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Philippines

Coordinates: 13°N 122°E / 13°N 122°E / 13; 122

The Philippines (/ˈfɪlɪpnz/ (listen); Filipino: Pilipinas),[13] officially the Republic of the Philippines (Filipino: Republika ng Pilipinas),[d] is an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. It is situated in the western Pacific Ocean and consists of around 7,641 islands that are broadly categorized under three main geographical divisions from north to south: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The Philippines is bounded by the South China Sea to the west, the Philippine Sea to the east, and the Celebes Sea to the southwest. It shares maritime borders with Taiwan to the north, Japan to the northeast, Palau to the east and southeast, Indonesia to the south, Malaysia to the southwest, Vietnam to the west, and China to the northwest. The Philippines covers an area of 300,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi) and, as of 2021, it had a population of around 109 million people,[14] making it the world's thirteenth-most populous country. The Philippines has diverse ethnicities and cultures throughout its islands. Manila is the country's capital, while the largest city is Quezon City; both lie within the urban area of Metro Manila.

Republic of the Philippines
Republika ng Pilipinas (Filipino)
Motto: 
Maka-Diyos, Maka-tao, Makakalikasan at Makabansa[1]
"For God, People, Nature and Country"
(Latin: Pro Deo Populi Natura et Patria)
Anthem: Lupang Hinirang
"Chosen Land"
Great Seal
CapitalManila (de jure)
14°35′N 120°58′E / 14.583°N 120.967°E / 14.583; 120.967
Metro Manila[a] (de facto)
Largest cityQuezon City
14°38′N 121°02′E / 14.633°N 121.033°E / 14.633; 121.033
Official languages
Recognized regional languages
National sign language
Filipino Sign Language
Other recognized languages[b]
Ethnic groups
(2010[5])
Religion
(2015)[5]
  • 6.0% Islam
  • 5.3% Other / None
Demonym(s)Filipino
(masculine and neutral)
Filipina
(feminine)

Pinoy
(colloquial masculine and neutral)
Pinay
(colloquial feminine)

Philippine
(used for certain common nouns)
GovernmentUnitary presidential republic
• President
Bongbong Marcos
Sara Duterte
Migz Zubiri
Martin Romualdez
Alexander Gesmundo
LegislatureCongress
Senate
House of Representatives
Independence 
from the United States
June 12, 1898
December 10, 1898
November 15, 1935
July 4, 1946
Area
• Total
300,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi) (72nd)
• Water (%)
0.61[6] (inland waters)
298,170 km2 (115,120 sq mi)
Population
• 2020 census
109,035,343[7]
• Density
336/km2 (870.2/sq mi) (47th)
GDP (PPP)2022 estimate
• Total
$1.15 trillion[8] (30th)
• Per capita
$10,344[8] (119th)
GDP (nominal)2022 estimate
• Total
$401.6 billion[8] (40th)
• Per capita
$3,597[8] (128th)
Gini (2018) 42.3[9]
medium
HDI (2021) 0.699[10]
medium · 116th
CurrencyPhilippine peso () (PHP)
Time zoneUTC+08:00 (PST)
Date formatmm/dd/yyyy
Driving sideright[c]
Calling code+63
ISO 3166 codePH
Internet TLD.ph

Negritos, some of the archipelago's earliest inhabitants, were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Adoption of animism, Hinduism and Islam established island-kingdoms called Kedatuan, Rajahnates, and Sultanates. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer leading a fleet for Spain, marked the beginning of Spanish colonization. In 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. Spanish settlement through Mexico, beginning in 1565, led to the Philippines becoming ruled by the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. During this time, Catholicism became the dominant religion, and Manila became the western hub of trans-Pacific trade. In 1896, the Philippine Revolution began, which then became entwined with the 1898 Spanish–American War. Spain ceded the territory to the United States, while Filipino revolutionaries declared the First Philippine Republic. The ensuing Philippine–American War ended with the United States establishing control over the territory, which they maintained until the Japanese invasion of the islands during World War II. Following liberation, the Philippines became independent in 1946. Since then, the unitary sovereign state has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a decades-long dictatorship by a nonviolent revolution.

The Philippines is an emerging market and a newly industrialized country whose economy is transitioning from being agriculture centered to services and manufacturing centered. It is a founding member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, ASEAN, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, and the East Asia Summit. The location of the Philippines as an island country on the Pacific Ring of Fire that is close to the equator makes it prone to earthquakes and typhoons. The country has a variety of natural resources and is home to a globally significant level of biodiversity.

Etymology

Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte and Samar "Felipinas" after Philip II of Spain, then the Prince of Asturias. Eventually the name "Las Islas Filipinas" would be used to cover the archipelago's Spanish possessions.[15] Before Spanish rule was established, other names such as Islas del Poniente (Islands of the West) and Ferdinand Magellan's name for the islands, San Lázaro, were also used by the Spanish to refer to islands in the region.[16][17][18][19]

During the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the period of the Spanish–American War (1898) and the Philippine–American War (1899–1902) until the Commonwealth period (1935–1946), American colonial authorities referred to the country as The Philippine Islands, a translation of the Spanish name.[20] The United States began the process of changing the reference to the country from The Philippine Islands to The Philippines, specifically when it was mentioned in the Philippine Autonomy Act or the Jones Law.[21] The full official title, Republic of the Philippines, was included in the 1935 constitution as the name of the future independent state,[22] it is also mentioned in all succeeding constitutional revisions.[23][24]

History

Prehistory (pre–900)

There is evidence of early hominins living in what is now the Philippines as early as 709,000 years ago.[25] A small number of bones from Callao Cave potentially represent an otherwise unknown species, Homo luzonensis, that lived around 50,000 to 67,000 years ago.[26][27] The oldest modern human remains found on the islands are from the Tabon Caves of Palawan, U/Th-dated to 47,000 ± 11–10,000 years ago.[28] The Tabon Man is presumably a Negrito, who were among the archipelago's earliest inhabitants, descendants of the first human migrations out of Africa via the coastal route along southern Asia to the now sunken landmasses of Sundaland and Sahul.[29]

The first Austronesians reached the Philippines from Taiwan at around 2200 BC, settling the Batanes Islands and northern Luzon. From there, they rapidly spread southwards to the rest of the islands of the Philippines and Southeast Asia.[30][31] This population assimilated with the existing Negritos resulting in the modern Filipino ethnic groups which display various ratios of genetic admixture between Austronesian and Negrito groups.[32] Genetic signatures also indicate the possibility of migration of Austroasiatic, Papuan, and South Asian people.[33] Jade artifacts have been found dated to 2000 BC,[34][35] with the lingling-o jade items crafted in Luzon made using raw materials originating from Taiwan.[36] By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four kinds of social groups: hunter-gatherer tribes, warrior societies, highland plutocracies, and port principalities.[37]

Early states (900–1565)

 
The Laguna Copperplate Inscription, the oldest known writing found in the Philippines

The earliest known surviving written record found in the Philippines is the Laguna Copperplate Inscription.[38] By the 14th century, several the large coastal settlements had emerged as trading centers and became the focal point of societal changes.[39] Some polities had exchanges with other states across Asia.[40][41] Trade with China is believed to have begun during the Tang dynasty, and grew more extensive during the Song dynasty,[42] and by the second millennium some polities participated in the tributary system of China.[43][40] Indian cultural traits, such as linguistic terms and religious practices, began to spread within the Philippines during the 10th century, likely via the Hindu Majapahit empire.[44][39][45] By the 15th century, Islam was established in the Sulu Archipelago and spread from there.[46]

Polities founded in the Philippines from the 10th–16th centuries include Maynila,[47] Tondo, Namayan, Pangasinan, Cebu, Butuan, Maguindanao, Lanao, Sulu, and Ma-i.[48] The early polities were typically made up of three-tier social structures: a nobility class, a class of "freemen", and a class of dependent debtor-bondsmen.[39][40] Among the nobility were leaders called "Datus", responsible for ruling autonomous groups called "barangay" or "dulohan".[39] When these barangays banded together, either to form a larger settlement[39] or a geographically looser alliance,[40] the more esteemed among them would be recognized as a "paramount datu",[39][37] rajah, or sultan[49] which headed the community state.[50] Warfare developed and escalated during the 14th to 16th centuries,[51] and throughout these periods population density is thought to have been low,[52] which was also caused by the frequency of typhoons and the Philippines' location on the Pacific Ring of Fire.[53] In 1521, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the area, claimed the islands for Spain and was then killed by Lapulapu's fighters at the Battle of Mactan.[54]

Spanish and American Colonial rule (1565–1946)

 
Manila in 1847.

Colonization began when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565.[55][56]: 20–23  The Spanish forces brought by Legazpi’s five ships were a mix of Spaniards and Novohispanics (Mexicans) from New Spain (modern Mexico).[57][58][59][60][61]: 97–98 [62][63] Many Filipinos were brought back to New Spain as slaves and forced crew.[64] In 1571, Spanish Manila became the capital of the Spanish East Indies,[65] which encompassed Spanish territories in Asia and the Pacific.[66][67] The Spanish successfully invaded the different local states by employing the principle of divide and conquer,[68] bringing most of what is now the Philippines into a single unified administration.[69][70] Disparate barangays were deliberately consolidated into towns, where Catholic missionaries were more easily able to convert the inhabitants to Christianity.[61]: 53, 68 [71] From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory of the Mexico City-based Viceroyalty of New Spain, and later administered from Madrid following the Mexican War of Independence.[72] Manila was the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade.[73] Manila galleons were constructed in Bicol and Cavite.[74][75]

During its rule, Spain quelled various indigenous revolts,[76] as well as defending against external military challenges.[77][78][failed verification] War against the Dutch from the west, in the 17th century, together with conflict with the Muslims in the south nearly bankrupted the colonial treasury.[79]

Administration of the Philippine islands was considered a drain on the economy of New Spain,[77] and there were debates to abandon it or trade it for other territory. However, this was opposed because of economic potential, security, and the desire to continue religious conversion in the islands and the surrounding region.[80][81] The Philippines survived on an annual subsidy provided by the Spanish Crown,[77] which averaged 250,000 pesos[82] and was usually paid through the provision of 75 tons of silver bullion being sent from the Americas.[83] British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 during the Seven Years' War, with Spanish rule restored through the 1763 Treaty of Paris.[56]: 81–83  The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the Reconquista.[84] The Spanish–Moro conflict lasted for several hundred years. In the last quarter of the 19th century, Spain conquered portions of Mindanao and Jolo,[85] and the Moro Muslims in the Sultanate of Sulu formally recognized Spanish sovereignty.[86][87]

 
Filipino Ilustrados in Spain formed the Propaganda Movement. Photographed in 1890.

In the 19th century, Philippine ports opened to world trade, and shifts started occurring within Filipino society.[88][89] Shifts in social identity occurred, with the term Filipino changing from referring to Spaniards born in the Philippines to a term encompassing all people in the archipelago.[90][91]

Revolutionary sentiments were stoked in 1872 after three activist Catholic priests were executed on weak pretences.[92][93][94] This would inspire a propaganda movement in Spain, organized by Marcelo H. del Pilar, José Rizal, Graciano López Jaena, and Mariano Ponce, lobbying for political reforms in the Philippines. Rizal was executed on December 30, 1896, on charges of rebellion. This radicalized many who had previously been loyal to Spain.[95] As attempts at reform met with resistance, Andrés Bonifacio in 1892 established the militant secret society called the Katipunan, who sought independence from Spain through armed revolt.[96]

The Katipunan started the Philippine Revolution in 1896.[97] Internal disputes led to an election in which Bonifacio lost his position and Emilio Aguinaldo was elected as the new leader of the revolution.[98]: 145–147  In 1897, the Pact of Biak-na-Bato brought about the exile of the revolutionary leadership to Hong Kong. In 1898, the Spanish–American War began and reached the Philippines. Aguinaldo returned, resumed the revolution, and declared independence from Spain on June 12, 1898.[61]: 112–113  The First Philippine Republic was established on January 21, 1899.[99]

 
General Douglas MacArthur coming ashore during the Battle of Leyte on October 20, 1944

The islands had been ceded by Spain to the United States along with Puerto Rico and Guam as a result of the latter's victory in the Spanish–American War in 1898.[100][101] As it became increasingly clear the United States would not recognize the First Philippine Republic, the Philippine–American War broke out.[102] The war resulted in the deaths of 250,000 to 1 million civilians, mostly because of famine and disease.[103] After the defeat of the First Philippine Republic in 1902, an American civilian government was established through the Philippine Organic Act.[104] American forces continued to secure and extend their control over the islands, suppressing an attempted extension of the Philippine Republic,[98]: 200–202 [105] securing the Sultanate of Sulu,[106] and establishing control over interior mountainous areas that had resisted Spanish conquest.[107]

Cultural developments strengthened the continuing development of a national identity,[108][109] and Tagalog began to take precedence over other local languages.[61]: 121  Governmental functions were gradually devolved to Filipinos under the Taft Commission[110] and in 1935 the Philippines was granted Commonwealth status with Manuel Quezon as president and Sergio Osmeña as vice president.[111] Quezon's priorities were defence, social justice, inequality and economic diversification, and national character.[110] Tagalog was designated the national language,[112] women's suffrage was introduced,[113] and land reform mooted.[114][115]

During World War II the Japanese Empire invaded,[116] and the Second Philippine Republic, under Jose P. Laurel, was established as a puppet state.[117][118] From 1942 the Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground guerrilla activity.[119][120][121] Atrocities and war crimes were committed during the war, including the Bataan Death March and the Manila massacre.[122][123] Allied troops defeated the Japanese in 1945. It is estimated that over one million Filipinos had died by the end of the war.[124][125] On October 11, 1945, the Philippines became one of the founding members of the United Nations.[126][127] On July 4, 1946, the Philippines was officially recognized by the United States as an independent nation through the Treaty of Manila, during the presidency of Manuel Roxas.[127][128][129]

Independence (1946–present)

Efforts to end the Hukbalahap Rebellion began during Elpidio Quirino's term,[130] however, it was only during Ramon Magsaysay's presidency that the movement was suppressed.[131] Magsaysay's successor, Carlos P. Garcia, initiated the Filipino First Policy,[132] which was continued by Diosdado Macapagal, with celebration of Independence Day moved from July 4 to June 12, the date of Emilio Aguinaldo's declaration,[133][134] and pursuit of a claim on the eastern part of North Borneo.[135][136]

In 1965, Macapagal lost the presidential election to Ferdinand Marcos. Early in his presidency, Marcos initiated numerous infrastructure projects[137] but, together with his wife Imelda, was accused of corruption and embezzling billions of dollars in public funds.[138] Nearing the end of his last constitutionally-allowed term, Marcos declared martial law on September 21, 1972.[139][140] This period of his rule was characterized by political repression, censorship, and human rights violations.[141]

Numerous monopolies controlled by crony businessmen were established in key industries, including logging, coconuts, bananas, telephones, and broadcasting;[142] a sugar monopoly led to a famine on the island of Negros.[142] Marcos’ heavy borrowing early in his presidency resulted in numerous economic crashes, capped by a massive recession in the early 1980s which culminated in the economy contracting by 7.3% in both 1984 and 1985.[143][142]

On August 21, 1983, Marcos' chief rival, opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr., was assassinated on the tarmac at Manila International Airport. Marcos called a snap presidential election in 1986.[144] Marcos was proclaimed the winner, but the results were widely regarded as fraudulent.[145] The resulting protests led to the People Power Revolution,[146] which forced Marcos and his allies to flee to Hawaii, and Aquino's widow, Corazon Aquino, was installed as president.[144][147]

 
The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo was the second largest volcanic eruption of the 20th century.

The return of democracy and government reforms beginning in 1986 were hampered by national debt, government corruption, and coup attempts.[148][149] A communist insurgency[150][151] and a military conflict with Moro separatists persisted,[152] while the administration also faced a series of disasters, including the sinking of the MV Doña Paz in December 1987,[153][undue weight? ] and the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991.[154][155] Aquino was succeeded by Fidel V. Ramos, whose economic performance, at 3.6% growth rate,[156][157] was overshadowed by the onset of the 1997 Asian financial crisis.[158][159]

Ramos' successor, Joseph Estrada, was overthrown by the 2001 EDSA Revolution and succeeded by his vice president, Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, on January 20, 2001.[160] Arroyo's 9-year administration was marked by economic growth[161] but was tainted by corruption and political scandals.[162][163] On November 23, 2009, 34 journalists and several civilians were killed in Maguindanao.[164][165]

Economic growth continued during Benigno Aquino III's administration, which pushed for good governance and transparency.[166][167] In 2015, a shootout in Mamasapano resulted in the death of 44 members of the Philippine National Police-Special Action Force, which caused a delay in the passage of the Bangsamoro Organic Law.[168][169]

Former Davao City mayor Rodrigo Duterte won the 2016 presidential election, becoming the first president from Mindanao.[170][171] Duterte launched an anti-drug campaign[172][173] and an infrastructure program.[174][175] The implementation in 2018 of the Bangsamoro Organic Law led to the creation of the autonomous Bangsamoro region in Mindanao.[176][177] In early 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic reached the country[178][179] causing the gross domestic product to shrink by 9.5%, the country's worst annual economic performance since records began in 1947.[180]

Marcos' son, Bongbong Marcos, won the 2022 presidential election, together with Duterte's daughter, Sara Duterte, as vice president.[181]

Geography and environment

 
Topography of the Philippines

The Philippines is an archipelago composed of about 7,640 islands,[182][183] covering a total area, including inland bodies of water, of around 300,000 square kilometers (115,831 sq mi),[184][185] with cadastral survey data suggesting it may be larger.[186] The exclusive economic zone of the Philippines covers 2,263,816 km2 (874,064 sq mi).[187] Its 36,289 kilometers (22,549 mi) coastline gives it the world's fifth-longest coastline.[188] It is located between 116° 40', and 126° 34' E longitude and 4° 40' and 21° 10' N latitude and is bordered by the Philippine Sea to the east,[189][190] the South China Sea to the west,[191] and the Celebes Sea to the south.[192] The island of Borneo is located a few hundred kilometers southwest,[193] and Taiwan is located directly to the north. Sulawesi is located to the southwest, and Palau is located to the east of the islands.[194][195]

The highest mountain is Mount Apo, measuring up to 2,954 meters (9,692 ft) above sea level and located on the island of Mindanao.[196] Running east of the archipelago, the Philippine Trench extends 10,540-meter (34,580 ft) down at the Emden Deep.[197][198][199] The longest river is the Cagayan River in northern Luzon, measuring about 520 kilometers (320 mi).[200] Manila Bay,[201] upon the shore of which the capital city of Manila lies, is connected to Laguna de Bay,[202] the largest lake in the Philippines, by the Pasig River.[203] The Puerto Princesa Subterranean River, which runs 8.2 kilometers (5.1 mi) underground through a karst landscape before reaching the ocean, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[204]

 
Mayon is an active stratovolcano, located in the south of the island of Luzon

Situated on the western fringes of the Pacific Ring of Fire, the Philippines experiences frequent seismic and volcanic activity.[205] The Philippine region is seismically active and has been progressively constructed by plates converging towards each other in multiple directions.[206][207][208] Around five earthquakes are registered daily, though most are too weak to be felt.[209][208] The last major earthquakes were the 1976 Moro Gulf earthquake and the 1990 Luzon earthquake.[210] There are many active volcanoes such as Mayon, Mount Pinatubo, and Taal Volcano.[211] The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991 produced the second largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century.[212] The Philippines is the world's second-biggest geothermal energy producer behind the United States, with 18% of the country's electricity needs being met by geothermal power.[213]

The country has valuable[214] mineral deposits as a result of its complex geologic structure and high level of seismic activity.[215][216] The Philippines is thought to have the second-largest gold deposits after South Africa, along with a large amount of copper deposits,[217] and the world's largest deposits of palladium.[218] Other minerals include chromite, nickel, and zinc. Despite this, a lack of law enforcement, poor management, opposition because of the presence of indigenous communities, and past instances of environmental damage and disaster have resulted in these mineral resources remaining largely untapped.[217][219]

Biodiversity

 
The Philippine Eagle is endemic to the forests of the country.

