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Western world

January 26, 2023

This article is about the grouping of countries with an originally European shared culture. For other uses, see Western World (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Western Bloc, Western United States, Westworld, Global North, or Western Hemisphere. "Western power" and "Westerners" redirect here. For historical politics in Korea, see Westerners (Korean political faction). For other uses, see Western Power (disambiguation).

The Western world, also known as the West, primarily refers to various nations and states in the regions of Australasia,[a] Europe,[b] and Northern America.[c][3] The Western world is also called the Occident (from Latin occidēns: "setting down, sunset, west"), in contrast to the Eastern world known as the Orient (from Latin oriēns: "origin, sunrise, east"). Definitions for "Western world" vary according to context and perspectives.[4] In the Global North–South categorization, the West is often correlated with Global North.[5][6]

The Western world as derived from Samuel P. Huntington's 1996 Clash of Civilizations:[7] in light blue are Latin America and the Orthodox World, which are either a part of the West or distinct civilizations intimately related to the West.[8][9]

Modern-day Western world encompasses much of the nations and states where civilization or culture is considered as Western[10][11][12]—the roots of which some Westerners trace back to the Greco-Roman world.[13][14] A geographical idea of various world regions as the West emerged in fifth century BCE Greece.[15][16] A theological idea of various world regions as the West, based on Christianity, emerged in the aftermath of the 1054 CE East–West Schism between the Western Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.[17]

The English word "West" was initially meant an adverb for direction. By the Middle Ages, Europeans began to use it to describe Europe. Since the eighteenth century, following European exploration, the word was used to indicate the regions of the world with European settlements.[18][19][20] Despite being in the Eastern Hemisphere, countries like Australia and New Zealand are included in modern definitions of the Western world,[21] as these regions and others like them are significantly influenced by the British—derived from colonisation, and immigration of Europeans—which since then grounded such countries to the West.[22] Depending on the context and the historical period in question, Russia was sometimes seen as a part of the West, and at other times, juxtaposed with it.[23][24][25] Running parallel to the rise of the United States as a great power and the development of communication–transportation technologies "shrinking" the distance between the Atlantic Ocean shores, the aforementioned country became more prominently featured in the conceptualizations of the West.[23]

Home to a diverse population in present-day,[26][27] many countries in the West were once envisioned as homelands for whites.[28][29][30] Westerners have historically justified colonialism with values like individualism and enlightenment.[31] Transformed from a directional concept to a socio-political concept, the idea of the West was temporalized and rendered as a concept of the future bestowed with notions of progress and modernity.[23] Western countries are known to accommodate various gender identities.[32] Women in the West are regarded as the liberated, independent subjects that women from ‘other cultures’ are yet to become. Feminism is often criticized for being inherently white and western.[33][34] The West is also known for its irreligious sentiments; following the Age of Enlightenment and the French Revolution, inquisitions were abolished in the 19th and 20th centuries, leading to separation of church and state, and the establishment of secular states.

Introduction

Western civilized society is considered to have developed from Western culture influenced by many older civilizations of the ancient Near East,[35] such as Canaan,[36][37][38] Minoan Crete, Sumer, Babylonia, and also Ancient Egypt. It originated in the Mediterranean basin and its vicinity; Ancient Greece[d] and Ancient Rome[e] are generally considered to be the birthplaces of Western civilization—Greece having heavily influenced Rome—the former due to its impact on philosophy, democracy, science, aesthetics, as well as building designs and proportions and architecture; the latter due to its influence on art, law, warfare, governance, republicanism, engineering and religion. Western civilization is also strongly associated with Christianity[39] (and to a lesser extent, with Judaism), which is in turn shaped by Hellenistic philosophy and Roman culture.[38] In the modern era, Western culture has been heavily influenced by the Renaissance, the Ages of Discovery and Enlightenment and the Industrial and Scientific Revolutions.[40][41] Through extensive imperialism, colonialism and Christianization by some Western powers in the 15th to 20th centuries and later exportation of mass culture, much of the rest of the world has been extensively influenced by Western culture, in a phenomenon often called Westernization.[verification needed][citation needed]

 
Gold and garnet cloisonné (and mud), military fitting from the Staffordshire Hoard before cleaning
 
US Supreme Court (1932—1935) building, built in neoclassical style, an architectural style of the Western world.

Historians, such as Carroll Quigley in "The Evolution of Civilizations",[42] contend that Western civilization was born around AD 500,[verification needed] after the total collapse of the Western Roman Empire, leaving a vacuum for new ideas to flourish that were impossible in Classical societies. In either view, between the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the Renaissance, the West (or those regions that would later become the heartland of the culturally "western sphere") experienced a period of first, considerable decline,[43] and then readaptation, reorientation and considerable renewed material, technological and political development.[citation needed]

Classical culture of the ancient Western world was partly preserved during this period due to the survival of the Eastern Roman Empire and the introduction of the Catholic Church; it was also greatly expanded by the Arab importation[44][45] of both the Ancient Greco-Roman and new technology through the Arabs from India and China to Europe.[46][47]

Since the Renaissance, the West evolved beyond the influence of the ancient Greeks and Romans and the Islamic world, due to the successful Second Agricultural, Commercial,[48] Scientific,[49] and Industrial[50] revolutions (propellers of modern banking concepts). The West rose further with the 18th century's Age of Enlightenment and through the Age of Exploration's expansion of peoples of Western and Central European empires, particularly the globe-spanning colonial empires of 18th and 19th centuries.[51] Numerous times, this expansion was accompanied by Catholic missionaries, who attempted to proselytize Christianity.

There is debate among some as to whether Latin America as a whole is in a category of its own.[52]

Culture

This section is an excerpt from Western culture.[edit]
 
Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man. Based on the correlations of ideal human proportions with geometry described by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius in Book III of his treatise De architectura.
 
Plato, arguably the most influential figure in all of Western philosophy, has influenced virtually all of subsequent Western and Middle Eastern philosophy and theology.

Western culture, also known as Western civilization, Occidental culture, or Western society, is the heritage of social norms, ethical values, traditional customs, belief systems, political systems, artifacts and technologies of the Western world. The term applies beyond Europe to countries and cultures whose histories are strongly connected to Europe by immigration, colonization or influence. Western culture is most strongly influenced by Greco-Roman culture, Germanic culture, and Christian culture.[53]

The expansion of Greek culture into the Hellenistic world of the eastern Mediterranean led to a synthesis between Greek and Near-Eastern cultures,[54] and major advances in literature, engineering, and science, and provided the culture for the expansion of early Christianity and the Greek New Testament.[55][56][57] This period overlapped with and was followed by Rome, which made key contributions in law, government, engineering and political organization.[58]

Western culture is characterized by a host of artistic, philosophic, literary and legal themes and traditions. Christianity, primarily the Roman Catholic Church,[59][60][61] and later Protestantism[62][63][64][65] has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization since at least the 4th century,[66][67][68][69][70] as did Judaism.[71][72][73][74] A cornerstone of Western thought, beginning in ancient Greece and continuing through the Middle Ages and Renaissance, is the idea of rationalism in various spheres of life developed by Hellenistic philosophy, scholasticism and humanism. Empiricism later gave rise to the scientific method, the scientific revolution, and the Age of Enlightenment.

Western culture continued to develop with the Christianization of European society during the Middle Ages, the reforms triggered by the medieval renaissances, the influence of the Islamic world via Al-Andalus and Sicily (including the transfer of technology from the East, and Latin translations of Arabic texts on science and philosophy by Greek and Hellenic-influenced Islamic philosophers),[75][76][77] and the Italian Renaissance as Greek scholars fleeing the fall of the Byzantine Empire after the Muslim conquest of Constantinople brought classical traditions and philosophy.[78] This major change for non-Western countries and their people saw a development in modernization in those countries.[79] Medieval Christianity is credited with creating the modern university,[80][81] the modern hospital system,[82] scientific economics,[83][84] and natural law (which would later influence the creation of international law).[85] Christianity played a role in ending practices common among European pagans at the time, such as human sacrifice and infanticide.[86] European culture developed with a complex range of philosophy, medieval scholasticism, mysticism and Christian and secular humanism.[87][page needed] Rational thinking developed through a long age of change and formation, with the experiments of the Enlightenment and breakthroughs in the sciences. Tendencies that have come to define modern Western societies include the concept of political pluralism, individualism, prominent subcultures or countercultures (such as New Age movements) and increasing cultural syncretism resulting from globalization and human migration.

Historical divisions

The West of the Mediterranean Region during the Antiquity

The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the ancient tyrannical and imperialistic Graeco-Roman times.[17] The Eastern Mediterranean was home to the highly urbanized cultures that had Greek as their common language (owing to the older empire of Alexander the Great and of the Hellenistic successors.), whereas the West was much more rural in its character and more readily adopted Latin as its common language. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the beginning of the Medieval times (or Middle Ages), Western and Central Europe were substantially cut off from the East where Byzantine Greek culture and Eastern Christianity became founding influences in the Eastern European world such as the East and South Slavic peoples.[citation needed]

 
Map with the main travels of the Age of Discovery (began in 15th century).

Roman Catholic Western and Central Europe, as such, maintained a distinct identity particularly as it began to redevelop during the Renaissance. Even following the Protestant Reformation, Protestant Europe continued to see itself as more tied to Roman Catholic Europe than other parts of the perceived civilized world. Use of the term West as a specific cultural and geopolitical term developed over the course of the Age of Exploration as Europe spread its culture to other parts of the world. Roman Catholics were the first major religious group to immigrate to the New World, as settlers in the colonies of Spain and Portugal (and later, France) belonged to that faith. English and Dutch colonies, on the other hand, tended to be more religiously diverse. Settlers to these colonies included Anglicans, Dutch Calvinists, English Puritans and other nonconformists, English Catholics, Scottish Presbyterians, French Huguenots, German and Swedish Lutherans, as well as Quakers, Mennonites, Amish, and Moravians.[citation needed]

Ancient Greek and Hellenistic worlds (13th–1st centuries BC)

Main articles: Ancient Greece and Hellenistic period
 
The Ancient Greek world, c. 550 BC

Ancient Greek civilization had been growing in the first millennium BC into wealthy poleis, so-called city-states (geographically loose political entities which in time, inevitably end giving way to larger organisations of society, including the empire and the nation-state)[88] such as Athens, Sparta, Thebes, and Corinth, by Middle and Near Eastern ones (Sumerian cities such as Uruk and Ur; Ancient Egyptian city-states, such as Thebes and Memphis; the Phoenician Tyre and Sidon; the five Philistine city-states; the Berber city-states of the Garamantes).[citation needed]

The then Hellenic division between the barbarians (term used by Ancient Greeks for all non-Greek-speaking people) and the Greeks contrasted in many societies the Greek-speaking culture of the Greek settlements around the Mediterranean to the surrounding non-Greek cultures. Herodotus considered the Persian Wars of the early 5th century BC a conflict of Europa versus Asia (which he considered all land north and east of the Sea of Marmara, respectively).[citation needed] The Greeks would highlight what they perceived as a lack of freedom in the Persian world, something that they viewed as antithetical to their culture.[89]

According to a few writers, the future conquest of parts of the Roman Empire by Germanic peoples and the subsequent dominance by the Western Christian Papacy (which held combined political and spiritual authority, a state of affairs absent from Greek civilization in all its stages), resulted in a rupture of the previously existing ties between the Latin West and Greek thought,[90] including Christian Greek thought.[citation needed]

Ancient Roman world (6th century BC – AD 395–476)

Main articles: Roman Republic, Roman Empire, and Fall of the Western Roman Empire
 
The Roman Republic in 218 BC after having managed the conquest of most of the Italian peninsula, on the eve of its most successful and deadliest war with the Carthaginians
 
 
Graphical map of post-AD 395 Roman Empire highlighting differences between western Roman Catholic and eastern Greek Orthodox parts, on the eve of the death of last emperor to rule on both the western and eastern halves. The concept of "East-West" originated in the cultural division between Christian Churches.[17] Western and Eastern Roman Empires on the eve of Western collapse in September of AD 476.
 
The Roman Empire in AD 117. During 350 years the Roman Republic turned into an Empire expanding up to twenty-five times its area

Ancient Rome (6th century BC – AD 476) is a term to describe the ancient Roman society that conquered Central Italy assimilating the Italian Etruscan culture, growing from the Latium region since about the 8th century BC, to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. In its 10-centuries territorial expansion, Roman civilization shifted from a small monarchy (753–509 BC), to a republic (509–27 BC), into an autocratic empire (27 BC – AD 476). Its Empire came to dominate Western, Central and Southeastern Europe, Northern Africa and, becoming an autocratic Empire a vast Middle Eastern area, when it ended. Conquest was enforced using the Roman legions and then through cultural assimilation by eventual recognition of some form of Roman citizenship's privileges. Nonetheless, despite its great legacy, a number of factors led to the eventual decline and ultimately fall of the Roman Empire.[citation needed]

The Roman Empire succeeded the approximately 500-year-old Roman Republic (c. 510–30 BC).[f] In 350 years, from the successful and deadliest war with the Phoenicians began in 218 BC to the rule of Emperor Hadrian by AD 117, Ancient Rome expanded up to twenty-five times its area. The same time passed before its fall in AD 476. Rome had expanded long before the empire reached its zenith with the conquest of Dacia in AD 106 (modern-day Romania) under Emperor Trajan. During its territorial peak, the Roman Empire controlled about 5,000,000 square kilometres (1,900,000 sq mi) of land surface and had a population of 100 million. From the time of Caesar (100–44 BC) to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, Rome dominated Southern Europe, the Mediterranean coast of Northern Africa and the Levant, including the ancient trade routes with population living outside. Ancient Rome has contributed greatly to the development of law, war, art, literature, architecture, technology and language in the Western world, and its history continues to have a major influence on the world today. Latin language has been the base from which Romance languages evolved and it has been the official language of the Catholic Church and all Catholic religious ceremonies all over Europe until 1967, as well as an or the official language of countries such as Italy and Poland (9th–18th centuries).[91][citation needed]

 
Ending invasions on Roman Empire since the 2nd and throughout the 5th centuries

In AD 395, a few decades before its Western collapse, the Roman Empire formally split into a Western and an Eastern one, each with their own emperors, capitals, and governments, although ostensibly they still belonged to one formal Empire. The Western Roman Empire provinces eventually were replaced by Northern European Germanic ruled kingdoms in the 5th century due to civil wars, corruption, and devastating Germanic invasions from such tribes as the Huns, Goths, the Franks and the Vandals by their late expansion throughout Europe. The three-day Visigoths's AD 410 sack of Rome who had been raiding Greece not long before, a shocking time for Graeco-Romans, was the first time after almost 800 years that Rome had fallen to a foreign enemy, and St. Jerome, living in Bethlehem at the time, wrote that "The City which had taken the whole world was itself taken."[92] There followed the sack of AD 455 lasting 14 days, this time conducted by the Vandals, retaining Rome's eternal spirit through the Holy See of Rome (the Latin Church) for centuries to come.[93][94] The ancient Barbarian tribes, often composed of well-trained Roman soldiers paid by Rome to guard the extensive borders, had become militarily sophisticated 'romanized barbarians', and mercilessly slaughtered the Romans conquering their Western territories while looting their possessions.[95]

The Roman Empire is where the idea of "the West" began to emerge.[g]

The Eastern Roman Empire, governed from Constantinople, is usually referred to as the Byzantine Empire after AD 476, the traditional date for the fall of the Roman Empire and beginning of the Early Middle Ages. The Eastern Roman Empire surviving the fall of the Western protected Roman legal and cultural traditions, combining them with Greek and Christian elements, for another thousand years more. The name Byzantine Empire was first used centuries later, after the Byzantine Empire ended. The dissolution of the Western half, nominally ended in AD 476, but in truth a long process that ended by the rise of Catholic Gaul (modern-day France) ruling from around the year AD 800, left only the Eastern Roman Empire alive. The Eastern half continued to think of itself as the Eastern Roman Empire for a while until AD 610–800, when Latin ceased to be the official language of the empire. The inhabitants calling themselves Romans was because the term “Roman” was meant to signify all Christians. The Pope crowned Charlemagne as Emperor of the Romans of the newly established Holy Roman Empire and the West began thinking in terms of Western Latins living in the old Western Empire, and Eastern Greeks (those inside the Roman remnant of the old Eastern Empire).[citation needed]

The birth of the European West during the Middle Ages

Main articles: Byzantine Empire, Holy Roman Empire, East–West Schism, and Reformation
Further information: Christendom, Greek scholars in the Renaissance, and Peace of Westphalia
 
Apex of Byzantine Empire's conquests (AD 527–565).
 
Map of the Byzantine Empire in AD 1025 before Christian East-West Schism.

In the early 4th century, the central focus of power was on two apart Imperial (including army generals') legacies, within the Roman Empire: the older Aegean Sea Greek heritage (of Classical Greece) in the Eastern Mediterranean, and the newer most successful Tyrrhenian Sea Latin heritage (of Ancient Latium and Tuscany) in the Western Mediterranean. Constantine the Great's decision to establish the city of Constantinople (today's Istanbul) in modern-day Turkey as the "New Rome" when he picked it as capital of his Empire (later called "Byzantine Empire" by modern historians) in 330 AD, was a turning point.

This internal conflict of legacies had possibly emerged since the assassination of Julius Caesar three centuries earlier, when Roman Imperialism had just been born with the Roman Republic becoming "Roman Empire", but reached its zenith during 3rd century's many internal civil wars. This is the time when the Huns (part of the ancient Eastern European tribes named barbarians by the Romans) from modern-day Hungary penetrated into the Dalmatian (modern-day Croatia) region then originating in the following 150 years in the Roman Empire officially splitting in two halves. Also the time of the formal acceptance of Christianity as Empire's religious policy, when the Emperors began actively banning and fighting previous pagan religions.[h]

 
History of the spread of Christianity: in AD 325 (dark blue) and AD 600 (blue) following Western Roman Empire's collapse under Germanic migrations.

The Eastern Roman Empire included lands south-west of the Black Sea and bordering on the Eastern Mediterranean and parts of the Adriatic Sea. This division into Eastern and Western Roman Empires was later reflected in the administration of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Greek Orthodox churches, with Rome and Constantinople debating over whether either city was the capital of Western religion.[citation needed]

As the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Catholic) churches spread their influence, the line between Eastern and Western Christianity was moving. Its movement was affected by the influence of the Byzantine empire and the fluctuating power and influence of the Catholic church in Rome. The geographic line of religious division approximately followed a line of cultural divide.[citation needed] The influential American conservative political scientist, adviser and academic Samuel P. Huntington argued that this cultural division still existed during the Cold War as the approximate Western boundary of those countries that were allied with the Soviet Union.[i]

 
Rise of the Germanic Frankish Empire before Charlemagne's coronation in Rome.

In AD 800 under Charlemagne, the Early Medieval Franks established an empire that was recognized by the Pope in Rome as the Holy Roman Empire (Latin Christian revival of the ancient Roman Empire, under perpetual Germanic rule from AD 962) inheriting ancient Roman Empire's prestige but offending the Eastern Roman Emperor in Constantinople, and leading to the Crusades and the east–west schism. The crowning of the Emperor by the Pope led to the assumption that the highest power was the papal hierarchy, quintessential Roman Empire's spiritual heritage authority, establishing then, until the Protestant Reformation, the civilization of Western Christendom.[citation needed]

 
Map of the Byzantine Empire in AD 1180 before Latin Fourth Crusade.

The Latin Rite Catholic Church of western and central Europe split with the eastern Greek-speaking Patriarchates in the Christian East–West Schism, also known as the "Great Schism", during the Gregorian Reforms (calling for a more central status of the Roman Catholic Church Institution), three months after Pope Leo IX's death in April 1054.[96] Following the 1054 Great Schism, both the Western Church and Eastern Church continued to consider themselves uniquely orthodox and catholic. Augustine wrote in On True Religion: "Religion is to be sought... only among those who are called Catholic or orthodox Christians, that is, guardians of truth and followers of right."[97] Over time, the Western Church gradually identified with the "Catholic" label, and people of Western Europe gradually associated the "Orthodox" label with the Eastern Church (although in some languages the "Catholic" label is not necessarily identified with the Western Church). This was in note of the fact that both Catholic and Orthodox were in use as ecclesiastical adjectives as early as the 2nd and 4th centuries respectively. Meanwhile, the extent of both Christendoms expanded, as Germanic peoples, Bohemia, Poland, Hungary, Scandinavia, Finnic peoples, Baltic peoples, British Isles and the other non-Christian lands of the northwest were converted by the Western Church, while Eastern Slavic peoples, Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, Russian territories, Vlachs and Georgia were converted by the Eastern Church.[citation needed]

In 1071, the Byzantine army was defeated by the Muslim Turco-Persians of medieval Asia, resulting in the loss of most of Asia Minor. The situation was a serious threat to the future of the Eastern Orthodox Byzantine Empire. The Emperor sent a plea to the Pope in Rome to send military aid to restore the lost territories to Christian rule. The result was a series of western European military campaigns into the eastern Mediterranean, known as the Crusades. Unfortunately for the Byzantines, the crusaders (belonging to the members of nobility from France, German territories, the Low countries, England, Italy and Hungary) had no allegiance to the Byzantine Emperor and established their own states in the conquered regions, including the heart of the Byzantine Empire.

