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First Fitna

May 02, 2023

First Fitna
Part of the Fitnas

  Region under the control of Caliph Ali
  Region under the control of Mu'awiya
Date656–661
Location
Arabian Peninsula
Result Peace treaty signed;
Mu'awiya I begins the Umayyad Caliphate
Belligerents
Rashidun Caliphate Mu'awiya's forces and Aisha's forces Kharijites
Commanders and leaders
Ali
Ammar ibn Yasir †
Malik al-Ashtar
Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr †
Hujr ibn Adi 		 Talha †
Zubayr ibn al-Awwam †
Mu'awiya I
'Amr ibn al-'As		 Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi

The First Fitna (Arabic: فتنة مقتل عثمان, romanized: fitnat maqtal ʻUthmān, lit. 'strife/sedition of the killing of Uthman') was the first civil war in the Islamic community. It led to the overthrow of the Rashidun Caliphate and the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate. The civil war involved three main battles between the fourth Rashidun caliph, Ali, and the rebel groups.

The roots of the first civil war can be traced back to the assassination of the second caliph, Umar. Before he died from his wounds, Umar formed a six-member council which elected Uthman as the next caliph. During the final years of Uthman's caliphate, he was accused of nepotism and killed by rebels in 656. After Uthman's assassination, Ali was elected the fourth caliph. Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr revolted against Ali to depose him. The two parties fought the Battle of the Camel in December 656, from which Ali emerged victorious. Afterward, Mu'awiya, the incumbent governor of Syria, declared war on Ali ostensibly to avenge Uthman's death. The two parties fought the Battle of Siffin in July 657, which ended in a stalemate and arbitration. This arbitration was resented by the Kharijites, who declared Ali, Mu'awiya, and their followers infidels. Following Kharijite violence against civilians, Ali's forces crushed them in the Battle of Nahrawan. Soon after, Mu'awiya also seized control of Egypt with the aid of Amr ibn al-As.

In 661, Ali was assassinated by the Kharijite Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam. After Ali's death, his heir Hasan was elected caliph and soon after attacked by Mu'awiya. The embattled Hasan concluded a peace treaty, acknowledging the rule of Mu'awiya, who subsequently founded the Umayyad Caliphate and ruled as its first caliph.

Background

Following Muhammad's death in 632, Abu Bakr became the leader of the Muslim community. After reasserting Muslim control over the dissident tribes of Arabia, he sent armies to fight against the empires of Byzantium and Sasanian Persia, initiating a wave of conquests which were continued by his successor Umar (r. 634–644). These battles brought about the near-total collapse of the Sasanians, and restricted the Byzantine Empire to Anatolia, North Africa, and its holdings in Europe.[1] The conquests brought Muslims bounteous revenue and lands.[2] In Iraq, the lands of the Persian crown and aristocracy were now in Muslim hands. These became state-administered communal property. The revenue was distributed among the conquering troops, who settled in Iraq.[3] Umar also left provincial administration to regional governors, who ruled with considerable autonomy. Provincial surplus was spent on the Muslim settlers of the conquered territories rather than forwarded to the capital, Medina.[4]

Uthman succeeded Umar upon the latter's assassination by a slave in 644. The new caliph's policies elicited discontent among the Muslim elite as well as accusations of nepotism. He began centralizing power by relying on his Umayyad relatives, who had long opposed Muhammad before converting to Islam in 630. His favor toward relatives was to the exclusion of other members of the Quraysh,[a] who had enjoyed significant authority during the reign of his two predecessors. He appointed his kinsmen to all of the provincial governorships.[5] Although Uthman continued Muslim expansion in Persia and Egypt, these conquests came to a halt by the later half of his reign.[6] The influx of spoils slowed, magnifying economic issues that had previously been tempered by incoming revenue.[7] This was coupled with Arab nomads' antipathy toward central authority, which had hitherto been superseded by the continued war effort.[8] The continued migration of tribes from Arabia to the conquered territories also resulted in reduced payments from the revenue of the lands, which led to resentment among the earlier settlers.[9] Early settlers also saw their status threatened by land grants in the conquered territories to prominent Qurayshites like Talha ibn Ubayd Allah and Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, as well as land acquisitions by late-arriving tribal chiefs, such as Ashath ibn Qays. These chiefs were given this territory in exchange for their lands in Arabia.[10] Furthermore, Uthman took control of the crown lands of Iraq as state assets, and demanded that the provincial surplus be forwarded to the caliph. This interference in provincial affairs brought about widespread opposition to his rule, especially from Iraq and Egypt, where the majority of the conquering armies had settled.[11]