The Philippines is a megadiverse country.[220][221] Eight major types of forests are distributed throughout the Philippines; dipterocarp, beach forest, pine forest, molave forest, lower montane forest, upper montane or mossy forest, mangroves, and ultrabasic forest.[222] As of 2021, the Philippines has 7 million hectares of forest cover, according to official estimates, though experts contend that the actual figure is likely much lower.[223] Deforestation, often the result of illegal logging, is an acute problem in the Philippines. Forest cover has declined from 70% of the Philippines's total land area in 1900 to about 18.3% in 1999.[224] With an estimated 13,500 plant species in the country, 3,200 of which are unique to the islands,[225] Philippine rainforests have an array of flora,[226] including many rare types of orchids[227] and rafflesia.[228]

Around 1,100 land vertebrate species can be found in the Philippines including over 100 mammal species and 243 bird species not thought to exist elsewhere.[225][229] The Philippines has among the highest rates of discovery in the world with sixteen new species of mammals discovered in the last ten years. Because of this, the rate of endemism for the Philippines has risen and likely will continue to rise.[230] Parts of its marine waters contain the highest diversity of shorefish species in the world.[231]

Large reptiles include the Philippine crocodile[232] and saltwater crocodile.[233] The largest crocodile in captivity, known locally as Lolong, was captured in the southern island of Mindanao,[234] and died on February 10, 2013, from pneumonia and cardiac arrest.[235] The national bird, known as the Philippine eagle, has the longest body of any eagle; it generally measures 86 to 102 cm (2.82 to 3.35 ft) in length and weighs 4.7 to 8.0 kg (10.4 to 17.6 lb).[236][237] The Philippine eagle is part of the family Accipitridae and is endemic to the rainforests of Luzon, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao.[238] The Philippines has the third highest number of endemic birds in the world (behind Indonesia and Australia) with 243 endemics. Notable birds include the Celestial monarch, flame-templed babbler, Red-vented cockatoo, Whiskered pitta, Sulu hornbill, Rufous hornbill, Luzon bleeding-heart and the Flame-breasted fruit dove.[229]

Philippine maritime waters produce unique and diverse marine life[239] and is an important part of the Coral Triangle ecoregion.[240][241] The total number of corals and marine fish species in this ecoregion is estimated at 500 and 2,400 respectively.[225] New records[242][243] and species discoveries continue.[244][245][246] The Tubbataha Reef in the Sulu Sea was declared a World Heritage Site in 1993.[247] Philippine waters also sustain the cultivation of fish, crustaceans, oysters, and seaweeds.[248] One species of oyster, Pinctada maxima, produces pearls that are naturally golden in color.[249] Pearls have been declared a "national gem".[250]

Climate

 

The Philippines has a tropical maritime climate that is usually hot and humid. There are three seasons: a hot dry season from March to May; a rainy season from June to November; and a cool dry season from December to February. The southwest monsoon lasts from May to October and the northeast monsoon from November to April. Temperatures usually range from 21 °C (70 °F) to 32 °C (90 °F). The coolest month is January; the warmest is May.[251]

The average yearly temperature is around 26.6 °C (79.9 °F). In considering temperature, location in terms of latitude and longitude is not a significant factor, and temperatures at sea level tend to be in the same range. Altitude usually has more of an impact. The average annual temperature of Baguio at an elevation of 1,500 meters (4,900 ft) above sea level is 18.3 °C (64.9 °F), making it a popular destination during hot summers.[251] Annual rainfall measures as much as 5,000 millimeters (200 in) in the mountainous east coast section but less than 1,000 millimeters (39 in) in some of the sheltered valleys.[252]

Sitting astride the typhoon belt, the islands experience 15–20 typhoons annually from July to October,[252] with around 19 typhoons[253] entering the Philippine area of responsibility in a typical year and 8 or 9 making landfall.[254][255] Historically typhoons were sometimes referred to as baguios.[256] The wettest recorded typhoon to hit the Philippines dropped 2,210 millimeters (87 in) in Baguio from July 14 to 18, 1911.[257] The Philippines is highly exposed to climate change and is among the world's ten countries that are most vulnerable to climate change risks.[258]

Government and politics

 
Malacañang Palace is the official residence of the president of the Philippines.

The Philippines has a democratic government in the form of a constitutional republic with a presidential system.[259] The president functions as both head of state and head of government[260] and is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces.[259] The president is elected by direct election for a single six-year term.[261] The president appoints and presides over the cabinet.[262]: 213–214  The bicameral Congress is composed of the Senate, serving as the upper house, with members elected to a six-year term, and the House of Representatives, serving as the lower house, with members elected to a three-year term.[263] Philippine politics tends to be dominated by those with well-known names, such as members of political dynasties or celebrities.[264][265]

Senators are elected at-large[263] while the representatives are elected from both legislative districts and through sectoral representation.[262]: 162–163  The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court, composed of a chief justice as its presiding officer and fourteen associate justices,[266] all of whom are appointed by the president from nominations submitted by the Judicial and Bar Council.[259]

There have been attempts to change the government to a federal, unicameral, or parliamentary government since the Ramos administration.[267] There is a significant amount of corruption in the Philippines,[268][269][270] which some historians attribute to the system of governance put in place during the Spanish colonial period.[271]

Foreign relations

As a founding and active member of the United Nations,[272] the country has been elected to the Security Council.[273] Carlos P. Romulo was a former president of the United Nations General Assembly.[274][275] The country is an active participant in peacekeeping missions, particularly in East Timor.[276][277] Over 10 million Filipinos live and work overseas.[278][279]

The Philippines is a founding and active member of ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations).[280] It has hosted several summits and is an active contributor to the direction and policies of the bloc.[281][282] It is also a member of the East Asia Summit,[283] the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Group of 24, and the Non-Aligned Movement.[284][285][286] The country is also seeking to obtain observer status in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.[287][288]

The Philippines has a long relationship with the United States, covering economics, security, and people-to-people relations.[289] A Mutual Defense Treaty between the two countries was signed in 1951 and supplemented with the 1999 Visiting Forces Agreement and the 2016 Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement.[290] The Philippines supported American policies during the Cold War and participated in the Korean and Vietnam wars.[291][292] In 2003 the Philippines was designated a major non-NATO ally.[293] Under President Duterte, ties with the United States have weakened[294] with military purchases instead coming from China and Russia,[295][296] while Duterte states that the Philippines will no longer participate in any U.S.-led wars.[297] In 2021, it was revealed the United States would defend the Philippines including the South China Sea.[298]

The Philippines attaches great importance to its relations with China and has established significant cooperation with the country.[299][300][301][302][303][304] Japan is the biggest bilateral contributor of official development assistance to the country.[305][306][307] Although historical tensions exist because of the events of World War II, much of the animosity has faded.[308] Historical and cultural ties continue to affect relations with Spain.[309][310] Relations with Middle Eastern countries are shaped by the high number of Filipinos working in these countries,[311] and by issues related to the Muslim minority in the Philippines;[312] concerns have been raised regarding issues such as domestic abuse and war affecting[313][314] the approximately 2.5 million overseas Filipino workers in the region.[315]

The Philippines has claims in the Spratly Islands which overlap with claims by China, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Vietnam. The largest of its controlled islands in Thitu Island, which contains the Philippines's smallest village.[316][317] The Scarborough Shoal standoff in 2012, where China took control of the shoal from the Philippines, led to an international arbitration case[318] which the Philippines eventually won[319] but China had rejected,[320] and has made the shoal a prominent symbol in the wider dispute.[321]

Military

The Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) consist of three branches: the Philippine Air Force, the Philippine Army, and the Philippine Navy.[322] The AFP is a volunteer force.[323] Civilian security is handled by the Philippine National Police under the Department of the Interior and Local Government.[324][325] As of 2018, $2.843 billion,[326] or 1.1 percent of GDP is spent on military forces.[327] As of 2021, this number has increased to $4.40 billion.[328]

In Bangsamoro, the largest separatist organizations, the Moro National Liberation Front and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, were engaging the government politically in the 2000s.[329] Other more militant groups like the Abu Sayyaf have kidnapped foreigners for ransom, particularly in the Sulu Archipelago.[331][332][333][334] Their presence decreased through successful security provided by the Philippine government.[335][336] The Communist Party of the Philippines and its military wing, the New People's Army, have been waging guerrilla warfare against the government since the 1970s, reaching its apex in 1986, when communist guerrillas gained control of a fifth of the country's territory before significantly dwindling militarily and politically after the return of democracy in 1986.[337][338]

Administrative divisions

The Philippines is governed as a unitary state, with the exception of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM),[339] although there have been several steps towards decentralization within the unitary framework.[340][341] A 1991 law devolved some powers to local governments.[342] The country is divided into 17 regions, 82 provinces, 146 cities, 1,488 municipalities, and 42,036 barangays.[343] Regions other than Bangsamoro serve primarily to organize the provinces of the country for administrative convenience.[344] As of 2015, Calabarzon was the most populated region while the National Capital Region (NCR) was the most densely populated.[345]

 
Administrative map of the Philippines
Regions of the Philippines
Designation Name Regional center Area[345] Population
(as of 2015)[346]
% of Population Population density[345]
NCR National Capital Region Manila 619.54 km2 (239.21 sq mi) 12,877,253 12.75% 20,785/km2 (53,830/sq mi)
Region I Ilocos Region San Fernando (La Union) 12,964.62 km2 (5,005.67 sq mi) 5,026,128 4.98% 388/km2 (1,000/sq mi)
CAR Cordillera Administrative Region Baguio 19,818.12 km2 (7,651.82 sq mi) 1,722,006 1.71% 87/km2 (230/sq mi)
Region II Cagayan Valley Tuguegarao 29,836.88 km2 (11,520.08 sq mi) 3,451,410 3.42% 116/km2 (300/sq mi)
Region III Central Luzon San Fernando (Pampanga) 22,014.63 km2 (8,499.90 sq mi) 11,218,177 11.11% 512/km2 (1,330/sq mi)
Region IV-A Calabarzon Calamba 16,576.26 km2 (6,400.13 sq mi) 14,414,774 14.27% 870/km2 (2,300/sq mi)
Region IV-B Mimaropa Calapan 29,606.25 km2 (11,431.04 sq mi) 2,963,360 2.93% 100/km2 (260/sq mi)
Region V Bicol Region Legazpi City 18,114.47 km2 (6,994.04 sq mi) 5,796,989 5.74% 320/km2 (830/sq mi)
Region VI Western Visayas Iloilo City 20,778.29 km2 (8,022.54 sq mi) 7,536,383 7.46% 363/km2 (940/sq mi)
Region VII Central Visayas Cebu City 15,872.58 km2 (6,128.44 sq mi) 7,396,898 7.33% 466/km2 (1,210/sq mi)
Region VIII Eastern Visayas Tacloban 23,234.78 km2 (8,971.00 sq mi) 4,440,150 4.40% 191/km2 (490/sq mi)
Region IX Zamboanga Peninsula Pagadian[347] 16,904.03 km2 (6,526.68 sq mi) 3,629,783 3.59% 215/km2 (560/sq mi)
Region X Northern Mindanao Cagayan de Oro 20,458.51 km2 (7,899.07 sq mi) 4,689,302 4.64% 229/km2 (590/sq mi)
Region XI Davao Region Davao City 20,433.38 km2 (7,889.37 sq mi) 4,893,318 4.85% 239/km2 (620/sq mi)
Region XII Soccsksargen Koronadal 22,610.08 km2 (8,729.80 sq mi) 4,245,838 4.20% 188/km2 (490/sq mi)
Region XIII Caraga Butuan 21,120.56 km2 (8,154.69 sq mi) 2,596,709 2.57% 123/km2 (320/sq mi)
BARMM Bangsamoro Cotabato City 36,826.95 km2 (14,218.96 sq mi) 4,080,825 4.04% 111/km2 (290/sq mi)

Demographics

The Commission on Population estimated the country's population to be 107,190,081 as of December 31, 2018, based on the latest population census of 2015 conducted by the Philippine Statistics Authority.[348] The population increased from 1990 to 2008 by approximately 28 million, a 45% growth in that time frame.[349] The first official census in the Philippines was carried out in 1877 and recorded a population of 5,567,685.[350]

A third of the population resides in Metro Manila and its immediately neighboring regions.[351] The 2.34% average annual population growth rate between 1990 and 2000 decreased to an estimated 1.90% for the 2000–2010 period.[352] Government attempts to reduce population growth have been a contentious issue.[353] The population's median age is 22.7 years with 60.9% aged from 15 to 64 years old.[6] Life expectancy at birth is 69.4 years, 73.1 years for females and 65.9 years for males.[354] Poverty incidence dropped to 18.1% in 2021[355] from 25.2% in 2012.[356]

The capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both within the single urban area of Metro Manila.[357] Metro Manila is the most populous of the 3 defined metropolitan areas in the Philippines[358] and the 5th most populous in the world.[359] Census data from 2015 showed it had a population of 12,877,253 constituting almost 13% of the national population.[360] Including suburbs in the adjacent provinces (Bulacan, Cavite, Laguna, and Rizal) of Greater Manila, the population is around 23,088,000.[359] Across the country, the Philippines has a total urbanization rate of 51.2%.[360] Metro Manila's gross regional product was estimated as of 2021 to be 6.158 trillion (at constant 2020 prices).[361]

Ethnic groups

 
Dominant ethnic groups by province

There is substantial ethnic diversity with the Philippines, a product of the seas and mountain ranges dividing the archipelago along with significant foreign influences.[260] According to the 2010 census, 24.4% of Filipinos are Tagalog, 11.4% Visayans/Bisaya (excluding Cebuano, Hiligaynon and Waray), 9.9% Cebuano, 8.8% Ilocano, 8.4% Hiligaynon, 6.8% Bikol, 4% Waray, and 26.2% are "others",[6][362] which can be broken down further to yield more distinct nontribal groups like the Moro, Kapampangan, Pangasinense, Ibanag, and Ivatan.[363] There are also indigenous peoples[364] like the Igorot, the Lumad, the Mangyan, and the tribes of Palawan.[365]

Negritos are considered among the earliest inhabitants of the islands.[366] These minority aboriginal settlers are an Australoid group and are left over from the first human migration out of Africa to Australia and were likely displaced by later waves of migration.[367] At least some Negritos in the Philippines have Denisovan admixture in their genomes.[368][369] Ethnic Filipinos generally belong to several Southeast Asian ethnic groups classified linguistically as part of the Austronesian or Malayo-Polynesian speaking people.[364] There is some uncertainty over the origin of this Austronesian speaking population. It is likely that ancestors related to Taiwanese aborigines brought their language and mixed with existing populations in the area.[370][371] The Lumad and Sama-Bajau ethnic groups have ancestral affinity with the Austroasiatic Mlabri and Htin peoples of mainland Southeast Asia. There was a westward expansion of Papuan ancestry from Papua New Guinea to eastern Indonesia and Mindanao detected among the Blaan and Sangir.[33]

Under Spanish rule there was some immigration from elsewhere in the empire, especially from the Spanish Americas.[372][58][373] According to the Kaiser Permanente (KP) Research Program on Genes, Environment, and Health (RPGEH), a substantial proportion of Filipinos sampled have "modest" amounts of European descent consistent with older admixture.[374] In addition to this, the National Geographic project concluded in 2016 that people living in the Philippine archipelago carried genetic markers in the following percentages: 53% Southeast Asia and Oceania, 36% Eastern Asia, 5% Southern Europe, 3% Southern Asia, and 2% Native American[375] (From Latin America).[58]

 
A map that shows all ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines.

Chinese Filipinos are mostly the descendants of immigrants from Fujian in China after 1898,[376] numbering around 2 million, although there are an estimated 20% of Filipinos who have partial Chinese ancestry, stemming from precolonial and colonial Chinese migrants.[377] While a distinct minority, Chinese Filipinos are well integrated into Filipino society.[260][378] As of 2015, there are 220,000 to 600,000 American citizens living in the country.[379] There are also up to 250,000 Amerasians scattered across the cities of Angeles, Manila, and Olongapo.[380] Other important non-indigenous minorities include Indians[381][382] and Arabs.[383] There are also Japanese people, which include escaped Christians (Kirishitan) who fled the persecutions of Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu.[384] The descendants of mixed-race couples are known as Tisoy.[385]

Languages

Population by mother tongue (2010)
Language Speakers
Tagalog 24.44% 24.44
 
22,512,089
Cebuano 21.35% 21.35
 
19,665,453
Ilokano 8.77% 8.77
 
8,074,536
Hiligaynon 8.44% 8.44
 
7,773,655
Waray 3.97% 3.97
 
3,660,645
Other local languages/dialects 26.09% 26.09
 
24,027,005
Other foreign languages/dialects 0.09% 0.09
 
78,862
Not reported/not stated 0.01% 0.01
 
6,450
TOTAL 92,097,978
Source: Philippine Statistics Authority[386]

Ethnologue lists 186 individual languages in the Philippines, 182 of which are living languages, while 4 no longer have any known speakers. Most native languages are part of the Philippine branch of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, which is a branch of the Austronesian language family.[364][387] In addition, various Spanish-based creole varieties collectively called Chavacano exist.[388] There are also many Philippine Negrito languages that have unique vocabularies that survived Austronesian acculturation.[389]

Filipino and English are the official languages of the country.[390] Filipino is a standardized version of Tagalog, spoken mainly in Metro Manila.[391] Both Filipino and English are used in government, education, print, broadcast media, and business, with third local languages often being used at the same time.[392] The Philippine constitution provides for the promotion of Spanish and Arabic on a voluntary and optional basis.[390] Spanish, which was widely used as a lingua franca in the late nineteenth century, has since declined greatly in use,[393] although Spanish loanwords are still present today in Philippine languages,[394][395] while Arabic is mainly taught in Islamic schools in Mindanao.[396]

Nineteen regional languages act as auxiliary official languages used as media of instruction: Aklanon, Bikol, Cebuano, Chavacano, Hiligaynon, Ibanag, Ilocano, Ivatan, Kapampangan, Kinaray-a, Maguindanao, Maranao, Pangasinan, Sambal, Surigaonon, Tagalog, Tausug, Waray, and Yakan.[4] Other indigenous languages such as, Cuyonon, Ifugao, Itbayat, Kalinga, Kamayo, Kankanaey, Masbateño, Romblomanon, Manobo, and several Visayan languages are prevalent in their respective provinces.[397] Article 3 of Republic Act No. 11106 declared the Filipino Sign Language as the national sign language of the Philippines, specifying that it shall be recognized, supported and promoted as the medium of official communication in all transactions involving the deaf, and as the language of instruction of deaf education.[398][399]

Religion

 
The historical Paoay Church in Ilocos Norte. Declared as a National Cultural Treasure by the Philippine government in 1973 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site under the collective group of Baroque Churches of the Philippines in 1993.

The Philippines is a secular state which protects freedom of religion. Christianity is the dominant faith,[400][401] shared by about 89% of the population.[402] As of 2013, the country had the world's third largest Roman Catholic population, and was the largest Christian nation in Asia.[403] Census data from 2015 found that about 79.53% of the population professed Catholicism.[404] Around 37% of the population regularly attend Mass. 29% of self-identified Catholics consider themselves very religious.[405] An independent Catholic church, the Philippine Independent Church, has around 756,225 adherents.[404] Protestants were 9.13% of the population in 2015.[406] 2.64% of the population are members of Iglesia ni Cristo.[404] The combined following of the Philippine Council of Evangelical Churches comes to 2.42% of the total population.[404][407]

Islam is the second largest religion. The Muslim population of the Philippines was reported as 6.01% of the total population according to census returns in 2015.[404] Conversely, a 2012 report by the National Commission of Muslim Filipinos stated that about 10,700,000 or 11% of Filipinos are Muslims.[400] The majority of Muslims live in Mindanao and nearby islands.[401][408] Most practice Sunni Islam under the Shafi'i school.[409]

The percentage of combined positive atheist and agnostic people in the Philippines was about 3% of the population as of 2008.[410] The 2015 Philippine Census reported the religion of about 0.02% of the population as "none".[404] A 2014 survey by Gallup International Association reported that 21% of its respondents identify as "not a religious person".[411] Around 0.24% of the population practice indigenous Philippine folk religions,[404] whose practices and folk beliefs are often syncretized with Christianity and Islam.[412][413] Buddhism is practiced by around 0.03% of the population,[404] concentrated among Filipinos of Chinese descent.[414]

Health

In 2016, 63.1% of healthcare came from private expenditures while 36.9% was from the government (12.4% from the national government, 7.1% from the local government, and 17.4% from social health insurance).[415] Total health expenditure share in GDP for the year 2021 was 6%.[416] Per capita health expenditure in 2021 was 9,839.23, higher than the 8,511.52 in 2020.[417] The budget allocation for Healthcare in 2019 was ₱98.6 billion[418] and had an increase in budget in 2014 with a record high in the collection of taxes from the House Bill 5727 (commonly known as Sin tax Bill).[419]

There were 101,688 hospital beds in the country in 2016, with government hospital beds accounting for 47% and private hospital beds for 53%.[420] In 2009, there were an estimated 90,370 physicians or 1 per every 833 people, 480,910 nurses and 43,220 dentists.[421] Retention of skilled practitioners is a problem; seventy percent of nursing graduates go overseas to work.[422] Since 1967, the Philippines had become the largest global supplier of nurses for export.[423] The Philippines suffers a triple burden of high levels of communicable diseases, high levels of non-communicable diseases, and high exposure to natural disasters.[424]

In 2018, there were 1,258 hospitals licensed by the Department of Health, of which 433 (34%) were government-run and 825 (66%) private.[425] A total of 20,065 barangay health stations and 2,590 rural health units provide primary care services throughout the country as of 2016.[426] Cardiovascular diseases account for more than 35% of all deaths.[427][428] 9,264 cases of HIV were reported for the year 2016, with 8,151 being asymptomatic cases.[429] At the time the country was considered a low-HIV-prevalence country, with less than 0.1% of the adult population estimated to be HIV-positive.[430] HIV/AIDS cases increased from 12,000 in 2005[431] to 39,622 as of 2016, with 35,957 being asymptomatic cases.[429]

There is improvement in patients access to medicines due to Filipinos' growing acceptance of generic drugs, with 6 out of 10 Filipinos already using generics.[432] While the country's universal health care implementation is underway as spearheaded by the state-owned Philippine Health Insurance Corporation,[433] most healthcare-related expenses are either borne out of pocket[434] or through health maintenance organization (HMO)-provided health plans. The enactment of the Universal Health Care Act in 2019 by President Rodrigo Duterte facilitated the automatic enrollment of all Filipinos in the national health insurance program; as of March 2022, 94.79 million individuals were covered by these plans.[435]

Education

 
Founded in 1611, the University of Santo Tomas is the oldest extant university in Asia.