The Holy Roman Empire would dissolve on 6 August 1806, after the French Revolution and the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon.

 
Map of the Greek Byzantine Empire split by a newly established Latin Crusader State after the Fourth Crusade (shown partly in Greece and partly in Turkey).

The decline of the Byzantine Empire (13th–15th centuries) began with the Latin Christian Fourth Crusade in AD 1202–04, considered to be one of the most important events, solidifying the schism between the Christian churches of Greek Byzantine Rite and Latin Roman Rite. An anti-Western riot in 1182 broke out in Constantinople targeting Latins. The extremely wealthy (after previous Crusades) Venetians in particular made a successful attempt to maintain control over the coast of Catholic present-day Croatia (specifically the Dalmatia, a region of interest to the maritime medieval Venetian Republic moneylenders and its rivals, such as the Republic of Genoa) rebelling against the Venetian economic domination.[98] What followed dealt an irrevocable blow to the already weakened Byzantine Empire with the Crusader army's sack of Constantinople in April 1204, capital of the Greek Christian-controlled Byzantine Empire, described as one of the most profitable and disgraceful sacks of a city in history.[99] This paved the way for Muslim conquests in present-day Turkey and the Balkans in the coming centuries (only a handful of the Crusaders followed to the stated destination thereafter, the Holy Land).[j] The geographical identity of the Balkans is historically known as a crossroads of cultures, a juncture between the Latin and Greek bodies of the Roman Empire, the destination of a massive influx of pagans (meaning "non-Christians") Bulgars and Slavs, an area where Catholic and Orthodox Christianity met,[100] as well as the meeting point between Islam and Christianity. The Papal Inquisition was established in AD 1229 on a permanent basis, run largely by clergymen in Rome,[101] and abolished six centuries later. Before AD 1100, the Catholic Church suppressed what they believed to be heresy, usually through a system of ecclesiastical proscription or imprisonment, but without using torture,[102] and seldom resorting to executions.[103][104][105][106]

This very profitable Central European Fourth Crusade had prompted the 14th century Renaissance (translated as 'Rebirth') of Italian city-states including the Papal States, on eve of the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation (which established the Roman Inquisition to succeed the Medieval Inquisition). There followed the discovery of the American continent, and consequent dissolution of West Christendom as even a theoretical unitary political body, later resulting in the religious Eighty Years War (1568–1648) and Thirty Years War (1618–1648) between various Protestant and Catholic states of the Holy Roman Empire (and emergence of religiously diverse confessions). In this context, the Protestant Reformation (1517) may be viewed as a schism within the Catholic Church. German monk Martin Luther, in the wake of precursors, broke with the pope and with the emperor by the Catholic Church's abusive commercialization of indulgences in the Late Medieval Period, backed by many of the German princes and helped by the development of the printing press, in an attempt to reform corruption within the church.[107][108][109][k]

Both these religious wars ended with the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which enshrined the concept of the nation-state, and the principle of absolute national sovereignty in international law. As European influence spread across the globe, these Westphalian principles, especially the concept of sovereign states, became central to international law and to the prevailing world order.[110]

Expansion of the West: the Era of Colonialism (15th–20th centuries)

Main articles: New World, Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization, Mercantilism, and Imperialism

"Why do the Christian nations, which were so weak in the past compared with Muslim nations begin to dominate so many lands in modern times and even defeat the once victorious Ottoman armies?"..."Because they have laws and rules invented by reason."

Ibrahim Muteferrika, Rational basis for the Politics of Nations (1731)[111]

 
Portuguese discoveries and explorations since 1336: first arrival places and dates; main Portuguese spice trade routes in the Indian Ocean (blue); territories claimed by King John III of Portugal (c. 1536) (green).
 
Apex of Spanish Empire in 1790.

In the 13th and 14th centuries, a number of European travelers, many of them Christian missionaries, had sought to cultivate trading with Asia and Africa. With the Crusades came the relative contraction of the Orthodox Byzantine's large silk industry in favour of Catholic Western Europe and the rise of Western Papacy. The most famous of these merchant travelers pursuing East–west trade was Venetian Marco Polo. But these journeys had little permanent effect on east–west trade because of a series of political developments in Asia in the last decades of the 14th century, which put an end to further European exploration of Asia: namely the new Ming rulers were found to be unreceptive of religious proselytism by European missionaries and merchants. Meanwhile, the Ottoman Turks consolidated control over the eastern Mediterranean, closing off key overland trade routes.[citation needed]

The Portuguese spearheaded the drive to find oceanic routes that would provide cheaper and easier access to South and East Asian goods, by advancements in maritime technology such as the caravel ship introduced in the mid-1400s. The charting of oceanic routes between East and West began with the unprecedented voyages of Portuguese and Spanish sea captains. In 1492 European colonialism expanded across the globe with the exploring voyage of merchant, navigator, and Hispano-Italian colonizer Christopher Columbus. Such voyages were influenced by medieval European adventurers after the European spice trade with Asia, who had journeyed overland to the Far East contributing to geographical knowledge of parts of the Asian continent. They are of enormous significance in Western history as they marked the beginning of the European exploration, colonization and exploitation of the American continents and their native inhabitants.[l][m][n] The European colonization of the Americas led to the Atlantic slave trade between the 1490s and the 1800s, which also contributed to the development of African intertribal warfare and racist ideology. Before the abolition of its slave trade in 1807, the British Empire alone (which had started colonial efforts in 1578, almost a century after Portuguese and Spanish empires) was responsible for the transportation of 3.5 million African slaves to the Americas, a third of all slaves transported across the Atlantic.[113] The Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806 by the French Revolutionary Wars; abolition of the Roman Catholic Inquisition followed.[citation needed]

Due to the reach of these empires, Western institutions expanded throughout the world. This process of influence (and imposition) began with the voyages of discovery, colonization, conquest, and exploitation of Portugal enforced as well by papal bulls in 1450s (by the fall of the Byzantine Empire), granting Portugal navigation, war and trade monopoly for any newly discovered lands,[114] and competing Spanish navigators. It continued with the rise of the Dutch East India Company by the destabilising Spanish discovery of the New World, and the creation and expansion of the English and French colonial empires, and others.[citation needed] Even after demands for self-determination from subject peoples within Western empires were met with decolonization, these institutions persisted. One specific example was the requirement that post-colonial societies were made to form nation-states (in the Western tradition), which often created arbitrary boundaries and borders that did not necessarily represent a whole nation, people, or culture (as in much of Africa), and are often the cause of international conflicts and friction even to this day. Although not part of Western colonization process proper, following the Middle Ages Western culture in fact entered other global-spanning cultures during the colonial 15th–20th centuries.[citation needed]

 
 
Replica of the Iberian Santa María, the wealthy Genoese merchant navigator Christopher Columbus's flagship during his first voyage, a large carvel-built ocean-going ship, financed by Catholic Monarchs of Castile and Aragon.[115] Columbus had estimated a travel distance of 2,400 nmi (4,400 km), far too low.[116]


Colonialisation by Western/European powers (and others) since 1492.
 
 
The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain in the 1760s and was preceded by the Agricultural and Scientific revolutions in the 1600s, forever modified the economy worldwide.


The French Revolution had a major impact on European and Western history of governance by ending feudalism and creating the path for future advances in broadly defined individual freedoms.[117][118] Its impact on French nationalism was profound, while also stimulating nationalist movements throughout Europe.[119] Modern historians argue the concept of the nation state was a direct consequence of the Revolution.[120][115] Freedom movements for human and women rights, against slavery and religious control, are recorded with the French Revolution, including the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789.

The concepts of a world of nation-states born by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, coupled with the ideologies of the Enlightenment, the coming of modernity, the Scientific Revolution[121] and the Industrial Revolution,[122] would produce powerful social transformations, political and economic institutions that have come to influence (or been imposed upon) most nations of the world today. Historians agree that the Industrial Revolution has been one of the most important events in history.[123]

The course of three centuries since Christopher Columbus' late 15th century's voyages, of deportation of slaves from Africa and British dominant northern-Atlantic location, later developed into modern-day United States of America, evolving from the ratification of the Constitution of the United States by thirteen States on the North American East Coast before end of the 18th century.

In the early-19th century, the systematic urbanisation process (migration from villages in search of jobs in manufacturing centers) had begun, and the concentration of labour into factories led to the rise in the population of the towns. World population had been rising as well. It is estimated to have first reached one billion in 1804.[124] Also, the new philosophical movement later known as Romanticism originated, in the wake of the previous Age of Reason of the 1600s and the Enlightenment of 1700s. These are seen as fostering the 19th century Western world's sustained economic development.[125] Before the urbanisation and industrialization of the 1800s, demand for oriental goods such as porcelain, silk, spices and tea remained the driving force behind European imperialism in Asia, and (with the important exception of British East India Company rule in India) the European stake in Asia remained confined largely to trading stations and strategic outposts necessary to protect trade.[126] Industrialisation, however, dramatically increased European demand for Asian raw materials; and the severe Long Depression of the 1870s provoked a scramble for new markets for European industrial products and financial services in Africa, the Americas, Eastern Europe, and especially in Asia (Western powers exploited their advantages in China for example by the Opium Wars).[127] This resulted in the "New Imperialism", which saw a shift in focus from trade and indirect rule to formal colonial control of vast overseas territories ruled as political extensions of their mother countries.[o] The later years of the 19th century saw the transition from "informal imperialism" (hegemony)[p] by military influence and economic dominance, to direct rule (a revival of colonial imperialism) in the African continent and Middle East.[131]

 
 
 
The Slave Market (Gérôme painting), French painting made during the second industrial revolution: portrays a 19th century's Mediterranean slave market, an example of the ruling in the Late Modern period. Industrial society's enlightenment provided Europe with a different view on human dignity when the Ottoman Turks were still used to slaves markets.


Western empires as they were in 1910.

Women's Suffrage Parade in New York City, May 6, 1912.

During the socioeconomically optimistic and innovative decades of the Second Industrial Revolution between the 1870s and 1914, also known as the "Beautiful Era", the established colonial powers in Asia (United Kingdom, France, Netherlands) added to their empires also vast expanses of territory in the Indian Subcontinent and South East Asia. Japan was involved primarily during the Meiji period (1868–1912), though earlier contacts with the Portuguese, Spaniards and Dutch were also present in the Japanese Empire's recognition of the strategic importance of European nations. Traditional Japanese society became an industrial and militarist power like the Western British Empire and the French Third Republic, and similar to the German Empire.[verification needed][citation needed]

At the close of the Spanish–American War in 1898 the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam and Cuba were ceded to the United States under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. The US quickly emerged as the new imperial power in East Asia and in the Pacific Ocean area. The Philippines continued to fight against colonial rule in the Philippine–American War.[132]

By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the world population at the time,[133] and by 1920, it covered 35,500,000 km2 (13,700,000 sq mi),[134] 24% of the Earth's total land area.[135] At its apex, the phrase "the empire on which the sun never sets" described the British Empire, because its expanse around the globe meant that the sun always shone on at least one of its territories.[136] As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread throughout the Western World.[citation needed] In the aftermath of the Second World War, decolonizing efforts were employed by all Western powers under United Nations (ex-League of Nations) international directives.[citation needed] Most of colonized nations received independence by 1960. Great Britain showed ongoing responsibility for the welfare of its former colonies as member states of the Commonwealth of Nations. But the end of Western colonial imperialism saw the rise of Western neocolonialism or economic imperialism. Multinational corporations came to offer "a dramatic refinement of the traditional business enterprise", through "issues as far ranging as national sovereignty, ownership of the means of production, environmental protection, consumerism, and policies toward organized labor." Though the overt colonial era had passed, Western nations, as comparatively rich, well-armed, and culturally powerful states, wielded a large degree of influence throughout the world, and with little or no sense of responsibility toward the peoples impacted by its multinational corporations in their exploitation of minerals and markets.[137][138] The dictum of Alfred Thayer Mahan is shown to have lasting relevance, that whoever controls the seas controls the world.[139]

Enlightenment (17th–18th centuries)

Main articles: Age of Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution

Eric Voegelin described the 18th-century as one where "the sentiment grows that one age has come to its close and that a new age of Western civilization is about to be born". According to Voeglin the Enlightenment (also called the Age of Reason) represents the "atrophy of Christian transcendental experiences and [seeks] to enthrone the Newtonian method of science as the only valid method of arriving at truth".[140] Its precursors were John Milton and Baruch Spinoza.[141] Meeting Galileo in 1638 left an enduring impact on John Milton and influenced Milton's great work Areopagitica, where he warns that, without free speech, inquisitorial forces will impose "an undeserved thraldom upon learning".[142]

The achievements of the 17th century included the invention of the telescope and acceptance of heliocentrism. 18th century scholars continued to refine Newton's theory of gravitation, notably Leonhard Euler, Pierre Louis Maupertuis, Alexis-Claude Clairaut, Jean Le Rond d'Alembert, Joseph-Louis Lagrange, Pierre-Simon de Laplace. Laplace's five-volume Treatise on Celestial Mechanics is one of the great works of 18th-century Newtonianism. Astronomy gained in prestige as new observatories were funded by governments and more powerful telescopes developed, leading to the discovery of new planets, asteroids, nebulae and comets, and paving the way for improvements in navigation and cartography. Astronomy became the second most popular scientific profession, after medicine.[143]

A common metanarrative of the Enlightenment is the "secularization theory". Modernity, as understood within the framework, means a total break with the past. Innovation and science are the good, representing the modern values of rationalism, while faith is ruled by superstition and traditionalism.[144] Inspired by the Scientific Revolution, the Enlightenment embodied the ideals of improvement and progress. Descartes and Isaac Newton were regarded as exemplars of human intellectual achievement. Condorcet wrote about the progress of humanity in the Sketch of the Progress of the Human Mind (1794), from primitive society to agrarianism, the invention of writing, the later invention of the printing press and the advancement to "the Period when the Sciences and Philosophy threw off the Yoke of Authority".[145]

French writer Pierre Bayle denounced Spinoza as a pantheist (thereby accusing him of atheism). Bayle's criticisms garnered much attention for Spinoza. The pantheism controversy in the late 18th century saw Gotthold Lessing attacked by Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi over support for Spinoza's pantheism. Lessing was defended by Moses Mendelssohn, although Mendelssohn diverged from pantheism to follow Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in arguing that God and the world were not of the same substance (equivalency). Spinoza was excommunicated from the Dutch Sephardic community, but for Jews who sought out Jewish sources to guide their own path to secularism, Spinoza was as important as Voltaire and Kant.[146]

Cold War (1947–1991)

Main articles: Cold War, Western Bloc, and First World

During the Cold War, a new definition emerged. Earth was divided into three "worlds". The First World, analogous in this context to what was called the West, was composed of NATO members and other countries aligned with the United States.

The Second World was the Eastern bloc in the Soviet sphere of influence, including the Soviet Union (15 republics including the then-occupied and presently independent Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) and Warsaw Pact countries like Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, East Germany (now united with Germany), and Czechoslovakia (now split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia).

The Third World consisted of countries, many of which were unaligned with either, and important members included India, Yugoslavia, Finland (Finlandization) and Switzerland (Swiss Neutrality); some include the People's Republic of China, though this is disputed, since the People's Republic of China, as communist, had friendly relations—at certain times—with the Soviet bloc, and had a significant degree of importance in global geopolitics. Some Third World countries aligned themselves with either the US-led West or the Soviet-led Eastern bloc.

Maps on the Cold War East–west division
 
Spheres of influence between the Western world and the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
 
The "Three Worlds" of the Cold War era, April–August 1975
  First World: Western Bloc led by the USA, the UK, NATO, Japan and their allies
  Second World: Eastern Bloc led by the USSR, the Warsaw Pact, China and their allies
  Third World: Non-Aligned Movement (led by India and Yugoslavia) and other neutral countries
 
East and West in 1980, as defined by the Cold War. The Cold War had divided Europe politically into East and West, with the Iron Curtain splitting Central Europe.
 
European trade blocs as of 1988. EEC member states are marked in blue, EFTA – green, and Comecon – red.
 
 
Cold War colonial empires through decolonization. The global distribution of Christians: a darker shade means a higher proportion of Christians.[147]
 
"Western Christian civilization" (red) and "Eastern Christian civilization" (brown), according to Samuel Huntington. For Huntington, Latin America (dark green) was part of the West or a descendant civilization that was twinned to it. For Rouquié, Latin America is the "Third World of the West."

A number of countries did not fit comfortably into this neat definition of partition, including Switzerland, Sweden, Austria, and Ireland, which chose to be neutral. Finland was under the Soviet Union's military sphere of influence (see FCMA treaty) but remained neutral and was not communist, nor was it a member of the Warsaw Pact or Comecon but a member of the EFTA since 1986, and was west of the Iron Curtain. In 1955, when Austria again became a fully independent republic, it did so under the condition that it remain neutral; but as a country to the west of the Iron Curtain, it was in the United States' sphere of influence. Spain did not join the NATO until 1982, seven years after the death of the authoritarian Franco.

The 1980s advent of Mikhail Gorbachev led to the end of the Cold War following the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Cold War II context

Main article: Second Cold War

In a debated Cold War II, a new definition emerged inside the realm of western journalism. More specifically, Cold War II,[148] also known as the Second Cold War, New Cold War,[149] Cold War Redux,[150] Cold War 2.0,[151] and Colder War,[152] refers to the tensions, hostilities, and political rivalry that intensified dramatically in 2014 between the Russian Federation on the one hand, and the United States, European Union, NATO and some other countries on the other hand.[148][153] Tensions escalated in 2014 after Russia's annexation of Crimea, military intervention in Ukraine, and the 2015 Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War.[154][155][156] By August 2014, both sides had implemented economic, financial, and diplomatic sanctions upon each other: virtually all Western countries, led by the US and EU, imposed restrictive measures on Russia; the latter reciprocally introduced retaliatory measures.[157][158]

Modern definitions

 
 
 
Asia (as the "Eastern world"), the Arab world, and Africa.

The exact scope of the Western world is somewhat subjective in nature, depending on whether cultural, economic, spiritual or political criteria are employed. It is a generally accepted Western view to recognize the existence of at least three "major worlds" (or "cultures", or "civilizations"), broadly in contrast with the Western: the Eastern world, the Arab and the African worlds, with no clearly specified boundaries. Additionally, Latin American and Orthodox European worlds are sometimes either a sub-civilization within Western civilization or separately considered "akin" to the West.

 
 
Latin America and Orthodox worlds.[image reference needed]

Many anthropologists, sociologists and historians oppose "the West and the Rest" in a categorical manner.[159] The same has been done by Malthusian demographers with a sharp distinction between European and non-European family systems. Among anthropologists, this includes Durkheim, Dumont, and Lévi-Strauss.[159]

Since the fall of the iron curtain the following countries are generally accepted as the Western world:[160] the United States, Canada; the countries of the European Union plus the UK, Norway, Iceland and Switzerland; Australia and New Zealand.

