the supposed lawyer. First she declines, but after he insists, Portia requests his ring and Antonio's gloves. Antonio parts with his gloves without a second thought, but Bassanio gives the ring only after much persuasion from Antonio, as earlier in the play he promised his wife never to lose, sell or give it. Nerissa, as the lawyer's clerk, succeeds in likewise retrieving her ring from Gratiano, who does not see through her disguise.

At Belmont, Portia and Nerissa taunt and pretend to accuse their husbands before revealing they were really the lawyer and his clerk in disguise (V). After all the other characters make amends, Antonio learns from Portia that three of his ships were not stranded and have returned safely after all.

Sources

 

The title page from a 1565 printing of Giovanni Fiorentino's 14th-century tale Il Pecorone

 

The first page of The Merchant of Venice, printed in the Second Folio of 1632

The forfeit of a merchant's deadly bond after standing surety for a friend's loan was a common tale in England in the late 16th century.^[3] In addition, the test of the suitors at Belmont, the merchant's rescue from the "pound of flesh" penalty by his friend's new wife disguised as a lawyer, and her demand for the betrothal ring in payment are all elements present in the 14th-century tale Il Pecorone by Giovanni Fiorentino, which was published in Milan in 1558.^[4] Elements of the trial scene are also found in The Orator by Alexandre Sylvane, published in translation in 1596.^[3] The story of the three caskets can be found in Gesta Romanorum, a collection of tales probably compiled at the end of the 13th century.^[5]

Date and text

The date of composition of The Merchant of Venice is believed to be between 1596 and 1598. The play was mentioned by Francis Meres in 1598, so it must have been familiar on the stage by that date. The title page of the first edition in 1600 states that it had been performed "divers times" by that date. Salerino's reference to his ship the Andrew (I, i, 27) is thought to be an allusion to the Spanish ship St. Andrew, captured by the English at Cádiz in 1596. A date of 1596–97 is considered consistent with the play's style.

The play was entered in the Register of the Stationers Company, the method at that time of obtaining copyright for a new play, by James Roberts on 22 July 1598 under the title "the Marchaunt of Venyce or otherwise called the Jewe of Venyce."^[6] On 28 October 1600 Roberts transferred his right to the play to the stationer Thomas Heyes; Heyes published the first quarto before the end of the year. It was printed again in 1619, as part of William Jaggard's so-called False Folio. (Later, Thomas Heyes' son and heir Laurence Heyes asked for and was granted a confirmation of his right to the play, on 8 July 1619.) The 1600 edition is generally regarded as being accurate and reliable. It is the basis of the text published in the 1623 First Folio, which adds a number of stage directions, mainly musical cues.^[7]

Themes

Shylock and the antisemitism debate

The play is frequently staged today, but is potentially troubling to modern audiences because of its central themes, which can easily appear antisemitic. Critics today still continue to argue over the play's stance on the Jews and Judaism.

 

Shylock and Jessica (1876) by Maurycy Gottlieb

Shylock as an antagonist

English society in the Elizabethan and Jacobean era has been described as "judeophobic".^[8] English Jews had been expelled under Edward I in 1290 and were not permitted to return until 1656 under the rule of Oliver Cromwell. Poet John Donne, who was Dean of St Paul's Cathedral and a contemporary of Shakespeare, gave a sermon in 1624 perpetuating the Blood Libel – the entirely unsubstantiated antisemitic lie that Jews ritually murdered Christians to drink their blood and achieve salvation.^[9] In Venice and in some other places, Jews were required to wear a red hat at all times in public to make sure that they were easily identified, and had to live in a ghetto.^[10]

Shakespeare's play may be seen as a continuation of this tradition.^[11] The title page of the Quarto indicates that the play was sometimes known as The Jew of Venice in its day, which suggests that it was seen as similar to Marlowe's early 1590s work The Jew of Malta. One interpretation of the play's structure is that Shakespeare meant to contrast the mercy of the main Christian characters with the Old Testament vengefulness of a Jew, who lacks the religious grace to comprehend mercy. Similarly, it is possible that Shakespeare meant Shylock's forced conversion to Christianity to be a "happy ending" for the character, as, to a Christian audience, it saves his soul and allows him to enter Heaven.^[12]