As of 2019, the Philippines had a basic literacy rate of 93.8% among five years old or older,[436] and a functional literacy rate of 91.6% among ages 10 to 64.[437] Education takes up a significant proportion of the national budget. In the 2020 budget, education was allocated PHP17.1 billion from the PHP4.1 trillion budget.[438]

The Commission on Higher Education lists 2,180 higher education institutions, among which 607 are public and 1,573 are private.[439] Primary and secondary schooling is divided between a 6-year elementary period, a 4-year junior high school period, and a 2-year senior high school period.[440][441][442] The Department of Education covers elementary, secondary, and non-formal education.[443] The Technical Education and Skills Development Authority administers middle-level education training and development.[444][445] The Commission on Higher Education was created in 1994 to, among other functions, formulate and recommend development plans, policies, priorities, and programs on higher education and research.[446] In 2004, madaris were mainstreamed in 16 regions nationwide, mainly in Muslim areas in Mindanao under the auspices and program of the Department of Education.[447]

Public universities are all non-sectarian entities and are classified as State Universities and Colleges or Local Colleges and Universities.[439] The University of the Philippines, a system of eight constituent universities, is the national university system of the Philippines.[448] The country's top ranked universities are as follows: University of the Philippines, Ateneo de Manila University, De La Salle University, and University of Santo Tomas.[449][450][451] The University of Santo Tomas, established in 1611, has the oldest extant university charter in the Philippines and Asia.[452][453]

Economy

 
Real GDP per capita development of the Philippines
 
A proportional representation of Philippines exports, 2019

In 2020, the Philippine economy produced an estimated gross domestic product (nominal) of $367.4 billion.[454] Primary exports in 2019 included integrated circuits, office machinery/parts, insulated wiring, semiconductors, transformers; major trading partners included China (16%), United States (15%), Japan (13%), Hong Kong (12%), Singapore (7%), Germany (5%).[6] Its unit of currency is the Philippine peso (₱[455] or PHP[456]).[457]

A newly industrialized country,[458][459] the Philippine economy has been transitioning from one based upon agriculture to an economy with more emphasis upon services and manufacturing.[458] Of the country's 2018 labor force of around 43.46 million, the agricultural sector employed 24.3%,[460] and accounted for 8.1% of 2018 GDP.[461] The industrial sector employed around 19% of the workforce and accounted for 34.1% of GDP, while 57% of the workers involved in the services sector were responsible for 57.8% of GDP.[461][462]

The unemployment rate as of October 2019, stands at 4.5%.[463] The inflation rate eased to 1.7% in August 2019.[464] Gross international reserves as of October 2022 are $94.074 billion.[465] The debt-to-GDP ratio continues to decline to 37.6% as of the second quarter of 2019[466][467] from a record high of 78% in 2004.[468] The country is a net importer[469] but is also a creditor nation.[470] Manila hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank.[471]

 
Filipinos planting rice. Agriculture employs 23% of the Filipino workforce as of 2020.[472]

The 1997 Asian financial crisis affected the economy, resulting in a lingering decline of the value of the peso and falls in the stock market. The effects on the Philippines was not as severe as other Asian nations because of the fiscal conservatism of the government, partly as a result of decades of monitoring and fiscal supervision from the International Monetary Fund, in comparison to the massive spending of its neighbors on the rapid acceleration of economic growth.[156]

Remittances from overseas Filipinos contribute significantly to the Philippine economy;[473] in 2021, it reached a record US$34 billion, accounting for 8.9% of the national GDP.[474] Regional development is uneven, with Luzon – Metro Manila in particular – gaining most of the new economic growth at the expense of the other regions.[475][476]

Service industries such as tourism[477] and business process outsourcing (BPO) have been identified as areas with some of the best opportunities for growth for the country.[478] The business process outsourcing industry is composed of eight sub-sectors, namely, knowledge process outsourcing and back offices, animation, call centers, software development, game development, engineering design, and medical transcription.[479] In 2010, the Philippines was reported as having eclipsed India as the main center of BPO services in the world.[480][481][482]

Science and technology

The Department of Science and Technology is the governing agency responsible for the development of coordination of science and technology-related projects in the Philippines.[483] Research organizations in the country include the International Rice Research Institute,[484] which focuses on the development of new rice varieties and rice crop management techniques.[485] The Philippines bought its first satellite in 1996.[486] In 2016, the Philippines first micro-satellite, Diwata-1, was launched aboard the United States' Cygnus spacecraft.[487]

The Philippines has a high concentration of cellular phone users.[488] Text messaging is a popular form of communication and, in 2007, the nation sent an average of one billion SMS messages per day.[489] The country has a high level of mobile financial services utilization.[490] The Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company, commonly known as PLDT, is a formerly nationalized telecommunications provider.[488] It is also the largest company in the country.[491] The National Telecommunications Commission is the agency responsible for the supervision, adjudication and control over all telecommunications services throughout the country.[492]

Tourism

 
Limestone cliffs of El Nido, Palawan.

The tourism sector contributed 5.2% of the country's GDP in 2021, lower than the 12.7% recorded in 2019 prior to the COVID-19 pandemic,[493] and provided 5.7 million jobs in 2019.[494] 8,260,913 international visitors arrived from January to December 2019, up by 15.24% for the same period in 2018.[495] 58.62% (4,842,774) of these came from East Asia, 15.84% (1,308,444) came from North America, and 6.38% (526,832) came from other ASEAN countries.[496] The island of Boracay, popular for its beaches, was named as the best island in the world by Travel + Leisure in 2012.[497] The Philippines is a popular retirement destination for foreigners because of its climate and low cost of living.[498]

Infrastructure

Transportation

Transportation in the Philippines is facilitated by road, air, rail and waterways. As of December 2018, there are 210,528 kilometers (130,816 mi) of roads in the Philippines, with only 65,101 kilometers (40,452 mi) of roads paved.[499] The 919-kilometer (571 mi) Strong Republic Nautical Highway, an integrated set of highway segments and ferry routes covering 17 cities, was established in 2003.[500] The Pan-Philippine Highway connects the islands of Luzon, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao, forming the backbone of land-based transportation in the country.[501] Roads are the dominant form of transport, carrying 98% of people and 58% of cargo. A network of expressways extends from the capital to other areas of Luzon.[502] The 8.25-kilometer (5.13 mi) Cebu–Cordova Link Expressway in Cebu opened in April 2022.[503] Traffic is a significant issue facing the country, especially within Manila and on arterial roads connecting to the capital.[504]

Public transport in the country include buses, jeepneys, UV Express, TNVS, Filcab, taxis, and tricycles.[505][506] Jeepneys are a popular and iconic public utility vehicle.[507] Jeepneys and other public utility vehicles which are older than 15 years are being phased out gradually in favor of a more efficient and environmentally friendly Euro 4 compliant vehicles.[508][509]

Despite wider historical use, rail transportation in the Philippines is limited, being confined to transporting passengers within Metro Manila, and the provinces of Laguna and Quezon,[510] with a separate short track in the Bicol Region.[511] There are plans to revive freight rail to reduce road congestion.[512][513] As of 2019, the country had a railway footprint of only 79 kilometers, which it had plans to expand up to 244 kilometers.[514][515] Metro Manila is served by three rapid transit lines: LRT Line 1, LRT Line 2 and MRT Line 3.[516][517][518] The PNR South Commuter Line transports passengers between Metro Manila and Laguna.[519] Railway lines that are under construction include the 22.8-kilometer (14.2 mi) MRT Line 7 (2020),[520] the 35-kilometer (22 mi) Metro Manila Subway (2025),[521] and the 109-kilometer (68 mi) PNR North–South Commuter Railway which is divided into several phases, with partial operations to begin in 2022.[522] The civil airline industry is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines.[523]

Philippine Airlines is Asia's oldest commercial airline still operating under its original name.[524][525] Cebu Pacific is the countries leading low-cost carrier.[526]

As an archipelago, inter-island travel using watercraft is often necessary.[527] Boats have always been important to societies in the Philippines.[528][529] Most boats are double-outrigger vessels, which can reach up to 30 meters (98 ft) in length, known as banca[530]/bangka,[531] parao, prahu, or balanghay. A variety of boat types are used throughout the islands, such as dugouts (baloto) and house-boats like the lepa-lepa.[529] Terms such as bangka and baroto are also used as general names for a variety of boat types.[531] Modern ships use plywood in place of logs and motor engines in place of sails.[530] These ships are used both for fishing and for inter-island travel.[531] The principal seaports of Manila, Batangas, Subic Bay, Cebu, Iloilo, Davao, Cagayan de Oro, General Santos, and Zamboanga form part of the ASEAN Transport Network.[532][533] The Pasig River Ferry serves the cities of Manila, Makati, Mandaluyong, Pasig and Marikina in Metro Manila.[534][535]

Water supply and sanitation

In 2015, it was reported by the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation that 74% of the population had access to improved sanitation, and that "good progress" had been made between 1990 and 2015.[536] As of 2016, 96% of Filipino households have an improved source of drinking water, and 92% of households had sanitary toilet facilities, although connections of these toilet facilities to appropriate sewerage systems remain largely insufficient especially in rural and urban poor communities.[537]

Culture

 
A participant of the Ati-Atihan Festival.

There is significant cultural diversity across the islands, reinforced by the fragmented geography of the country.[538] The cultures within Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago developed in a particularly distinct manner, since they had very limited Spanish influence and greater influence from nearby Islamic regions.[539] Despite this, a national identity emerged in the 19th century, the development of which is represented by shared national symbols and other cultural and historical touchstones.[538]

One of the most visible Hispanic legacies is the prevalence of Spanish names and surnames among Filipinos; a Spanish name and surname, however, does not necessarily denote Spanish ancestry. This peculiarity, unique among the people of Asia, came as a result of a colonial edict by Governor-General Narciso Clavería y Zaldua, which ordered the systematic distribution of family names and implementation of Hispanic nomenclature on the population.[540] The names of many locations are also Spanish or stem from Spanish roots and origins.[541]

There is a substantial American influence on modern Filipino culture.[260] The common use of the English language is an example of the American impact on Philippine society. It has contributed to the influence of American pop cultural trends.[542] This affinity is seen in Filipinos' consumption of fast food and American film and music.[543] American global fast-food chain stalwarts have entered the market, but local fast-food chains like Goldilocks[544] and most notably Jollibee, the leading fast-food chain in the country, have emerged and compete successfully against foreign chains.[545]

Nationwide festivals include Ati-Atihan, Dinagyang, Moriones and Sinulog.[546][547][548]

Values

 
A statue in Iriga City commemorating the mano po gesture

As a general description, the distinct value system of Filipinos is rooted primarily in personal alliance systems, especially those based in kinship, obligation, friendship, religion (particularly Christianity), and commercial relationships.[549] Filipino values are, for the most part, centered around maintaining social harmony, motivated primarily by the desire to be accepted within a group. The main sanction against diverging from these values are the concepts of "Hiya", roughly translated as 'a sense of shame',[550] and "Amor propio" or 'self-esteem'.[551] Social approval, acceptance by a group, and belonging to a group are major concerns. Caring about what others will think, say or do, are strong influences on social behavior among Filipinos.[552] Other elements of the Filipino value system are optimism about the future, pessimism about present situations and events, concern and care for other people, the existence of friendship and friendliness, the habit of being hospitable, religious nature, respectfulness to self and others, respect for the female members of society, the fear of God, and abhorrence of acts of cheating and thievery.[553][554]

Architecture

 
Colonial houses in Vigan.

Spanish architecture has left an imprint in the Philippines in the way many towns were designed around a central square or plaza mayor, but many of the buildings bearing its influence were demolished during World War II.[47] Four Philippine baroque churches are included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the San Agustín Church in Manila, Paoay Church in Ilocos Norte, Nuestra Señora de la Asunción (Santa María) Church in Ilocos Sur, and Santo Tomás de Villanueva Church in Iloilo.[555] Vigan in Ilocos Sur is known for the many Hispanic-style houses and buildings preserved there.[556]

American rule introduced new architectural styles. This led to the construction of government buildings and Art Deco theaters. During the American period, some semblance of city planning using the architectural designs and master plans by Daniel Burnham was done on the portions of the city of Manila. Part of the Burnham plan was the construction of government buildings that resembled Greek or Neoclassical architecture.[557] In Iloilo, structures from both the Spanish and American periods can still be seen, especially in Calle Real.[558] Certain areas of the country like Batanes have slight differences as both Spanish and Filipino ways of architecture assimilated differently because of the climate. Limestone was used as a building material, with houses being built to withstand typhoons.[559]

Music and dance

 
Cariñosa, a Hispanic era dance for traditional Filipino courtship.

In general, there are two types of Philippine folk dance, stemming from traditional tribal influences and from Spanish influence. Spanish-influenced music are mostly bandurria-based bands that us 14th string guitars. One example of such type is the Cariñosa. A Hispanic Filipino dance, unofficially considered as the "National Dance of the Philippines".[560] Another example is the Tinikling.[561] While native dances had become less popular over time,[562]: 77  a revival of folk dances began in the 1920s.[562]: 82  In the modern and post-modern time periods, dances may vary from the delicate ballet up to the more street-oriented styles of breakdancing.[563][564]

During the Spanish era Rondalya music, where traditional string orchestra mandolin type instruments were used, was widespread.[565] Kundiman developed in the 1920s and 1930s[566] and had a renaissance in the postwar period.[567] The American colonial period exposed many Filipinos to U.S. culture and popular forms of music.[566] Rock music was introduced to Filipinos in the 1960s and developed into Filipino rock, or "Pinoy rock", a term encompassing diverse styles such as pop rock, alternative rock, heavy metal, punk, new wave, ska, and reggae. Martial law in the 1970s produced several Filipino folk rock bands and artists who were at the forefront of political demonstrations.[568] The 1970s also saw the birth of Manila Sound[569] and Original Pilipino Music (OPM).[570] Filipino hip-hop traces its origins back to 1979, entering the mainstream in 1990.[571][572] Karaoke is a popular activity in the country.[573] From 2010 to 2020, Philippine pop music or P-pop went through a metamorphosis in its increased quality, budget, investment, and variety, matching the country's rapid economic growth and an accompanying social and cultural resurgence of its Asian identity. This was heard by heavy influence from K-pop and J-pop, growth in Asian style ballads, idol groups, and electronic dance music, and less reliance on Western genres, mirroring the Korean wave and similar Japanese wave popularity among millennial Filipinos and mainstream culture.[citation needed]

Locally produced spoken dramas became established in the late 1870s. Around the same time, Spanish influence led to the introduction of zarzuela plays which integrated musical pieces,[574] and of comedia plays which included more significant dance elements. Such performances became popular throughout the country[562]: 69–70  and were written in a number of local languages.[574] American influence led to the introduction of vaudeville and ballet.[562]: 69–70  During the 20th century the realism genre became more dominant, with performances written to focus on contemporary political and societal issues.[574]

Literature

 
José Rizal is a pioneer of Philippine Revolution through his literary works.

Philippine literature comprises works usually written in Filipino, Spanish, or English. Some of the most known were created from the 17th to 19th century.[575] Ibong Adarna, for example, is a famous epic about an eponymous magical bird allegedly written by José de la Cruz or "Huseng Sisiw".[576] Francisco Balagtas, the poet and playwright who wrote Florante at Laura, is recognized as a preeminent writer in the Tagalog language.[577] José Rizal wrote the novels Noli Me Tángere (Touch Me Not) and El filibusterismo (The Filibustering, also known as The Reign of Greed).[578]

The term "Philippine literature" refers to works of literature that have been connected to the country throughout prehistory through the colonial era and up to the present. Epics that were originally passed down orally are what can be considered pre-Hispanic Philippine literature. However, wealthier families were able to preserve transcriptions of these epics as family heirlooms, particularly in Mindanao. The Darangen, a Maranao epic, was one such example.

Philippine mythology has been handed down primarily through the traditional oral folk literature of the Filipino people. Some popular figures from Philippine mythologies are Maria Makiling, Lam-Ang, and the Sarimanok.[579]

Cinema

Philippine cinema began at the end of the 19th century[580] and made up around 20% of the domestic market during the second half of the 20th century. During the 21st century however, the industry has struggled to compete with larger budget foreign films.[581] Critically acclaimed Philippines films include Himala (Miracle).[582][583][584] Moving pictures were first shown in the Philippines on January 1, 1897.[585][586] Films were all in Spanish since Philippine cinema was first introduced during the final years of the Spanish era of the country. Antonio Ramos was the first known movie producer.[587][588] Jose Nepomuceno was dubbed as the "Father of Philippine Movies".[589] His work marked the start of the local production of movies. Production companies remained small during the era of silent film, but 1933 saw the emergence of sound films and the arrival of the first significant production company. The postwar 1940s and the 1950s are regarded as a high point for Philippine cinema.[108]

The growing dominance of Hollywood films and the cost of production has severely reduced local filmmaking.[590][591] Nonetheless, some local films continue to find success.[592][593]

Mass media

Philippine media uses mainly Filipino and English, though broadcasting has shifted to Filipino.[392] There are large numbers of both radio stations and newspapers.[594] The top three newspapers by nationwide readership as well as credibility[595] are the Philippine Daily Inquirer, Manila Bulletin, and The Philippine Star.[596][597] While freedom of the press is protected by the constitution, the country is very dangerous for journalists.[594][598]

The dominant television networks were ABS-CBN and GMA, both being free-to-air.[594] ABS-CBN, at the time the largest network[599] was shut down following a cease and desist order issued by the National Telecommunications Commission on May 5, 2020, a day after the expiration of the network's franchise.[600] Prior to this move, President Rodrigo Duterte accused ABS-CBN of being biased against his administration and vowed to block the renewal of their franchise. Critics of the Duterte administration, human rights groups, and media unions said the shutdown of ABS-CBN was an attack on press freedom.[599][601] On July 10, 2020, the House of Representatives declined a renewal of ABS-CBN's TV and radio franchise, with a vote of 70–11.[599]

TV, the Internet,[602] and social media remain the top source of news and information for the majority of Filipinos.[603][604] English broadsheets are popular among executives, professionals and students;[605] cheaper Tagalog tabloids, which feature crime, sex, gossips and gore, saw a rise in the 1990s, tend to be popular among the masses, particularly in Manila,[605][606][607] although newspaper readership continues to decline.[603]

67% of Filipinos, or 73.91 million, had Internet access in early 2021, with an overwhelming majority of users accessing the Internet via smartphones.[608] Social networking and watching videos are among the most frequent Internet activities.[609] The Philippine population is the world's top internet user.[610] The Philippines was ranked 51st in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, it has increased its ranking considerably since 2014, where it was ranked 100th.[611][612][613][614]

Cuisine

Regional variations exist throughout the islands, for example rice is a standard starch in Luzon while cassava is more common in Mindanao.[615] Filipino taste buds tend to favor robust flavors[616] centered on sweet, salty, and sour combinations.[617] Unlike other East or Southeast Asian countries, most Filipinos do not eat with chopsticks; they use Western cutlery. Since rice is the primary staple food and stews and broths are very common in Filipino cuisine, the main of utensils are spoons and forks, not knife and fork.[618]

The traditional way of eating with the hands known as kamayan (using the hand for bringing food to the mouth)[619] was previously more often seen in the less urbanized areas.[615] Introduction of Filipino food to people of other nationalities, as well as to Filipino urbanites, has popularized kamayan.[620][621] This recent trend also sometimes incorporates the "boodle fight" concept (as popularized and coined by the Philippine Army), wherein banana leaves are used as giant plates on top of which rice portions and Filipino viands are placed all together for a filial, friendly or communal kamayan feasting.[622]

Sports

Basketball is played at both amateur and professional levels and is considered to be the most popular sport in the Philippines.[623] In 2010, Manny Pacquiao was named "Fighter of the Decade" for the 2000s by the Boxing Writers Association of America.[624] The national martial art and sport of the country is Arnis.[625][626] Sabong or cockfighting is another popular entertainment especially among Filipino men and was documented by Magellan's voyage as a pastime in the kingdom of Taytay.[627]

The men's national football team has participated in one Asian Cup.[628] In January 2022, the women's national football team qualified in their first FIFA Women's World Cup—the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup—upon defeating Chinese Taipei 4–3 in a penalty shootout after finishing 1–1 in extra time.