Cultural definition

Further information: Western culture, Culture of Europe, and Culture of the United States

In modern usage, Western world refers to Europe and to areas whose populations largely originate from Europe, through the Age of Discovery's imperialism.[19][20][161]

 
The Western world derived on Samuel P. Huntington's 1996 Clash of Civilizations.[7] In turquoise are Latin America and the Orthodox World, which are either a part of the West or distinct civilizations intimately related to the West.[8][9]

In the 20th century, Christianity declined in influence in many Western countries, mostly in the European Union where some member states have experienced falling church attendance and membership in recent years,[162] and also elsewhere. Secularism (separating religion from politics and science) increased. However, while church attendance is in decline, in some Western countries (i.e. Italy, Poland, and Portugal), more than half of the people state that religion is important,[163] and most Westerners nominally identify themselves as Christians (e.g. 59% in the United Kingdom) and attend church on major occasions, such as Christmas and Easter. In the Americas, Christianity continues to play an important societal role, though in areas such as Canada, a low level of religiosity is common due to a European-type secularization. The official religions of the United Kingdom and some Nordic countries are forms of Christianity, while the majority of European countries have no official religion. Despite this, Christianity, in its different forms, remains the largest faith in most Western countries.[164]

Christianity remains the dominant religion in the Western world, where 70% are Christians.[165] A 2011 Pew Research Center survey found that 76.2% of Europeans, 73.3% in Oceania, and about 86.0% in the Americas (90% in Latin America and the Caribbean and 77.4% in Northern America) described themselves as Christians.[165][166]

Countries in the Western world are also the most keen on digital and televisual media technologies, as they were in the postwar period on television and radio: from 2000 to 2014, the Internet's market penetration in the West was twice that in non-Western regions.[167] Wikipedia has been blocked intermittently in China since 2004.[168]

Latin America

 
The Western world derived on Samuel P. Huntington's 1996 Clash of Civilizations.[169] Latin America, depicted in turquoise, could be considered a sub-civilization within Western civilization, or a distinct civilization intimately related to the West and descended from it. For political consequences, the second option is the most adequate.[170]
 
Huntington's map of major civilizations.[7] What constitutes Western civilization in post-Cold War world is coloured dark blue. He also dwells that Latin America (shown in purple) is either a sub-civilization within Western civilization or a separate civilization akin to the West.

American political scientist, adviser and academic Samuel P. Huntington considered Latin America as separate from the Western world for the purpose of his geopolitical analysis.[7] Huntington's view has, however, been contested on a number of occasions as biased.[171][172] Huntington also states that, while in general researchers consider that the West has three main components (European, North American and Latin American), in his view, Latin America has followed a different development path from Europe and North America. Although it is a scion of European (mainly Spanish and Portuguese) civilization, it also incorporates, to an extent, elements of indigenous American civilizations, absent from North America and Europe. It has had a corporatist and authoritarian culture that Europe had to a much lesser extent. Both Europe and North America felt the effects of the Reformation and combined Catholic and Protestant culture. Historically, Latin America has been only Catholic, although this is changing due to the influx of Protestants into the region. Some regions in Latin America incorporate indigenous cultures, which did not exist in Europe and were effectively annihilated in the United States, and whose importance oscillates between two extremes: Mexico, Central America, Peru and Bolivia, on the one hand, and Argentina and Chile on the other.[173] However, he does mention that the modus operandi of the Catholic Church was to incorporate native elements of pagan European cultures into the general dogma of Catholicism, and the Native American elements could be perceived in the same way.[174]

Subjectively, Latin Americans are divided when it comes to identifying themselves. Some say: "Yes, we are part of the West." Others say: "No, we have our own unique culture"; and a vast bibliographical material produced by Latin Americans and North Americans exposes in detail their cultural differences. Huntington goes on to mention that Latin America could be considered a sub-civilization within Western civilization, or a separate civilization intimately related to the West and divided as to its belonging to it. While the second option is the most appropriate and useful for an analysis focused on the international political consequences of civilizations, including relations between Latin America, on the one hand, and North America and Europe, on the other, he also mentions that the underlying conflict of Latin America belonging to the West must eventually be addressed in order to develop a cohesive Latin American identity.[175][176]

Other countries

Most of South Africa's population is not of European ancestry, excepting a sizeable minority.[177][178] The primary sources of the country's constitution are Roman-Dutch mercantile law & personal law and English Common law, imports of Dutch settlement and British colonialism respectively.[179] English, the country's lingua franca, is the main language used in official and business capacities and the sole language of record in South African courts.[180][181][182] English and Afrikaans – most similar to Dutch – are two of South Africa's eleven official languages.[183][184] Christianity is the dominant religion and many denominations incorporate worship practices from traditional African religions. The Methodist, Roman Catholic, Anglican, Dutch Reformed, Lutheran, Pentecostal and Seventh-day Adventist dominations are also popular.[185]

The Philippines, Guam and the Mariana Islands, as well as Palau, etc., although geographically part of the Eastern world and having a majority population that does not possess European ethnic origins aside from a significant minority, maintains strong Western-based influences in its culture.[186] Cape Verde also has significant influence from the Western world due to Portuguese colonization, seen through the country's language (Portuguese), music, art[187] and the prevalence of Christianity.[188] The country's population is also overall, a mixture of African and European descent.[189] European influence is also evident in Namibia, which has a sizeable minority of European descent and was previously administered by Germany and then South Africa.[190][191][192]

Economic definition

 
Countries by income group

The term "Western world" is sometimes interchangeably used with the term First World or developed countries, stressing the difference between First World and the Third World or developing countries. This usage occurs despite the fact that many countries that may be culturally Western are developing countries – in fact, a significant percentage of the Americas are developing countries. It is also used despite many developed countries or regions not being culturally Western (e.g. Japan, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macao). Privatization policies (involving government enterprises and public services) and multinational corporations are often considered a visible sign of Western nations' economic presence, especially in Third World countries, and represent a common institutional environment for powerful politicians, enterprises, trade unions and firms, bankers and thinkers of the Western world.[193][194][195][196][197]

Views on torn countries

According to Samuel P. Huntington, some countries are torn on whether they are Western or not, with typically the national leadership pushing for Westernization, while historical, cultural and traditional forces remain largely non-Western.[198] These include Turkey, whose political leadership has since the 1920s tried to Westernize the predominantly Muslim country with only 3% of its territory within Europe. It is his chief example of a "torn country" that is attempting to join Western civilization.[7] The country's elite started the Westernization efforts, beginning with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who took power as the first president of the modern Turkish nation-state in 1923, imposed western institutions and dress, removed the Arabic alphabet and embraced the Latin alphabet. It joined NATO and since the 1960s has been seeking to join the European Union with very slow progress.[199]

Other views

A series of scholars of civilization, including Arnold J. Toynbee, Alfred Kroeber and Carroll Quigley have identified and analyzed "Western civilization" as one of the civilizations that have historically existed and still exist today. Toynbee entered into quite an expansive mode, including as candidates those countries or cultures who became so heavily influenced by the West as to adopt these borrowings into their very self-identity. Carried to its limit, this would in practice include almost everyone within the West, in one way or another. In particular, Toynbee refers to the intelligentsia formed among the educated elite of countries impacted by the European expansion of centuries past. While often pointedly nationalist, these cultural and political leaders interacted within the West to such an extent as to change both themselves and the West.[52]

The theologian and paleontologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin conceived of the West as the set of civilizations descended from the Nile Valley Civilization of Egypt.[200]

Palestinian-American literary critic Edward Said uses the term "Occident" in his discussion of Orientalism. According to his binary, the West, or Occident, created a romanticized vision of the East, or Orient, to justify colonial and imperialist intentions. This Occident-Orient binary focuses on the Western vision of the East instead of any truths about the East. His theories are rooted in Hegel's master-slave dialectic: The Occident would not exist without the Orient and vice versa.[citation needed] Further, Western writers created this irrational, feminine, weak "Other" to contrast with the rational, masculine, strong West because of a need to create a difference between the two that would justify imperialist ambitions, according to the Said-influenced Indian-American theorist Homi K. Bhabha.[citation needed]

Map illustrations of the West according to different but closely interrelated definitions
  •  

    Division of the Roman Empire after 395 into western and eastern part. The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire.

  •  

    Latin alphabet world distribution. The dark green areas show the countries where this alphabet is the sole official (or de facto official) national script. The light green places show the countries where the alphabet co-exists with other scripts.

  •  

    Countries with 50% or more Christians are colored purple while countries with 10% to 50% Christians are colored pink

  •  

    Map showing relative degree of religiosity by country. Based on a 2006–2008 worldwide survey by Gallup.

  •  

    Human language families.

  •  

    Western Palearctic, a part of the Palearctic realm, one of the eight biogeographic realms dividing the Earth's surface.

  •  

    Geopolitical Occident of Europe, according to the Intermediate Region theory of Dimitri Kitsikis

  •  

    European Union (in blue) and European Free Trade Association (in green).

  •  

    Human Development Index Report (based on 2018 data, published in 2019).

  •  

    Legal systems of the world.

  •  

    Secular states in blue.

  •  

    Relative geographic prevalence of Christianity versus the second most prevalent religion Islam and lack of either religion, in 2006.

See also

Organisations
Representation in the United Nations

Notes

  1. ^ Comprising Australia and New Zealand, excluding the Pacific island nations.
  2. ^ Including North Asia (Siberia) and the Outermost Regions of the European Union such as the Canary Islands and Madeira, which are parts of European countries despite not being geographically located in Europe.[1]
  3. ^ Latin America and the Caribbean's status as a part of the West is disputed by some researchers.[2]
  4. ^ See notes:[n 1][n 2][n 3][n 4][n 5][n 6][n 7][n 8][n 9]
    See notes [n 10][n 11][n 12][n 13][n 14]
     
     
     
    The Parthenon, a former temple (Athens, c. 430 BC). The Victorious Youth, a controversial Greek bronze (Greece, c. 300–100 BC). Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus, seats up to 14,000 people (Epidaurus, c. 150 BC).
  5. ^
     
     
     
    Pont du Gard, a Roman aqueduct (Vers-Pont-du-Gard, c. 20 BC-AD 50). The Pantheon, a former temple visited—in 2013 alone—by over 6 million people (Rome, c. AD 120). The Aula Palatina, a Roman palace, then a Christian basilica (Trier, c. AD 310).
    See notes [n 15][n 16][n 17][n 18][n 19]
  6. ^ The Roman Republic had been weakened by the conflict between Gaius Marius and Sulla and the civil war of Julius Caesar against Pompey and Marcus Brutus. During these struggles hundreds of senators were killed, and the Roman Senate had been refilled with loyalists[vague] of the First Triumvirate and later those of the Second Triumvirate. Several dates are commonly proposed to mark the transition from Republic to Empire, including the date of Julius Caesar's appointment as perpetual Roman dictator (44 BC), the victory of Caesar's heir Octavian at the Battle of Actium (2, 31 September BC), and the Roman Senate's granting to Octavian the honorific Augustus. (16, 27 January BC). Octavian/Augustus officially proclaimed that he had saved the Roman Republic and carefully disguised his power under republican forms: Consuls continued to be elected, tribunes of the plebeians continued to offer legislation, and senators still debated in the Roman Curia. However, it was Octavian who influenced everything and controlled the final decisions, and in final analysis, had the legions to back him up, if it became necessary.
  7. ^ By Rome's central location at the heart of the Empire, "West" and "East" were terms used to denote provinces west and east of the capital itself. Therefore, Iberia (Portugal and Spain), Gaul (France), the Mediterranean coast of North Africa (Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco) and Britannia were all part of the "West". Greece, Cyprus, Anatolia, Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Egypt, and Libya were part of the "East". Italy itself was considered central, until the reforms of Diocletian dividing the Empire into true two halves: Eastern and Western.[citation needed]
  8. ^ Strategically more appealing than Rome because of its access to a second smaller water basin, the Euxine Sea (meaning "hospitable", and later called Black Sea) and its proximity to the Mesopotamia, the "would be" next Roman Empire's conquest. The Latins had become an Empire because they had managed to control the Mediterranean Sea, as water basins were the most appealing locations to armies in the ancient era. For this reason probably, the Romans were more seduced by the strategic Asian access of Byzantium in the Turkish area, than that of any other Eastern European location around the Danube river. This situation may have led to Huns' successful invasion that originated Empire's division (and later its collapse) during the course of the 3rd century AD.[citation needed]
  9. ^ Others have fiercely criticized these views arguing they confuse the Eastern Roman Empire with Russia, especially considering the fact that the country that had the most historical roots in Byzantium (Greece) expelled communists and was allied with the West during the Cold War. Still, Russia accepted Eastern Christianity from the Byzantine Empire (by the Patriarch of Constantinople: Photios I) linking Russia very close to the Eastern Roman Empire world. Later on, in 16th century Russia created its own religious centre in Moscow. Religion survived in Russia beside severe persecution carrying values alternative to the communist ideology.[citation needed]
  10. ^ The Dalmatia remained under Venice domination throughout next centuries (even constituting an Italian territorial claim by the Treaty of Versailles in the aftermath of the First World War and through successive Italy's fascist period's demands).
  11. ^ These changes were adopted by the Scandinavian kings. Later, French commoner Jean Cauvin (John Calvin) assumed the religio-political leadership in Geneva, a former ecclesiastical city whose prior ruler had been the bishop. The English king later improvised on the Lutheran model, but subsequently many Calvinist doctrines were adopted by popular dissenters paralleling the struggles between the King and Parliament lead to the English Civil War (1642–1651) between royalists and parliamentarians, while both colonized North America eventually resulting in an independent United States of America (1776) during the Industrial Revolution.
  12. ^ Portuguese sailors began exploring the coast of Africa and the Atlantic archipelagos in 1418–19, using recent developments in navigation, cartography and maritime technology such as the caravel, in order that they might find a sea route to the source of the lucrative spice trade.[citation needed] In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the southern tip of Africa under the sponsorship of Portugal's John II, from which point he noticed that the coast swung northeast (Cape of Good Hope).[citation needed] In 1492 Christopher Columbus would land on an island in the Bahamas archipelago on behalf of the Spanish, and documenting the Atlantic Ocean's routes would be granted a Coat of Arms by Pope Alexander VI motu proprio in 1502.[citation needed] With the discovery of the American continent or 'New World' in 1492–1493, the European colonial Age of Discovery and exploration was born, revisiting an imperialistic view accompanied by the invention of firearms, while marking the start of the Modern Era. During this long period the Catholic Church launched a major effort to spread Christianity in the New World and to convert the Native Americans and others. A 'Modern West' emerged from the Late Middle Ages (after the Renaissance and fall of Constantinople) as a new civilization greatly influenced by the interpretation of Greek thought preserved in the Byzantine Empire, and transmitted from there by Latin translations and emigration of Greek scholars through Renaissance humanism. (Popular typefaces such as italics were inspired and designed from transcriptions during this period.) Renaissance architectural works, revivals of Classical and Gothic styles, flourished during this modern period throughout Western colonial empires. In 1497 Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama made the first open voyage from Europe to India.[citation needed] In 1520, Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese navigator in the service of the Crown of Castile ('Spain'), found a sea route into the Pacific Ocean.
  13. ^ In the 16th century, the Portuguese broke the (overland) Medieval monopoly of the Arabs and Italians of trade (goods and slaves) between Asia and Europe by the discovery of the sea route to India around the Cape of Good Hope.[112] With the ensuing rise of the rival Dutch East India Company, Portuguese influence in Asia was gradually eclipsed; Dutch forces first established fortified independent bases in the East and then between 1640 and 1660 wrestled some southern Indian ports, and the lucrative Japan trade from the Portuguese. Later, the English and the French established some settlements in India and trade with China, and their own acquisitions would gradually surpass those of the Dutch. In 1763, the British eliminated French influence in India and established the British East India Company as the most important political force on the Indian Subcontinent.
  14. ^ Although Christianized by early Middle Ages, Ireland is soon colonised in 16th- and 17th-century with settlers from the neighboring island of Great Britain (several people committed in the establishment of these colonies in Ireland, would later also colonise North America initiating the British Empire), while Iceland still uninhabited long after the rest of Western Europe had been settled, by 1397–1523 would eventually be united in one alliance with all of the Nordic states (kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden and Norway).
  15. ^ The Scramble for Africa was the occupation, division, and colonization of African territory by European powers during the period of New Imperialism, between 1881 and 1914. It is also called the 'Partition of Africa' and by some the 'Conquest of Africa'. In 1870, only 10 percent of Africa was under formal Western/European control; by 1914 it had increased to almost 90 percent of the continent, with only Ethiopia (Abyssinia), the Dervish state (a portion of present-day Somalia)[128] and Liberia still being independent.
  16. ^ In ancient Greece (8th century BC – AD 6th century), hegemony denoted the politico-military dominance of a city-state over other city-states.[129] The dominant state is known as the hegemon.[130]
  1. ^ Ricardo Duchesne (7 February 2011). The Uniqueness of Western Civilization. BRILL. p. 297. ISBN 978-90-04-19248-5. The list of books which have celebrated Greece as the "cradle" of the West is endless; two more examples are Charles Freeman's The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World (1999) and Bruce Thornton's Greek Ways: How the Greeks Created Western Civilization (2000)
  2. ^ Chiara Bottici; Benoît Challand (11 January 2013). The Myth of the Clash of Civilizations. Routledge. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-136-95119-0. The reason why even such a sophisticated historian as Pagden can do it is that the idea that Greece is the cradle of civilisation is so much rooted in western minds and school curicula as to be taken for granted.
  3. ^ William J. Broad (2007). The Oracle: Ancient Delphi and the Science Behind Its Lost Secrets. Penguin Publishing Group. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-14-303859-7. In 1979, a friend of de Boer's invited him to join a team of scientists that was going to Greece to assess the suitability of the ... But the idea of learning more about Greece — the cradle of Western civilization, a fresh example of tectonic forces at ...
  4. ^ Maura Ellyn; Maura McGinnis (2004). Greece: A Primary Source Cultural Guide. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-8239-3999-2.
  5. ^ John E. Findling; Kimberly D. Pelle (2004). Encyclopedia of the Modern Olympic Movement. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-313-32278-5.
  6. ^ Wayne C. Thompson; Mark H. Mullin (1983). Western Europe, 1983. Stryker-Post Publications. p. 337. ISBN 9780943448114. for ancient Greece was the cradle of Western culture ...
  7. ^ Frederick Copleston (1 June 2003). History of Philosophy Volume 1: Greece and Rome. A&C Black. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-8264-6895-6. PART I PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY CHAPTER II THE CRADLE OF WESTERN THOUGHT:
  8. ^ Mario Iozzo (2001). Art and History of Greece: And Mount Athos. Casa Editrice Bonechi. p. 7. ISBN 978-88-8029-435-1. The capital of Greece, one of the world's most glorious cities and the cradle of Western culture,
  9. ^ Marxiano Melotti (25 May 2011). The Plastic Venuses: Archaeological Tourism in Post-Modern Society. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 188. ISBN 978-1-4438-3028-7. In short, Greece, despite having been the cradle of Western culture, was then an "other" space separate from the West.
  10. ^ Library Journal. Vol. 97. Bowker. April 1972. p. 1588. Ancient Greece: Cradle of Western Culture (Series), disc. 6 strips with 3 discs, range: 44–60 fr., 17–18 min
  11. ^ Stanley Mayer Burstein (2002). Current Issues and the Study of Ancient History. Regina Books. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-930053-10-6. and making Egypt play the same role in African education and culture that Athens and Greece do in Western culture.
  12. ^ Murray Milner Jr. (8 January 2015). Elites: A General Model. John Wiley & Sons. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-7456-8950-0. Greece has long been considered the seedbed or cradle of Western civilization.
  13. ^ Slavica viterbiensia 003: Periodico di letterature e culture slave della Facoltà di Lingue e Letterature Straniere Moderne dell'Università della Tuscia. Gangemi Editore spa. 10 November 2011. p. 148. ISBN 978-88-492-6909-3. The Special Case of Greece The ancient Greece was a cradle of the Western culture,
  14. ^ Kim Covert (1 July 2011). Ancient Greece: Birthplace of Democracy. Capstone. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-4296-6831-6. Ancient Greece is often called the cradle of western civilization. ... Ideas from literature and science also have their roots in ancient Greece.
  15. ^ Henry Turner Inman. Rome: the cradle of western civilisation as illustrated by existing monuments. ISBN 9781177738538.
  16. ^ Michael Ed. Grant (1964). The Birth Of Western Civilisation, Greece & Rome. Amazon.co.uk. Thames & Hudson. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
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  10. ^ Hanson, Victor Davis (18 December 2007). Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-42518-8. the term "Western" — refer to the culture of classical antiquity that arose in Greece and Rome; survived the collapse of the Roman Empire; spread to western and northern Europe; then during the great periods of exploration and colonization of the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries expanded to the Americas, Australia and areas of Asia and Africa; and now exercises global political, economic, cultural, and military power far greater than the size of its territory or population might otherwise suggest.
  11. ^ Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2006). Western Civilization. Wadsworth. pp. xxxiii. ISBN 9780534646028. With the rise of Christianity during the Late Roman Empire, however, peoples in Europe began to identify themselves as part of a civilization different from others, such as that of Islam, leading to a concept of a Western civilization different from other civilizations. In the fifteenth century, Renaissance intellectuals began to identify this civilization not only with Christianity but also with the intellectual and political achievements of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Important to the development of the idea of a distinct Western civilization were encounters with other peoples. Between 700 and 1500, encounters with the world of Islam helped define the West. But after 1500, as European ships began to move into other parts of the world, encounters with peoples in Asia, Africa, and the Americas not only had an impact on the civilizations found there but also affected how people in the West defined themselves. At the same time, as they set up colonies, Europeans began to transplant a sense of Western identity to other areas of the world, especially North America and parts of Latin America, that have come to be considered part of Western civilization.
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  13. ^ Sharon, Moshe (2004). Studies in Modern Religions, Religious Movements and the Babi-Baha'i Faiths. BRILL Academic Publishers. p. 12. ISBN 978-9004139046. Side by side with Christianity, the classical Greco-Roman world forms the sound foundation of Western civilization. Greek philosophy is also the origin for the methods and contents of the philosophical thought and theological investigation in Islam and Judaism.
  14. ^ Pagden, Anthony (2008). Worlds at War The 2,500-Year Struggle Between East and West. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 9780199237432. Had the Persians overrun all of mainland Greece, had they then transformed the Greek city-states into satrapies of the Persian Empire, had Greek democracy been snuffed out, there would have been no Greek theater, no Greek science, no Plato, no Aristotle, no Sophocles, no Aeschylus. The incredible burst of creative energy that took place during the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E. and that laid the foundation for all of later Western civilization would never have happened. [...] in the years between 490 and 479 B.C.E., the entire future of the Western world hung precariously in the balance.