Regardless of what Shakespeare's authorial intent may have been, the play has been made use of by antisemites throughout the play's history. The Nazis used the usurious Shylock for their propaganda. Shortly after Kristallnacht in 1938, The Merchant of Venice was broadcast for propagandistic ends over the German airwaves. Productions of the play followed in Lübeck (1938), Berlin (1940), and elsewhere within the Nazi territory.^[13]

In a series of articles called Observer, first published in 1785, British playwright Richard Cumberland created a character named Abraham Abrahams, who is quoted as saying, "I verily believe the odious character of Shylock has brought little less persecution upon us, poor scattered sons of Abraham, than the Inquisition itself."^[14] Cumberland later wrote a successful play, The Jew (1794), in which his title character, Sheva, is portrayed sympathetically, as both a kindhearted and generous man. This was the first known attempt by a dramatist to reverse the negative stereotype that Shylock personified.^[15]

The depiction of Jews in literature throughout the centuries bears the close imprint of Shylock. With slight variations much of English literature up until the 20th century depicts the Jew as "a monied, cruel, lecherous, avaricious outsider tolerated only because of his golden hoard".^[16]

Shylock as a sympathetic character

 

Shylock and Portia (1835) by Thomas Sully

Many modern readers and theatregoers have read the play as a plea for tolerance, noting that Shylock is a sympathetic character. They cite as evidence that Shylock's "trial" at the end of the play is a mockery of justice, with Portia acting as a judge when she has no right to do so. The characters who berated Shylock for dishonesty resort to trickery in order to win. In addition to this Shakespeare gives Shylock one of his most eloquent speeches:

Salerio. Why, I am sure, if he forfeit, thou wilt not take his flesh. What's that good for?
Shylock. To bait fish withal; if it will feed nothing else, it will feed my revenge. He hath disgraced me and hindered me half a million, laughed at my losses, mocked at my gains, scorned my nation, thwarted my bargains, cooled my friends, heated mine enemies – and what's his reason? I am a Jew. Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions; fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to the same diseases, healed by the same means, warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer as a Christian is? If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge? If we are like you in the rest, we will resemble you in that. If a Jew wrong a Christian, what is his humility? Revenge. If a Christian wrong a Jew, what should his sufferance be by Christian example? Why, revenge. The villainy you teach me, I will execute, and it shall go hard but I will better the instruction.

— Act III, scene I

It is difficult to know whether the sympathetic reading of Shylock is entirely due to changing sensibilities among readers – or whether Shakespeare, a writer who created complex, multi-faceted characters, deliberately intended this reading.

One of the reasons for this interpretation is that Shylock's painful status in Venetian society is emphasised. To some critics, Shylock's celebrated "Hath not a Jew eyes?" speech redeems him and even makes him into something of a tragic figure; in the speech, Shylock argues that he is no different from the Christian characters.^[17] Detractors note that Shylock ends the speech with a tone of revenge: "if you wrong us, shall we not revenge?" Those who see the speech as sympathetic point out that Shylock says he learned the desire for revenge from the Christian characters: "If a Christian wrong a Jew, what should his sufferance be by Christian example? Why, revenge. The villainy you teach me, I will execute, and it shall go hard but I will better the instruction."

Even if Shakespeare did not intend the play to be read this way, the fact that it retains its power on stage for audiences who may perceive its central conflicts in radically different terms is an illustration of the subtlety of Shakespeare's characterisations.^[18] In the trial Shylock represents what Elizabethan Christians believed to be the Jewish desire for "justice", contrasted with their obviously superior Christian value of mercy. The Christians in the courtroom urge Shylock to love his enemies, although they themselves have failed in the past. Jewish critic Harold Bloom suggests that, although the play gives merit to both cases, the portraits are not even-handed: "Shylock's shrewd indictment of Christian hypocrisy delights us, but ... Shakespeare's intimations do not alleviate the savagery of his portrait of the Jew..."^[19]

 

Sir Herbert Beerbohm Tree as Shylock, painted by Charles Buchel (1895–1935)

Antonio, Bassanio

Antonio's unexplained depression – "In sooth I know not why I am so sad" – and utter devotion to Bassanio has led some critics to theorise that he is suffering from unrequited love for Bassanio and is depressed because Bassanio is coming to an age where he will marry a woman. In his plays and poetry Shakespeare often depicted strong male bonds of varying homosociality, which has led some critics to infer that Bassanio returns Antonio's affections despite his obligation to marry:^[20]

ANTONIO: Commend me to your honourable wife:
Tell her the process of Antonio's end,
Say how I lov'd you, speak me fair in death;
And, when the tale is told, bid her be judge
Whether Bassanio had not once a love.