Beginning in 1924, the Philippines has competed in every Summer Olympic Games, except when they sat out during the American-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics.[629][630] The Philippines is the first tropical nation to compete at the Winter Olympic Games debuting in the 1972 Olympics.[631][632] In 2021, the country tallied its first ever Olympic gold medal via weightlifter Hidilyn Diaz's victory at the Tokyo Olympics.[633]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ While Manila is designated as the nation's capital, the seat of government is the National Capital Region, commonly known as "Metro Manila", of which the city of Manila is a part.[2][3] Many national government institutions are located on various parts of Metro Manila, aside from Malacañang Palace and other institutions/agencies that are located within the Manila capital city.
  2. ^ As per the 1987 Constitution: "Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis."
  3. ^ Since March 10, 1945[11][12]
  4. ^ In the recognized regional languages of the Philippines:

    In the recognized optional languages of the Philippines:

    • Spanish: República de las Filipinas
    • Arabic: جمهورية الفلبين, romanizedJumhūriyyat al-Filibbīn

References

Citations

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philippines, philippine, redirects, here, town, netherlands, philippine, netherlands, coordinates, listen, filipino, pilipinas, officially, republic, filipino, republika, pilipinas, archipelagic, country, southeast, asia, situated, western, pacific, ocean, con. Philippine redirects here For the town in the Netherlands see Philippine Netherlands Coordinates 13 N 122 E 13 N 122 E 13 122 The Philippines ˈ f ɪ l ɪ p iː n z listen Filipino Pilipinas 13 officially the Republic of the Philippines Filipino Republika ng Pilipinas d is an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia It is situated in the western Pacific Ocean and consists of around 7 641 islands that are broadly categorized under three main geographical divisions from north to south Luzon Visayas and Mindanao The Philippines is bounded by the South China Sea to the west the Philippine Sea to the east and the Celebes Sea to the southwest It shares maritime borders with Taiwan to the north Japan to the northeast Palau to the east and southeast Indonesia to the south Malaysia to the southwest Vietnam to the west and China to the northwest The Philippines covers an area of 300 000 km2 120 000 sq mi and as of 2021 update it had a population of around 109 million people 14 making it the world s thirteenth most populous country The Philippines has diverse ethnicities and cultures throughout its islands Manila is the country s capital while the largest city is Quezon City both lie within the urban area of Metro Manila Republic of the PhilippinesRepublika ng Pilipinas Filipino Flag Coat of armsMotto Maka Diyos Maka tao Makakalikasan at Makabansa 1 For God People Nature and Country Latin Pro Deo Populi Natura et Patria Anthem Lupang Hinirang Chosen Land source source track track track track track track Great SealShow globeShow map of ASEANCapitalManila de jure 14 35 N 120 58 E 14 583 N 120 967 E 14 583 120 967 Metro Manila a de facto Largest cityQuezon City14 38 N 121 02 E 14 633 N 121 033 E 14 633 121 033Official languagesFilipinoEnglishRecognized regional languages19 languages AklanonBikolCebuanoChavacanoHiligaynonIbanagIlocanoIvatanKapampanganKaray aMaguindanaonMaranaoPangasinanSambalSurigaononTagalogTausugWarayYakan 4 National sign languageFilipino Sign LanguageOther recognized languages b SpanishArabicEthnic groups 2010 5 33 7 Visayan24 4 Tagalog8 4 Ilocano6 8 Bicolano26 2 OthersReligion 2015 5 88 7 Christianity 79 5 Catholicism 9 1 Other Christian6 0 Islam5 3 Other NoneDemonym s Filipino masculine and neutral Filipina feminine Pinoy colloquial masculine and neutral Pinay colloquial feminine Philippine used for certain common nouns GovernmentUnitary presidential republic PresidentBongbong Marcos Vice PresidentSara Duterte Senate PresidentMigz Zubiri House SpeakerMartin Romualdez Chief JusticeAlexander GesmundoLegislatureCongress Upper houseSenate Lower houseHouse of RepresentativesIndependence from the United States Independence from the Spanish Empire declaredJune 12 1898 Spanish cession to the United StatesDecember 10 1898 Commonwealth status with the United StatesNovember 15 1935 Independence from the United States grantedJuly 4 1946Area Total300 000 km2 120 000 sq mi 72nd Water 0 61 6 inland waters Total land area298 170 km2 115 120 sq mi Population 2020 census109 035 343 7 Density336 km2 870 2 sq mi 47th GDP PPP 2022 estimate Total 1 15 trillion 8 30th Per capita 10 344 8 119th GDP nominal 2022 estimate Total 401 6 billion 8 40th Per capita 3 597 8 128th Gini 2018 42 3 9 mediumHDI 2021 0 699 10 medium 116thCurrencyPhilippine peso PHP Time zoneUTC 08 00 PST Date formatmm dd yyyyDriving sideright c Calling code 63ISO 3166 codePHInternet TLD phNegritos some of the archipelago s earliest inhabitants were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples Adoption of animism Hinduism and Islam established island kingdoms called Kedatuan Rajahnates and Sultanates The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan a Portuguese explorer leading a fleet for Spain marked the beginning of Spanish colonization In 1543 Spanish explorer Ruy Lopez de Villalobos code spa promoted to code es named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain Spanish settlement through Mexico beginning in 1565 led to the Philippines becoming ruled by the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years During this time Catholicism became the dominant religion and Manila became the western hub of trans Pacific trade In 1896 the Philippine Revolution began which then became entwined with the 1898 Spanish American War Spain ceded the territory to the United States while Filipino revolutionaries declared the First Philippine Republic The ensuing Philippine American War ended with the United States establishing control over the territory which they maintained until the Japanese invasion of the islands during World War II Following liberation the Philippines became independent in 1946 Since then the unitary sovereign state has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy which included the overthrow of a decades long dictatorship by a nonviolent revolution The Philippines is an emerging market and a newly industrialized country whose economy is transitioning from being agriculture centered to services and manufacturing centered It is a founding member of the United Nations World Trade Organization ASEAN the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation forum and the East Asia Summit The location of the Philippines as an island country on the Pacific Ring of Fire that is close to the equator makes it prone to earthquakes and typhoons The country has a variety of natural resources and is home to a globally significant level of biodiversity Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Prehistory pre 900 2 2 Early states 900 1565 2 3 Spanish and American Colonial rule 1565 1946 2 4 Independence 1946 present 3 Geography and environment 3 1 Biodiversity 3 2 Climate 4 Government and politics 4 1 Foreign relations 4 2 Military 4 3 Administrative divisions 5 Demographics 5 1 Ethnic groups 5 2 Languages 5 3 Religion 5 4 Health 5 5 Education 6 Economy 6 1 Science and technology 6 2 Tourism 7 Infrastructure 7 1 Transportation 7 2 Water supply and sanitation 8 Culture 8 1 Values 8 2 Architecture 8 3 Music and dance 8 4 Literature 8 5 Cinema 8 6 Mass media 8 7 Cuisine 8 8 Sports 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 11 1 Citations 11 2 Bibliography 12 Further reading 13 External links 13 1 Government 13 2 Trade 13 3 General information 13 4 Books and articles 13 5 Wikimedia 13 6 OthersEtymologyMain article Name of the Philippines Philip II of Spain Spanish explorer Ruy Lopez de Villalobos during his expedition in 1542 named the islands of Leyte and Samar Felipinas after Philip II of Spain then the Prince of Asturias Eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover the archipelago s Spanish possessions 15 Before Spanish rule was established other names such as Islas del Poniente Islands of the West and Ferdinand Magellan s name for the islands San Lazaro were also used by the Spanish to refer to islands in the region 16 17 18 19 During the Philippine Revolution the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the Republica Filipina or the Philippine Republic From the period of the Spanish American War 1898 and the Philippine American War 1899 1902 until the Commonwealth period 1935 1946 American colonial authorities referred to the country as The Philippine Islands a translation of the Spanish name 20 The United States began the process of changing the reference to the country from The Philippine Islands to The Philippines specifically when it was mentioned in the Philippine Autonomy Act or the Jones Law 21 The full official title Republic of the Philippines was included in the 1935 constitution as the name of the future independent state 22 it is also mentioned in all succeeding constitutional revisions 23 24 HistoryMain article History of the Philippines For a chronological guide see Timeline of Philippine history Prehistory pre 900 Main article Prehistory of the Philippines There is evidence of early hominins living in what is now the Philippines as early as 709 000 years ago 25 A small number of bones from Callao Cave potentially represent an otherwise unknown species Homo luzonensis that lived around 50 000 to 67 000 years ago 26 27 The oldest modern human remains found on the islands are from the Tabon Caves of Palawan U Th dated to 47 000 11 10 000 years ago 28 The Tabon Man is presumably a Negrito who were among the archipelago s earliest inhabitants descendants of the first human migrations out of Africa via the coastal route along southern Asia to the now sunken landmasses of Sundaland and Sahul 29 The first Austronesians reached the Philippines from Taiwan at around 2200 BC settling the Batanes Islands and northern Luzon From there they rapidly spread southwards to the rest of the islands of the Philippines and Southeast Asia 30 31 This population assimilated with the existing Negritos resulting in the modern Filipino ethnic groups which display various ratios of genetic admixture between Austronesian and Negrito groups 32 Genetic signatures also indicate the possibility of migration of Austroasiatic Papuan and South Asian people 33 Jade artifacts have been found dated to 2000 BC 34 35 with the lingling o jade items crafted in Luzon made using raw materials originating from Taiwan 36 By 1000 BC the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four kinds of social groups hunter gatherer tribes warrior societies highland plutocracies and port principalities 37 Early states 900 1565 Main article History of the Philippines 900 1565 The Laguna Copperplate Inscription the oldest known writing found in the Philippines The earliest known surviving written record found in the Philippines is the Laguna Copperplate Inscription 38 By the 14th century several the large coastal settlements had emerged as trading centers and became the focal point of societal changes 39 Some polities had exchanges with other states across Asia 40 41 Trade with China is believed to have begun during the Tang dynasty and grew more extensive during the Song dynasty 42 and by the second millennium some polities participated in the tributary system of China 43 40 Indian cultural traits such as linguistic terms and religious practices began to spread within the Philippines during the 10th century likely via the Hindu Majapahit empire 44 39 45 By the 15th century Islam was established in the Sulu Archipelago and spread from there 46 Polities founded in the Philippines from the 10th 16th centuries include Maynila 47 Tondo Namayan Pangasinan Cebu Butuan Maguindanao Lanao Sulu and Ma i 48 The early polities were typically made up of three tier social structures a nobility class a class of freemen and a class of dependent debtor bondsmen 39 40 Among the nobility were leaders called Datus responsible for ruling autonomous groups called barangay or dulohan 39 When these barangays banded together either to form a larger settlement 39 or a geographically looser alliance 40 the more esteemed among them would be recognized as a paramount datu 39 37 rajah or sultan 49 which headed the community state 50 Warfare developed and escalated during the 14th to 16th centuries 51 and throughout these periods population density is thought to have been low 52 which was also caused by the frequency of typhoons and the Philippines location on the Pacific Ring of Fire 53 In 1521 Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the area claimed the islands for Spain and was then killed by Lapulapu s fighters at the Battle of Mactan 54 Spanish and American Colonial rule 1565 1946 Main articles History of the Philippines 1565 1898 and History of the Philippines 1898 1946 Manila in 1847 Colonization began when Spanish explorer Miguel Lopez de Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565 55 56 20 23 The Spanish forces brought by Legazpi s five ships were a mix of Spaniards and Novohispanics Mexicans from New Spain modern Mexico 57 58 59 60 61 97 98 62 63 Many Filipinos were brought back to New Spain as slaves and forced crew 64 In 1571 Spanish Manila became the capital of the Spanish East Indies 65 which encompassed Spanish territories in Asia and the Pacific 66 67 The Spanish successfully invaded the different local states by employing the principle of divide and conquer 68 bringing most of what is now the Philippines into a single unified administration 69 70 Disparate barangays were deliberately consolidated into towns where Catholic missionaries were more easily able to convert the inhabitants to Christianity 61 53 68 71 From 1565 to 1821 the Philippines was governed as a territory of the Mexico City based Viceroyalty of New Spain and later administered from Madrid following the Mexican War of Independence 72 Manila was the western hub of the trans Pacific trade 73 Manila galleons were constructed in Bicol and Cavite 74 75 During its rule Spain quelled various indigenous revolts 76 as well as defending against external military challenges 77 78 failed verification War against the Dutch from the west in the 17th century together with conflict with the Muslims in the south nearly bankrupted the colonial treasury 79 Administration of the Philippine islands was considered a drain on the economy of New Spain 77 and there were debates to abandon it or trade it for other territory However this was opposed because of economic potential security and the desire to continue religious conversion in the islands and the surrounding region 80 81 The Philippines survived on an annual subsidy provided by the Spanish Crown 77 which averaged 250 000 pesos 82 and was usually paid through the provision of 75 tons of silver bullion being sent from the Americas 83 British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 during the Seven Years War with Spanish rule restored through the 1763 Treaty of Paris 56 81 83 The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the Reconquista 84 The Spanish Moro conflict lasted for several hundred years In the last quarter of the 19th century Spain conquered portions of Mindanao and Jolo 85 and the Moro Muslims in the Sultanate of Sulu formally recognized Spanish sovereignty 86 87 Filipino Ilustrados in Spain formed the Propaganda Movement Photographed in 1890 In the 19th century Philippine ports opened to world trade and shifts started occurring within Filipino society 88 89 Shifts in social identity occurred with the term Filipino changing from referring to Spaniards born in the Philippines to a term encompassing all people in the archipelago 90 91 Revolutionary sentiments were stoked in 1872 after three activist Catholic priests were executed on weak pretences 92 93 94 This would inspire a propaganda movement in Spain organized by Marcelo H del Pilar Jose Rizal Graciano Lopez Jaena and Mariano Ponce lobbying for political reforms in the Philippines Rizal was executed on December 30 1896 on charges of rebellion This radicalized many who had previously been loyal to Spain 95 As attempts at reform met with resistance Andres Bonifacio in 1892 established the militant secret society called the Katipunan who sought independence from Spain through armed revolt 96 The Katipunan started the Philippine Revolution in 1896 97 Internal disputes led to an election in which Bonifacio lost his position and Emilio Aguinaldo was elected as the new leader of the revolution 98 145 147 In 1897 the Pact of Biak na Bato brought about the exile of the revolutionary leadership to Hong Kong In 1898 the Spanish American War began and reached the Philippines Aguinaldo returned resumed the revolution and declared independence from Spain on June 12 1898 61 112 113 The First Philippine Republic was established on January 21 1899 99 General Douglas MacArthur coming ashore during the Battle of Leyte on October 20 1944 The islands had been ceded by Spain to the United States along with Puerto Rico and Guam as a result of the latter s victory in the Spanish American War in 1898 100 101 As it became increasingly clear the United States would not recognize the First Philippine Republic the Philippine American War broke out 102 The war resulted in the deaths of 250 000 to 1 million civilians mostly because of famine and disease 103 After the defeat of the First Philippine Republic in 1902 an American civilian government was established through the Philippine Organic Act 104 American forces continued to secure and extend their control over the islands suppressing an attempted extension of the Philippine Republic 98 200 202 105 securing the Sultanate of Sulu 106 and establishing control over interior mountainous areas that had resisted Spanish conquest 107 Cultural developments strengthened the continuing development of a national identity 108 109 and Tagalog began to take precedence over other local languages 61 121 Governmental functions were gradually devolved to Filipinos under the Taft Commission 110 and in 1935 the Philippines was granted Commonwealth status with Manuel Quezon as president and Sergio Osmena as vice president 111 Quezon s priorities were defence social justice inequality and economic diversification and national character 110 Tagalog was designated the national language 112 women s suffrage was introduced 113 and land reform mooted 114 115 During World War II the Japanese Empire invaded 116 and the Second Philippine Republic under Jose P Laurel was established as a puppet state 117 118 From 1942 the Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large scale underground guerrilla activity 119 120 121 Atrocities and war crimes were committed during the war including the Bataan Death March and the Manila massacre 122 123 Allied troops defeated the Japanese in 1945 It is estimated that over one million Filipinos had died by the end of the war 124 125 On October 11 1945 the Philippines became one of the founding members of the United Nations 126 127 On July 4 1946 the Philippines was officially recognized by the United States as an independent nation through the Treaty of Manila during the presidency of Manuel Roxas 127 128 129 Independence 1946 present Main articles History of the Philippines 1946 1965 History of the Philippines 1965 1986 and History of the Philippines 1986 present Efforts to end the Hukbalahap Rebellion began during Elpidio Quirino s term 130 however it was only during Ramon Magsaysay s presidency that the movement was suppressed 131 Magsaysay s successor Carlos P Garcia initiated the Filipino First Policy 132 which was continued by Diosdado Macapagal with celebration of Independence Day moved from July 4 to June 12 the date of Emilio Aguinaldo s declaration 133 134 and pursuit of a claim on the eastern part of North Borneo 135 136 In 1965 Macapagal lost the presidential election to Ferdinand Marcos Early in his presidency Marcos initiated numerous infrastructure projects 137 but together with his wife Imelda was accused of corruption and embezzling billions of dollars in public funds 138 Nearing the end of his last constitutionally allowed term Marcos declared martial law on September 21 1972 139 140 This period of his rule was characterized by political repression censorship and human rights violations 141 Numerous monopolies controlled by crony businessmen were established in key industries including logging coconuts bananas telephones and broadcasting 142 a sugar monopoly led to a famine on the island of Negros 142 Marcos heavy borrowing early in his presidency resulted in numerous economic crashes capped by a massive recession in the early 1980s which culminated in the economy contracting by 7 3 in both 1984 and 1985 143 142 On August 21 1983 Marcos chief rival opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr was assassinated on the tarmac at Manila International Airport Marcos called a snap presidential election in 1986 144 Marcos was proclaimed the winner but the results were widely regarded as fraudulent 145 The resulting protests led to the People Power Revolution 146 which forced Marcos and his allies to flee to Hawaii and Aquino s widow Corazon Aquino was installed as president 144 147 The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo was the second largest volcanic eruption of the 20th century The return of democracy and government reforms beginning in 1986 were hampered by national debt government corruption and coup attempts 148 149 A communist insurgency 150 151 and a military conflict with Moro separatists persisted 152 while the administration also faced a series of disasters including the sinking of the MV Dona Paz in December 1987 153 undue weight discuss and the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991 154 155 Aquino was succeeded by Fidel V Ramos whose economic performance at 3 6 growth rate 156 157 was overshadowed by the onset of the 1997 Asian financial crisis 158 159 Ramos successor Joseph Estrada was overthrown by the 2001 EDSA Revolution and succeeded by his vice president Gloria Macapagal Arroyo on January 20 2001 160 Arroyo s 9 year administration was marked by economic growth 161 but was tainted by corruption and political scandals 162 163 On November 23 2009 34 journalists and several civilians were killed in Maguindanao 164 165 Economic growth continued during Benigno Aquino III s administration which pushed for good governance and transparency 166 167 In 2015 a shootout in Mamasapano resulted in the death of 44 members of the Philippine National Police Special Action Force which caused a delay in the passage of the