    Cartledge, Paul (2002). The Greeks A Portrait of Self and Others. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0191577833. Greekness was identified with freedom-spiritual and social as well as political-and slavery was equated with being barbarian, [...] 'democracy' was a Greek invention (celebrating its 2,500th anniversary in 1993/4) [...] an ancient culture, that of the Greeks — is both a foundation stone of our own (Western) civilization and at the same time in key respects a deeply alien phenomenon.

    Freeman, Charles (2000). The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World. Penguin Publishing Group. p. 434. ISBN 978-0140293234. The Greeks provided the chromosomes of Western civilization. One does not have to idealize the Greeks to sustain that point. Greek ways of exploring the cosmos, defining the problems of knowledge (and what is meant by knowledge itself), creating the language in which such problems are explored, representing the physical world and human society in the arts, defining the nature of value, describing the past, still underlie the Western cultural tradition.

    Richard, Carl J. (2010). Why We're All Romans: The Roman Contribution to the Western World. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0742567801. In 1,200 years the tiny village of Rome established a republic, conquered all of the Mediterranean basin and western Europe, lost its republic, and finally, surrendered its empire. In the process the Romans laid the foundation of Western civilization. [...] The pragmatic Romans brought Greek and Hebrew ideas down to earth, modified them, and transmitted them throughout western Europe. [...] Roman law remains the basis for the legal codes of most western European and Latin American countries — Even in English-speaking countries, where common law prevails, Roman law has exerted substantial influence.

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  15. ^ Pagden, Anthony (2008). Worlds at War The 2,500-Year Struggle Between East and West. Oxford University Press. pp. xi. ISBN 9780199237432. The awareness that East and West were not only different regions of the world but also regions filled with different peoples, with different cultures, worshipping different gods and, most crucially, holding different views on how best to live their lives, we owe not to an Asian but to a Western people: the Greeks. It was a Greek historian, Herodotus, writing in the fifth century B.C.E., who first stopped to ask what it was that divided Europe from Asia [...] This East as Herodotus knew it, the lands that lay between the European peninsula and the Ganges
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Further reading

  • Ankerl, Guy (2000). Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and West. INU societal research. Vol. 1. Global communication without universal civilization. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.
  • Bavaj, Riccardo: "The West": A Conceptual Exploration , European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: 28 November 2011.
  • Conze, Vanessa, Abendland, EGO - European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2017, retrieved: 8 March 2021 (pdf).
  • Daly, Jonathan. "The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization 30 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine" (London and New York: Bloomsbury, 2014). ISBN 9781441161314.
  • Daly, Jonathan. "Historians Debate the Rise of the West" (London and New York: Routledge, 2015). ISBN 978-1-13-877481-0.
  • The Western Tradition homepage at Annenberg/CPB 20 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine – where you can watch each episode on demand for free (Pop-ups required). Videos are also available as a YouTube playlist.
  • J. F. C. Fuller. A Military History of the Western World. Three Volumes. New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1987 and 1988.
V. 1. From the earliest times to the Battle of Lepanto; ISBN 0-306-80304-6.
V. 2. From the defeat of the Spanish Armada to the Battle of Waterloo; ISBN 0-306-80305-4.
V. 3. From the American Civil War to the end of World War II; ISBN 0-306-80306-2.