BASSANIO: But life itself, my wife, and all the world
Are not with me esteemed above thy life;
I would lose all, ay, sacrifice them all
Here to this devil, to deliver you. (IV, i)

In his essay "Brothers and Others", published in The Dyer's Hand, W. H. Auden describes Antonio as "a man whose emotional life, though his conduct may be chaste, is concentrated upon a member of his own sex." Antonio's feelings for Bassanio are likened to a couplet from Shakespeare's Sonnets: "But since she pricked thee out for women's pleasure,/ Mine be thy love, and my love's use their treasure." Antonio, says Auden, embodies the words on Portia's leaden casket: "Who chooseth me, must give and hazard all he hath." Antonio has taken this potentially fatal turn because he despairs, not only over the loss of Bassanio in marriage but also because Bassanio cannot requite what Antonio feels for him. Antonio's frustrated devotion is a form of idolatry: the right to live is yielded for the sake of the loved one. There is one other such idolator in the play: Shylock himself. "Shylock, however unintentionally, did, in fact, hazard all for the sake of destroying the enemy he hated, and Antonio, however unthinkingly he signed the bond, hazarded all to secure the happiness of the man he loved." Both Antonio and Shylock, agreeing to put Antonio's life at a forfeit, stand outside the normal bounds of society. There was, states Auden, a traditional "association of sodomy with usury", reaching back at least as far as Dante, with which Shakespeare was likely familiar. (Auden sees the theme of usury in the play as a comment on human relations in a mercantile society.)

Other interpreters of the play regard Auden's conception of Antonio's sexual desire for Bassanio as questionable. Michael Radford, director of the 2004 film version starring Al Pacino, explained that, although the film contains a scene where Antonio and Bassanio actually kiss, the friendship between the two is platonic, in line with the prevailing view of male friendship at the time. Jeremy Irons, in an interview, concurs with the director's view and states that he did not "play Antonio as gay". Joseph Fiennes, however, who plays Bassanio, encouraged a homoerotic interpretation and, in fact, surprised Irons with the kiss on set, which was filmed in one take. Fiennes defended his choice, saying "I would never invent something before doing my detective work in the text. If you look at the choice of language ... you'll read very sensuous language. That's the key for me in the relationship. The great thing about Shakespeare and why he's so difficult to pin down is his ambiguity. He's not saying they're gay or they're straight, he's leaving it up to his actors. I feel there has to be a great love between the two characters ... there's great attraction. I don't think they have slept together but that's for the audience to decide."^[21]

 

The playbill from a 1741 production at the Theatre Royal of Drury Lane

Performance history

The earliest performance of which a record has survived was held at the court of King James in the spring of 1605, followed by a second performance a few days later, but there is no record of any further performances in the 17th century.^[22] In 1701, George Granville staged a successful adaptation, titled The Jew of Venice, with Thomas Betterton as Bassanio. This version (which featured a masque) was popular, and was acted for the next forty years. Granville cut the clownish Gobbos^[23] in line with neoclassical decorum; he added a jail scene between Shylock and Antonio, and a more extended scene of toasting at a banquet scene. Thomas Doggett was Shylock, playing the role comically, perhaps even farcically. Rowe expressed doubts about this interpretation as early as 1709; Doggett's success in the role meant that later productions would feature the troupe clown as Shylock.

In 1741, Charles Macklin returned to the original text in a very successful production at Drury Lane, paving the way for Edmund Kean seventy years later (see below).^[24]

Arthur Sullivan wrote incidental music for the play in 1871.^[25]

 

A print of Edmund Kean as Shylock in an early 19th-century performance

Shylock on stage

See also: Shylock

Jewish actor Jacob Adler and others report that the tradition of playing Shylock sympathetically began in the first half of the 19th century with Edmund Kean,^[26] and that previously the role had been played "by a comedian as a repulsive clown or, alternatively, as a monster of unrelieved evil." Kean's Shylock established his reputation as an actor.^[27]