Bangsamoro Organic Law 168 169 Former Davao City mayor Rodrigo Duterte won the 2016 presidential election becoming the first president from Mindanao 170 171 Duterte launched an anti drug campaign 172 173 and an infrastructure program 174 175 The implementation in 2018 of the Bangsamoro Organic Law led to the creation of the autonomous Bangsamoro region in Mindanao 176 177 In early 2020 the COVID 19 pandemic reached the country 178 179 causing the gross domestic product to shrink by 9 5 the country s worst annual economic performance since records began in 1947 180 Marcos son Bongbong Marcos won the 2022 presidential election together with Duterte s daughter Sara Duterte as vice president 181 Geography and environmentMain articles Geography of the Philippines and List of islands of the Philippines Topography of the Philippines The Philippines is an archipelago composed of about 7 640 islands 182 183 covering a total area including inland bodies of water of around 300 000 square kilometers 115 831 sq mi 184 185 with cadastral survey data suggesting it may be larger 186 The exclusive economic zone of the Philippines covers 2 263 816 km2 874 064 sq mi 187 Its 36 289 kilometers 22 549 mi coastline gives it the world s fifth longest coastline 188 It is located between 116 40 and 126 34 E longitude and 4 40 and 21 10 N latitude and is bordered by the Philippine Sea to the east 189 190 the South China Sea to the west 191 and the Celebes Sea to the south 192 The island of Borneo is located a few hundred kilometers southwest 193 and Taiwan is located directly to the north Sulawesi is located to the southwest and Palau is located to the east of the islands 194 195 The highest mountain is Mount Apo measuring up to 2 954 meters 9 692 ft above sea level and located on the island of Mindanao 196 Running east of the archipelago the Philippine Trench extends 10 540 meter 34 580 ft down at the Emden Deep 197 198 199 The longest river is the Cagayan River in northern Luzon measuring about 520 kilometers 320 mi 200 Manila Bay 201 upon the shore of which the capital city of Manila lies is connected to Laguna de Bay 202 the largest lake in the Philippines by the Pasig River 203 The Puerto Princesa Subterranean River which runs 8 2 kilometers 5 1 mi underground through a karst landscape before reaching the ocean is a UNESCO World Heritage Site 204 Mayon is an active stratovolcano located in the south of the island of Luzon Situated on the western fringes of the Pacific Ring of Fire the Philippines experiences frequent seismic and volcanic activity 205 The Philippine region is seismically active and has been progressively constructed by plates converging towards each other in multiple directions 206 207 208 Around five earthquakes are registered daily though most are too weak to be felt 209 208 The last major earthquakes were the 1976 Moro Gulf earthquake and the 1990 Luzon earthquake 210 There are many active volcanoes such as Mayon Mount Pinatubo and Taal Volcano 211 The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991 produced the second largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century 212 The Philippines is the world s second biggest geothermal energy producer behind the United States with 18 of the country s electricity needs being met by geothermal power 213 The country has valuable 214 mineral deposits as a result of its complex geologic structure and high level of seismic activity 215 216 The Philippines is thought to have the second largest gold deposits after South Africa along with a large amount of copper deposits 217 and the world s largest deposits of palladium 218 Other minerals include chromite nickel and zinc Despite this a lack of law enforcement poor management opposition because of the presence of indigenous communities and past instances of environmental damage and disaster have resulted in these mineral resources remaining largely untapped 217 219 Biodiversity Main article Wildlife of the Philippines See also List of threatened species of the Philippines The Philippine Eagle is endemic to the forests of the country The Philippines is a megadiverse country 220 221 Eight major types of forests are distributed throughout the Philippines dipterocarp beach forest pine forest molave forest lower montane forest upper montane or mossy forest mangroves and ultrabasic forest 222 As of 2021 the Philippines has 7 million hectares of forest cover according to official estimates though experts contend that the actual figure is likely much lower 223 Deforestation often the result of illegal logging is an acute problem in the Philippines Forest cover has declined from 70 of the Philippines s total land area in 1900 to about 18 3 in 1999 224 With an estimated 13 500 plant species in the country 3 200 of which are unique to the islands 225 Philippine rainforests have an array of flora 226 including many rare types of orchids 227 and rafflesia 228 Around 1 100 land vertebrate species can be found in the Philippines including over 100 mammal species and 243 bird species not thought to exist elsewhere 225 229 The Philippines has among the highest rates of discovery in the world with sixteen new species of mammals discovered in the last ten years Because of this the rate of endemism for the Philippines has risen and likely will continue to rise 230 Parts of its marine waters contain the highest diversity of shorefish species in the world 231 Large reptiles include the Philippine crocodile 232 and saltwater crocodile 233 The largest crocodile in captivity known locally as Lolong was captured in the southern island of Mindanao 234 and died on February 10 2013 from pneumonia and cardiac arrest 235 The national bird known as the Philippine eagle has the longest body of any eagle it generally measures 86 to 102 cm 2 82 to 3 35 ft in length and weighs 4 7 to 8 0 kg 10 4 to 17 6 lb 236 237 The Philippine eagle is part of the family Accipitridae and is endemic to the rainforests of Luzon Samar Leyte and Mindanao 238 The Philippines has the third highest number of endemic birds in the world behind Indonesia and Australia with 243 endemics Notable birds include the Celestial monarch flame templed babbler Red vented cockatoo Whiskered pitta Sulu hornbill Rufous hornbill Luzon bleeding heart and the Flame breasted fruit dove 229 Philippine maritime waters produce unique and diverse marine life 239 and is an important part of the Coral Triangle ecoregion 240 241 The total number of corals and marine fish species in this ecoregion is estimated at 500 and 2 400 respectively 225 New records 242 243 and species discoveries continue 244 245 246 The Tubbataha Reef in the Sulu Sea was declared a World Heritage Site in 1993 247 Philippine waters also sustain the cultivation of fish crustaceans oysters and seaweeds 248 One species of oyster Pinctada maxima produces pearls that are naturally golden in color 249 Pearls have been declared a national gem 250 Climate Main article Climate of the Philippines Koppen climate classification of the Philippines The Philippines has a tropical maritime climate that is usually hot and humid There are three seasons a hot dry season from March to May a rainy season from June to November and a cool dry season from December to February The southwest monsoon lasts from May to October and the northeast monsoon from November to April Temperatures usually range from 21 C 70 F to 32 C 90 F The coolest month is January the warmest is May 251 The average yearly temperature is around 26 6 C 79 9 F In considering temperature location in terms of latitude and longitude is not a significant factor and temperatures at sea level tend to be in the same range Altitude usually has more of an impact The average annual temperature of Baguio at an elevation of 1 500 meters 4 900 ft above sea level is 18 3 C 64 9 F making it a popular destination during hot summers 251 Annual rainfall measures as much as 5 000 millimeters 200 in in the mountainous east coast section but less than 1 000 millimeters 39 in in some of the sheltered valleys 252 Sitting astride the typhoon belt the islands experience 15 20 typhoons annually from July to October 252 with around 19 typhoons 253 entering the Philippine area of responsibility in a typical year and 8 or 9 making landfall 254 255 Historically typhoons were sometimes referred to as baguios 256 The wettest recorded typhoon to hit the Philippines dropped 2 210 millimeters 87 in in Baguio from July 14 to 18 1911 257 The Philippines is highly exposed to climate change and is among the world s ten countries that are most vulnerable to climate change risks 258 Government and politicsMain articles Politics of the Philippines and Government of the Philippines See also Political history of the Philippines PresidentBongbong Marcos Vice PresidentSara Duterte Malacanang Palace is the official residence of the president of the Philippines The Philippines has a democratic government in the form of a constitutional republic with a presidential system 259 The president functions as both head of state and head of government 260 and is the commander in chief of the armed forces 259 The president is elected by direct election for a single six year term 261 The president appoints and presides over the cabinet 262 213 214 The bicameral Congress is composed of the Senate serving as the upper house with members elected to a six year term and the House of Representatives serving as the lower house with members elected to a three year term 263 Philippine politics tends to be dominated by those with well known names such as members of political dynasties or celebrities 264 265 Senators are elected at large 263 while the representatives are elected from both legislative districts and through sectoral representation 262 162 163 The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court composed of a chief justice as its presiding officer and fourteen associate justices 266 all of whom are appointed by the president from nominations submitted by the Judicial and Bar Council 259 There have been attempts to change the government to a federal unicameral or parliamentary government since the Ramos administration 267 There is a significant amount of corruption in the Philippines 268 269 270 which some historians attribute to the system of governance put in place during the Spanish colonial period 271 Foreign relations Main article Foreign relations of the Philippines As a founding and active member of the United Nations 272 the country has been elected to the Security Council 273 Carlos P Romulo was a former president of the United Nations General Assembly 274 275 The country is an active participant in peacekeeping missions particularly in East Timor 276 277 Over 10 million Filipinos live and work overseas 278 279 The Philippines is a founding and active member of ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations 280 It has hosted several summits and is an active contributor to the direction and policies of the bloc 281 282 It is also a member of the East Asia Summit 283 the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation the Group of 24 and the Non Aligned Movement 284 285 286 The country is also seeking to obtain observer status in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation 287 288 The Philippines has a long relationship with the United States covering economics security and people to people relations 289 A Mutual Defense Treaty between the two countries was signed in 1951 and supplemented with the 1999 Visiting Forces Agreement and the 2016 Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement 290 The Philippines supported American policies during the Cold War and participated in the Korean and Vietnam wars 291 292 In 2003 the Philippines was designated a major non NATO ally 293 Under President Duterte ties with the United States have weakened 294 with military purchases instead coming from China and Russia 295 296 while Duterte states that the Philippines will no longer participate in any U S led wars 297 In 2021 it was revealed the United States would defend the Philippines including the South China Sea 298 The Philippines attaches great importance to its relations with China and has established significant cooperation with the country 299 300 301 302 303 304 Japan is the biggest bilateral contributor of official development assistance to the country 305 306 307 Although historical tensions exist because of the events of World War II much of the animosity has faded 308 Historical and cultural ties continue to affect relations with Spain 309 310 Relations with Middle Eastern countries are shaped by the high number of Filipinos working in these countries 311 and by issues related to the Muslim minority in the Philippines 312 concerns have been raised regarding issues such as domestic abuse and war affecting 313 314 the approximately 2 5 million overseas Filipino workers in the region 315 The Philippines has claims in the Spratly Islands which overlap with claims by China Malaysia Taiwan and Vietnam The largest of its controlled islands in Thitu Island which contains the Philippines s smallest village 316 317 The Scarborough Shoal standoff in 2012 where China took control of the shoal from the Philippines led to an international arbitration case 318 which the Philippines eventually won 319 but China had rejected 320 and has made the shoal a prominent symbol in the wider dispute 321 Military Main article Armed Forces of the Philippines BRP Jose Rizal FF 150 is the lead ship of her class of guided missile frigates of the Philippine Navy The Armed Forces of the Philippines AFP consist of three branches the Philippine Air Force the Philippine Army and the Philippine Navy 322 The AFP is a volunteer force 323 Civilian security is handled by the Philippine National Police under the Department of the Interior and Local Government 324 325 As of 2018 update 2 843 billion 326 or 1 1 percent of GDP is spent on military forces 327 As of 2021 this number has increased to 4 40 billion 328 In Bangsamoro the largest separatist organizations the Moro National Liberation Front and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front were engaging the government politically in the 2000s 329 Other more militant groups like the Abu Sayyaf have kidnapped foreigners for ransom particularly in the Sulu Archipelago 331 332 333 334 Their presence decreased through successful security provided by the Philippine government 335 336 The Communist Party of the Philippines and its military wing the New People s Army have been waging guerrilla warfare against the government since the 1970s reaching its apex in 1986 when communist guerrillas gained control of a fifth of the country s territory before significantly dwindling militarily and politically after the return of democracy in 1986 337 338 Administrative divisions Main article Administrative divisions of the Philippines The Philippines is governed as a unitary state with the exception of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao BARMM 339 although there have been several steps towards decentralization within the unitary framework 340 341 A 1991 law devolved some powers to local governments 342 The country is divided into 17 regions 82 provinces 146 cities 1 488 municipalities and 42 036 barangays 343 Regions other than Bangsamoro serve primarily to organize the provinces of the country for administrative convenience 344 As of 2015 update Calabarzon was the most populated region while the National Capital Region NCR was the most densely populated 345 Administrative map of the Philippines Regions of the Philippines Designation Name Regional center Area 345 Population as of 2015 update 346 of Population Population density 345 NCR National Capital Region Manila 619 54 km2 239 21 sq mi 12 877 253 12 75 20 785 km2 53 830 sq mi Region I Ilocos Region San Fernando La Union 12 964 62 km2 5 005 67 sq mi 5 026 128 4 98 388 km2 1 000 sq mi CAR Cordillera Administrative Region Baguio 19 818 12 km2 7 651 82 sq mi 1 722 006 1 71 87 km2 230 sq mi Region II Cagayan Valley Tuguegarao 29 836 88 km2 11 520 08 sq mi 3 451 410 3 42 116 km2 300 sq mi Region III Central Luzon San Fernando Pampanga 22 014 63 km2 8 499 90 sq mi 11 218 177 11 11 512 km2 1 330 sq mi Region IV A Calabarzon Calamba 16 576 26 km2 6 400 13 sq mi 14 414 774 14 27 870 km2 2 300 sq mi Region IV B Mimaropa Calapan 29 606 25 km2 11 431 04 sq mi 2 963 360 2 93 100 km2 260 sq mi Region V Bicol Region Legazpi City 18 114 47 km2 6 994 04 sq mi 5 796 989 5 74 320 km2 830 sq mi Region VI Western Visayas Iloilo City 20 778 29 km2 8 022 54 sq mi 7 536 383 7 46 363 km2 940 sq mi Region VII Central Visayas Cebu City 15 872 58 km2 6 128 44 sq mi 7 396 898 7 33 466 km2 1 210 sq mi Region VIII Eastern Visayas Tacloban 23 234 78 km2 8 971 00 sq mi 4 440 150 4 40 191 km2 490 sq mi Region IX Zamboanga Peninsula Pagadian 347 16 904 03 km2 6 526 68 sq mi 3 629 783 3 59 215 km2 560 sq mi Region X Northern Mindanao Cagayan de Oro 20 458 51 km2 7 899 07 sq mi 4 689 302 4 64 229 km2 590 sq mi Region XI Davao Region Davao City 20 433 38 km2 7 889 37 sq mi 4 893 318 4 85 239 km2 620 sq mi Region XII Soccsksargen Koronadal 22 610 08 km2 8 729 80 sq mi 4 245 838 4 20 188 km2 490 sq mi Region XIII Caraga Butuan 21 120 56 km2 8 154 69 sq mi 2 596 709 2 57 123 km2 320 sq mi BARMM Bangsamoro Cotabato City 36 826 95 km2 14 218 96 sq mi 4 080 825 4 04 111 km2 290 sq mi DemographicsMain article Demographics of the Philippines See also List of cities in the Philippines The Commission on Population estimated the country s population to be 107 190 081 as of December 31 2018 based on the latest population census of 2015 conducted by the Philippine Statistics Authority 348 The population increased from 1990 to 2008 by approximately 28 million a 45 growth in that time frame 349 The first official census in the Philippines was carried out in 1877 and recorded a population of 5 567 685 350 A third of the population resides in Metro Manila and its immediately neighboring regions 351 The 2 34 average annual population growth rate between 1990 and 2000 decreased to an estimated 1 90 for the 2000 2010 period 352 Government attempts to reduce population growth have been a contentious issue 353 The population s median age is 22 7 years with 60 9 aged from 15 to 64 years old 6 Life expectancy at birth is 69 4 years 73 1 years for females and 65 9 years for males 354 Poverty incidence dropped to 18 1 in 2021 355 from 25 2 in 2012 356 The capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City both within the single urban area of Metro Manila 357 Metro Manila is the most populous of the 3 defined metropolitan areas in the Philippines 358 and the 5th most populous in the world 359 Census data from 2015 showed it had a population of 12 877 253 constituting almost 13 of the national population 360 Including suburbs in the adjacent provinces Bulacan Cavite Laguna and Rizal of Greater Manila the population is around 23 088 000 359 Across the country the Philippines has a total urbanization rate of 51 2 360 Metro Manila s gross regional product was estimated as of 2021 update to be 6 158 trillion at constant 2020 prices 361 Ethnic groups Main article Ethnic groups in the Philippines See also Filipinos Dominant ethnic groups by province There is substantial ethnic diversity with the Philippines a product of the seas and mountain ranges dividing the archipelago along with significant foreign influences 260 According to the 2010 census 24 4 of Filipinos are Tagalog 11 4 Visayans Bisaya excluding Cebuano Hiligaynon and Waray 9 9 Cebuano 8 8 Ilocano 8 4 Hiligaynon 6 8 Bikol 4 Waray and 26 2 are others 6 362 which can be broken down further to yield more distinct nontribal groups like the Moro Kapampangan Pangasinense Ibanag and Ivatan 363 There are also indigenous peoples 364 like the Igorot the Lumad the Mangyan and the tribes of Palawan 365 Negritos are considered among the earliest inhabitants of the islands 366 These minority aboriginal settlers are an Australoid group and are left over from the first human migration out of Africa to Australia and were likely displaced by later waves of migration 367 At least some Negritos in the Philippines have Denisovan admixture in their genomes 368 369 Ethnic Filipinos generally belong to several Southeast Asian ethnic groups classified linguistically as part of the Austronesian or Malayo Polynesian speaking people 364 There is some uncertainty over the origin of this Austronesian speaking population It is likely that ancestors related to Taiwanese aborigines brought their language and mixed with existing populations in the area 370 371 The Lumad and Sama Bajau ethnic groups have ancestral affinity with the Austroasiatic Mlabri and Htin peoples of mainland Southeast Asia There was a westward expansion of Papuan ancestry from Papua New Guinea to eastern Indonesia and Mindanao detected among the Blaan and Sangir 33 Under Spanish rule there was some immigration from elsewhere in the empire especially from the Spanish Americas 372 58 373 According to the Kaiser Permanente KP Research Program on Genes Environment and Health RPGEH a substantial proportion of Filipinos sampled have modest amounts of European descent consistent with older admixture 374 In addition to this the National Geographic project concluded in 2016 that people living in the Philippine archipelago carried genetic markers in the following percentages 53 Southeast Asia and Oceania 36 Eastern Asia 5 Southern Europe 3 Southern Asia and 2 Native American 375 From Latin America 58 A map that shows all ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines Chinese Filipinos are mostly the descendants of immigrants from Fujian in China after 1898 376 numbering around 2 million although there are an estimated 20 of Filipinos who have partial Chinese ancestry stemming from precolonial and colonial Chinese migrants 377 While a distinct minority Chinese Filipinos are well integrated into Filipino society 260 378 As of 2015 there are 220 000 to 600 000 American citizens living in the country 379 There are also up to 250 000 Amerasians scattered across the cities of Angeles Manila and Olongapo 380 Other important non indigenous minorities include Indians 381 382 and Arabs 383 There are also Japanese people which include escaped Christians Kirishitan who fled the persecutions of Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu 384 The descendants of mixed race couples are known as Tisoy 385 Languages Main article Languages of the Philippines Population by mother tongue 2010 Language SpeakersTagalog 24 44 24 44 22 512 089Cebuano 21 35 21 35 19 665 453Ilokano 8 77 8 77 8 074 536Hiligaynon 8 44 8 44 7 773 655Waray 3 97 3 97 3 660 645Other local languages dialects 26 09 26 09 24 027 005Other foreign languages dialects 0 09 0 09 78 862Not reported not stated 0 01 0 01 6 450TOTAL 92 097 978Source Philippine Statistics