January 26, 2023
western, world, this, article, about, grouping, countries, with, originally, european, shared, culture, other, uses, western, world, disambiguation, confused, with, western, bloc, western, united, states, westworld, global, north, western, hemisphere, western,. This article is about the grouping of countries with an originally European shared culture For other uses see Western World disambiguation Not to be confused with Western Bloc Western United States Westworld Global North or Western Hemisphere Western power and Westerners redirect here For historical politics in Korea see Westerners Korean political faction For other uses see Western Power disambiguation The Western world also known as the West primarily refers to various nations and states in the regions of Australasia a Europe b and Northern America c 3 The Western world is also called the Occident from Latin occidens setting down sunset west in contrast to the Eastern world known as the Orient from Latin oriens origin sunrise east Definitions for Western world vary according to context and perspectives 4 In the Global North South categorization the West is often correlated with Global North 5 6 The Western world as derived from Samuel P Huntington s 1996 Clash of Civilizations 7 in light blue are Latin America and the Orthodox World which are either a part of the West or distinct civilizations intimately related to the West 8 9 Modern day Western world encompasses much of the nations and states where civilization or culture is considered as Western 10 11 12 the roots of which some Westerners trace back to the Greco Roman world 13 14 A geographical idea of various world regions as the West emerged in fifth century BCE Greece 15 16 A theological idea of various world regions as the West based on Christianity emerged in the aftermath of the 1054 CE East West Schism between the Western Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church 17 The English word West was initially meant an adverb for direction By the Middle Ages Europeans began to use it to describe Europe Since the eighteenth century following European exploration the word was used to indicate the regions of the world with European settlements 18 19 20 Despite being in the Eastern Hemisphere countries like Australia and New Zealand are included in modern definitions of the Western world 21 as these regions and others like them are significantly influenced by the British derived from colonisation and immigration of Europeans which since then grounded such countries to the West 22 Depending on the context and the historical period in question Russia was sometimes seen as a part of the West and at other times juxtaposed with it 23 24 25 Running parallel to the rise of the United States as a great power and the development of communication transportation technologies shrinking the distance between the Atlantic Ocean shores the aforementioned country became more prominently featured in the conceptualizations of the West 23 Home to a diverse population in present day 26 27 many countries in the West were once envisioned as homelands for whites 28 29 30 Westerners have historically justified colonialism with values like individualism and enlightenment 31 Transformed from a directional concept to a socio political concept the idea of the West was temporalized and rendered as a concept of the future bestowed with notions of progress and modernity 23 Western countries are known to accommodate various gender identities 32 Women in the West are regarded as the liberated independent subjects that women from other cultures are yet to become Feminism is often criticized for being inherently white and western 33 34 The West is also known for its irreligious sentiments following the Age of Enlightenment and the French Revolution inquisitions were abolished in the 19th and 20th centuries leading to separation of church and state and the establishment of secular states Contents 1 Introduction 1 1 Culture 2 Historical divisions 2 1 The West of the Mediterranean Region during the Antiquity 2 1 1 Ancient Greek and Hellenistic worlds 13th 1st centuries BC 2 1 2 Ancient Roman world 6th century BC AD 395 476 2 2 The birth of the European West during the Middle Ages 2 3 Expansion of the West the Era of Colonialism 15th 20th centuries 2 3 1 Enlightenment 17th 18th centuries 2 4 Cold War 1947 1991 2 5 Cold War II context 3 Modern definitions 3 1 Cultural definition 3 1 1 Latin America 3 1 2 Other countries 3 2 Economic definition 4 Views on torn countries 5 Other views 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further readingIntroductionWestern civilized society is considered to have developed from Western culture influenced by many older civilizations of the ancient Near East 35 such as Canaan 36 37 38 Minoan Crete Sumer Babylonia and also Ancient Egypt It originated in the Mediterranean basin and its vicinity Ancient Greece d and Ancient Rome e are generally considered to be the birthplaces of Western civilization Greece having heavily influenced Rome the former due to its impact on philosophy democracy science aesthetics as well as building designs and proportions and architecture the latter due to its influence on art law warfare governance republicanism engineering and religion Western civilization is also strongly associated with Christianity 39 and to a lesser extent with Judaism which is in turn shaped by Hellenistic philosophy and Roman culture 38 In the modern era Western culture has been heavily influenced by the Renaissance the Ages of Discovery and Enlightenment and the Industrial and Scientific Revolutions 40 41 Through extensive imperialism colonialism and Christianization by some Western powers in the 15th to 20th centuries and later exportation of mass culture much of the rest of the world has been extensively influenced by Western culture in a phenomenon often called Westernization verification needed citation needed Gold and garnet cloisonne and mud military fitting from the Staffordshire Hoard before cleaning US Supreme Court 1932 1935 building built in neoclassical style an architectural style of the Western world Historians such as Carroll Quigley in The Evolution of Civilizations 42 contend that Western civilization was born around AD 500 verification needed after the total collapse of the Western Roman Empire leaving a vacuum for new ideas to flourish that were impossible in Classical societies In either view between the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the Renaissance the West or those regions that would later become the heartland of the culturally western sphere experienced a period of first considerable decline 43 and then readaptation reorientation and considerable renewed material technological and political development citation needed Classical culture of the ancient Western world was partly preserved during this period due to the survival of the Eastern Roman Empire and the introduction of the Catholic Church it was also greatly expanded by the Arab importation 44 45 of both the Ancient Greco Roman and new technology through the Arabs from India and China to Europe 46 47 Since the Renaissance the West evolved beyond the influence of the ancient Greeks and Romans and the Islamic world due to the successful Second Agricultural Commercial 48 Scientific 49 and Industrial 50 revolutions propellers of modern banking concepts The West rose further with the 18th century s Age of Enlightenment and through the Age of Exploration s expansion of peoples of Western and Central European empires particularly the globe spanning colonial empires of 18th and 19th centuries 51 Numerous times this expansion was accompanied by Catholic missionaries who attempted to proselytize Christianity There is debate among some as to whether Latin America as a whole is in a category of its own 52 Culture This section is an excerpt from Western culture edit Leonardo da Vinci s Vitruvian Man Based on the correlations of ideal human proportions with geometry described by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius in Book III of his treatise De architectura Plato arguably the most influential figure in all of Western philosophy has influenced virtually all of subsequent Western and Middle Eastern philosophy and theology Western culture also known as Western civilization Occidental culture or Western society is the heritage of social norms ethical values traditional customs belief systems political systems artifacts and technologies of the Western world The term applies beyond Europe to countries and cultures whose histories are strongly connected to Europe by immigration colonization or influence Western culture is most strongly influenced by Greco Roman culture Germanic culture and Christian culture 53 The expansion of Greek culture into the Hellenistic world of the eastern Mediterranean led to a synthesis between Greek and Near Eastern cultures 54 and major advances in literature engineering and science and provided the culture for the expansion of early Christianity and the Greek New Testament 55 56 57 This period overlapped with and was followed by Rome which made key contributions in law government engineering and political organization 58 Western culture is characterized by a host of artistic philosophic literary and legal themes and traditions Christianity primarily the Roman Catholic Church 59 60 61 and later Protestantism 62 63 64 65 has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization since at least the 4th century 66 67 68 69 70 as did Judaism 71 72 73 74 A cornerstone of Western thought beginning in ancient Greece and continuing through the Middle Ages and Renaissance is the idea of rationalism in various spheres of life developed by Hellenistic philosophy scholasticism and humanism Empiricism later gave rise to the scientific method the scientific revolution and the Age of Enlightenment Western culture continued to develop with the Christianization of European society during the Middle Ages the reforms triggered by the medieval renaissances the influence of the Islamic world via Al Andalus and Sicily including the transfer of technology from the East and Latin translations of Arabic texts on science and philosophy by Greek and Hellenic influenced Islamic philosophers 75 76 77 and the Italian Renaissance as Greek scholars fleeing the fall of the Byzantine Empire after the Muslim conquest of Constantinople brought classical traditions and philosophy 78 This major change for non Western countries and their people saw a development in modernization in those countries 79 Medieval Christianity is credited with creating the modern university 80 81 the modern hospital system 82 scientific economics 83 84 and natural law which would later influence the creation of international law 85 Christianity played a role in ending practices common among European pagans at the time such as human sacrifice and infanticide 86 European culture developed with a complex range of philosophy medieval scholasticism mysticism and Christian and secular humanism 87 page needed Rational thinking developed through a long age of change and formation with the experiments of the Enlightenment and breakthroughs in the sciences Tendencies that have come to define modern Western societies include the concept of political pluralism individualism prominent subcultures or countercultures such as New Age movements and increasing cultural syncretism resulting from globalization and human migration Historical divisionsThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed July 2018 Learn how and when to remove this template message The West of the Mediterranean Region during the Antiquity The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the ancient tyrannical and imperialistic Graeco Roman times 17 The Eastern Mediterranean was home to the highly urbanized cultures that had Greek as their common language owing to the older empire of Alexander the Great and of the Hellenistic successors whereas the West was much more rural in its character and more readily adopted Latin as its common language After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the beginning of the Medieval times or Middle Ages Western and Central Europe were substantially cut off from the East where Byzantine Greek culture and Eastern Christianity became founding influences in the Eastern European world such as the East and South Slavic peoples citation needed Map with the main travels of the Age of Discovery began in 15th century Roman Catholic Western and Central Europe as such maintained a distinct identity particularly as it began to redevelop during the Renaissance Even following the Protestant Reformation Protestant Europe continued to see itself as more tied to Roman Catholic Europe than other parts of the perceived civilized world Use of the term West as a specific cultural and geopolitical term developed over the course of the Age of Exploration as Europe spread its culture to other parts of the world Roman Catholics were the first major religious group to immigrate to the New World as settlers in the colonies of Spain and Portugal and later France belonged to that faith English and Dutch colonies on the other hand tended to be more religiously diverse Settlers to these colonies included Anglicans Dutch Calvinists English Puritans and other nonconformists English Catholics Scottish Presbyterians French Huguenots German and Swedish Lutherans as well as Quakers Mennonites Amish and Moravians citation needed Ancient Greek and Hellenistic worlds 13th 1st centuries BC Main articles Ancient Greece and Hellenistic periodThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed November 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message This article may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia s quality standards as neutrality is disputed You can help The talk page may contain suggestions November 2021 The Ancient Greek world c 550 BC The Ancient Hellenistic Greek world from 323 BC Ancient Greek civilization had been growing in the first millennium BC into wealthy poleis so called city states geographically loose political entities which in time inevitably end giving way to larger organisations of society including the empire and the nation state 88 such as Athens Sparta Thebes and Corinth by Middle and Near Eastern ones Sumerian cities such as Uruk and Ur Ancient Egyptian city states such as Thebes and Memphis the Phoenician Tyre and Sidon the five Philistine city states the Berber city states of the Garamantes citation needed The then Hellenic division between the barbarians term used by Ancient Greeks for all non Greek speaking people and the Greeks contrasted in many societies the Greek speaking culture of the Greek settlements around the Mediterranean to the surrounding non Greek cultures Herodotus considered the Persian Wars of the early 5th century BC a conflict of Europa versus Asia which he considered all land north and east of the Sea of Marmara respectively citation needed The Greeks would highlight what they perceived as a lack of freedom in the Persian world something that they viewed as antithetical to their culture 89 According to a few writers the future conquest of parts of the Roman Empire by Germanic peoples and the subsequent dominance by the Western Christian Papacy which held combined political and spiritual authority a state of affairs absent from Greek civilization in all its stages resulted in a rupture of the previously existing ties between the Latin West and Greek thought 90 including Christian Greek thought citation needed Ancient Roman world 6th century BC AD 395 476 Main articles Roman Republic Roman Empire and Fall of the Western Roman Empire This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed April 2018 Learn how and when to remove this template message This article may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia s quality standards as neutrality is disputed You can help The talk page may contain suggestions November 2021 The Roman Republic in 218 BC after having managed the conquest of most of the Italian peninsula on the eve of its most successful and deadliest war with the Carthaginians Graphical map of post AD 395 Roman Empire highlighting differences between western Roman Catholic and eastern Greek Orthodox parts on the eve of the death of last emperor to rule on both the western and eastern halves The concept of East West originated in the cultural division between Christian Churches 17 Western and Eastern Roman Empires on the eve of Western collapse in September of AD 476 The Roman Empire in AD 117 During 350 years the Roman Republic turned into an Empire expanding up to twenty five times its area Ancient Rome 6th century BC AD 476 is a term to describe the ancient Roman society that conquered Central Italy assimilating the Italian Etruscan culture growing from the Latium region since about the 8th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea In its 10 centuries territorial expansion Roman civilization shifted from a small monarchy 753 509 BC to a republic 509 27 BC into an autocratic empire 27 BC AD 476 Its Empire came to dominate Western Central and Southeastern Europe Northern Africa and becoming an autocratic Empire a vast Middle Eastern area when it ended Conquest was enforced using the Roman legions and then through cultural assimilation by eventual recognition of some form of Roman citizenship s privileges Nonetheless despite its great legacy a number of factors led to the eventual decline and ultimately fall of the Roman Empire citation needed The Roman Empire succeeded the approximately 500 year old Roman Republic c 510 30 BC f In 350 years from the successful and deadliest war with the Phoenicians began in 218 BC to the rule of Emperor Hadrian by AD 117 Ancient Rome expanded up to twenty five times its area The same time passed before its fall in AD 476 Rome had expanded long before the empire reached its zenith with the conquest of Dacia in AD 106 modern day Romania under Emperor Trajan During its territorial peak the Roman Empire controlled about 5 000 000 square kilometres 1 900 000 sq mi of land surface and had a population of 100 million From the time of Caesar 100 44 BC to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire Rome dominated Southern Europe the Mediterranean coast of Northern Africa and the Levant including the ancient trade routes with population living outside Ancient Rome has contributed greatly to the development of law war art literature architecture technology and language in the Western world and its history continues to have a major influence on the world today Latin language has been the base from which Romance languages evolved and it has been the official language of the Catholic Church and all Catholic religious ceremonies all over Europe until 1967 as well as an or the official language of countries such as Italy and Poland 9th 18th centuries 91 citation needed Ending invasions on Roman Empire since the 2nd and throughout the 5th centuries In AD 395 a few decades before its Western collapse the Roman Empire formally split into a Western and an Eastern one each with their own emperors capitals and governments although ostensibly they still belonged to one formal Empire The Western Roman Empire provinces eventually were replaced by Northern European Germanic ruled kingdoms in the 5th century due to civil wars corruption and devastating Germanic invasions from such tribes as the Huns Goths the Franks and the Vandals by their late expansion throughout Europe The three day Visigoths s AD 410 sack of Rome who had been raiding Greece not long before a shocking time for Graeco Romans was the first time after almost 800 years that Rome had fallen to a foreign enemy and St Jerome living in Bethlehem at the time wrote that The City which had taken the whole world was itself taken 92 There followed the sack of AD 455 lasting 14 days this time conducted by the Vandals retaining Rome s eternal spirit through the Holy See of Rome the Latin Church for centuries to come 93 94 The ancient Barbarian tribes often composed of well trained Roman soldiers paid by Rome to guard the extensive borders had become militarily sophisticated romanized barbarians and mercilessly slaughtered the Romans conquering their Western territories while looting their possessions 95 The Roman Empire is where the idea of the West began to emerge g The Eastern Roman Empire governed from Constantinople is usually referred to as the Byzantine Empire after AD 476 the traditional date for the fall of the Roman Empire and beginning of the Early Middle Ages The Eastern Roman Empire surviving the fall of the Western protected Roman legal and cultural traditions combining them with Greek and Christian elements for another thousand years more The name Byzantine Empire was first used centuries later after the Byzantine Empire ended The dissolution of the Western half nominally ended in AD 476 but in truth a long process that ended by the rise of Catholic Gaul modern day France ruling from around the year AD 800 left only the Eastern Roman Empire alive The Eastern half continued to think of itself as the Eastern Roman Empire for a while until AD 610 800 when Latin ceased to be the official language of the empire The inhabitants calling themselves Romans was because the term Roman was meant to signify all Christians The Pope crowned Charlemagne as Emperor of the Romans of the newly established Holy Roman Empire and the West began thinking in terms of Western Latins living in the old Western Empire and Eastern Greeks those inside the Roman remnant of the old Eastern Empire citation needed The birth of the European West during the Middle Ages Main articles Byzantine Empire Holy Roman Empire East West Schism and Reformation Further information Christendom Greek scholars in the Renaissance and Peace of WestphaliaThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed November 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message This section may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia s quality standards You can help The talk page may contain suggestions September 2015 Apex of Byzantine Empire s conquests AD 527 565 Map of the Byzantine Empire in AD 1025 before Christian East West Schism In the early 4th century the central focus of power was on two apart Imperial including army generals legacies within the Roman Empire the older Aegean Sea Greek heritage of Classical Greece in the Eastern Mediterranean and the newer most successful Tyrrhenian Sea Latin heritage of Ancient Latium and Tuscany in the Western Mediterranean Constantine the Great s decision to establish the city of Constantinople today s Istanbul in modern day Turkey as the New Rome when he picked it as capital of his Empire later called Byzantine Empire by modern historians in 330 AD was a turning point This internal conflict of legacies had possibly emerged since the assassination of Julius Caesar three centuries earlier when Roman Imperialism had just been born with the Roman Republic becoming Roman Empire but reached its zenith during 3rd century s many internal civil wars This is the time when the Huns part of the ancient Eastern European tribes named barbarians by the Romans from modern day Hungary penetrated into the Dalmatian modern day Croatia region then originating in the following 150 years in the Roman Empire officially splitting in two halves Also the time of the formal acceptance of Christianity as Empire s religious policy when the Emperors began actively banning and fighting previous pagan religions h History of the spread of Christianity in AD 325 dark blue and AD 600 blue following Western Roman Empire s collapse under Germanic migrations The Eastern Roman Empire included lands south west of the Black Sea and bordering on the Eastern Mediterranean and parts of the Adriatic Sea This division into Eastern and Western Roman Empires was later reflected in the administration of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Greek Orthodox churches with Rome and Constantinople debating over whether either city was the capital of Western religion citation needed As the Eastern Orthodox and Western Catholic churches spread their influence the line between Eastern and Western Christianity was moving Its movement was affected by the influence of the Byzantine empire and the fluctuating power and influence of the Catholic church in Rome The geographic line of religious division approximately followed a line of cultural divide citation needed The influential American conservative political scientist adviser and academic Samuel P Huntington argued that this cultural division still existed during the Cold War as the approximate Western boundary of those countries that were allied with the Soviet Union i Rise of the Germanic Frankish Empire before Charlemagne s coronation in Rome In AD 800 under Charlemagne the Early Medieval Franks established an empire that was recognized by the Pope in Rome as the Holy Roman Empire Latin Christian revival of the ancient Roman Empire under perpetual Germanic rule from AD 962 inheriting ancient Roman Empire s prestige but offending the Eastern Roman Emperor in Constantinople and leading to the Crusades and the east west schism The crowning of the Emperor by the Pope led to the assumption that the highest power was the papal hierarchy quintessential Roman Empire s spiritual heritage authority establishing then until the Protestant Reformation the civilization of Western Christendom citation needed Map of the Byzantine Empire in AD 1180 before Latin Fourth Crusade The Latin Rite Catholic Church of western and central Europe split with the eastern Greek speaking Patriarchates in the Christian East West Schism also known as the Great Schism during the Gregorian Reforms calling for a more central status of the Roman Catholic Church Institution three months after Pope Leo IX s death in April 1054 96 Following the 1054 Great Schism both the Western Church and Eastern Church continued to consider themselves uniquely orthodox and catholic Augustine wrote in On True Religion Religion is to be sought only among those who are called Catholic or orthodox Christians that is guardians of truth and followers of right 97 Over time the Western Church gradually identified with the Catholic label and people of Western Europe gradually associated the Orthodox label with the Eastern Church although in some languages the Catholic label is not necessarily identified with the Western Church This was in note of the fact that both Catholic and Orthodox were in use as ecclesiastical adjectives as early as the 2nd and 4th centuries respectively Meanwhile the extent of both Christendoms expanded as Germanic peoples Bohemia Poland Hungary Scandinavia Finnic peoples Baltic peoples British Isles and the other non Christian lands of the northwest were converted by the Western Church while Eastern Slavic peoples Bulgaria Serbia Montenegro Russian territories Vlachs and Georgia were converted by the Eastern Church citation needed In 1071 the Byzantine army was defeated by the Muslim Turco Persians of medieval Asia resulting in the loss of most of Asia Minor The situation was a serious threat to the future of the Eastern Orthodox Byzantine Empire The Emperor sent a plea to the Pope in Rome to send military aid to restore the lost territories to Christian rule The result was a series of western European military campaigns into the eastern Mediterranean known as the Crusades Unfortunately for the Byzantines the crusaders belonging to the members of nobility from France German territories the Low countries England Italy and Hungary had no allegiance to the Byzantine Emperor and established their own states in the conquered regions including the heart of the Byzantine Empire The Holy Roman Empire would dissolve on 6 August 1806 after the French Revolution and the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon Map of the Greek Byzantine Empire split by a newly established Latin Crusader State after the Fourth Crusade shown partly in Greece and partly in Turkey The decline of the Byzantine Empire 13th 15th centuries began with the Latin Christian Fourth Crusade in AD 1202 04 considered to be one of the most important events solidifying the schism between the Christian churches of Greek Byzantine Rite and Latin Roman Rite An anti Western riot in 1182 broke out in Constantinople targeting Latins The extremely wealthy after previous Crusades Venetians in particular made a successful attempt to maintain control over the coast of Catholic present day Croatia specifically the Dalmatia a region of interest to the maritime medieval Venetian Republic moneylenders and its rivals such as the Republic of Genoa rebelling against the Venetian economic domination 98 What followed dealt an irrevocable blow to the already weakened Byzantine Empire with the Crusader army s sack of Constantinople in April 1204 capital of the Greek Christian controlled Byzantine Empire described as one of the most profitable and disgraceful sacks of a city in history 99 This paved the way for Muslim conquests in present day Turkey and the Balkans in the coming centuries only a handful of the Crusaders followed to the stated destination thereafter the Holy Land j The geographical identity of the Balkans is historically known as a crossroads of cultures a juncture between the Latin and Greek bodies of the Roman Empire the destination of a massive influx of pagans meaning non Christians Bulgars and Slavs an area where Catholic and Orthodox Christianity met 100 as well as the meeting point between Islam and Christianity The Papal Inquisition was established in AD 1229 on a permanent basis run largely by clergymen in Rome 101 and abolished six centuries later Before AD 1100 the Catholic Church suppressed what they believed to be heresy usually through a system of ecclesiastical proscription or imprisonment but without using torture 102 and seldom resorting to executions 103 104 105 106 This very profitable Central European Fourth Crusade had prompted the 14th century Renaissance translated as Rebirth of Italian city states including the Papal States on eve of the Protestant Reformation and Counter Reformation which established the Roman Inquisition to succeed the Medieval Inquisition There followed the discovery of the American continent and consequent dissolution of West Christendom as even a theoretical unitary political body later resulting in the religious Eighty Years War 1568 1648 and Thirty Years War 1618 1648 between various Protestant and Catholic states of the Holy Roman Empire and emergence of religiously diverse confessions In this context the Protestant Reformation 1517 may be viewed as a schism within the Catholic Church German monk Martin Luther in the wake of precursors broke with the pope and with the emperor by the Catholic Church s abusive commercialization of indulgences in the Late Medieval Period backed by many of the German princes