From Kean's time forward, all of the actors who have famously played the role, with the exception of Edwin Booth, who played Shylock as a simple villain, have chosen a sympathetic approach to the character; even Booth's father, Junius Brutus Booth, played the role sympathetically. Henry Irving's portrayal of an aristocratic, proud Shylock (first seen at the Lyceum in 1879, with Portia played by Ellen Terry) has been called "the summit of his career".^[28] Jacob Adler was the most notable of the early 20th century: Adler played the role in Yiddish-language translation, first in Manhattan's Yiddish Theater District in the Lower East Side, and later on Broadway, where, to great acclaim, he performed the role in Yiddish in an otherwise English-language production.^[29]

Kean and Irving presented a Shylock justified in wanting his revenge; Adler's Shylock evolved over the years he played the role, first as a stock Shakespearean villain, then as a man whose better nature was overcome by a desire for revenge, and finally as a man who operated not from revenge but from pride. In a 1902 interview with Theater magazine, Adler pointed out that Shylock is a wealthy man, "rich enough to forgo the interest on three thousand ducats" and that Antonio is "far from the chivalrous gentleman he is made to appear. He has insulted the Jew and spat on him, yet he comes with hypocritical politeness to borrow money of him." Shylock's fatal flaw is to depend on the law, but "would he not walk out of that courtroom head erect, the very apotheosis of defiant hatred and scorn?"^[30]

Some modern productions take further pains to show the sources of Shylock's thirst for vengeance. For instance, in the 2004 film adaptation directed by Michael Radford and starring Al Pacino as Shylock, the film begins with text and a montage of how Venetian Jews are cruelly abused by bigoted Christians. One of the last shots of the film also brings attention to the fact that, as a convert, Shylock would have been cast out of the Jewish community in Venice, no longer allowed to live in the ghetto. Another interpretation of Shylock and a vision of how "must he be acted" appears at the conclusion of the autobiography of Alexander Granach, a noted Jewish stage and film actor in Weimar Germany (and later in Hollywood and on Broadway).^[31]

Adaptations and cultural references

The play has inspired many adaptions and several works of fiction.

Film, TV and radio version

• 1914 – The Merchant of Venice, a silent film directed by Lois Weber and Phillips Smalley.
  • Weber played Portia and Smalley, her husband, played Shylock. With this film, Weber became the first woman to direct a full-length feature film in America.^[32]
• 1916 – The Merchant of Venice, an unsuccessful silent British film produced by Walter West for Broadwest.^[33]
• 1923 – The Merchant of Venice (Der Kaufmann von Venedig), also The Jew of Mestri, a silent German film directed by Peter Paul Felner.
  • Though based in part on Shakespeare's play, it was also based on Christopher Marlowe's The Jew of Malta, as well as stories by Giovanni Fiorentino, Masuccio Salernitano and Pietro Aretino.^[34]
• 1941 – Shylock, an Indian Tamil language film directed by the duo Sama-Ramu.^[35]
• 1969 – The Merchant of Venice, an unreleased 40-minute television film directed by and starring Orson Welles; the film was completed, but the soundtrack for all but the first reel was stolen before it could be released.^[36]
• 1972 – The Merchant of Venice, BBC video-taped television version directed by Cedric Messina for the BBC's Play of the Month series.^[37]
  • Cast includes Maggie Smith, Frank Finlay, Charles Gray and Christopher Gable.^[37]
• 1973 – The Merchant of Venice British Associated Television version directed by John Sichel. Broadcast in the United States over ABC-TV.^[38][39]
  • Set in the late Victorian era, the cast included Laurence Olivier as Shylock, Anthony Nicholls as Antonio, Jeremy Brett as Bassanio, and Joan Plowright as Portia.^[38]
• 1980 – The Merchant of Venice, a version for the BBC Television Shakespeare directed by Jack Gold.^[40]
  • The cast includes Gemma Jones as Portia, Warren Mitchell as Shylock and John Nettles as Bassanio.^[40]
• 1996 – The Merchant of Venice, a Channel 4 television film directed by Alan Horrox.^[41]
  • The cast included Bob Peck as Shylock and Haydn Gwynne as Portia.^[41]
• 2001 – The Merchant of Venice, a Royal National Theatre production directed by Trevor Nunn.^[42]
  • Set around 1930, Henry Goodman played Shylock.^[42]
• 2002 – The Māori Merchant of Venice, directed by Don Selwyn.^[43]
  • In Māori, with English subtitles. This film was based on a 1945 translation of the play to Māori by Pei Te Hurinui Jones.^[43]
• 2003 – In Shakespeare's Merchant, a film directed by Paul Wagar, Antonio and Bassanio have a homosexual relationship.^[44][45]
• 2004 – The Merchant of Venice, directed by Michael Radford and produced by Barry Navidi.
  • This was the first "big-screen" adaption of the play. The cast included Al Pacino as Shylock, Jeremy Irons as Antonio, Joseph Fiennes as Bassanio, Lynn Collins as Portia, and Zuleikha Robinson as Jessica.^[46]
• Broadcast on BBC Radio 3 on 22 April 2018 and transposing the plot from Venice to the City of London and the financial crisis of 2007–2008. The cast included Andrew Scott as Shylock, Ray Fearon as Antonio, Colin Morgan as Bassanio, Hayley Atwell as Portia, and Lauren Cornelius as Jessica.^[47]