Authority 386 Ethnologue lists 186 individual languages in the Philippines 182 of which are living languages while 4 no longer have any known speakers Most native languages are part of the Philippine branch of the Malayo Polynesian languages which is a branch of the Austronesian language family 364 387 In addition various Spanish based creole varieties collectively called Chavacano exist 388 There are also many Philippine Negrito languages that have unique vocabularies that survived Austronesian acculturation 389 Filipino and English are the official languages of the country 390 Filipino is a standardized version of Tagalog spoken mainly in Metro Manila 391 Both Filipino and English are used in government education print broadcast media and business with third local languages often being used at the same time 392 The Philippine constitution provides for the promotion of Spanish and Arabic on a voluntary and optional basis 390 Spanish which was widely used as a lingua franca in the late nineteenth century has since declined greatly in use 393 although Spanish loanwords are still present today in Philippine languages 394 395 while Arabic is mainly taught in Islamic schools in Mindanao 396 Nineteen regional languages act as auxiliary official languages used as media of instruction Aklanon Bikol Cebuano Chavacano Hiligaynon Ibanag Ilocano Ivatan Kapampangan Kinaray a Maguindanao Maranao Pangasinan Sambal Surigaonon Tagalog Tausug Waray and Yakan 4 Other indigenous languages such as Cuyonon Ifugao Itbayat Kalinga Kamayo Kankanaey Masbateno Romblomanon Manobo and several Visayan languages are prevalent in their respective provinces 397 Article 3 of Republic Act No 11106 declared the Filipino Sign Language as the national sign language of the Philippines specifying that it shall be recognized supported and promoted as the medium of official communication in all transactions involving the deaf and as the language of instruction of deaf education 398 399 Religion Main article Religion in the Philippines The historical Paoay Church in Ilocos Norte Declared as a National Cultural Treasure by the Philippine government in 1973 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site under the collective group of Baroque Churches of the Philippines in 1993 The Philippines is a secular state which protects freedom of religion Christianity is the dominant faith 400 401 shared by about 89 of the population 402 As of 2013 update the country had the world s third largest Roman Catholic population and was the largest Christian nation in Asia 403 Census data from 2015 found that about 79 53 of the population professed Catholicism 404 Around 37 of the population regularly attend Mass 29 of self identified Catholics consider themselves very religious 405 An independent Catholic church the Philippine Independent Church has around 756 225 adherents 404 Protestants were 9 13 of the population in 2015 406 2 64 of the population are members of Iglesia ni Cristo 404 The combined following of the Philippine Council of Evangelical Churches comes to 2 42 of the total population 404 407 Islam is the second largest religion The Muslim population of the Philippines was reported as 6 01 of the total population according to census returns in 2015 404 Conversely a 2012 report by the National Commission of Muslim Filipinos stated that about 10 700 000 or 11 of Filipinos are Muslims 400 The majority of Muslims live in Mindanao and nearby islands 401 408 Most practice Sunni Islam under the Shafi i school 409 The percentage of combined positive atheist and agnostic people in the Philippines was about 3 of the population as of 2008 410 The 2015 Philippine Census reported the religion of about 0 02 of the population as none 404 A 2014 survey by Gallup International Association reported that 21 of its respondents identify as not a religious person 411 Around 0 24 of the population practice indigenous Philippine folk religions 404 whose practices and folk beliefs are often syncretized with Christianity and Islam 412 413 Buddhism is practiced by around 0 03 of the population 404 concentrated among Filipinos of Chinese descent 414 Health Main article Health in the Philippines St Luke s Medical Center in Taguig In 2016 63 1 of healthcare came from private expenditures while 36 9 was from the government 12 4 from the national government 7 1 from the local government and 17 4 from social health insurance 415 Total health expenditure share in GDP for the year 2021 was 6 416 Per capita health expenditure in 2021 was 9 839 23 higher than the 8 511 52 in 2020 417 The budget allocation for Healthcare in 2019 was 98 6 billion 418 and had an increase in budget in 2014 with a record high in the collection of taxes from the House Bill 5727 commonly known as Sin tax Bill 419 There were 101 688 hospital beds in the country in 2016 with government hospital beds accounting for 47 and private hospital beds for 53 420 In 2009 there were an estimated 90 370 physicians or 1 per every 833 people 480 910 nurses and 43 220 dentists 421 Retention of skilled practitioners is a problem seventy percent of nursing graduates go overseas to work 422 Since 1967 the Philippines had become the largest global supplier of nurses for export 423 The Philippines suffers a triple burden of high levels of communicable diseases high levels of non communicable diseases and high exposure to natural disasters 424 In 2018 there were 1 258 hospitals licensed by the Department of Health of which 433 34 were government run and 825 66 private 425 A total of 20 065 barangay health stations and 2 590 rural health units provide primary care services throughout the country as of 2016 426 Cardiovascular diseases account for more than 35 of all deaths 427 428 9 264 cases of HIV were reported for the year 2016 with 8 151 being asymptomatic cases 429 At the time the country was considered a low HIV prevalence country with less than 0 1 of the adult population estimated to be HIV positive 430 HIV AIDS cases increased from 12 000 in 2005 431 to 39 622 as of 2016 with 35 957 being asymptomatic cases 429 There is improvement in patients access to medicines due to Filipinos growing acceptance of generic drugs with 6 out of 10 Filipinos already using generics 432 While the country s universal health care implementation is underway as spearheaded by the state owned Philippine Health Insurance Corporation 433 most healthcare related expenses are either borne out of pocket 434 or through health maintenance organization HMO provided health plans The enactment of the Universal Health Care Act in 2019 by President Rodrigo Duterte facilitated the automatic enrollment of all Filipinos in the national health insurance program as of March 2022 94 79 million individuals were covered by these plans 435 Education Main article Education in the Philippines Founded in 1611 the University of Santo Tomas is the oldest extant university in Asia As of 2019 the Philippines had a basic literacy rate of 93 8 among five years old or older 436 and a functional literacy rate of 91 6 among ages 10 to 64 437 Education takes up a significant proportion of the national budget In the 2020 budget education was allocated PHP17 1 billion from the PHP4 1 trillion budget 438 The Commission on Higher Education lists 2 180 higher education institutions among which 607 are public and 1 573 are private 439 Primary and secondary schooling is divided between a 6 year elementary period a 4 year junior high school period and a 2 year senior high school period 440 441 442 The Department of Education covers elementary secondary and non formal education 443 The Technical Education and Skills Development Authority administers middle level education training and development 444 445 The Commission on Higher Education was created in 1994 to among other functions formulate and recommend development plans policies priorities and programs on higher education and research 446 In 2004 madaris were mainstreamed in 16 regions nationwide mainly in Muslim areas in Mindanao under the auspices and program of the Department of Education 447 Public universities are all non sectarian entities and are classified as State Universities and Colleges or Local Colleges and Universities 439 The University of the Philippines a system of eight constituent universities is the national university system of the Philippines 448 The country s top ranked universities are as follows University of the Philippines Ateneo de Manila University De La Salle University and University of Santo Tomas 449 450 451 The University of Santo Tomas established in 1611 has the oldest extant university charter in the Philippines and Asia 452 453 EconomyMain article Economy of the Philippines Real GDP per capita development of the Philippines A proportional representation of Philippines exports 2019 In 2020 update the Philippine economy produced an estimated gross domestic product nominal of 367 4 billion 454 Primary exports in 2019 included integrated circuits office machinery parts insulated wiring semiconductors transformers major trading partners included China 16 United States 15 Japan 13 Hong Kong 12 Singapore 7 Germany 5 6 Its unit of currency is the Philippine peso 455 or PHP 456 457 A newly industrialized country 458 459 the Philippine economy has been transitioning from one based upon agriculture to an economy with more emphasis upon services and manufacturing 458 Of the country s 2018 labor force of around 43 46 million the agricultural sector employed 24 3 460 and accounted for 8 1 of 2018 GDP 461 The industrial sector employed around 19 of the workforce and accounted for 34 1 of GDP while 57 of the workers involved in the services sector were responsible for 57 8 of GDP 461 462 The unemployment rate as of October 2019 update stands at 4 5 463 The inflation rate eased to 1 7 in August 2019 464 Gross international reserves as of October 2022 are 94 074 billion 465 The debt to GDP ratio continues to decline to 37 6 as of the second quarter of 2019 466 467 from a record high of 78 in 2004 468 The country is a net importer 469 but is also a creditor nation 470 Manila hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank 471 Filipinos planting rice Agriculture employs 23 of the Filipino workforce as of 2020 update 472 The 1997 Asian financial crisis affected the economy resulting in a lingering decline of the value of the peso and falls in the stock market The effects on the Philippines was not as severe as other Asian nations because of the fiscal conservatism of the government partly as a result of decades of monitoring and fiscal supervision from the International Monetary Fund in comparison to the massive spending of its neighbors on the rapid acceleration of economic growth 156 Remittances from overseas Filipinos contribute significantly to the Philippine economy 473 in 2021 it reached a record US 34 billion accounting for 8 9 of the national GDP 474 Regional development is uneven with Luzon Metro Manila in particular gaining most of the new economic growth at the expense of the other regions 475 476 Service industries such as tourism 477 and business process outsourcing BPO have been identified as areas with some of the best opportunities for growth for the country 478 The business process outsourcing industry is composed of eight sub sectors namely knowledge process outsourcing and back offices animation call centers software development game development engineering design and medical transcription 479 In 2010 update the Philippines was reported as having eclipsed India as the main center of BPO services in the world 480 481 482 Science and technology Main articles Science and technology in the Philippines and Philippine space program Headquarters of the International Rice Research Institute in Los Banos Laguna The Department of Science and Technology is the governing agency responsible for the development of coordination of science and technology related projects in the Philippines 483 Research organizations in the country include the International Rice Research Institute 484 which focuses on the development of new rice varieties and rice crop management techniques 485 The Philippines bought its first satellite in 1996 486 In 2016 the Philippines first micro satellite Diwata 1 was launched aboard the United States Cygnus spacecraft 487 The Philippines has a high concentration of cellular phone users 488 Text messaging is a popular form of communication and in 2007 the nation sent an average of one billion SMS messages per day 489 The country has a high level of mobile financial services utilization 490 The Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company commonly known as PLDT is a formerly nationalized telecommunications provider 488 It is also the largest company in the country 491 The National Telecommunications Commission is the agency responsible for the supervision adjudication and control over all telecommunications services throughout the country 492 Tourism Main article Tourism in the Philippines Limestone cliffs of El Nido Palawan The tourism sector contributed 5 2 of the country s GDP in 2021 lower than the 12 7 recorded in 2019 prior to the COVID 19 pandemic 493 and provided 5 7 million jobs in 2019 494 8 260 913 international visitors arrived from January to December 2019 up by 15 24 for the same period in 2018 495 58 62 4 842 774 of these came from East Asia 15 84 1 308 444 came from North America and 6 38 526 832 came from other ASEAN countries 496 The island of Boracay popular for its beaches was named as the best island in the world by Travel Leisure in 2012 497 The Philippines is a popular retirement destination for foreigners because of its climate and low cost of living 498 InfrastructureTransportation An LRT Line 2 train at Santolan station Transportation in the Philippines is facilitated by road air rail and waterways As of December 2018 there are 210 528 kilometers 130 816 mi of roads in the Philippines with only 65 101 kilometers 40 452 mi of roads paved 499 The 919 kilometer 571 mi Strong Republic Nautical Highway an integrated set of highway segments and ferry routes covering 17 cities was established in 2003 500 The Pan Philippine Highway connects the islands of Luzon Samar Leyte and Mindanao forming the backbone of land based transportation in the country 501 Roads are the dominant form of transport carrying 98 of people and 58 of cargo A network of expressways extends from the capital to other areas of Luzon 502 The 8 25 kilometer 5 13 mi Cebu Cordova Link Expressway in Cebu opened in April 2022 503 Traffic is a significant issue facing the country especially within Manila and on arterial roads connecting to the capital 504 Public transport in the country include buses jeepneys UV Express TNVS Filcab taxis and tricycles 505 506 Jeepneys are a popular and iconic public utility vehicle 507 Jeepneys and other public utility vehicles which are older than 15 years are being phased out gradually in favor of a more efficient and environmentally friendly Euro 4 compliant vehicles 508 509 Despite wider historical use rail transportation in the Philippines is limited being confined to transporting passengers within Metro Manila and the provinces of Laguna and Quezon 510 with a separate short track in the Bicol Region 511 There are plans to revive freight rail to reduce road congestion 512 513 As of 2019 update the country had a railway footprint of only 79 kilometers which it had plans to expand up to 244 kilometers 514 515 Metro Manila is served by three rapid transit lines LRT Line 1 LRT Line 2 and MRT Line 3 516 517 518 The PNR South Commuter Line transports passengers between Metro Manila and Laguna 519 Railway lines that are under construction include the 22 8 kilometer 14 2 mi MRT Line 7 2020 520 the 35 kilometer 22 mi Metro Manila Subway 2025 521 and the 109 kilometer 68 mi PNR North South Commuter Railway which is divided into several phases with partial operations to begin in 2022 522 The civil airline industry is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines 523 Philippine Airlines is Asia s oldest commercial airline still operating under its original name 524 525 Cebu Pacific is the countries leading low cost carrier 526 As an archipelago inter island travel using watercraft is often necessary 527 Boats have always been important to societies in the Philippines 528 529 Most boats are double outrigger vessels which can reach up to 30 meters 98 ft in length known as banca 530 bangka 531 parao prahu or balanghay A variety of boat types are used throughout the islands such as dugouts baloto and house boats like the lepa lepa 529 Terms such as bangka and baroto are also used as general names for a variety of boat types 531 Modern ships use plywood in place of logs and motor engines in place of sails 530 These ships are used both for fishing and for inter island travel 531 The principal seaports of Manila Batangas Subic Bay Cebu Iloilo Davao Cagayan de Oro General Santos and Zamboanga form part of the ASEAN Transport Network 532 533 The Pasig River Ferry serves the cities of Manila Makati Mandaluyong Pasig and Marikina in Metro Manila 534 535 Water supply and sanitation Main article Water supply and sanitation in the Philippines Ambuklao Dam in Bokod Benguet In 2015 it was reported by the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation that 74 of the population had access to improved sanitation and that good progress had been made between 1990 and 2015 536 As of 2016 96 of Filipino households have an improved source of drinking water and 92 of households had sanitary toilet facilities although connections of these toilet facilities to appropriate sewerage systems remain largely insufficient especially in rural and urban poor communities 537 CultureMain articles Culture of the Philippines and Arts in the Philippines A participant of the Ati Atihan Festival There is significant cultural diversity across the islands reinforced by the fragmented geography of the country 538 The cultures within Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago developed in a particularly distinct manner since they had very limited Spanish influence and greater influence from nearby Islamic regions 539 Despite this a national identity emerged in the 19th century the development of which is represented by shared national symbols and other cultural and historical touchstones 538 One of the most visible Hispanic legacies is the prevalence of Spanish names and surnames among Filipinos a Spanish name and surname however does not necessarily denote Spanish ancestry This peculiarity unique among the people of Asia came as a result of a colonial edict by Governor General Narciso Claveria y Zaldua which ordered the systematic distribution of family names and implementation of Hispanic nomenclature on the population 540 The names of many locations are also Spanish or stem from Spanish roots and origins 541 There is a substantial American influence on modern Filipino culture 260 The common use of the English language is an example of the American impact on Philippine society It has contributed to the influence of American pop cultural trends 542 This affinity is seen in Filipinos consumption of fast food and American film and music 543 American global fast food chain stalwarts have entered the market but local fast food chains like Goldilocks 544 and most notably Jollibee the leading fast food chain in the country have emerged and compete successfully against foreign chains 545 Nationwide festivals include Ati Atihan Dinagyang Moriones and Sinulog 546 547 548 Values Further information Filipino values A statue in Iriga City commemorating the mano po gesture As a general description the distinct value system of Filipinos is rooted primarily in personal alliance systems especially those based in kinship obligation friendship religion particularly Christianity and commercial relationships 549 Filipino values are for the most part centered around maintaining social harmony motivated primarily by the desire to be accepted within a group The main sanction against diverging from these values are the concepts of Hiya roughly translated as a sense of shame 550 and Amor propio or self esteem 551 Social approval acceptance by a group and belonging to a group are major concerns Caring about what others will think say or do are strong influences on social behavior among Filipinos 552 Other elements of the Filipino value system are optimism about the future pessimism about present situations and events concern and care for other people the existence of friendship and friendliness the habit of being hospitable religious nature respectfulness to self and others respect for the female members of society the fear of God and abhorrence of acts of cheating and thievery 553 554 Architecture Main article Architecture of the Philippines Colonial houses in Vigan Spanish architecture has left an imprint in the Philippines in the way many towns were designed around a central square or plaza mayor but many of the buildings bearing its influence were demolished during World War II 47 Four Philippine baroque churches are included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites the San Agustin Church in Manila Paoay Church in Ilocos Norte Nuestra Senora de la Asuncion Santa Maria Church in Ilocos Sur and Santo Tomas de Villanueva Church in Iloilo 555 Vigan in Ilocos Sur is known for the many Hispanic style houses and buildings preserved there 556 American rule introduced new architectural styles This led to the construction of government buildings and Art Deco theaters During the American period some semblance of city planning using the architectural designs and master plans by Daniel Burnham was done on the portions of the city of Manila Part of the Burnham plan was the construction of government buildings that resembled Greek or Neoclassical architecture 557 In Iloilo structures from both the Spanish and American periods can still be seen especially in Calle Real 558 Certain areas of the country like Batanes have slight differences as both Spanish and Filipino ways of architecture assimilated differently because of the climate Limestone was used as a building material with houses being built to withstand typhoons 559 Music and dance Main articles Music of the Philippines and Philippine dance Carinosa a Hispanic era dance for traditional Filipino courtship In general there are two types of Philippine folk dance stemming from traditional tribal influences and from Spanish influence Spanish influenced music are mostly bandurria based bands that us 14th string guitars One example of such type is the Carinosa A Hispanic Filipino dance unofficially considered as the National Dance of the Philippines 560 Another example is the Tinikling 561 While native dances had become less popular over time 562 77 a revival of folk dances began in the 1920s 562 82 In the modern