and helped by the development of the printing press in an attempt to reform corruption within the church 107 108 109 k Both these religious wars ended with the Peace of Westphalia 1648 which enshrined the concept of the nation state and the principle of absolute national sovereignty in international law As European influence spread across the globe these Westphalian principles especially the concept of sovereign states became central to international law and to the prevailing world order 110 Expansion of the West the Era of Colonialism 15th 20th centuries Main articles New World Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization Mercantilism and ImperialismThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed November 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Why do the Christian nations which were so weak in the past compared with Muslim nations begin to dominate so many lands in modern times and even defeat the once victorious Ottoman armies Because they have laws and rules invented by reason Ibrahim Muteferrika Rational basis for the Politics of Nations 1731 111 Portuguese discoveries and explorations since 1336 first arrival places and dates main Portuguese spice trade routes in the Indian Ocean blue territories claimed by King John III of Portugal c 1536 green Apex of Spanish Empire in 1790 In the 13th and 14th centuries a number of European travelers many of them Christian missionaries had sought to cultivate trading with Asia and Africa With the Crusades came the relative contraction of the Orthodox Byzantine s large silk industry in favour of Catholic Western Europe and the rise of Western Papacy The most famous of these merchant travelers pursuing East west trade was Venetian Marco Polo But these journeys had little permanent effect on east west trade because of a series of political developments in Asia in the last decades of the 14th century which put an end to further European exploration of Asia namely the new Ming rulers were found to be unreceptive of religious proselytism by European missionaries and merchants Meanwhile the Ottoman Turks consolidated control over the eastern Mediterranean closing off key overland trade routes citation needed The Portuguese spearheaded the drive to find oceanic routes that would provide cheaper and easier access to South and East Asian goods by advancements in maritime technology such as the caravel ship introduced in the mid 1400s The charting of oceanic routes between East and West began with the unprecedented voyages of Portuguese and Spanish sea captains In 1492 European colonialism expanded across the globe with the exploring voyage of merchant navigator and Hispano Italian colonizer Christopher Columbus Such voyages were influenced by medieval European adventurers after the European spice trade with Asia who had journeyed overland to the Far East contributing to geographical knowledge of parts of the Asian continent They are of enormous significance in Western history as they marked the beginning of the European exploration colonization and exploitation of the American continents and their native inhabitants l m n The European colonization of the Americas led to the Atlantic slave trade between the 1490s and the 1800s which also contributed to the development of African intertribal warfare and racist ideology Before the abolition of its slave trade in 1807 the British Empire alone which had started colonial efforts in 1578 almost a century after Portuguese and Spanish empires was responsible for the transportation of 3 5 million African slaves to the Americas a third of all slaves transported across the Atlantic 113 The Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806 by the French Revolutionary Wars abolition of the Roman Catholic Inquisition followed citation needed Due to the reach of these empires Western institutions expanded throughout the world This process of influence and imposition began with the voyages of discovery colonization conquest and exploitation of Portugal enforced as well by papal bulls in 1450s by the fall of the Byzantine Empire granting Portugal navigation war and trade monopoly for any newly discovered lands 114 and competing Spanish navigators It continued with the rise of the Dutch East India Company by the destabilising Spanish discovery of the New World and the creation and expansion of the English and French colonial empires and others citation needed Even after demands for self determination from subject peoples within Western empires were met with decolonization these institutions persisted One specific example was the requirement that post colonial societies were made to form nation states in the Western tradition which often created arbitrary boundaries and borders that did not necessarily represent a whole nation people or culture as in much of Africa and are often the cause of international conflicts and friction even to this day Although not part of Western colonization process proper following the Middle Ages Western culture in fact entered other global spanning cultures during the colonial 15th 20th centuries citation needed Replica of the Iberian Santa Maria the wealthy Genoese merchant navigator Christopher Columbus s flagship during his first voyage a large carvel built ocean going ship financed by Catholic Monarchs of Castile and Aragon 115 Columbus had estimated a travel distance of 2 400 nmi 4 400 km far too low 116 Colonialisation by Western European powers and others since 1492 The Industrial Revolution which began in Great Britain in the 1760s and was preceded by the Agricultural and Scientific revolutions in the 1600s forever modified the economy worldwide The French Revolution had a major impact on European and Western history of governance by ending feudalism and creating the path for future advances in broadly defined individual freedoms 117 118 Its impact on French nationalism was profound while also stimulating nationalist movements throughout Europe 119 Modern historians argue the concept of the nation state was a direct consequence of the Revolution 120 115 Freedom movements for human and women rights against slavery and religious control are recorded with the French Revolution including the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789 The concepts of a world of nation states born by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 coupled with the ideologies of the Enlightenment the coming of modernity the Scientific Revolution 121 and the Industrial Revolution 122 would produce powerful social transformations political and economic institutions that have come to influence or been imposed upon most nations of the world today Historians agree that the Industrial Revolution has been one of the most important events in history 123 The course of three centuries since Christopher Columbus late 15th century s voyages of deportation of slaves from Africa and British dominant northern Atlantic location later developed into modern day United States of America evolving from the ratification of the Constitution of the United States by thirteen States on the North American East Coast before end of the 18th century In the early 19th century the systematic urbanisation process migration from villages in search of jobs in manufacturing centers had begun and the concentration of labour into factories led to the rise in the population of the towns World population had been rising as well It is estimated to have first reached one billion in 1804 124 Also the new philosophical movement later known as Romanticism originated in the wake of the previous Age of Reason of the 1600s and the Enlightenment of 1700s These are seen as fostering the 19th century Western world s sustained economic development 125 Before the urbanisation and industrialization of the 1800s demand for oriental goods such as porcelain silk spices and tea remained the driving force behind European imperialism in Asia and with the important exception of British East India Company rule in India the European stake in Asia remained confined largely to trading stations and strategic outposts necessary to protect trade 126 Industrialisation however dramatically increased European demand for Asian raw materials and the severe Long Depression of the 1870s provoked a scramble for new markets for European industrial products and financial services in Africa the Americas Eastern Europe and especially in Asia Western powers exploited their advantages in China for example by the Opium Wars 127 This resulted in the New Imperialism which saw a shift in focus from trade and indirect rule to formal colonial control of vast overseas territories ruled as political extensions of their mother countries o The later years of the 19th century saw the transition from informal imperialism hegemony p by military influence and economic dominance to direct rule a revival of colonial imperialism in the African continent and Middle East 131 The Slave Market Gerome painting French painting made during the second industrial revolution portrays a 19th century s Mediterranean slave market an example of the ruling in the Late Modern period Industrial society s enlightenment provided Europe with a different view on human dignity when the Ottoman Turks were still used to slaves markets Western empires as they were in 1910 Women s Suffrage Parade in New York City May 6 1912 During the socioeconomically optimistic and innovative decades of the Second Industrial Revolution between the 1870s and 1914 also known as the Beautiful Era the established colonial powers in Asia United Kingdom France Netherlands added to their empires also vast expanses of territory in the Indian Subcontinent and South East Asia Japan was involved primarily during the Meiji period 1868 1912 though earlier contacts with the Portuguese Spaniards and Dutch were also present in the Japanese Empire s recognition of the strategic importance of European nations Traditional Japanese society became an industrial and militarist power like the Western British Empire and the French Third Republic and similar to the German Empire verification needed citation needed At the close of the Spanish American War in 1898 the Philippines Puerto Rico Guam and Cuba were ceded to the United States under the terms of the Treaty of Paris The US quickly emerged as the new imperial power in East Asia and in the Pacific Ocean area The Philippines continued to fight against colonial rule in the Philippine American War 132 By 1913 the British Empire held sway over 412 million people 23 of the world population at the time 133 and by 1920 it covered 35 500 000 km2 13 700 000 sq mi 134 24 of the Earth s total land area 135 At its apex the phrase the empire on which the sun never sets described the British Empire because its expanse around the globe meant that the sun always shone on at least one of its territories 136 As a result its political legal linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread throughout the Western World citation needed In the aftermath of the Second World War decolonizing efforts were employed by all Western powers under United Nations ex League of Nations international directives citation needed Most of colonized nations received independence by 1960 Great Britain showed ongoing responsibility for the welfare of its former colonies as member states of the Commonwealth of Nations But the end of Western colonial imperialism saw the rise of Western neocolonialism or economic imperialism Multinational corporations came to offer a dramatic refinement of the traditional business enterprise through issues as far ranging as national sovereignty ownership of the means of production environmental protection consumerism and policies toward organized labor Though the overt colonial era had passed Western nations as comparatively rich well armed and culturally powerful states wielded a large degree of influence throughout the world and with little or no sense of responsibility toward the peoples impacted by its multinational corporations in their exploitation of minerals and markets 137 138 The dictum of Alfred Thayer Mahan is shown to have lasting relevance that whoever controls the seas controls the world 139 Enlightenment 17th 18th centuries Main articles Age of Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution Eric Voegelin described the 18th century as one where the sentiment grows that one age has come to its close and that a new age of Western civilization is about to be born According to Voeglin the Enlightenment also called the Age of Reason represents the atrophy of Christian transcendental experiences and seeks to enthrone the Newtonian method of science as the only valid method of arriving at truth 140 Its precursors were John Milton and Baruch Spinoza 141 Meeting Galileo in 1638 left an enduring impact on John Milton and influenced Milton s great work Areopagitica where he warns that without free speech inquisitorial forces will impose an undeserved thraldom upon learning 142 The achievements of the 17th century included the invention of the telescope and acceptance of heliocentrism 18th century scholars continued to refine Newton s theory of gravitation notably Leonhard Euler Pierre Louis Maupertuis Alexis Claude Clairaut Jean Le Rond d Alembert Joseph Louis Lagrange Pierre Simon de Laplace Laplace s five volume Treatise on Celestial Mechanics is one of the great works of 18th century Newtonianism Astronomy gained in prestige as new observatories were funded by governments and more powerful telescopes developed leading to the discovery of new planets asteroids nebulae and comets and paving the way for improvements in navigation and cartography Astronomy became the second most popular scientific profession after medicine 143 A common metanarrative of the Enlightenment is the secularization theory Modernity as understood within the framework means a total break with the past Innovation and science are the good representing the modern values of rationalism while faith is ruled by superstition and traditionalism 144 Inspired by the Scientific Revolution the Enlightenment embodied the ideals of improvement and progress Descartes and Isaac Newton were regarded as exemplars of human intellectual achievement Condorcet wrote about the progress of humanity in the Sketch of the Progress of the Human Mind 1794 from primitive society to agrarianism the invention of writing the later invention of the printing press and the advancement to the Period when the Sciences and Philosophy threw off the Yoke of Authority 145 French writer Pierre Bayle denounced Spinoza as a pantheist thereby accusing him of atheism Bayle s criticisms garnered much attention for Spinoza The pantheism controversy in the late 18th century saw Gotthold Lessing attacked by Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi over support for Spinoza s pantheism Lessing was defended by Moses Mendelssohn although Mendelssohn diverged from pantheism to follow Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in arguing that God and the world were not of the same substance equivalency Spinoza was excommunicated from the Dutch Sephardic community but for Jews who sought out Jewish sources to guide their own path to secularism Spinoza was as important as Voltaire and Kant 146 Cold War 1947 1991 Main articles Cold War Western Bloc and First World This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed April 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message During the Cold War a new definition emerged Earth was divided into three worlds The First World analogous in this context to what was called the West was composed of NATO members and other countries aligned with the United States The Second World was the Eastern bloc in the Soviet sphere of influence including the Soviet Union 15 republics including the then occupied and presently independent Estonia Latvia Lithuania and Warsaw Pact countries like Poland Bulgaria Hungary Romania East Germany now united with Germany and Czechoslovakia now split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia The Third World consisted of countries many of which were unaligned with either and important members included India Yugoslavia Finland Finlandization and Switzerland Swiss Neutrality some include the People s Republic of China though this is disputed since the People s Republic of China as communist had friendly relations at certain times with the Soviet bloc and had a significant degree of importance in global geopolitics Some Third World countries aligned themselves with either the US led West or the Soviet led Eastern bloc Maps on the Cold War East west division Spheres of influence between the Western world and the Soviet Union during the Cold War The Three Worlds of the Cold War era April August 1975 First World Western Bloc led by the USA the UK NATO Japan and their allies Second World Eastern Bloc led by the USSR the Warsaw Pact China and their allies Third World Non Aligned Movement led by India and Yugoslavia and other neutral countries East and West in 1980 as defined by the Cold War The Cold War had divided Europe politically into East and West with the Iron Curtain splitting Central Europe European trade blocs as of 1988 EEC member states are marked in blue EFTA green and Comecon red Cold War colonial empires through decolonization The global distribution of Christians a darker shade means a higher proportion of Christians 147 Western Christian civilization red and Eastern Christian civilization brown according to Samuel Huntington For Huntington Latin America dark green was part of the West or a descendant civilization that was twinned to it For Rouquie Latin America is the Third World of the West A number of countries did not fit comfortably into this neat definition of partition including Switzerland Sweden Austria and Ireland which chose to be neutral Finland was under the Soviet Union s military sphere of influence see FCMA treaty but remained neutral and was not communist nor was it a member of the Warsaw Pact or Comecon but a member of the EFTA since 1986 and was west of the Iron Curtain In 1955 when Austria again became a fully independent republic it did so under the condition that it remain neutral but as a country to the west of the Iron Curtain it was in the United States sphere of influence Spain did not join the NATO until 1982 seven years after the death of the authoritarian Franco The 1980s advent of Mikhail Gorbachev led to the end of the Cold War following the dissolution of the Soviet Union Cold War II context Main article Second Cold War In a debated Cold War II a new definition emerged inside the realm of western journalism More specifically Cold War II 148 also known as the Second Cold War New Cold War 149 Cold War Redux 150 Cold War 2 0 151 and Colder War 152 refers to the tensions hostilities and political rivalry that intensified dramatically in 2014 between the Russian Federation on the one hand and the United States European Union NATO and some other countries on the other hand 148 153 Tensions escalated in 2014 after Russia s annexation of Crimea military intervention in Ukraine and the 2015 Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War 154 155 156 By August 2014 both sides had implemented economic financial and diplomatic sanctions upon each other virtually all Western countries led by the US and EU imposed restrictive measures on Russia the latter reciprocally introduced retaliatory measures 157 158 Modern definitions Asia as the Eastern world the Arab world and Africa The exact scope of the Western world is somewhat subjective in nature depending on whether cultural economic spiritual or political criteria are employed It is a generally accepted Western view to recognize the existence of at least three major worlds or cultures or civilizations broadly in contrast with the Western the Eastern world the Arab and the African worlds with no clearly specified boundaries Additionally Latin American and Orthodox European worlds are sometimes either a sub civilization within Western civilization or separately considered akin to the West Latin America and Orthodox worlds image reference needed Many anthropologists sociologists and historians oppose the West and the Rest in a categorical manner 159 The same has been done by Malthusian demographers with a sharp distinction between European and non European family systems Among anthropologists this includes Durkheim Dumont and Levi Strauss 159 Since the fall of the iron curtain the following countries are generally accepted as the Western world 160 the United States Canada the countries of the European Union plus the UK Norway Iceland and Switzerland Australia and New Zealand Cultural definition Further information Western culture Culture of Europe and Culture of the United States In modern usage Western world refers to Europe and to areas whose populations largely originate from Europe through the Age of Discovery s imperialism 19 20 161 The Western world derived on Samuel P Huntington s 1996 Clash of Civilizations 7 In turquoise are Latin America and the Orthodox World which are either a part of the West or distinct civilizations intimately related to the West 8 9 In the 20th century Christianity declined in influence in many Western countries mostly in the European Union where some member states have experienced falling church attendance and membership in recent years 162 and also elsewhere Secularism separating religion from politics and science increased However while church attendance is in decline in some Western countries i e Italy Poland and Portugal more than half of the people state that religion is important 163 and most Westerners nominally identify themselves as Christians e g 59 in the United Kingdom and attend church on major occasions such as Christmas and Easter In the Americas Christianity continues to play an important societal role though in areas such as Canada a low level of religiosity is common due to a European type secularization The official religions of the United Kingdom and some Nordic countries are forms of Christianity while the majority of European countries have no official religion Despite this Christianity in its different forms remains the largest faith in most Western countries 164 Christianity remains the dominant religion in the Western world where 70 are Christians 165 A 2011 Pew Research Center survey found that 76 2 of Europeans 73 3 in Oceania and about 86 0 in the Americas 90 in Latin America and the Caribbean and 77 4 in Northern America described themselves as Christians 165 166 Countries in the Western world are also the most keen on digital and televisual media technologies as they were in the postwar period on television and radio from 2000 to 2014 the Internet s market penetration in the West was twice that in non Western regions 167 Wikipedia has been blocked intermittently in China since 2004 168 Latin America The Western world derived on Samuel P Huntington s 1996 Clash of Civilizations 169 Latin America depicted in turquoise could be considered a sub civilization within Western civilization or a distinct civilization intimately related to the West and descended from it For political consequences the second option is the most adequate 170 Huntington s map of major civilizations 7 What constitutes Western civilization in post Cold War world is coloured dark blue He also dwells that Latin America shown in purple is either a sub civilization within Western civilization or a separate civilization akin to the West American political scientist adviser and academic Samuel P Huntington considered Latin America as separate from the Western world for the purpose of his geopolitical analysis 7 Huntington s view has however been contested on a number of occasions as biased 171 172 Huntington also states that while in general researchers consider that the West has three main components European North American and Latin American in his view Latin America has followed a different development path from Europe and North America Although it is a scion of European mainly Spanish and Portuguese civilization it also incorporates to an extent elements of indigenous American civilizations absent from North America and Europe It has had a corporatist and authoritarian culture that Europe had to a much lesser extent Both Europe and North America felt the effects of the Reformation and combined Catholic and Protestant culture Historically Latin America has been only Catholic although this is changing due to the influx of Protestants into the region Some regions in Latin America incorporate indigenous cultures which did not exist in Europe and were effectively annihilated in the United States and whose importance oscillates between two extremes Mexico Central America Peru and Bolivia on the one hand and Argentina and Chile on the other 173 However he does mention that the modus operandi of the Catholic Church was to incorporate native elements of pagan European cultures into the general dogma of Catholicism and the Native American elements could be perceived in the same way 174 Subjectively Latin Americans are divided when it comes to identifying themselves Some say Yes we are part of the West Others say No we have our own unique culture and a vast bibliographical material produced by Latin Americans and North Americans exposes in detail their cultural differences Huntington goes on to mention that Latin America could be considered a sub civilization within Western civilization or a separate civilization intimately related to the West and divided as to its belonging to it While the second option is the most appropriate and useful for an analysis focused on the international political consequences of civilizations including relations between Latin America on the one hand and North America and Europe on the other he also mentions that the underlying conflict of Latin America belonging to the West must eventually be addressed in order to develop a cohesive Latin American identity 175 176 Other countries Most of South Africa s population is not of European ancestry excepting a sizeable minority 177 178 The primary sources of the country s constitution are Roman Dutch mercantile law amp personal law and English Common law imports of Dutch settlement and British colonialism respectively 179 English the country s lingua franca is the main language used in official and business capacities and the sole language of record in South African courts 180 181 182 English and Afrikaans most similar to Dutch are two of South Africa s eleven official languages 183 184 Christianity is the dominant religion and many denominations incorporate worship practices from traditional African religions The Methodist Roman Catholic Anglican Dutch Reformed Lutheran Pentecostal and Seventh day Adventist dominations are also popular 185 The Philippines Guam and the Mariana Islands as well as Palau etc although geographically part of the Eastern world and having a majority population that does not possess European ethnic origins aside from a significant minority maintains strong Western based influences in its culture 186 Cape Verde also has significant influence from the Western world due to Portuguese colonization seen through the country s language Portuguese music art 187 and the prevalence of Christianity 188 The country s population is also overall a mixture of African and European descent 189 European influence is also evident in Namibia which has a sizeable minority of European descent and was previously administered by Germany and then South Africa 190 191 192 Economic definition Countries by income group The term Western world is sometimes interchangeably used with the term First World or developed countries stressing the difference between First World and the Third World or developing countries This usage occurs despite the fact that many countries that may be culturally Western are developing countries in fact a significant percentage of the Americas are developing countries It is also used despite many developed countries or regions not being culturally Western e g Japan Singapore South Korea Taiwan Hong Kong and Macao Privatization policies involving government enterprises and public services and multinational corporations are often considered a visible sign of Western nations economic presence especially in Third World countries and represent a common institutional environment for powerful politicians enterprises trade unions and firms bankers and thinkers of the Western world 193 194 195 196 197 Views on torn countriesAccording to Samuel P Huntington some countries are torn on whether they are Western or not with typically the national leadership pushing for Westernization while historical cultural and traditional forces remain largely non Western 198 These include Turkey whose political leadership has since the 1920s tried to Westernize the predominantly Muslim country with only 3 of its territory within Europe It is his chief example of a torn country that is attempting to join Western civilization 7 The country s elite started the Westernization efforts beginning with Mustafa Kemal Ataturk who took power as the first president of the modern Turkish nation state in 1923 imposed western institutions and dress removed the Arabic alphabet and embraced the Latin alphabet It joined NATO and since the 1960s has been seeking to join the European Union with very slow progress 199 Other viewsA series of scholars of civilization including Arnold J Toynbee Alfred Kroeber and Carroll Quigley have identified and analyzed Western civilization as one of the civilizations that have historically existed and still exist today Toynbee entered into quite an expansive mode including as candidates those countries or cultures who became so heavily influenced by the West as to adopt these borrowings into their very self identity Carried to its limit this would in practice include almost everyone within the West in one way or another In particular Toynbee refers to the intelligentsia formed among the educated elite of countries impacted by the European expansion of centuries past While often pointedly nationalist these cultural and political leaders interacted within the West to such an extent as to change both themselves and the West 52 The theologian and paleontologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin conceived of the West as the set of civilizations descended from the Nile Valley Civilization of Egypt 200 Palestinian American literary critic Edward Said uses the term Occident in his discussion of Orientalism According to his binary the West or Occident created a romanticized vision of the East or Orient to justify colonial and imperialist intentions This Occident Orient binary focuses on the Western vision of the East instead of any truths about the East His theories are rooted in Hegel s master slave dialectic The Occident would not exist without the Orient and vice versa citation needed Further Western writers created this