Operas

• Josef Bohuslav Foerster's three-act Czech opera Jessika was first performed at the Prague National Theatre in 1905.^[48][49]
• Adrian Welles Beecham, 15-year old son of Sir Thomas Beecham, composed an operatic version which premiered at the Grand Theatre in Brighton on 18 Sept 1922 followed by 32 performances at the Duke of York's Theatre in London from 20 November to 16 Dec 1922.^[50] Augustus Milner sang Shylock, later replaced during the run by producer F. R. Benson.^[50] Although described in the vocal score as "a Shakespearean Opera" the play was perhaps better defined as a "play with music", with 27 musical sections or arias.^[51]
• Reynaldo Hahn's three-act French opera Le marchand de Venise was first performed at the Paris Opéra on 25 March 1935.^[52][53]
• The late André Tchaikowsky's (1935–1982) opera The Merchant of Venice premiered at the Bregenz Festival^[54][55] on 18 July 2013.

Cultural references

Edmond Haraucourt, French playwright and poet, was commissioned in the 1880s by the actor and theatrical director Paul Porel to make a French-verse adaptation of The Merchant of Venice. His play Shylock, first performed at the Théâtre de l'Odéon in December 1889, had incidental music by the French composer Gabriel Fauré, later incorporated into an orchestral suite of the same name.^[56]

Ralph Vaughan Williams' choral work Serenade to Music (1938) draws its text from the discussion about music and the music of the spheres in Act V, scene 1.^[57]

In both versions of the comic film To Be or Not to Be (1942 and 1983) the character "Greenberg", specified as a Jew in the later version, gives a recitation of the "Hath Not a Jew eyes?" speech to Nazi soldiers.^[58]

The rock musical Fire Angel was based on the story of the play, with the scene changed to the Little Italy district of New York. It was performed in Edinburgh in 1974 and in a revised form at Her Majesty's Theatre, London, in 1977. Braham Murray directed.^[59][60]

Arnold Wesker's play The Merchant (1976) is a reimagining of Shakespeare's story.^[61] In this retelling, Shylock and Antonio are friends and share a disdain for the crass anti-Semitism of the Christian community's laws.^[62]

David Henry Wilson's play Shylock's Revenge, was first produced at the University of Hamburg in 1989, and follows the events in The Merchant of Venice. In this play Shylock gets his wealth back and becomes a Jew again.^[63]

The Star Trek franchise sometimes quote and paraphrase Shakespeare, including The Merchant of Venice. One example is the Shakespeare-aficionado Chang in Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country (1991), a Klingon, who quotes Shylock.^[64]

Steven Spielberg's Schindler's List (1993) depicts SS Lieutenant Amon Göth quoting Shylock's "Hath Not a Jew eyes?" speech when deciding whether to rape his Jewish maid.^[65]

In David Fincher's 1995 crime thriller Seven, a lawyer, Eli Gould, is coerced to remove a pound of his own flesh and place it on a scale, alluding to the play.^[66]

The German Belmont Prize was established in 1997,^[67] referring to 'Belmont' as "a place of destiny where Portia's intelligence is at home." The eligibility for the award is encapsulated by the inscription on the play's lead casket, "Who chooses me must give and hazard all he hath."^[68]

One of the four short stories comprising Alan Isler's The Bacon Fancier (1999) is also told from Shylock's point of view. In this story, Antonio was a converted Jew.^[69]