and post modern time periods dances may vary from the delicate ballet up to the more street oriented styles of breakdancing 563 564 During the Spanish era Rondalya music where traditional string orchestra mandolin type instruments were used was widespread 565 Kundiman developed in the 1920s and 1930s 566 and had a renaissance in the postwar period 567 The American colonial period exposed many Filipinos to U S culture and popular forms of music 566 Rock music was introduced to Filipinos in the 1960s and developed into Filipino rock or Pinoy rock a term encompassing diverse styles such as pop rock alternative rock heavy metal punk new wave ska and reggae Martial law in the 1970s produced several Filipino folk rock bands and artists who were at the forefront of political demonstrations 568 The 1970s also saw the birth of Manila Sound 569 and Original Pilipino Music OPM 570 Filipino hip hop traces its origins back to 1979 entering the mainstream in 1990 571 572 Karaoke is a popular activity in the country 573 From 2010 to 2020 Philippine pop music or P pop went through a metamorphosis in its increased quality budget investment and variety matching the country s rapid economic growth and an accompanying social and cultural resurgence of its Asian identity This was heard by heavy influence from K pop and J pop growth in Asian style ballads idol groups and electronic dance music and less reliance on Western genres mirroring the Korean wave and similar Japanese wave popularity among millennial Filipinos and mainstream culture citation needed Locally produced spoken dramas became established in the late 1870s Around the same time Spanish influence led to the introduction of zarzuela plays which integrated musical pieces 574 and of comedia plays which included more significant dance elements Such performances became popular throughout the country 562 69 70 and were written in a number of local languages 574 American influence led to the introduction of vaudeville and ballet 562 69 70 During the 20th century the realism genre became more dominant with performances written to focus on contemporary political and societal issues 574 Literature Main article Philippine literature Jose Rizal is a pioneer of Philippine Revolution through his literary works Philippine literature comprises works usually written in Filipino Spanish or English Some of the most known were created from the 17th to 19th century 575 Ibong Adarna for example is a famous epic about an eponymous magical bird allegedly written by Jose de la Cruz or Huseng Sisiw 576 Francisco Balagtas the poet and playwright who wrote Florante at Laura is recognized as a preeminent writer in the Tagalog language 577 Jose Rizal wrote the novels Noli Me Tangere Touch Me Not and El filibusterismo The Filibustering also known as The Reign of Greed 578 The term Philippine literature refers to works of literature that have been connected to the country throughout prehistory through the colonial era and up to the present Epics that were originally passed down orally are what can be considered pre Hispanic Philippine literature However wealthier families were able to preserve transcriptions of these epics as family heirlooms particularly in Mindanao The Darangen a Maranao epic was one such example Philippine mythology has been handed down primarily through the traditional oral folk literature of the Filipino people Some popular figures from Philippine mythologies are Maria Makiling Lam Ang and the Sarimanok 579 Cinema Main article Cinema of the Philippines Philippine cinema began at the end of the 19th century 580 and made up around 20 of the domestic market during the second half of the 20th century During the 21st century however the industry has struggled to compete with larger budget foreign films 581 Critically acclaimed Philippines films include Himala Miracle 582 583 584 Moving pictures were first shown in the Philippines on January 1 1897 585 586 Films were all in Spanish since Philippine cinema was first introduced during the final years of the Spanish era of the country Antonio Ramos was the first known movie producer 587 588 Jose Nepomuceno was dubbed as the Father of Philippine Movies 589 His work marked the start of the local production of movies Production companies remained small during the era of silent film but 1933 saw the emergence of sound films and the arrival of the first significant production company The postwar 1940s and the 1950s are regarded as a high point for Philippine cinema 108 The growing dominance of Hollywood films and the cost of production has severely reduced local filmmaking 590 591 Nonetheless some local films continue to find success 592 593 Mass media Main articles Media in the Philippines Television in the Philippines Radio in the Philippines and Internet in the Philippines Philippine media uses mainly Filipino and English though broadcasting has shifted to Filipino 392 There are large numbers of both radio stations and newspapers 594 The top three newspapers by nationwide readership as well as credibility 595 are the Philippine Daily Inquirer Manila Bulletin and The Philippine Star 596 597 While freedom of the press is protected by the constitution the country is very dangerous for journalists 594 598 The dominant television networks were ABS CBN and GMA both being free to air 594 ABS CBN at the time the largest network 599 was shut down following a cease and desist order issued by the National Telecommunications Commission on May 5 2020 a day after the expiration of the network s franchise 600 Prior to this move President Rodrigo Duterte accused ABS CBN of being biased against his administration and vowed to block the renewal of their franchise Critics of the Duterte administration human rights groups and media unions said the shutdown of ABS CBN was an attack on press freedom 599 601 On July 10 2020 the House of Representatives declined a renewal of ABS CBN s TV and radio franchise with a vote of 70 11 599 TV the Internet 602 and social media remain the top source of news and information for the majority of Filipinos 603 604 English broadsheets are popular among executives professionals and students 605 cheaper Tagalog tabloids which feature crime sex gossips and gore saw a rise in the 1990s tend to be popular among the masses particularly in Manila 605 606 607 although newspaper readership continues to decline 603 67 of Filipinos or 73 91 million had Internet access in early 2021 with an overwhelming majority of users accessing the Internet via smartphones 608 Social networking and watching videos are among the most frequent Internet activities 609 The Philippine population is the world s top internet user 610 The Philippines was ranked 51st in the Global Innovation Index in 2021 it has increased its ranking considerably since 2014 where it was ranked 100th 611 612 613 614 Cuisine Main article Filipino cuisine Regional variations exist throughout the islands for example rice is a standard starch in Luzon while cassava is more common in Mindanao 615 Filipino taste buds tend to favor robust flavors 616 centered on sweet salty and sour combinations 617 Unlike other East or Southeast Asian countries most Filipinos do not eat with chopsticks they use Western cutlery Since rice is the primary staple food and stews and broths are very common in Filipino cuisine the main of utensils are spoons and forks not knife and fork 618 The traditional way of eating with the hands known as kamayan using the hand for bringing food to the mouth 619 was previously more often seen in the less urbanized areas 615 Introduction of Filipino food to people of other nationalities as well as to Filipino urbanites has popularized kamayan 620 621 This recent trend also sometimes incorporates the boodle fight concept as popularized and coined by the Philippine Army wherein banana leaves are used as giant plates on top of which rice portions and Filipino viands are placed all together for a filial friendly or communal kamayan feasting 622 Sports Main articles Sports in the Philippines and Traditional games in the Philippines Philippines men s national basketball team celebrating the 2015 Southeast Asian Games championship Basketball is played at both amateur and professional levels and is considered to be the most popular sport in the Philippines 623 In 2010 Manny Pacquiao was named Fighter of the Decade for the 2000s by the Boxing Writers Association of America 624 The national martial art and sport of the country is Arnis 625 626 Sabong or cockfighting is another popular entertainment especially among Filipino men and was documented by Magellan s voyage as a pastime in the kingdom of Taytay 627 The men s national football team has participated in one Asian Cup 628 In January 2022 the women s national football team qualified in their first FIFA Women s World Cup the 2023 FIFA Women s World Cup upon defeating Chinese Taipei 4 3 in a penalty shootout after finishing 1 1 in extra time Beginning in 1924 the Philippines has competed in every Summer Olympic Games except when they sat out during the American led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics 629 630 The Philippines is the first tropical nation to compete at the Winter Olympic Games debuting in the 1972 Olympics 631 632 In 2021 the country tallied its first ever Olympic gold medal via weightlifter Hidilyn Diaz s victory at the Tokyo Olympics 633 See also Philippines portal Asia portal Islands portal Geography portal Outline of the PhilippinesNotes While Manila is designated as the nation s capital the seat of government is the National Capital Region commonly known as Metro Manila of which the city of Manila is a part 2 3 Many national government institutions are located on various parts of Metro Manila aside from Malacanang Palace and other institutions agencies that are located within the Manila capital city As per the 1987 Constitution Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis Since March 10 1945 11 12 In the recognized regional languages of the Philippines Aklan Republika it Pilipinas Bikol Republika kan Filipinas Cebuano Republika sa Pilipinas Chavacano Republica de Filipinas Hiligaynon Republika sang Filipinas Ibanag Republika nat Filipinas Ilocano Republika ti Filipinas Ivatan Republika nu Filipinas Kapampangan Republika ning Filipinas Kinaray a Republika kang Pilipinas Maguindanaon Republika nu Pilipinas Maranao Republika a Pilipinas Pangasinan Republika na Filipinas Sambal Republika nin Pilipinas Surigaonon Republika nan Pilipinas Tagalog Republika ng Pilipinas Tausug Republika sin Pilipinas Waray Republika han Pilipinas Yakan Republika si Pilipinas In the recognized optional languages of the Philippines Spanish Republica de las Filipinas Arabic جمهورية 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the Philippines Volume 15 3rd ed E Floro p 46 Tarling Nicholas 1999 The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia Volume One Part Two From c 1500 to c 1800 Cambridge University Press p 12 ISBN 978 0 521 66370 0 Constantino R 1975 The Philippines a Past Revisited Quezon City Tala Pub Services The Jones Law of 1916 Official Gazette of the Philippines August 29 1916 Retrieved March 12 2021 The provisions of this Act and the name The Philippines as used in this Act shall apply to and include the Philippine Islands Quezon Manuel III March 28 2005 The Philippines are or is Manuel L Quezon III The Daily Dose Retrieved July 6 2020 1973 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines Official Gazette of the Philippines January 17 1973 Retrieved March 14 2021 The Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines Official Gazette of the Philippines February 11 1987 Retrieved March 14 2021 Ingicco T van den Bergh G D Jago on C Bahain J J Chacon M G Amano N Forestier H King C Manalo K Nomade S Pereira A Reyes M C Semah A M Shao Q Voinchet P Falgueres C Albers P C H Lising M Lyras G Yurnaldi D Rochette P Bautista A de Vos J May 1 2018 Earliest known hominin activity in the Philippines by 709 thousand years ago Nature 557 7704 233 237 Bibcode 2018Natur 557 233I doi 10 1038 s41586 018 0072 8 PMID 29720661 S2CID 13742336 Greshko Michael Wei Haas Maya April 10 2019 New species of ancient human discovered in the Philippines National Geographic Retrieved October 24 2020 Rincon Paul April 10 2019 New human species found in Philippines BBC News Retrieved October 24 2020 Detroit Florent Dizon Eusebio Falgueres Christophe Hameau Sebastien Ronquillo Wilfredo Semah Francois 2004 Upper Pleistocene Homo sapiens from the Tabon cave Palawan The Philippines description and dating of new discoveries PDF Human Palaeontology and Prehistory 3 2004 705 712 doi 10 1016 j crpv 2004 06 004 Jett Stephen C 2017 Ancient Ocean Crossings Reconsidering the Case for Contacts with the Pre Columbian Americas University of Alabama Press pp 168 171 ISBN 978 0 8173 1939 7 Chambers Geoff 2013 Genetics and the Origins of the Polynesians eLS John Wiley amp Sons Inc doi 10 1002 9780470015902 a0020808 pub2 ISBN 978 0 470 01617 6 Mijares Armand Salvador B 2006 The Early Austronesian Migration To Luzon Perspectives From The Penablanca Cave Sites Bulletin of the Indo Pacific Prehistory Association 26 72 78 Archived from the original on July 7 2014 Lipson Mark Loh Po Ru Patterson Nick Moorjani Priya Ko Ying Chin Stoneking Mark Berger Bonnie Reich David 2014 Reconstructing Austronesian population history in Island Southeast Asia PDF Nature Communications 5 1 4689 Bibcode 2014NatCo 5E4689L doi 10 1038 ncomms5689 PMC 4143916 PMID 25137359 a b Larena Maximilian Sanchez Quinto Federico Sjodin Per McKenna James Ebeo Carlo Reyes Rebecca Casel Ophelia Huang Jin Yuan Hagada Kim Pullupul Guilay Dennis Reyes Jennelyn March 30 2021 Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50 000 years Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118 13 e2026132118 Bibcode 2021PNAS 11826132L doi 10 1073 pnas 2026132118 ISSN 0027 8424 PMC 8020671 PMID 33753512 Scott 1984 p 17 Ness Immanuel 2014 The Global Prehistory of Human Migration John Wiley amp Sons p 289 ISBN 978 1 118 97059 1 Hsiao Chun Hung December 11 2007 Ancient jades map 3 000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104 50 19745 19750 doi 10 1073 pnas 0707304104 PMC 2148369 PMID 18048347 a b Legarda Benito Jr 2001 Cultural Landmarks and their Interactions with Economic Factors in the Second Millennium in the Philippines Kinaadman Wisdom A Journal of the Southern Philippines 23 40 Postma Antoon 1992 The Laguna Copper Plate Inscription Text and Commentary Philippine Studies 40 2 182 203 a b c d e f Jocano F Landa 2001 Filipino Prehistory Rediscovering Precolonial Heritage Quezon City Punlad Research House Inc ISBN 978 971 622 006 3 page needed a b c d Junker Laura Lee 1999 Raiding Trading and Feasting The Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms Honolulu University of Hawaii Press p 3 ISBN 978 0 8248 2035 0 Retrieved July 29 2020 Sals Florent Joseph 2005 The history of Agoo 1578 2005 La Union Limbagan Printhouse p 80 Glover Ian Bellwood Peter Bellwood Peter S Glover Dr 2004 Southeast Asia From Prehistory to History Psychology Press p 267 ISBN 978 0 415 29777 6 Retrieved August 10 2020 Scott 1994 pp 177 178 Jocano Felipe Jr August 7 2012 Wiley Mark ed A Question of Origins Arnis Reflections on the History and Development of Filipino Martial Arts Tuttle Publishing ISBN 978 1 4629 0742 7 page needed Osborne Milton 2004 Southeast Asia An Introductory History Ninth ed Australia Allen amp Unwin ISBN 978 1 74114 448 2 page needed McAmis Robert Day 2002 Malay Muslims The History and Challenge of Resurgent Islam in Southeast Asia Wm B Eerdmans Publishing pp 18 24 53 61 ISBN 0 8028 4945 8 Retrieved January 7 2010 a b Ring Trudy Robert M Salkin amp Sharon La Boda 1996 International Dictionary of Historic Places Asia and Oceania Taylor amp Francis pp 565 569 ISBN 978 1 884964 04 6 Retrieved January 7 2010 Historical Atlas of the Republic The Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office 2016 p 64 ISBN 978 971 95551 6 2 Carley Michael November 4 2013 2001 7 Urban Development and Civil Society The Role of Communities in Sustainable Cities Routledge p 108 ISBN 9781134200504 Retrieved September 11 2020 Each boat carried a large family group and the master of the boat retained power as leader or datu of the village established by his family This form of village social organization can be found as early as the 13th century in Panay Bohol Cebu Samar and Leyte in the Visayas and in Batangas Pampanga and Tondo in Luzon Evidence suggests a considerable degree of independence as small city states with their heads known as datu rajah or sultan Tan Samuel K 2008 A History of the Philippines UP Press p 37 ISBN 978 971 542 568 1 Retrieved August 10 2020 Reyeg Fernardo Marsh Ned December 2011 2 PDF The Filipino Way of War Irregular Warfare Through The Centuries Post Graduate Naval Postgraduate School Monterey California p 21 Archived PDF from the original on April 15 2021 Retrieved February 15 2021 Newson Linda 2009 2009 2 Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines University of Hawaii Press p 18 doi 10 21313 hawaii 9780824832728 001 0001 ISBN 9780824832728 Retrieved September 11 2020 Given the significance of the size and distribution of the population to the spread of diseases and their ability to become endemic it is worth commenting briefly on the physical and human geography of the Philippines The hot and humid tropical climate would have generally favored the propagation of many diseases especially water borne infections though there might be regional or seasonal variations in climate that might affect the incidence of some diseases In general however the fact that the Philippines comprise some seven thousand islands some of which are uninhabited even today would have discouraged the spread of infections as would the low population density Bankoff Greg 2007 Storms of history A World of Water Brill pp 153 184 JSTOR 10 1163 j ctt1w76vd0 9 Zaide Gregorio F Sonia M Zaide 2004 Philippine History and Government 6th ed All Nations Publishing Company pp 52 55 ISBN 971 642 222 9 Education United States Office of 1961 Bulletin U S Government Printing Office p 7 a b de Borja Marciano R 2005 Basques In The Philippines University of Nevada Press ISBN 9780874175905 In Spanish Saenz Carrete E 1998 Forzados y reclutas Los criollos novohispanos en Asia 1756 1808 Boletin Del Archivo General De La Nacion 4 11 203 205 a b c Mehl Eva Maria 2016 Chapter 6 Unruly Mexicans in Manila Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World From Mexico to the Philippines 1765 1811 Cambridge University Press doi 10 1017 CBO9781316480120 007 ISBN 9781316480120 In Governor Anda y Salazar s opinion an important part of the problem of vagrancy was the fact that Mexicans and Spanish disbanded after finishing their military or prison terms all over the islands even the most distant looking for subsistence CSIC riel 208 leg 14 Garcia de los Arcos Grupos etnicos 65 66 Garcia de los Arcos Maria Fernanda 1999 Grupos ethnicos y Clases sociales en las Filipinas de Finales del Siglo XVIII Archipel 57 2 55 71 doi 10 3406 arch 1999 3515 Retrieved August 19 2020 Mehl Eva Maria 2016 Chapter 1 Intertwined Histories in the Pacific Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World From Mexico to the Philippines 1765 1811 Cambridge University Press p 246 doi 10 1017 CBO9781316480120 007 ISBN 9781316480120 The military organization of Manila might have depended to some degree on non European groups but colonial authorities measured a successful imperial policy of defense on the amount of European and American recruits that could be accounted for in the military forces CSIC ser Consultas riel 301 leg 8 1794 a b c d Abinales P N Amoroso Donna J 2005 State and Society in the Philippines Rowman amp Littlefield pp 53 https books google com ph books id xiOQdEzgP9kC ISBN 978 0 7425 1024 1 Retrieved January 12 2021 Filipino Mexican Central and South American Connection Tales of Two Sisters Manila and Mexico June 21 1997 Retrieved January 1 2021 Tomas de Comyn general manager of the Compania Real de Filipinas in 1810 estimated that out of a total population of 2 515 406 the European Spaniards and Spanish creoles and mestizos do not exceed 4 000 persons of both sexes and all ages and the distinct castes or modifications known in America under the name of mulatto quarteroons etc although found in the Philippine Islands are generally confounded in the three classes of pure Indians Chinese mestizos and Chinese Page 10 Perez Marilola 2015 Cavite Chabacano Philippine Creole Spanish Description and Typology PDF PhD University of California Berkeley Archived from the original on January 14 2021 The galleon activities also attracted a great number of Mexican men that arrived from the Mexican Pacific coast as ships crewmembers Grant 2009 230 Mexicans were administrators priests and soldiers guachinangos or hombres de pueblo Bernal 1964 188 many though integrated into the peasant society even becoming tulisanes bandits who in the late 18th century infested Cavite and led peasant revolts Medina 2002 66 Meanwhile in the Spanish garrisons Spanish was used among administrators and priests Nonetheless there is not enough historical information on the social role of these men In fact some of the few references point to a quick integration into the local society los hombres del pueblo los soldados y marinos anonimos olvidados absorbidos en su totalidad por la poblacion Filipina Bernal 1964 188 In addition to the Manila Acapulco galleon a complex commercial maritime system circulated European and Asian commodities including slaves During the 17th century Portuguese vessels traded with the ports of Manila and Cavite even after the prohibition of 1644 Seijas 2008 21 Crucially the commercial activities included the smuggling and trade of slaves from the Moluccas and Malacca and India with the monsoon winds carrying clove spice cinnamon and pepper and black slaves and Kafir slaves Antonio de Morga cf Seijas 2008 21 Though there is no data on the numbers of slaves in Cavite the numbers in Manila suggest a significant fraction of the population had been brought in as slaves by the Portuguese vessels By 1621 slaves in Manila numbered 1 970 out of a population of 6 110 This influx of slaves continued until late in the 17th century according to contemporary cargo records in 1690 200 slaves departed from Malacca to Manila Seijas 2008 21 Different ethnicities were favored for different labor Tatiana Seijas 2014 The Diversity and Reach of the Manila Slave Market Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico p 36 ISBN 978 1 107 06312 9 Fernando A Santiago Jr 2006 Isang Maikling Kasaysayan ng Pandacan Maynila 1589 1898 Malay in Filipino 19 2 70 87 Retrieved July 18 2008 Manuel L Quezon III June 12 2017 The Philippines Isn t What It Used to Be SPOT PH Retrieved October 