irrational feminine weak Other to contrast with the rational masculine strong West because of a need to create a difference between the two that would justify imperialist ambitions according to the Said influenced Indian American theorist Homi K Bhabha citation needed Map illustrations of the West according to different but closely interrelated definitions Division of the Roman Empire after 395 into western and eastern part The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire Latin alphabet world distribution The dark green areas show the countries where this alphabet is the sole official or de facto official national script The light green places show the countries where the alphabet co exists with other scripts Countries with 50 or more Christians are colored purple while countries with 10 to 50 Christians are colored pink Map showing relative degree of religiosity by country Based on a 2006 2008 worldwide survey by Gallup Human language families Western Palearctic a part of the Palearctic realm one of the eight biogeographic realms dividing the Earth s surface Geopolitical Occident of Europe according to the Intermediate Region theory of Dimitri Kitsikis Indo European languages European Union in blue and European Free Trade Association in green Human Development Index Report based on 2018 data published in 2019 Legal systems of the world Secular states in blue Relative geographic prevalence of Christianity versus the second most prevalent religion Islam and lack of either religion in 2006 See also Civilizations portal World portalAmericanization Americas Anglicisation Anglophone Atlanticism Eastern world East West dichotomy Europeanisation Far West First World Francophonie Free world Global North and Global South Golden billion Hispanophone History of Western civilization Maghreb Mid Atlantic English Monroe Doctrine Three world model Western esotericism Western hemisphere Western philosophy Western civilization Anti Western sentiment OrganisationsEuropean Council European Economic Area EEA European Union EU G10 currencies Group of Seven G7 Group of Twelve G12 North Atlantic Treaty Organization NATO Representation in the United NationsEastern European Group Western European and Others GroupNotes Comprising Australia and New Zealand excluding the Pacific island nations Including North Asia Siberia and the Outermost Regions of the European Union such as the Canary Islands and Madeira which are parts of European countries despite not being geographically located in Europe 1 Latin America and the Caribbean s status as a part of the West is disputed by some researchers 2 See notes n 1 n 2 n 3 n 4 n 5 n 6 n 7 n 8 n 9 See notes n 10 n 11 n 12 n 13 n 14 The Parthenon a former temple Athens c 430 BC The Victorious Youth a controversial Greek bronze Greece c 300 100 BC Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus seats up to 14 000 people Epidaurus c 150 BC Pont du Gard a Roman aqueduct Vers Pont du Gard c 20 BC AD 50 The Pantheon a former temple visited in 2013 alone by over 6 million people Rome c AD 120 The Aula Palatina a Roman palace then a Christian basilica Trier c AD 310 See notes n 15 n 16 n 17 n 18 n 19 The Roman Republic had been weakened by the conflict between Gaius Marius and Sulla and the civil war of Julius Caesar against Pompey and Marcus Brutus During these struggles hundreds of senators were killed and the Roman Senate had been refilled with loyalists vague of the First Triumvirate and later those of the Second Triumvirate Several dates are commonly proposed to mark the transition from Republic to Empire including the date of Julius Caesar s appointment as perpetual Roman dictator 44 BC the victory of Caesar s heir Octavian at the Battle of Actium 2 31 September BC and the Roman Senate s granting to Octavian the honorific Augustus 16 27 January BC Octavian Augustus officially proclaimed that he had saved the Roman Republic and carefully disguised his power under republican forms Consuls continued to be elected tribunes of the plebeians continued to offer legislation and senators still debated in the Roman Curia However it was Octavian who influenced everything and controlled the final decisions and in final analysis had the legions to back him up if it became necessary By Rome s central location at the heart of the Empire West and East were terms used to denote provinces west and east of the capital itself Therefore Iberia Portugal and Spain Gaul France the Mediterranean coast of North Africa Tunisia Algeria and Morocco and Britannia were all part of the West Greece Cyprus Anatolia Lebanon Syria Israel Palestine Egypt and Libya were part of the East Italy itself was considered central until the reforms of Diocletian dividing the Empire into true two halves Eastern and Western citation needed Strategically more appealing than Rome because of its access to a second smaller water basin the Euxine Sea meaning hospitable and later called Black Sea and its proximity to the Mesopotamia the would be next Roman Empire s conquest The Latins had become an Empire because they had managed to control the Mediterranean Sea as water basins were the most appealing locations to armies in the ancient era For this reason probably the Romans were more seduced by the strategic Asian access of Byzantium in the Turkish area than that of any other Eastern European location around the Danube river This situation may have led to Huns successful invasion that originated Empire s division and later its collapse during the course of the 3rd century AD citation needed Others have fiercely criticized these views arguing they confuse the Eastern Roman Empire with Russia especially considering the fact that the country that had the most historical roots in Byzantium Greece expelled communists and was allied with the West during the Cold War Still Russia accepted Eastern Christianity from the Byzantine Empire by the Patriarch of Constantinople Photios I linking Russia very close to the Eastern Roman Empire world Later on in 16th century Russia created its own religious centre in Moscow Religion survived in Russia beside severe persecution carrying values alternative to the communist ideology citation needed The Dalmatia remained under Venice domination throughout next centuries even constituting an Italian territorial claim by the Treaty of Versailles in the aftermath of the First World War and through successive Italy s fascist period s demands These changes were adopted by the Scandinavian kings Later French commoner Jean Cauvin John Calvin assumed the religio political leadership in Geneva a former ecclesiastical city whose prior ruler had been the bishop The English king later improvised on the Lutheran model but subsequently many Calvinist doctrines were adopted by popular dissenters paralleling the struggles between the King and Parliament lead to the English Civil War 1642 1651 between royalists and parliamentarians while both colonized North America eventually resulting in an independent United States of America 1776 during the Industrial Revolution Portuguese sailors began exploring the coast of Africa and the Atlantic archipelagos in 1418 19 using recent developments in navigation cartography and maritime technology such as the caravel in order that they might find a sea route to the source of the lucrative spice trade citation needed In 1488 Bartolomeu Dias rounded the southern tip of Africa under the sponsorship of Portugal s John II from which point he noticed that the coast swung northeast Cape of Good Hope citation needed In 1492 Christopher Columbus would land on an island in the Bahamas archipelago on behalf of the Spanish and documenting the Atlantic Ocean s routes would be granted a Coat of Arms by Pope Alexander VI motu proprio in 1502 citation needed With the discovery of the American continent or New World in 1492 1493 the European colonial Age of Discovery and exploration was born revisiting an imperialistic view accompanied by the invention of firearms while marking the start of the Modern Era During this long period the Catholic Church launched a major effort to spread Christianity in the New World and to convert the Native Americans and others A Modern West emerged from the Late Middle Ages after the Renaissance and fall of Constantinople as a new civilization greatly influenced by the interpretation of Greek thought preserved in the Byzantine Empire and transmitted from there by Latin translations and emigration of Greek scholars through Renaissance humanism Popular typefaces such as italics were inspired and designed from transcriptions during this period Renaissance architectural works revivals of Classical and Gothic styles flourished during this modern period throughout Western colonial empires In 1497 Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama made the first open voyage from Europe to India citation needed In 1520 Ferdinand Magellan a Portuguese navigator in the service of the Crown of Castile Spain found a sea route into the Pacific Ocean In the 16th century the Portuguese broke the overland Medieval monopoly of the Arabs and Italians of trade goods and slaves between Asia and Europe by the discovery of the sea route to India around the Cape of Good Hope 112 With the ensuing rise of the rival Dutch East India Company Portuguese influence in Asia was gradually eclipsed Dutch forces first established fortified independent bases in the East and then between 1640 and 1660 wrestled some southern Indian ports and the lucrative Japan trade from the Portuguese Later the English and the French established some settlements in India and trade with China and their own acquisitions would gradually surpass those of the Dutch In 1763 the British eliminated French influence in India and established the British East India Company as the most important political force on the Indian Subcontinent Although Christianized by early Middle Ages Ireland is soon colonised in 16th and 17th century with settlers from the neighboring island of Great Britain several people committed in the establishment of these colonies in Ireland would later also colonise North America initiating the British Empire while Iceland still uninhabited long after the rest of Western Europe had been settled by 1397 1523 would eventually be united in one alliance with all of the Nordic states kingdoms of Denmark Sweden and Norway The Scramble for Africa was the occupation division and colonization of African territory by European powers during the period of New Imperialism between 1881 and 1914 It is also called the Partition of Africa and by some the Conquest of Africa In 1870 only 10 percent of Africa was under formal Western European control by 1914 it had increased to almost 90 percent of the continent with only Ethiopia Abyssinia the Dervish state a portion of present day Somalia 128 and Liberia still being independent In ancient Greece 8th century BC AD 6th century hegemony denoted the politico military dominance of a city state over other city states 129 The dominant state is known as the hegemon 130 Ricardo Duchesne 7 February 2011 The Uniqueness of Western Civilization BRILL p 297 ISBN 978 90 04 19248 5 The list of books which have celebrated Greece as the cradle of the West is endless two more examples are Charles Freeman s The Greek Achievement The Foundation of the Western World 1999 and Bruce Thornton s Greek Ways How the Greeks Created Western Civilization 2000 Chiara Bottici Benoit Challand 11 January 2013 The Myth of the Clash of Civilizations Routledge p 88 ISBN 978 1 136 95119 0 The reason why even such a sophisticated historian as Pagden can do it is that the idea that Greece is the cradle of civilisation is so much rooted in western minds and school curicula as to be taken for granted William J Broad 2007 The Oracle Ancient Delphi and the Science Behind Its Lost Secrets Penguin Publishing Group p 120 ISBN 978 0 14 303859 7 In 1979 a friend of de Boer s invited him to join a team of scientists that was going to Greece to assess the suitability of the But the idea of learning more about Greece the cradle of Western civilization a fresh example of tectonic forces at Maura Ellyn Maura McGinnis 2004 Greece A Primary Source Cultural Guide The Rosen Publishing Group p 8 ISBN 978 0 8239 3999 2 John E Findling Kimberly D Pelle 2004 Encyclopedia of the Modern Olympic Movement Greenwood Publishing Group p 23 ISBN 978 0 313 32278 5 Wayne C Thompson Mark H Mullin 1983 Western Europe 1983 Stryker Post Publications p 337 ISBN 9780943448114 for ancient Greece was the cradle of Western culture Frederick Copleston 1 June 2003 History of Philosophy Volume 1 Greece and Rome A amp C Black p 13 ISBN 978 0 8264 6895 6 PART I PRE SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY CHAPTER II THE CRADLE OF WESTERN THOUGHT Mario Iozzo 2001 Art and History of Greece And Mount Athos Casa Editrice Bonechi p 7 ISBN 978 88 8029 435 1 The capital of Greece one of the world s most glorious cities and the cradle of Western culture Marxiano Melotti 25 May 2011 The Plastic Venuses Archaeological Tourism in Post Modern Society Cambridge Scholars Publishing p 188 ISBN 978 1 4438 3028 7 In short Greece despite having been the cradle of Western culture was then an other space separate from the West Library Journal Vol 97 Bowker April 1972 p 1588 Ancient Greece Cradle of Western Culture Series disc 6 strips with 3 discs range 44 60 fr 17 18 min Stanley Mayer Burstein 2002 Current Issues and the Study of Ancient History Regina Books p 15 ISBN 978 1 930053 10 6 and making Egypt play the same role in African education and culture that Athens and Greece do in Western culture Murray Milner Jr 8 January 2015 Elites A General Model John Wiley amp Sons p 62 ISBN 978 0 7456 8950 0 Greece has long been considered the seedbed or cradle of Western civilization Slavica viterbiensia 003 Periodico di letterature e culture slave della Facolta di Lingue e Letterature Straniere Moderne dell Universita della Tuscia Gangemi Editore spa 10 November 2011 p 148 ISBN 978 88 492 6909 3 The Special Case of Greece The ancient Greece was a cradle of the Western culture Kim Covert 1 July 2011 Ancient Greece Birthplace of Democracy Capstone p 5 ISBN 978 1 4296 6831 6 Ancient Greece is often called the cradle of western civilization Ideas from literature and science also have their roots in ancient Greece Henry Turner Inman Rome the cradle of western civilisation as illustrated by existing monuments ISBN 9781177738538 Michael Ed Grant 1964 The Birth Of Western Civilisation Greece amp Rome Amazon co uk Thames amp Hudson Retrieved 4 January 2016 HUXLEY George et al 9780500040034 The Birth of Western Civilization Greece and Rome AbeBooks com Retrieved 4 January 2016 Athens Rome Jerusalem and Vicinity Peninsula of Mt Sinai Geographicus Rare Antique Maps Geographicus com Retrieved 4 January 2016 Download This PDF eBooks Free PDF File104 filthbooks org Archived from the original PDF on 7 January 2016 Retrieved 4 January 2016 References Western Countries 2020 4 June 2020 Espinosa Emilio Lamo de 4 December 2017 Is Latin America part of the West PDF Elcano Royal Institute Archived PDF from the original on 22 April 2019 Western Civilization Our Tradition James Kurth accessed 30 August 2011 Shvili Jason 26 April 2021 The Western World worldatlas com Archived from the original on 1 October 2022 Nayak Meghana Selbin Eric 2010 Decentering International Relations Bloomsbury Publishing p 2 ISBN 9781848132405 First IR focuses primarily on and legitimizes the actions and decisions of the US and the global North West Second IR privileges certain political projects such as neoliberal economic policies state centrism and Northern Western liberal democracy Third IR legitimizes the most privileged socio political players and institutions in both the Global North West and the Global South When we say North West we mean primarily the US but also Great Britain Western European countries and depending on context limited others Lazar Michelle M 2005 Feminist Critical Discourse Analysis Studies in Gender Power and Ideology Springer p 15 ISBN 9780230599901 For example it is now fairly common place in many universities in the global north west and in some universities in the south east to include gender related modules including studies on gender and language in their curricula a b c d e THE WORLD OF CIVILIZATIONS POST 1990 scanned image Archived 12 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine a b Huntington Samuel P 1991 Clash of Civilizations 6th ed Washington DC pp 38 39 ISBN 978 0 684 84441 1 The origin of western civilization is usually dated to 700 or 800 AD In general researchers consider that it has three main components in Europe North America and Latin America However Latin America has followed a quite different development path from Europe and North America Although it is a scion of European civilization it also incorporates more elements of indigenous American civilizations compared to those of North America and Europe It also currently has had a more corporatist and authoritarian culture Both Europe and North America felt the effects of Reformation and combination of Catholic and Protestant cultures Historically Latin America has been only Catholic although this may be changing Latin America could be considered or a sub set within Western civilization or can also be considered a separate civilization intimately related to the West but divided as to whether it belongs with it a b Huntington Samuel P 2 August 2011 The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order Simon amp Schuster pp 151 154 ISBN 978 1451628975 Hanson Victor Davis 18 December 2007 Carnage and Culture Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 307 42518 8 the term Western refer to the culture of classical antiquity that arose in Greece and Rome survived the collapse of the Roman Empire spread to western and northern Europe then during the great periods of exploration and colonization of the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries expanded to the Americas Australia and areas of Asia and Africa and now exercises global political economic cultural and military power far greater than the size of its territory or population might otherwise suggest Spielvogel Jackson J 2006 Western Civilization Wadsworth pp xxxiii ISBN 9780534646028 With the rise of Christianity during the Late Roman Empire however peoples in Europe began to identify themselves as part of a civilization different from others such as that of Islam leading to a concept of a Western civilization different from other civilizations In the fifteenth century Renaissance intellectuals began to identify this civilization not only with Christianity but also with the intellectual and political achievements of the ancient Greeks and Romans Important to the development of the idea of a distinct Western civilization were encounters with other peoples Between 700 and 1500 encounters with the world of Islam helped define the West But after 1500 as European ships began to move into other parts of the world encounters with peoples in Asia Africa and the Americas not only had an impact on the civilizations found there but also affected how people in the West defined themselves At the same time as they set up colonies Europeans began to transplant a sense of Western identity to other areas of the world especially North America and parts of Latin America that have come to be considered part of Western civilization Stearns Peter N 2008 Western Civilization in World History Routledge pp 94 95 ISBN 9781134374755 During the 18th and 19th centuries Western civilization expanded geographically in whole or in part a host of major trends occurred essentially in parallel suggesting significant cohesion within an expanded Western civilization The industrial revolution though launched in Britain turned out to be a transatlantic process very quickly The same applies to the new movement to limit per capita birth rates the demographic transition that ran through Western civilization during the 19th century and the outcomes by 1900 in unprecedentedly low birth rates per family combined with rapidly falling infant death rates was essentially the same through out this expanded Western world Sharon Moshe 2004 Studies in Modern Religions Religious Movements and the Babi Baha i Faiths BRILL Academic Publishers p 12 ISBN 978 9004139046 Side by side with Christianity the classical Greco Roman world forms the sound foundation of Western civilization Greek philosophy is also the origin for the methods and contents of the philosophical thought and theological investigation in Islam and Judaism Pagden Anthony 2008 Worlds at War The 2 500 Year Struggle Between East and West Oxford University Press p 39 ISBN 9780199237432 Had the Persians overrun all of mainland Greece had they then transformed the Greek city states into satrapies of the Persian Empire had Greek democracy been snuffed out there would have been no Greek theater no Greek science no Plato no Aristotle no Sophocles no Aeschylus The incredible burst of creative energy that took place during the fifth and fourth centuries B C E and that laid the foundation for all of later Western civilization would never have happened in the years between 490 and 479 B C E the entire future of the Western world hung precariously in the balance Cartledge Paul 2002 The Greeks A Portrait of Self and Others Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0191577833 Greekness was identified with freedom spiritual and social as well as political and slavery was equated with being barbarian democracy was a Greek invention celebrating its 2 500th anniversary in 1993 4 an ancient culture that of the Greeks is both a foundation stone of our own Western civilization and at the same time in key respects a deeply alien phenomenon Freeman Charles 2000 The Greek Achievement The Foundation of the Western World Penguin Publishing Group p 434 ISBN 978 0140293234 The Greeks provided the chromosomes of Western civilization One does not have to idealize the Greeks to sustain that point Greek ways of exploring the cosmos defining the problems of knowledge and what is meant by knowledge itself creating the language in which such problems are explored representing the physical world and human society in the arts defining the nature of value describing the past still underlie the Western cultural tradition Richard Carl J 2010 Why We re All Romans The Roman Contribution to the Western World Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers ISBN 978 0742567801 In 1 200 years the tiny village of Rome established a republic conquered all of the Mediterranean basin and western Europe lost its republic and finally surrendered its empire In the process the Romans laid the foundation of Western civilization The pragmatic Romans brought Greek and Hebrew ideas down to earth modified them and transmitted them throughout western Europe Roman law remains the basis for the legal codes of most western European and Latin American countries Even in English speaking countries where common law prevails Roman law has exerted substantial influence Grant Michael 1991 The Founders of the Western World A History of Greece and Rome New York Scribner Maxwell Macmillan International ISBN 978 0684193038 Pagden Anthony 2008 Worlds at War The 2 500 Year Struggle Between East and West Oxford University Press pp xi ISBN 9780199237432 The awareness that East and West were not only different regions of the world but also regions filled with different peoples with different cultures worshipping different gods and most crucially holding different views on how best to live their lives we owe not to an Asian but to a Western people the Greeks It was a Greek historian Herodotus writing in the fifth century B C E who first stopped to ask what it was that divided Europe from Asia This East as Herodotus knew it the lands that lay between the European peninsula and the Ganges Shvili Jason 26 April 2021 The Western World worldatlas com Archived from the original on 1 October 2022 The concept of the Western world as opposed to other parts of the world was born in ancient Greece specifically in the years 480 479 BCE when the ancient Greek city states fought against the powerful Persian Empire to the east a b c Bideleux Robert Jeffries Ian 1998 A history of eastern Europe crisis and change Routledge p 48 ISBN 978 0 415 16112 1 Pagden Anthony 2008 Worlds at War The 2 500 Year Struggle Between East and West Oxford University Press pp xv ISBN 9780199237432 The English word West was originally an adverb of direction It meant in effect farther down farther away By the Middle Ages it was already being used by Europeans to describe Europe and by the late six teenth century it had become associated with forward movement with youth and vigor and ultimately as Europe expanded westward with civilization Ever since the eighteenth century the word has been applied not only to Europe but also to Europe s settlers overseas to the wider European World a b Thompson William Hickey Joseph 2005 Society in Focus Boston MA Pearson 0 205 41365 X a b Gregerson Linda Juster Susan 2011 Empires of God Religious Encounters in the Early Modern Atlantic University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 978 0812222609 Retrieved 28 June 2018 Western Civilization Archived 11 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine Our Tradition James Kurth accessed 30 August 2011 Peter N Stearns Western Civilization in World History Themes in World History Routledge 2008 ISBN 1134374755 pp 91 95 a b c Bavaj Riccardo 21 November 2011 The West A Conceptual Exploration academia edu Archived from the original on 2 August 2022 Roberts Henry L March 1964 Russia and the West A Comparison and Contrast Slavic Review 23 1 1 12 doi 10 2307 2492370 JSTOR 2492370 S2CID 153551831 Alexander Lukin Russia Between East and West Perceptions and Reality Archived 13 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine Brookings Institution Published on 28 March 2003 Spielvogel Jackson J 2006 Western Civilization Wadsworth p 918 ISBN 9780534646028 Dramatic social and cultural developments accompanied political and economic changes after 1965 Scientific and technological achievements revolutionized people s lives while at the same time environmental problems were becoming increasingly apparent Intellectually and culturally the Western world after 1965 was notable for its diversity and innovation Browne Anthony 3 September 2000 The last days of a white world The Guardian Archived from the original on 24 August 2013 We are near a global watershed a time when white people will not be in the majority in the developed world Just 500 years ago few had ventured outside their European homeland clearing the way they settled in North America South America Australia New Zealand and to a lesser extent southern Africa But now around the world whites are falling as a proportion of population Pierce Jason E 2016 Making the White Man s West Whiteness and the Creation of the American West University Press of Colorado pp 123 150 ISBN 978 1 60732 396 9 JSTOR j ctt19jcg63 Anglo Americans from Thomas Jefferson at the beginning of the nineteenth century to Joseph Pomeroy Widney at the century s end envisioned the West as more than an ordinary place They dreamed of it as home to a rugged independent white population Kaufmann Eric 2018 Whiteshift Populism Immigration and the Future of White Majorities Penguin Books ISBN 9780241317105 Between 1896 and 1928 the Republicans won seven of nine presidential contests Immigration restriction was an important part of their platform Ethno traditional nationalists favour slower immigration in order to permit enough immigrants to voluntarily assimilate into the ethnic majority maintaining the white ethno tradition On 8 November 2016 a second populist explosion rocked the Anglosphere Coming less than five months after Brexit it unsettled elite opinion across the Western world and sent markets into a tizzy As with Brexit Both it s fair to say are an outgrowth of the first phase of Whiteshift whereby rapid immigration of ethnic outsiders raises existential questions for the ethnic majority In this case around whether the white majority is losing predominance in its perceived homeland Kelkar Kamala 16 September 2017 How a shifting definition of white helped shape U S immigration policy PBS News Archived from the original on 19 October 2017 By 1790 a Naturalization Act declared that all male white inhabitants would become citizens a time when the country started enforcing its hierarchy of whiteness while the concept of whiteness has changed since the 18th century they say that white nationalism has historically been a motivation behind U S immigration policy Defining Citizenship National Museum of American History Retrieved 19 December 2022 1952 Immigration and Nationality Act eliminates race as a bar to immigration or citizenship Ward Peter 2002 White Canada Forever McGill Queen s University Press MQUP ISBN 9780773523227 Green James N Skidmore Thomas 2021 Brazil Five Centuries of Change Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0190068981 The whitening thesis called for an influx of white preferably northern European blood in order for Brazilian society to achieve its goals to become an advanced nation To the chagrin of the thesis supporters nonwhite immigrants started arriving on Brazilian shores too Goni Uki 31 May 2021 Time to challenge Argentina s white European self image black history experts say The Guardian Archived from the original on 21 December 2022 The whitening project was a successful endeavor in terms of the erasure of blackness said Edwards Argentina s pro European immigration policy was initiated under its 1853 constitution The Immigration Restriction Act and the White Australia policy National Archives of Australia Retrieved 19 December 2022 The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 was a landmark law which provided the cornerstone of the unofficial White Australia policy and aimed to maintain Australia as a nation populated mainly by white Europeans It included a dictation test of 50 words in a European language which became the chief way unwanted migrants could be excluded The policy remained in place for many decades White New Zealand policy introduced NZHistory New Zealand history online nzhistory govt nz Retrieved 8 March 2021 New Zealand s immigration policy in the early 20th century was strongly influenced by racial ideology The Immigration Restriction Amendment Act 1920 required intending immigrants to apply for a permanent residence permit before they arrived in New Zealand Permission was given at the discretion of the minister of customs The Act enabled officials to prevent Indians and other non white British subjects entering New Zealand Carlin Na ama 2022 Morality Violence and Ritual Circumcision Routledge p 34 ISBN 978 0367551957 Specifically these are Western or White values that find their foundation in Greco Roman philosophy and