The Pianist is a 2002 film based on a memoir by Władysław Szpilman. In this film, Henryk Szpilman reads Shylock's "Hath Not a Jew eyes?" speech to his brother Władysław in the Warsaw Ghetto during the Nazi occupation in World War II.^[70]

In the 2009 spy comedy OSS 117: Lost in Rio, a speech by the nazi Von Zimmel parodies Shylock's tirade.^[71][72]

Christopher Moore combines The Merchant of Venice and Othello in his 2014 comic novel The Serpent of Venice, in which he makes Portia (from The Merchant of Venice) and Desdemona (from Othello) sisters. All of the characters come from those two plays with the exception of Jeff (a monkey); the gigantic simpleton Drool; and Pocket, the Fool, who comes from Moore's earlier novel Fool, based on King Lear.^[73]

Naomi Alderman's The Wolf in the Water is a radio-play first broadcast on BBC Radio 3 in 2016. The play continues the story of Shylock's daughter Jessica, who lives in an anti-semitic Venice and practices her Jewish faith in secret. Part of the BBC's Shakespeare Festival, the play also marked that 500 years had passed since the Venetian Ghetto was instituted.^[74][75]

Sarah B. Mantell's Everything that Never Happened is a play first produced in 2017 at the Yale School of Drama. Similar to Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead, the play occurs in the gaps between scenes of the canonical The Merchant of Venice, with the characters gradually recognizing how conflicts over assimilation and anti-Semitism recur throughout past, present, and future.^[76][77][78]