24 2020 Andrade Tonio 2005 La Isla Hermosa The Rise of the Spanish Colony in Northern Taiwan How Taiwan Became Chinese Dutch Spanish and Han colonialization in the Seventeenth Century Columbia University Press Guillermo Artemio 2012 2012 Historical Dictionary of the Philippines The Scarecrow Press Inc p 374 ISBN 9780810875111 Retrieved September 11 2020 To pursue their mission of conquest the Spaniards dealt individually with each settlement or village and with each province or island until the entire Philippine archipelago was brought under imperial control They saw to it that the people remained divided or compartmentalized and with the minimum of contact or communication The Spaniards adopted the policy of divide et impera divide and conquer Llobet Ruth de June 23 2015 The Philippines A mountain of difference The Lumad in early colonial Mindanao By Oona Paredes Ithaca Southeast Asia Program Publications Cornell University 2013 Pp 195 Maps Appendices Notes Bibliography Index Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 46 2 332 334 doi 10 1017 S0022463415000211 via Cambridge University Press Acabado Stephen March 1 2017 The Archaeology of Pericolonialism Responses of the Unconquered to Spanish Conquest and Colonialism in Ifugao Philippines International Journal of Historical Archaeology 21 1 1 26 doi 10 1007 s10761 016 0342 9 S2CID 147472482 via Springer Link Constantino Renato Constantino Letizia R 1975 A History of the Philippines NYU Press pp 58 59 ISBN 978 0 85345 394 9 Retrieved January 12 2021 Gutierrez Pedro Luengo Dissolution of Manila Mexico Architectural Connections between 1784 and 1810 Transpacific Exchanges 62 63 Kane Herb Kawainui 1996 The Manila Galleons In Bob Dye ed Hawaiʻ Chronicles Island History from the Pages of Honolulu Magazine Vol I Honolulu University of Hawaii Press pp 25 32 ISBN 978 0 8248 1829 6 Bolunia Mary Jane Louise A Astilleros the Spanish shipyards of Sorsogon PDF Archaeology Division National Museum of the Philippines p 1 Retrieved October 26 2015 William J McCarthy December 1 1995 The Yards at Cavite Shipbuilding in the Early Colonial Philippines International Journal of Maritime History 7 2 149 162 doi 10 1177 084387149500700208 S2CID 163709949 Halili Maria Christine N 2004 Philippine History Rex Bookstore pp 111 122 ISBN 978 971 23 3934 9 a b c Ooi Keat Gin 2004 Southeast Asia A Historical Encyclopedia from Angkor Wat to East Timor ABC CLIO p 1077 ISBN 978 1 57607 770 2 Retrieved January 29 2021 Because local resources did not yield enough money to maintain the colonial administration the government was constantly running a deficit and had to be supported with an annual subsidy from the Spanish government in Mexico the situado Iaccarino Ubaldo October 2017 The Centre of a Circle Manila s Trade with East and Southeast Asia at the Turn of the Sixteenth Century PDF Crossroads OSTASIEN Verlag 16 ISSN 2190 8796 Dolan 1991 The Early Spanish Period Newson Linda A April 16 2009 Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines University of Hawaii Press pp 7 8 ISBN 978 0 8248 6197 1 Retrieved January 29 2021 Crossley John Newsome July 28 2013 Hernando de los Rios Coronel and the Spanish Philippines in the Golden Age Ashgate Publishing Ltd pp 168 169 ISBN 9781409482420 Newson Linda A April 16 2009 Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines University of Hawaii Press p 8 ISBN 978 0 8248 6197 1 Cole Jeffrey A 1985 The Potosi mita 1573 1700 compulsory Indian labor in the Andes Stanford Calif Stanford University Press p 20 ISBN 978 0 8047 1256 9 Hawkley Ethan 2014 Reviving the Reconquista in Southeast Asia Moros and the Making of the Philippines 1565 1662 Journal of World History University of Hawai i Press 25 2 3 288 doi 10 1353 jwh 2014 0014 S2CID 143692647 The early modern revival of the Reconquista in the Philippines had a profound effect on the islands one that is still being felt today As described above the Spanish Reconquista served to unify Christians against a common Moro enemy helping to bring together Castilian Catalan Galician and Basque peoples into a single political unit Spain In precolonial times the Philippine islands were a divided and unspecified part of the Malay archipelago one inhabited by dozens of ethnolinguistic groups residing in countless independent villages strewn across thousands of islands By the end of the seventeenth century however a dramatic change had happened in the archipelago A multiethnic community had come together to form the colonial beginnings of a someday nation the Philippines The powerful influence of Christian Moro antagonisms on the formation of the early Philippines remains evident more than four hundred years later as the Philippine national government continues to grapple with Moro separatists groups even in 2013 United States War Department 1903 Annual Report of the Secretary of War U S Government Printing Office pp 379 398 Retrieved January 29 2021 Warren James Francis 2007 The Sulu Zone 1768 1898 The Dynamics of External Trade Slavery and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State NUS Press p 124 ISBN 978 9971 69 386 2 Retrieved August 10 2020 Spain 1893 Coleccion de los tratados convenios y documentos internacionales celebrados por nuestros gobiernos con los estados extranjeros desde el reinado de Dona Isabel II hasta nuestros dias Acompanados de notas historico criticas sobre su negociacion y cumplimiento y cotejados con los textos originales in Spanish pp 120 123 Hall Daniel George Edward 1981 History of South East Asia Macmillan International Higher Education p 757 ISBN 978 1 349 16521 6 Retrieved July 30 2020 Bacareza Hermogenes E 2003 The German Connection A Modern History Hermogenes E Bacareza p 10 ISBN 9789719309543 Retrieved July 30 2020 Hedman Eva Lotta Sidel John 2005 Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century Colonial Legacies Post Colonial Trajectories Routledge p 71 ISBN 978 1 134 75421 2 Retrieved July 30 2020 Steinberg David Joel 2018 Chapter 3 A SINGULAR AND A PLURAL FOLK THE PHILIPPINES A Singular and a Plural Place Routledge p 47 doi 10 4324 9780429494383 ISBN 978 0 8133 3755 5 The cultural identity of the mestizos was challenged as they became increasingly aware that they were true members of neither the indio nor the Chinese community Increasingly powerful but adrift they linked with the Spanish mestizos who were also being challenged because after the Latin American revolutions broke the Spanish Empire many of the settlers from the New World Caucasian Creoles born in Mexico or Peru became suspect in the eyes of the Iberian Spanish The Spanish Empire had lost its universality Schumacher John N 1997 The Propaganda Movement 1880 1895 Ateneo University Press pp 8 9 ISBN 9789715502092 Schumacher John N 1998 Revolutionary Clergy The Filipino Clergy and the Nationalist Movement 1850 1903 Ateneo University Press pp 23 30 ISBN 9789715501217 Nuguid Nati 1972 The Cavite Mutiny in Mary R Tagle 12 Events that Have Influenced Philippine History Manila National Media Production Center Retrieved December 20 2009 from StuartXchange Website Ocampo Ambeth 1999 Rizal Without the Overcoat Expanded ed Pasig Anvil Publishing Inc ISBN 978 971 27 0920 3 page needed Halili M c 2004 Philippine History Rex Bookstore Inc p 137 ISBN 978 971 23 3934 9 Retrieved July 29 2020 Borromeo Buehler Soledad 1998 The Cry of Balintawak A Contrived Controversy Ateneo University Press p 7 ISBN 9789715502788 a b Duka Cecilio D 2008 Struggle for Freedom Rex Bookstore Inc ISBN 9789712350450 Starr J Barton September 1988 The United States Constitution Its Birth Growth and Influence in Asia Hong Kong University Press p 260 ISBN 978 962 209 201 3 Retrieved January 15 2021 Draper Andrew Sloan 1899 The Rescue of Cuba An Episode in the Growth of Free Government Silver Burdett pp 170 172 Retrieved January 29 2021 Fantina Robert 2006 Desertion and the American Soldier 1776 2006 Algora Publishing p 83 ISBN 978 0 87586 454 9 Retrieved January 29 2021 Linn Brian McAllister 2000 The Philippine War 1899 1902 University Press of Kansas pp 75 76 ISBN 978 0 7006 1225 3 Tucker Spencer 2009 The Encyclopedia of the Spanish American and Philippine American Wars A Political Social and Military History ABC CLIO p 478 ISBN 9781851099511 Gates John M November 2002 The Pacification of the Philippines The U S Army and Irregular Warfare Archived from the original on August 5 2010 Retrieved February 20 2010 Kabigting Abad Antonio 1955 General Macario L Sakay Was He a Bandit or a Patriot J B Feliciano and Sons Printers Publishers full citation needed Kho Madge The Bates Treaty PhilippineUpdate com Retrieved December 2 2007 Aguilar Carino Ma Luisa 1994 The Igorot as Other Four Discourses from the Colonial Period Philippine Studies 42 2 194 209 JSTOR 42633435 a b Armes Roy Third World Film Making and the West p 152 University of California Press 1987 Retrieved on October 30 2020 The Role of Jose Nepomuceno in the Philippine Society What language did his silent film speaks Stockholm University Publications Retrieved on October 30 2020 a b Ooi Keat Gin 2004 Southeast Asia A Historical Encyclopedia from Angkor Wat to East Timor ABC CLIO pp 1081 1117 ISBN 9781576077702 Lee Lai To Zarina Othman September 1 2016 Regional Community Building in East Asia Countries in Focus Taylor amp Francis p 145 ISBN 9781317265566 Thompson Roger M 2003 Filipino English and Taglish Language Switching from Multiple Perspectives John Benjamins Publishing pp 27 29 ISBN 9789027248916 Gonzales Cathrine April 30 2020 Celebrating 83 years of women s suffrage in the Philippines The Inquirer Retrieved January 29 2021 Kwiatkowski Lynn May 20 2019 Struggling With Development The Politics Of Hunger And Gender In The Philippines Routledge p 41 ISBN 9780429965623 Manapat Carlos et al Economics Taxation and Agrarian Reform Quezon City C amp E Pub 2010 Print full citation needed Chamberlain Sharon W March 5 2019 A Reckoning Philippine Trials of Japanese War Criminals University of Wisconsin Press p 11 ISBN 9780299318604 Karl L Rankin November 25 1943 FOREIGN RELATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DIPLOMATIC PAPERS 1943 THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH EASTERN EUROPE THE FAR EAST VOLUME III Office of the Historian Retrieved February 16 2021 Abinales Patricio N Amoroso Donna J July 6 2017 State and Society in the Philippines Second ed Rowman amp Littlefield p 160 ISBN 9781538103951 The Guerrilla War American Experience PBS Archived from the original on January 28 2017 Retrieved February 24 2011 Jubair Salah The Japanese Invasion Maranao Com Archived from the original on July 27 2010 Retrieved February 23 2011 Sandler Stanley 2001 World War II in the Pacific An Encyclopedia Taylor amp Francis pp 819 825 ISBN 9780815318835 Jones Jeffrey Frank Japanese War Crimes and Related Topics A Guide to Records at the National Archives United States National Archives and Records Administration pp 1031 1037 Retrieved December 15 2020 Li Peter Japanese War Crimes The Search for Justice Transaction Publishers p 250 ISBN 978 1 4128 2683 9 Rottman Gordon L 2002 World War II Pacific Island Guide A Geo military Study Westport Connecticut Greenwood Publishing Group p 318 ISBN 978 0 313 31395 0 Retrieved July 30 2020 Zaide Sonia M 1994 The Philippines A Unique Nation All Nations Publishing Co p 354 ISBN 978 971 642 071 5 Founding Member States United Nations Archived from the original on November 21 2009 a b Buhler Konrad G February 8 2001 State Succession and Membership in International Organizations Legal Theories Versus Political Pragmatism Martinus Nijhoff Publishers pp 38 41 ISBN 9789041115539 Philippines 1946 Treaty of General Relations and Protocol with the Republic of the Philippines Message from the President of the United States Transmitting the Treaty of General Relations and Protocol Between the United States of America and the Republic of the Philippines Signed at Manila on July 4 1946 U S Government Printing Office Ooi Keat Gin 2004 Southeast Asia A Historical Encyclopedia from Angkor Wat to East Timor ABC CLIO p 1152 ISBN 9781576077702 Molina Antonio The Philippines Through the centuries Manila University of Santo Tomas Cooperative 1961 Print full citation needed Jeff Goodwin No Other Way Out Cambridge University Press 2001 p 119 ISBN 0 521 62948 9 ISBN 978 0 521 62948 5 Abinales P N Amoroso Donna J 2005 State and Society in the Philippines Rowman amp Littlefield p 182 ISBN 978 0 7425 1024 1 Retrieved September 1 2020 Macapagal Diosdado Proclamation No 28 Declaring June 12 as Philippine Independence Day Philippine History Group of Los Angeles Archived from the original on July 13 1997 Retrieved November 11 2009 Manuel S Satorre Jr President Diosdado Macapagal set RP Independence Day on June 12 positivenewsmedia net Archived from the original on July 24 2011 Retrieved December 10 2008 Developing Regional Minorities in Asia PDF Sabri Zain Archived from the original PDF on April 15 2012 Retrieved January 15 2016 Weatherbee Donald E Ralf Emmers Mari Pangestu Leonard C Sebastian 2005 International relations in Southeast Asia Rowman amp Littlefield pp 68 69 ISBN 978 0 7425 2842 0 Timberman David G 1991 A Changeless Land Continuity and Change in Philippine Politics Institute of Southeast Asian p 58 ISBN 978 981 3035 86 7 Retrieved September 1 2020 McGeown Kate January 25 2013 What happened to the Marcos fortune BBC News Retrieved November 19 2020 full citation needed Declaration of Martial Law Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines Archived from the original on July 8 2017 Retrieved September 1 2020 Problems of Communism March April 1975 Vol XXIV ed Documentary Studies Section International Information Administration 1975 p 59 Retrieved September 1 2020 To Islands Far Away the Story of the Thomasites and Their Journey to the Philippines Manila US Embassy 2001 full citation needed a b c Magno Alexander R ed 1998 Democracy at the Crossroads Kasaysayan The Story of the Filipino People Volume 9 A Nation Reborn Hong Kong Asia Publishing Company Limited Guido Edson Joseph de los Reyes Che 2017 The best of times Data debunk Marcos s economic golden years ABSCBN News and Public Affairs a b Chandler David P amp David Joel Steinberg 1987 In Search of Southeast Asia A Modern History Revised 2nd ed University of Hawaii Press pp 431 442 ISBN 978 0 8248 1110 5 Atwood J Brian Schuette Keith E A Path to Democratic Renewal PDF Report p 350 via National Democratic Institute for International Affairs and National Republican Institute for International Affairs Kumar Ravindra 2004 Mahatma Gandhi at the Close of Twentieth Century Anmol Publications PVT LTD p 168 ISBN 978 81 261 1736 9 retrieved December 2 2007 The Original People Power Revolution Quartet p 77 Retrieved February 28 2008 Kingsbury Damien September 13 2016 Politics in Contemporary Southeast Asia Authority Democracy and Political Change Taylor amp Francis p 132 ISBN 978 1 317 49628 1 Retrieved August 27 2020 Timberman David G 1991 A Changeless Land Continuity and Change in Philippine Politics Institute of Southeast Asian pp xii xiii ISBN 978 981 3035 86 7 Retrieved August 27 2020 Tan Andrew T H January 2009 A Handbook of Terrorism and Insurgency in Southeast Asia Edward Elgar Publishing p 405 ISBN 978 1 84720 718 0 Retrieved September 2 2020 The Communist Insurgency in the Philippines Tactics and Talks PDF Refworld Asia Report N 202 February 14 2011 pp 5 7 Archived from the original PDF on August 6 2020 Retrieved September 2 2020 Mydans Seth September 14 1986 Philippine Communists Are Spread Widely but Not Thinly The New York Times Archived from the original on May 24 2015 Retrieved September 2 2020 Associated Press December 21 1987 1 500 Are Feared Lost as Two Ships Collide and Sink Near Philippines The New York Times Retrieved December 13 2008 Drogin Bob August 11 1991 UNDER THE VOLCANO As Mt Pinatubo Continues to Spew Tons of Ash and Rock Filipinos Wonder How Their Battered Country Will Ever Recover Los Angeles Times Archived from the original on August 27 2020 Retrieved August 27 2020 President Corazon Aquino s government is overwhelmed by broken bridges buried homes and lost crops Reilly Benjamin January 22 2009 Disaster and Human History Case Studies in Nature Society and Catastrophe McFarland p 62 ISBN 978 0 7864 3655 2 Retrieved August 27 2020 a b Gargan Edward A December 11 1997 Last Laugh for the Philippines Onetime Joke Economy Avoids Much of Asia s Turmoil The New York Times Retrieved January 25 2008 Pempel T J 1999 The Politics of the Asian Economic Crisis Cornell University Press p 163 ISBN 978 0 8014 8634 0 Sheng Andrew July 2009 Financial Crisis and Global Governance A Network Analysis PDF Retrieved June 11 2012 Yenilmez Taylan amp Saltoglu Burak Analyzing Systemic Risk with Financial Networks During a Financial Crash PDF fma org Archived from the original PDF on March 8 2014 Retrieved March 8 2014 Dirk J Barreveld 2001 Philippine President Estada Impeached How the President of the World s 13th Most Populous Country Stumbles Over His Mistresses a Chinese Conspiracy and the Garbage of His Capital iUniverse p 476 ISBN 978 0 595 18437 8 Central Intelligence Agency 2009 The CIA World Factbook 2010 Skyhorse Publishing Inc p 541 ISBN 978 1 60239 727 9 Retrieved September 14 2020 Dizon David August 4 2010 Corruption was Gloria s biggest mistake survey ABS CBN News and Current Affairs Retrieved April 15 2012 Philippines charges Gloria Arroyo with corruption The Guardian Associated Press November 18 2011 Retrieved April 15 2012 Former president is formally accused of electoral fraud after government rushed to court as she tried to leave country Jimenez Gutierrez Jason November 23 2010 Philippines mourns massacre victims Philippine Daily Inquirer Archived from the original on June 27 2015 Retrieved November 23 2010 Perez Analyn 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170 000 arrested in war on drugs police ABS CBN News March 29 2019 Archived from the original on March 29 2019 Retrieved April 16 2019 Nicolas Fiona November 4 2016 Big projects underway in golden age of infrastructure CNN Philippines Archived from the original on November 7 2016 Retrieved September 13 2020 Vera Ben O de August 6 2020 Build Build Build s new normal 13 projects added 8 removed Philippine Daily Inquirer Archived from the original on August 17 2020 Retrieved September 13 2020 Unson John January 27 2019 Plebiscite in Mindanao Will it be the last The Philippine Star Retrieved January 27 2019 Arguillas Carolyn Bangsamoro law ratified how soon can transition from ARMM to BARMM begin MindaNews Retrieved January 26 2019 Philippines confirms first case of new coronavirus ABS CBN News January 30 2020 Retrieved January 30 2020 DOH recommends declaration of public health emergency after COVID 19 local transmission GMA News March 7 2020 Retrieved March 7 2020 Venzon Cliff January 28 2021 Philippines GDP shrinks 9 5 in 2020 worst since 1947 Nikkei Asia Retrieved January 31 2021 Ferdinand Bongbong Marcos wins the Philippine presidency in a landslide The Economist May 10 2022 Retrieved June 21 2022 Know before you go the Philippines National Geographic June 4 2019 Retrieved April 4 2021 More islands more fun in PH CNN Philippines February 20 2016 Archived from the original on June 20 2018 Retrieved July 5 2020 Land Use and Land Classification of the Philippines PDF Infomapper 1 2 10 December 1991 ISSN 0117 1674 Boquet Yves April 19 2017 The Philippine Archipelago Springer p 15 ISBN 9783319519265 Llanto Gilberto M Rosellon Maureen Ane D Assessment of the Effectiveness and Efficiency of the Cadastral Survey Program of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources DENR PDF Philippine Institute for Development Studies Retrieved January 17 2021 Exclusive Economic Zones Sea Around Us Project Fisheries Ecosystems amp Biodiversity Data and Visualization Central Intelligence Agency 2009 Field Listing Coastline Washington DC Philippine Sea encarta msn com Archived from the original on August 20 2009 on August 20 2009 Philippine Sea Encyclopaedia Britannica 2008 Retrieved February 9 2021 U S report details rich resources in South China Sea archived from the original on 2013 02 133 C Michael Hogan 2011 Celebes Sea Encyclopedia of Earth Eds P Saundry amp C J Cleveland National Council for Science and the Environment Washington DC dead link An Awesome Island Borneo Island in the Clouds PBS Retrieved November 11 2012 Rottman Gordon L 2002 World War II Pacific Island Guide A Geo military Study Greenwood Publishing Group pp 266 268 ISBN 9780313313950 Philippines talks with Palau and Indonesia over maritime borders gmanetwork com Retrieved January 9 2021 Division Library of Congress Federal Research 1993 Philippines A Country Study Federal Research Division Library of Congress p xvi ISBN 978 0 8444 0748 7 Retrieved July 27 2020 Deschamps A Lallemand S 2003 Geodynamic setting of Izu Bonin Mariana boninites PDF In Larter R D Leat P T eds Intra Oceanic Subduction Systems Tectonic and Magmatic Processes Geological Society London Special Publications Vol 219 pp 163 185 Bruun Anton Frederick 1956 The Galathea Deep Sea Expedition 1950 1952 described by members of the expedition Macmillan New York pp 32 35 Deo Onda Reaching new depths College of Forestry and Natural Resources University of the Philippines Los Banos Climate Responsive Integrated Master Plan for Cagayan River Basin Volume I Executive Summary PDF River Basin Control Office Department of Environment and Natural Resources p 5 Archived from the original PDF on July 30 2020 Retrieved July 30 2020 Jacinto G S Azanza R V Velasquez I B and Siringan F P 2006 Manila Bay Environmental Challenges and Opportunities in Wolanski E ed The Environment in Asia Pacific Harbours Springer Dordrecht Netherlands p309 328 Official Website of the Laguna Lake Development Authority www llda gov ph Archived from the original on March 23 2018 Retrieved August 18 2007 Murphy Denis Anana Ted 2004 Pasig River Rehabilitation Program Habitat International Coalition Archived from the original on October 12 2007 Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park UNESCO World Heritage Centre Retrieved July 18 2020 Holden William Nadeau Kathleen Porio Emma February 16 2017 The Philippines Understanding the Economic and Ecological Crisis Ecological Liberation Theology Springer Cham pp 5 9 doi 10 1007 978 3 319 50782 8 2 ISBN 978 3 319 50780 4 Retrieved August 17 2020 Berckhemer H Hsu K 1982 Alpine Mediterranean Geodynamics American Geophysical Union p 31 ISBN 978 978 087 590 9 Frohlich Cliff May 4 2006 Deep Earthquakes Cambridge University Press p 421 ISBN 978 0 521 82869 7 Retrieved February 26 2022 a b Earth Science 2005 Ed Rex Bookstore Inc ISBN 978 971 23 3938 7 Retrieved February 25 2022 Overview of Past and Recent Disasters in the Philippines PDF International Strategy for Disaster 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