espouse key notions such as individualism and enlightenment Hall Jennifer Jao Limin Di Placido Cinzia Manikis Rebecca July 2021 Deep questions for a Saturday morning An investigation of the Australian and Canadian general public s definitions of gender Social Science Quarterly Wiley Blackwell 102 4 1866 1881 doi 10 1111 ssqu 13021 S2CID 238679176 The stark difference in response patterns by country pertained to responses that were coded as Male Female This was the modal category for the Australian participants with nearly one third of participants providing such a response whereas Male Female was not even in the top three response categories for the Canadian participants Vintges Karen 2017 A New Dawn for the Second Sex Women s Freedom Practices in World Perspective Amsterdam University Press pp 59 94 ISBN 978 90 8964 602 6 JSTOR j ctt1s475v4 6 Bard Christine 22 June 2020 Masculinism in Europe Sorbonne Universite Jackson J Spielvogel 14 September 2016 Western Civilization Volume A To 1500 Cengage Learning pp 32 ISBN 978 1 337 51759 1 Religions in Global Society Page 146 Peter Beyer 2006 Cambridge University Historical Series An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects p 40 Hebraism like Hellenism has been an all important factor in the development of Western Civilization Judaism as the precursor of Christianity has indirectly had had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the Christian era a b Role of Judaism in Western culture and civilization Archived 9 March 2018 at the Wayback Machine Judaism has played a significant role in the development of Western culture because of its unique relationship with Christianity the dominant religious force in the West Judaism Archived 4 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine at Encyclopaedia Britannica Marvin Perry Myrna Chase James Jacob Margaret Jacob Theodore H Von Laue 1 January 2012 Western Civilization Since 1400 Cengage Learning p XXIX ISBN 978 1 111 83169 1 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Western culture Science Daily A brief history of Western culture Khan Academy The Evolution of Civilizations An Introduction to Historical Analysis 1979 10 March 2001 p 84 Retrieved 31 January 2014 Middle Ages Archived 3 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine Of the three great civilizations of Western Eurasia and North Africa that of Christian Europe began as the least developed in virtually all aspects of material and intellectual culture well behind the Islamic states and Byzantium H G Wells The Outline of History Section 31 8 The Intellectual Life of Arab Islam Archived 14 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine For some generations before Muhammad the Arab mind had been as it were smouldering it had been producing poetry and much religious discussion under the stimulus of the national and racial successes it presently blazed out with a brilliance second only to that of the Greeks during their best period From a new angle and with a fresh vigour it took up that systematic development of positive knowledge which the Greeks had begun and relinquished It revived the human pursuit of science If the Greek was the father then the Arab was the foster father of the scientific method of dealing with reality that is to say by absolute frankness the utmost simplicity of statement and explanation exact record and exhaustive criticism Through the Arabs it was and not by the Latin route that the modern world received that gift of light and power Lewis Bernard 2002 What Went Wrong Oxford University Press p 3 ISBN 978 0 06 051605 5 For many centuries the world of Islam was in the forefront of human civilization and achievement In the era between the decline of antiquity and the dawn of modernity that is in the centuries designated in European history as medieval the Islamic claim was not without justification Science civilization and society Es flinders edu au Archived from the original on 27 March 2016 Retrieved 6 May 2011 Richard J Mayne Jr Middle Ages Britannica com Retrieved 6 May 2011 InfoPlease com Archived 22 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine commercial revolution The Scientific Revolution Wsu edu 6 June 1999 Archived from the original on 1 May 2011 Retrieved 6 May 2011 Eric Bond Sheena Gingerich Oliver Archer Antonsen Liam Purcell Elizabeth Macklem 17 February 2003 Innovations The Industrial Revolution Retrieved 6 May 2011 How Islam Created Europe In late antiquity the religion split the Mediterranean world in two Now it is remaking the Continent TheAtlantic com May 2016 Retrieved 25 April 2016 a b Cf Arnold J Toynbee Change and Habit The challenge of our time Oxford 1966 1969 at 153 56 also Toynbee A Study of History 10 volumes 2 supplements Marvin Perry Myrna Chase James Jacob Margaret Jacob Theodore H Von Laue 1 January 2012 Western Civilization Since 1400 Cengage Learning p XXIX ISBN 978 1 111 83169 1 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Green Peter Alexander to Actium The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age Berkeley University of California Press 1990 Russo Lucio 2004 The Forgotten Revolution How Science Was Born in 300 BC and Why It Had To Be Reborn Berlin Springer ISBN 3 540 20396 6 Hellenistic Age Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc Retrieved 8 September 2012 Green P 2008 Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age p xiii ISBN 978 0 7538 2413 9 Jonathan Daly 19 December 2013 The Rise of Western Power A Comparative History of Western Civilization A amp C Black pp 7 9 ISBN 978 1 4411 1851 6 Spielvogel Jackson J 2016 Western Civilization A Brief History Volume I To 1715 Cengage Learning ed p 156 ISBN 978 1 305 63347 6 Neill Thomas Patrick 1957 Readings in the History of Western Civilization Volume 2 Newman Press ed p 224 O Collins Gerald Farrugia Maria 2003 Catholicism The Story of Catholic Christianity Oxford University Press p v preface ISBN 978 0 19 925995 3 Karl Heussi Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte 11 Auflage 1956 Tubingen Germany pp 317 319 325 326 The Protestant Heritage Archived 23 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine Britannica McNeill William H 2010 History of Western Civilization A Handbook University of Chicago Press ed p 204 ISBN 978 0 226 56162 2 Faltin Lucia Melanie J Wright 2007 The Religious Roots of Contemporary European Identity A amp C Black ed p 83 ISBN 978 0 8264 9482 5 Roman Catholicism Archived 6 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine Roman Catholicism Christian church that has been the decisive spiritual force in the history of Western civilization Encyclopaedia Britannica Caltron J H Hayas Christianity and Western Civilization 1953 Stanford University Press p 2 That certain distinctive features of our Western civilization the civilization of western Europe and of America have been shaped chiefly by Judaeo Christianity Catholic and Protestant Jose Orlandis 1993 A Short History of the Catholic Church 2nd edn Michael Adams Trans Dublin Four Courts Press ISBN 1851821252 preface see 1 Archived 2 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine accessed 8 December 2014 p preface Thomas E Woods and Antonio Canizares 2012 How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization Reprint edn Washington D C Regnery History ISBN 1596983280 see accessed 8 December 2014 p 1 Western civilization owes far more to Catholic Church than most people Catholic included often realize The Church in fact built Western civilization Marvin Perry 1 January 2012 Western Civilization A Brief History Volume I To 1789 Cengage Learning pp 33 ISBN 978 1 111 83720 4 Noble Thomas F X 1 January 2013 Western civilization beyond boundaries 7th ed Boston MA p 107 ISBN 978 1 133 60271 2 OCLC 858610469 Marvin Perry Myrna Chase James Jacob Margaret Jacob Jonathan W Daly 2015 Western Civilization Ideas Politics and Society Volume I To 1789 Cengage Learning p 105 ISBN 978 1 305 44548 2 Hengel Martin 2003 Judaism and Hellenism studies in their encounter in Palestine during the early Hellenistic period Eugene OR Wipf amp Stock Publishers ISBN 978 1 59244 186 0 OCLC 52605048 Porter Stanley E 2013 Early Christianity in its Hellenistic context Volume 2 Christian origins and Hellenistic Judaism social and literary contexts for the New Testament Leiden Brill ISBN 978 9004234765 OCLC 851653645 Haskins Charles Homer 1927 The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century Cambridge Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 6747 6075 2 George Sarton A Guide to the History of Science Waltham Mass U S A 1952 Burnett Charles The Coherence of the Arabic Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century Science in Context 14 2001 249 288 Geanakoplos Deno John 1989 Constantinople and the West essays on the late Byzantine Palaeologan and Italian Renaissances and the Byzantine and Roman churches Madison Wis University of Wisconsin Press ISBN 0 299 11880 0 OCLC 19353503 Western Civilization Roots History and Culture TimeMaps Retrieved 17 February 2022 Ruegg Walter Foreword The University as a European Institution in A History of the University in Europe Vol 1 Universities in the Middle Ages Cambridge University Press 1992 ISBN 0 521 36105 2 pp xix xx Verger 1999harvnb error no target CITEREFVerger1999 help Risse Guenter B April 1999 Mending Bodies Saving Souls A History of Hospitals Oxford University Press p 59 ISBN 978 0 19 505523 8 Schumpeter Joseph 1954 History of Economic Analysis London Allen amp Unwin Review of How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization by Thomas Woods Jr National Review Book Service Archived from the original on 22 August 2006 Retrieved 16 September 2006 Cf Jeremy Waldron 2002 God Locke and Equality Christian Foundations in Locke s Political Thought Cambridge University Press Cambridge UK ISBN 978 0 521 89057 1 pp 189 208 Hastings p 309 Sailen Debnath 2010 Secularism Western and Indian New Delhi India Atlantic Publishers amp Distributors ISBN 8126913665 page needed Sri Aurobindo Ideal of Human Unity included in Social and Political Thought 1970 Hanson Victor Davis 18 December 2007 Carnage and Culture Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 307 42518 8 Charles Freeman The Closing of the Western Mind Knopf 2003 ISBN 1 4000 4085 X Karin Friedrich et al The Other Prussia Royal Prussia Poland and Liberty 1569 1772 Cambridge University Press 2000 ISBN 0 521 58335 7 Google Print p 88 St Jerome Letter CXXVII To Principia s Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers Series II Volume VI The Letters of St Jerome Letter 127 paragraph 12 Dominic Selwood On this day in AD 455 the beginning of the end for Rome Archived 23 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine 2 June 2017 Irina Maria Manea Alaric Barbarians and Rome a Complicated Relationship Archived 23 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine Rodney Stark How the West Won The Neglected Story of the Triumph of Modernity Archived 17 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine Setton Kenneth Meyer ed 1969 A History of the Crusades Wisconsin University Press pp 209 210 ISBN 9780299048341 Dulles S J Avery 2012 Reno R R ed The Orthodox Imperative Selected Essays of Avery Cardinal Dulles S J Kindle ed First Things Press p 224 Wolff R L 1969 V The Fourth Crusade In Hazard H W ed The later Crusades 1189 1311 University of Wisconsin Press p 162 Retrieved 9 November 2013 Phillips The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople Introduction xiii Goldstein I 1999 Croatia A History McGill Queen s University Press CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA Inquisition Newadvent org Retrieved 13 October 2017 Lea Henry Charles 1888 Chapter VII The Inquisition Founded A History of the Inquisition In The Middle Ages Vol 1 ISBN 1 152 29621 3 The judicial use of torture was as yet happily unknown Foxe John Chapter V PDF Foxe s Book of Martyrs Archived from the original PDF on 26 November 2012 Retrieved 21 July 2018 Blotzer J 1910 Inquisition The Catholic Encyclopedia Robert Appleton Company Retrieved 26 August 2012 in this period the more influential ecclesiastical authorities declared that the death penalty was contrary to the spirit of the Gospel and they themselves opposed its execution For centuries this was the ecclesiastical attitude both in theory and in practice Thus in keeping with the civil law some Manichaeans were executed at Ravenna in 556 On the other hand Elipandus of Toledo and Felix of Urgel the chiefs of Adoptionism and Predestinationism were condemned by councils but were otherwise left unmolested We may note however that the monk Gothescalch after the condemnation of his false doctrine that Christ had not died for all mankind was by the Synods of Mainz in 848 and Quiercy in 849 sentenced to flogging and imprisonment punishments then common in monasteries for various infractions of the rule Blotzer J 1910 Inquisition The Catholic Encyclopedia Robert Appleton Company Retrieved 26 August 2012 the occasional executions of heretics during this period must be ascribed partly to the arbitrary action of individual rulers partly to the fanatic outbreaks of the overzealous populace and in no wise to ecclesiastical law or the ecclesiastical authorities Lea Henry Charles Chapter VII The Inquisition Founded A History of the Inquisition In The Middle Ages Vol 1 ISBN 1 152 29621 3 Background to Against the Sale of Indulgences by Martin Luther Wcupa edu West Chester University of Pennsylvania 2012 Archived from the original on 19 December 2014 Retrieved 6 July 2018 How important was the role of the princes in bringing about the success of the Lutheran Reformation in Germany in the years 1525 to 1555 markedbyteachers com Marked by Teachers 2009 The Reformation history com A amp E Television Networks Henry Kissinger 2014 Introduction and Chpt 1 World Order Reflections on the Character of Nations and the Course of History Allen Lane ISBN 978 0241004265 The 6 killer apps of prosperity Ted com 11 August 2017 Archived from the original on 13 February 2014 Retrieved 11 August 2017 M Weisner Hanks Early Modern Europe 1450 1789 Cambridge 2006 Ferguson Niall 2004 Empire The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power New York Basic Books p 62 ISBN 978 0 465 02329 5 Daus 1983 p 33harvnb error no target CITEREFDaus1983 help a b Columbus Monuments Pages Valladolid Retrieved 3 January 2010 Samuel Eliot Morison Admiral of the Ocean Sea The Life of Christopher Columbus Boston Atlantic Little Brown 1942 Reissued by the Morison Press 2007 ISBN 1 4067 5027 1 The Letter of Columbus on the Discovery of America Read by Availle for LibriVox Audio 00 20 05 full text Palmer amp Colton 1995 p 341 sfn error no target CITEREFPalmerColton1995 help Feher 1990 pp 117 130 sfn error no target CITEREFFeher1990 help Dann amp Dinwiddy 1988 p 13 sfn error no target CITEREFDannDinwiddy1988 help Keitner 2007 p 12 sfn error no target CITEREFKeitner2007 help Modern West Civ 7 The Scientific Revolution of the 17 Cent Fordham edu Archived from the original on 11 May 2011 Retrieved 6 May 2011 The Industrial Revolution Mars wnec edu Archived from the original on 14 December 2000 Retrieved 6 May 2011 Industrial Revolution and the Standard of Living The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics Archived 1 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine Library of Economics and Liberty The World at Six Billion United Nations 12 October 1999 Retrieved 1 August 2010 Wim Van Den Doel 2010 The Dutch Empire An Essential Part of World History BMGN Low Countries Historical Review The Western belief in progress Enlightenment thinking and the scientific revolution were elements that enabled the Western economy to develop in the nineteenth century in a way that was fundamentally different from most of the economies in the rest of the world Europeans had not been able to sell much to the Asians in the sixteenth seventeenth and eighteenth centuries but after the Industrial Revolution the situation was completely different and the European textile industry for example was easily able to sell its cheap products throughout Asia Improved transport methods also meant that European products could reach the Asian market at a relatively low cost From about 1800 what historians term the great divergence took place which was the separation of the economic development of the Western World on the one hand and of almost all of Asia and Africa on the other Webster Richard A European expansion since 1763 Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 23 July 2018 The global expansion of western Europe between the 1760s and the 1870s differed in several important ways from the expansionism and colonialism of previous centuries Along with the rise of the Industrial Revolution which economic historians generally trace to the 1760s and the continuing spread of industrialization in the empire building countries came a shift in the strategy of trade with the colonial world Instead of being primarily buyers of colonial products and frequently under strain to offer sufficient salable goods to balance the exchange as in the past the industrializing nations increasingly became sellers in search of markets for the growing volume of their machine produced goods European expansion since 1763 Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 4 August 2018 Camille Pecastaing Jihad in the Arabian Sea Stanford Hoover Institution Press 2011 In the land of the Mad Mullah Somalia full citation needed Chernow Barbara A Vallasi George A eds 1994 The Columbia Encyclopedia Fifth ed New York Columbia University Press p 1215 ISBN 0 231 08098 0 Oxford English Dictionary A leading or paramount power a dominant state or person Kevin Shillington History of Africa Revised second edition New York Macmillan Publishers Limited 2005 301 Coloma Roland Sintos 2012 White gazes brown breasts imperial feminism and disciplining desires and bodies in colonial encounters Paedagogica Historica 48 2 243 doi 10 1080 00309230 2010 547511 S2CID 145129186 Maddison 2001 pp 97 The total population of the Empire was 412 million in 1913 241 World population in 1913 in thousands 1 791 020 Rein Taagepera September 1997 Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities Context for Russia International Studies Quarterly 41 3 502 doi 10 1111 0020 8833 00053 JSTOR 2600793 The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency www cia gov Retrieved 10 September 2016 land 148 94 million sq km Jackson pp 5 6 Zamora Stephen Review of Global Reach the Power of the Multinational Corporations by Richard J Barnet and Ronald E Muller Catholic University Law Review 26 2 Winter 1977 449 456 R Vernon Sovereignty at Bay the Multinational Spread of U S Enterprises 1971 Securing the World s Commercial Sea Lanes The American Spectator Politics Is Too Important To Be Taken Seriously The American Spectator Retrieved 13 November 2019 Voeglin E From Enlightenment to Revolution p 3 Enlightenment Essays Volumes 1 4 1970 Rosen Jonathan 26 May 2008 Return to Paradise The Enduring Relevance of John Milton The New Yorker Retrieved 27 February 2021 Burns William E 2003 Science in the Enlightenment An Encyclopedia ABC CLIO pp 10 12 Biale David Not in the Heavens The Tradition of Jewish Secular Thought Princeton University Press p x Science and Technology in World History Johns Hopkins University Press 2015 p 293 ISBN 9781421417752 Biale David 27 October 2015 Not in the Heavens The Tradition of Jewish Secular Thought Princeton University Press p 29 ISBN 9780691168043 ANALYSIS 19 December 2011 Table Religious Composition by Country in Percentages Pewforum org Retrieved 17 August 2012 a b Dmitri Trenin 4 March 2014 Welcome to Cold War II Foreign Policy Graham Holdings Retrieved 4 February 2015 Simon Tisdall 19 November 2014 The new cold war are we going back to the bad old days The Guardian Retrieved 4 February 2015 Laudicina Paul 15 May 2014 Ukraine Cold War Redux Or New Global Challenge Forbes Retrieved 9 January 2015 Eve Conant 12 September 2014 Is the Cold War Back National Geographic National Geographic Society Retrieved 4 February 2015 Mauldin John 29 October 2014 The Colder War Has Begun Forbes Retrieved 22 December 2014 As Cold War II Looms Washington Courts Nationalist Rightwing Catholic Xenophobic Poland Archived 22 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine Huffington Post 15 October 2015 The Cold War never ended Syria is a Russian American conflict says Bashar al Assad The Telegraph 14 October 2016 Archived from the original on 11 January 2022 Retrieved 24 January 2017 U S Weaponry Is Turning Syria Into Proxy War With Russia The New York Times 12 October 2015 Retrieved 14 October 2015 U S Russia escalate involvement in Syria CNN 13 October 2015 Retrieved 17 October 2015 U S and other powers kick Russia out of G8 CNN 25 March 2014 Retrieved 7 August 2014 Johanna Granville The Folly of Playing High Stakes Poker with Putin More to Lose than Gain over Ukraine Archived 13 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine 8 May 2014 a b Goody Jack 2005 The Labyrinth of Kinship New Left Review Retrieved 24 July 2007 The Western World WorldAtlas 26 April 2021 Stuenkel Oliver 2016 Post Western World How Emerging Powers Are Remaking Global Order Cambridge UK Malden US Polity Press ISBN 978 1509504572 Ford Peter 22 February 2005 What place for God in Europe USA Today Retrieved 24 July 2009 Eurostat 2005 Social values Science and Technology PDF Special Eurobarometer 225 Europa web portal 9 Archived from the original PDF on 24 May 2006 Retrieved 11 June 2009 See ARDA data archives http www thearda com internationalData regions index asp Archived 23 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine a b ANALYSIS 19 December 2011 Global Christianity Pewforum org Retrieved 17 August 2012 ANALYSIS 19 December 2011 Europe Pewforum org Retrieved 17 August 2012 Maurice Roche 2017 Mega Events and Social Change Spectacle Legacy and Public Culture Oxford University Press p 329 ISBN 9781526117083 Reid David 15 May 2019 China blocks Wikipedia in all languages CNBC Retrieved 23 May 2019 THE WORLD OF CIVILIZATIONS POST 1990 scanned image Archived 12 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine Huntington Samuel P 1991 Clash of Civilizations 6th ed Washington D C pp 38 39 ISBN 978 0 684 84441 1 via mercaba org SANLUIS Historia Universal Huntington 20Samuel 20 20El 20choque 20de 20civilizaciones pdf in Spanish The origin of western civilization is usually dated to 700 or 800 AD In general researchers consider that it has three main components in Europe Northern America and Latin America However Latin America has followed a quite different development path from Europe and Northern America Although it is a scion of European civilization it also incorporates to varying degrees elements of indigenous American civilizations absent from Northern America and Europe It has had a corporatist and authoritarian culture that Europe had to a much lesser extent and America did not have at all Both Europe and North America felt the effects of the Reformation and combined Catholic and Protestant culture Historically Latin America has been only Catholic although this may be changing Latin America could be considered or a sub civilization within Western civilization or a separate civilization intimately related to the West and divided as to its belonging to it For an analysis focused on the international political consequences of civilizations including relations between Latin America on the one hand and Northern America and Europe on the other the second option is the most appropriate and useful Fuentes Carlos Huntington and the Mask of Racism NPQ Archived from the original on 5 April 2007 Citrin Jack Lerman Amy Murakami Michael Pearson Kathryn 2007 Testing Huntington Is Hispanic Immigration a Threat to American Identity PDF Perspectives on Politics 5 1 31 48 doi 10 1017 s1537592707070041 S2CID 14565278 Archived from the original PDF on 30 May 2019 Huntington Samuel P 1991 Clash of Civilizations 6th ed Washington D C p 46 ISBN 978 0 684 84441 1 Huntington Samuel P 1991 Clash of Civilizations 6th ed Washington D C pp 110 111 ISBN 978 0 684 84441 1 via mercaba org SANLUIS Historia Universal Huntington 20Samuel 20 20El 20choque 20de 20civilizaciones pdf in Spanish Huntington Samuel P 1991 Clash of Civilizations 6th ed Washington D C pp 38 39 ISBN 978 0 684 84441 1 via mercaba org SANLUIS Historia Universal Huntington 20Samuel 20 20El 20choque 20de 20civilizaciones pdf in Spanish The origin of western civilization is usually dated to 700 or 800 AD In general researchers consider that it has three main components in Europe North America and Latin America However Latin America has followed a quite different development path from Europe and North America Although it is a scion of European civilization it also incorporates to varying degrees elements of indigenous American civilizations absent from North America and Europe It has had a corporatist and authoritarian culture that Europe had to a much lesser extent and America did not have at all Both Europe and North America felt the effects of the Reformation and combined Catholic and Protestant culture Historically Latin America has been only Catholic although this may be changing Latin American civilization incorporates indigenous cultures which did not exist in Europe which were effectively annihilated in North America and whose importance oscillates between two extremes Mexico Central America Peru and Bolivia on the one hand and Argentina and Chile on the other The political evolution and the economic development of Latin America have clearly separated from the predominant models in the North Atlantic countries Subjectively Latin Americans themselves are divided when it comes to identifying themselves Some say Yes we are part of the West Others say No we have our own unique culture and a vast bibliographical material produced by Latin Americans and North Americans exposes in detail their cultural differences Latin America could be considered or a sub civilization within Western civilization or a separate civilization intimately related to the West and divided as to its belonging to it Huntington Samuel P 1991 Clash of Civilizations 6th ed Washington D C pp 148 150 ISBN 978 0 684 84441 1 via mercaba org SANLUIS Historia Universal Huntington 20Samuel 20 20El 20choque 20de 20civilizaciones pdf in Spanish Census 2011 Census in brief PDF Pretoria Statistics South Africa 2012 pp 23 25 ISBN 978 0621413885 Archived PDF from the original on 13 May 2015 South African Culture Cultural Atlas Retrieved 7 May 2022 Snyman Pamela amp Barratt Amanda 2 October 2002 Researching South African Law w Library Resource Xchange Archived from the original on 17 June 2008 Retrieved 23 June 2008 People and Culture of South Africa www sahistory org za Retrieved 28 September 2021 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint url status link Why South African students want to be taught in English BBC News 13 November 2015 Retrieved 28 September 2021 Chabalala Jeanette English will be only language of record in courts Mogoeng News24 Retrieved 28 September 2021 Rawlings Alex Is Afrikaans in danger of dying out www bbc com Retrieved 28 September 2021 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996 Chapter 1 Founding Provisions www gov za Retrieved 28 September 2021 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint url status link South African Culture Religion Cultural Atlas Retrieved 6 October 2021 Philippines Cultural life Britannica Retrieved 11 March 2022 Although geographically part of Southeast Asia the country is culturally strongly Euro American Cape Verde Cultural life Britannica Retrieved 12 March 2022 Cape Verde Pew Templeton Research Retrieved 12 March 2022 Populacao cabo verdiana 57 dos genes sao de origem africana e 43 de origem europeia A Semana in Portuguese 27 May 2010 Archived from the original on 1 May 2013 Namibia A unique snapshot of German colonial Africa The Independent 7 July 2015 Retrieved 9 May 2022 Kamm Henry 30 October 1976 South West Africa City Remains More German Than Germany The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 9 May 2022 Namibia South African History Online Retrieved 7 May 2022 Paul Starr The Meaning of Privatization Yale Law and Policy Review 6 6 41 1988 Archived 28 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine James C W Ahiakpor Multinational Corporations in the Third World Predators or Allies in Economic Development 20 July 2010 Archived 23 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine Investopedia Why are most multinational corporations either from the US Europe or Japan Archived 25 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine Jackson J Spielvogel Western Civilization A Brief History Volume II Since 1500 2016 United States Congress Senate Committee on Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations Multinational corporations and United States foreign policy Part 11 1975 Archived 17 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine Huntington Samuel 1996 The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order New York Simon amp Schuster p 43 Samuel P Huntington The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order The Free Press pp 144 149 Cf Teilhard de Chardin Le Phenomene Humain 1955 translated as The Phenomena of Man New York 1959 Further readingAnkerl Guy 2000 Coexisting contemporary civilizations Arabo Muslim Bharati Chinese and West INU societal research Vol 1 Global communication without universal civilization Geneva INU Press ISBN 2 88155 004 5 Bavaj Riccardo The West A Conceptual Exploration European History Online Mainz Institute of European History 2011 retrieved 28 November 2011 Conze Vanessa Abendland EGO European History Online Mainz Institute of European History 2017 retrieved 8 March 2021 pdf Daly Jonathan The Rise of Western Power A Comparative History of Western Civilization Archived 30 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine London and New York Bloomsbury 2014 ISBN 9781441161314 Daly Jonathan Historians Debate the Rise of the West London and New York Routledge 2015 ISBN 978 1 13 877481 0 The Western Tradition homepage at Annenberg CPB Archived 20 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine where you can watch each episode on demand for free Pop ups required Videos are also available as a YouTube playlist J F C Fuller A Military History of the Western World Three Volumes New York Da Capo Press Inc 1987 and 1988 V 1 From the earliest times to the Battle of Lepanto ISBN 0 306 80304 6 V 2 From the defeat of the Spanish Armada to the Battle of Waterloo ISBN 0 306 80305 4 V 3 From the American Civil War to the end of World War II ISBN 0 306 80306 2 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Western world amp oldid 1135684122, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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