Notes

1. "The Three Sallies – Salarino, Solanio, and Salerio" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
2. "The Merchant of Venice: Act 3, Scene 2". www.shakespeare-navigators.com. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
3. Muir, Kenneth (2005). "The Merchant of Venice". Shakespeare's Sources: Comedies and Tragedies. New York: Routledge. p. 49. ISBN 0-415-35269-X.
4. Bloom (2007), pp. 112–113.
5. Drakakis (2010), pp. 60–61.
6. "Stationers' Register entry for The Merchant of Venice," Shakespeare Documented, Folger Shakespeare Library. February 8, 2020.
7. Wells, Stanley; Dobson, Michael, eds. (2001). The Oxford Companion to Shakespeare. Oxford University Press. p. 288.
8. Philipe Burrin (2005). Nazi Anti-Semitism: From Prejudice to Holocaust. The New Press, p. 17. ISBN 1-56584-969-8.
9. Dautch, Aviva (15 March 2016). "A Jewish reading of The Merchant of Venice". British Library. Retrieved 13 September 2019.
10. "Venice, Italy Jewish History Tour". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
11. Hales, John W. (1894). "Shakespeare and the Jews", The English Review, Vol. IX.
12. Beauchamp, Gorman (2011). "Shylock's Conversion" (PDF). Humanitas. 24: 55–92. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
13. Lecture by James Shapiro: "Shakespeare and the Jews".
14. Newman, Louis I. (2012). Richard Cumberland: Critic and Friend of the Jews (Classic Reprint). Forgotten Books.
15. Armin, Robert (2012). Sheva, the Benevolent. Moreclacke Publishing.
16. David Mirsky, "The Fictive Jew in the Literature of England 1890–1920", in the Samuel K. Mirsky Memorial Volume.
17. Scott (2002).^{[incomplete short citation]}
18. Bloom (2007), p. 233.
19. Bloom (2007), p. 24.
20. Bloom, Harold (2010). Interpretations: William Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice. New York: Infobase. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-60413-885-6.
21. Reuters. "Was the Merchant of Venice gay?" 1 January 2006 at the Wayback Machine, ABC News Online, 29 December 2004. Retrieved on 12 November 2010
22. Charles Boyce, Encyclopaedia of Shakespeare, New York, Roundtable Press, 1990, p. 420.
23. Warde, Frederick (1915). . London: McBride, Nast & Company. pp. 103–120. Archived from the original on 29 April 2015. Retrieved 28 April 2015.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
24. F. E. Halliday, A Shakespeare Companion 1564–1964, Baltimore, Penguin, 1964; pp. 261, 311–312. In 2004, the film was released.
25. Information about Sullivan's incidental music to the play 25 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine at The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive, accessed 31 December 2009
26. Adler (1999) erroneously dates this from 1847 (at which time Kean was already dead); the Cambridge Student Guide to The Merchant of Venice dates Kean's performance to a more likely 1814.
27. Adler (1999), p. 341.
28. Wells & Dobson (2001), p. 290.
29. Adler (1999), pp. 342–344.
30. Adler (1999), pp. 344–350.
31. Granach (1945; 2010), pp. 275–279.^{[incomplete short citation]}
32. Stamp, Shelley (2015). Lois Weber in Early Hollywood. Univ of California Press. pp. 46–47. ISBN 978-0520241527.
33. Low, Rachael (2013). The History of British Film (Volume 3): The History of the British Film 1914–1918. Routledge. pp. 84, 295. ISBN 978-1136206061.
34. Ball, Robert Hamilton (2013). Shakespeare on Silent Film: A Strange Eventful History. Routledge. p. 151. ISBN 978-1134980987.
35. Guy, Randor (29 March 2014). "Blast from the Past: Shylock (1941)". The Hindu. Retrieved 22 September 2016.
36. "Venice Film Festival: Lost Orson Welles Film to Get Pre-Opening Showcase". Hollywood Reporter. 7 August 2015. Retrieved 10 October 2018.
37. Shakespeare, William (2009). The Merchant of Venice: Ignatius Critical Editions. Ignatius Press. ISBN 978-1681495200.
38. Shakespeare, William (2009). The Merchant of Venice: Ignatius Critical Editions. Ignatius Press. ISBN 978-1681495200.
39. "2 Shakespearean Classics To Be Televised by A.B.C." The New York Times. 10 February 1973. Retrieved 20 October 2018.
40. Shakespeare, William (2009). The Merchant of Venice: Ignatius Critical Editions. Ignatius Press. ISBN 978-1681495200.
41. Rothwell, Kenneth S. (2004). A History of Shakespeare on Screen: A Century of Film and Television. Cambridge University Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-0521543118.
42. Shakespeare, William; Farrell, Tony (2018). The Merchant of Venice. Nelson Thornes. p. 8. ISBN 978-0748769575.
43. Huang, Alexa; Rivlin, Elizabeth (2014). Shakespeare and the Ethics of Appropriation. Springer. p. 198. ISBN 978-1137375773.
44. Espinosa, Ruben (2016). Shakespeare and Immigration. Routledge. ISBN 978-1317056614.
45. Gunn, Drewey Wayne (2017). For the Gay Stage: A Guide to 456 Plays, Aristophanes to Peter Gill. McFarland. p. 17. ISBN 9781476670195.
46. Intern (2012). Redeeming Shylock. Boston Review. Retrieved 11 October 2018.
47. "How do you make Shakespeare work on the radio?". The Spectator. 28 April 2018. Retrieved 11 October 2018.
48. Casler, Lawrence (2001). Symphonic Program Music and Its Literary Sources. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 9780773474895.
49. Hostetler, Bob (2016). The Bard and the Bible: A Shakespeare Devotional. Worthy Publishing. ISBN 9781617958427.
50. Wearing, J. P. (2014). The London stage, 1920-1929 : a calendar of productions, performers, and personnel (Second ed.). Lanham. ISBN 978-0-8108-9301-6. OCLC 863695327.
51. Beecham, Adrian Welles (1921). The Merchant of Venice - a Shakespearean Opera - Vocal Score. London: Schott & Co.
52. Burnett, Mark Thornton (2011). Edinburgh Companion to Shakespeare and the Arts. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748649341.
53. Pitou, Spire (1990). The Paris Opéra: an encyclopedia of operas, ballets, composers, and performers. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0313277825.
54. "The Merchant of Venice – World premiere", Bregenzer Festspiele. 2 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine
55. "Andre Tchaikowsky Composer". andretchaikowsky.com. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
56. Nectoux, Jean-Michel (1991). Gabriel Fauré: A musical life. Cambridge University Press. pp. 143–146. ISBN 0-521-23524-3.
57. Frogley, Alain; Thomson, Aidan J. (2013). The Cambridge Companion to Vaughan Williams. Cambridge University Press. p. 127. ISBN 978-0521197687.
58. Sammond, Nicholas; Mukerji, Chandra (2001). Bernardi, Daniel (ed.). Classic Hollywood, Classic Whiteness. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. pp. 15–27. ISBN 0-8166-3239-1.
59. "Fire Angel". bufvc.ac.uk. British Universities Film & Video Council. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
60. "Jewish Observer and Middle East Review". William Samuel & Company Limited. 1977.
61. Chan, Sewell (13 April 2016). "Arnold Wesker, 83, Writer of Working-Class Dramas, Dies". The New York Times. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
62. Billington, Michael (13 April 2016). "Arnold Wesker: the radical bard of working Britain". The Guardian. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
63. Gross (1994), p. 335.
64. Lawler, Peter Augustine; McConkey, Dale (2001). Faith, Reason, and Political Life Today. Lexington Books. p. 29. ISBN 978-0739154960.
65. Burnett (2007), pp. 93–94.
66. Honegger, Thomas (2018). Riddles, Knights, and Cross-dressing Saints: Essays on Medieval English Language and Literature. Peter Lang. p. 5. ISBN 978-3039103928.
67. "The Foundation" Forberg Schneider Foundation
68. "The Belmont Prize"
69. "The Joy of Theft". archive.nytimes.com. Retrieved 26 September 2018.
70. Burnett (2007), p. 93.
71. Hale, Mike (6 May 2010). "French Spy Spoof Set in Swinging '67 Rio". The New York Times. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
72. "Blame It on Rio". The Times of Israel. 4 May 2010. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
73. "'The Serpent of Venice': a Shakespeare-Poe mash-up". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
74. "The Wolf in the Water, Drama on 3". BBC Radio 3. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
75. Alderman, Naomi (7 May 2016). "The Merchant of Venice: what happened next". Retrieved 9 October 2018 – via www.thetimes.co.uk.
76. "Review: 'Everything That Never Happened' reconsiders 'The Merchant of Venice' through a Jewish perspective". Los Angeles Times. 12 October 2018. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
77. "plays". Sarah B. Mantell. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
78. "Everything That Never Happened – Boston Court Pasadena". Retrieved 17 December 2019.

Sources

• Adler, Jacob (1999). A Life on the Stage: A Memoir. Translated by Lulla Rosenfeld. New York: Knopf. ISBN 0-679-41351-0.
• Bloom, Harold (2007). Heims, Neil (ed.). The Merchant of Venice. New York: Infobase. ISBN 978-0-7910-9576-8.
• Burnett, Mark (2007). Filming Shakespeare in the Global Marketplace. Springer. pp. 93–94. ISBN 978-0230800809.
• Drakakis, John, ed. (2010). The Merchant of Venice. The Arden Shakespeare, third series. Bloomsbury. doi:10.5040/9781408160398.00000006. ISBN 978-1-903436-81-3 – via Bloomsbury Drama Online.
• Gross, John (1994). Shylock: A Legend and Its Legacy. Touchstone. ISBN 978-0-671-88386-7.

Further reading

• Abend-David, Dror (2003). "Scorned My Nation": A Comparison of Translations of The Merchant of Venice into German, Hebrew, and Yiddish, New York: Peter-Lang. ISBN 978-0-8204-5798-7.
• Caldecott, Henry Stratford (1895). "Our English Homer; or, the Bacon-Shakespeare Controversy". Johannesburg Times.
• McKendy, Thomas (1988). "Gypsies, Jews, and The Merchant of Venice". The English Journal. National Council of Teachers of English. 77 (7): 24–26. doi:10.2307/818931. ISSN 0013-8274. JSTOR 818931.
• Perng, Ching-Hsi (2011). "A 'Bangzi Merchant of Venice' in Taipei: Yue/Shu (Bond)". Asian Theatre Journal. University of Hawai'i Press. 28 (1): 222–233. doi:10.1353/atj.2011.0014. eISSN 1527-2109. ISSN 0742-5457. JSTOR 41306478. S2CID 161349603.
• Short, Hugh (2002). "Shylock is content". In Mahon, John W.; Mahon, Ellen Macleod (eds.). The Merchant of Venice: New Critical Essays. London: Routledge. p. 201. ISBN 978-0-415-92999-8.
• Smith, Rob: Cambridge Student Guide to The Merchant of Venice. ISBN 0-521-00816-6.
• Yaffe, Martin D.: Shylock and the Jewish Question. ISBN 0801856485

External links

• The Merchant of Venice at Standard Ebooks
• The Merchant of Venice at Project Gutenberg
• The Merchant of Venice at the British Library
•   The Merchant of Venice public domain audiobook at LibriVox