Encouraged by the Medinese elite including prominent figures like Talha, Zubayr, Amr ibn al-As (a former governor of Egypt who Uthman deposed), and Muhammad's widow Aisha, the provincial opposition subsequently broadened into open rebellion. Dissidents from Egypt and Iraq marched on Medina, killing the caliph in June 656.[12] Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was subsequently recognized caliph.[13]

Battle of the Camel

Main article: Battle of the Camel

Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr opposed Ali's succession and gathered in Mecca, where they demanded vengeance for Uthman's death and the election of a new caliph, presumably either Talha or Zubayr, through consultation.[14] The rebels raised an army and captured Basra from Ali's governor, inflicting heavy casualties on his men, with the intention of strengthening their position.[15] Ali sent his son Hasan to mobilize troops in Kufa.[16] After Ali arrived in Kufa himself, the combined army marched to Basra.[17]

The two armies met outside of Basra. After three days of failed negotiations, the battle began in the afternoon of 8 December 656 and lasted until the evening.[18] Zubayr left the field without fighting. Likely for the dishonorable act of leaving his fellow Muslims behind in a civil war he caused, Zubayr was pursued and killed by the troops of al-Ahnaf bin Qays, a chief of the Banu Sa'd who had remained on the sidelines of the battle.[19] Talha was killed by the Umayyad Marwan ibn al-Hakam.[20]

With the deaths of Talha and Zubayr, the fate of the battle was sealed in favor of Ali. However, the fight continued until Ali's troops succeeded in killing Aisha's camel, which her forces had rallied around. From this camel, the battle received its name.[21] After admonishing Aisha, Ali sent her back to Medina, escorted by her brother.[22] Ali also announced a public pardon and set the prisoners free.[23] This pardon was also extended to high-profile rebels, including Marwan, who soon joined with his Umayyad kinsman Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of Syria, as a senior advisor.[24]

Battle of Siffin

Main article: Battle of Siffin
 
Combat between the forces of Ali and Mu'awiyah I during the Battle of Siffin, from the Tarikhnama

Shortly after assuming power, Ali dismissed most governors whom he considered corrupt, including Mu'awiya, Uthman's cousin.[25] Mu'awiya refused to step down and informed Ali through a representative that he would recognize Ali as caliph in exchange for the governorship of Syria and Egypt for life.[26] Ali rejected this proposal.[27]

In response, Mu'awiya declared war on Ali on behalf of the Syrians, demanding vengeance for Uthman's death. The governor aimed to depose Ali and establish a Syrian council to appoint the next caliph, who would presumably be Mu'awiya himself.[28] Ali responded by letter that Mu'awiya was welcome to bring his case to Ali's court of justice, asking him to offer any evidence that would incriminate Ali in the murder of Uthman. Ali also challenged Mu'awiya to name any Syrian who would qualify for a council.[29]

Ali called a council of Islamic ruling elite which urged him to fight Mu'awiya.[30] The two armies met at Siffin, west of the Euphrates, in 657 CE.[31] There, the two sides negotiated for weeks.[32] Notably, Mu'awiya repeated his proposition to recognize Ali in return for Syria and Egypt, which was again rejected.[33] In turn, Ali challenged Mu'awiya to a one-on-one duel to settle the matters and avoid the bloodshed. This offer was declined by Mu'awiya.[34] The negotiations ceased without success on 18 July 657 and the two sides prepared for the battle.[35] Fighting began on Wednesday, 26 July, and lasted for three or four days.[36] By the final day, the balance had shifted in Ali's favor.[37] When Mu'awiya was informed his army could not win, he decided to appeal to the Quran.[38] Before noon, Syrians raised copies of the book on their lances, shouting, "Let the book of God be the judge between us."[39]Although Ali was suspicious of this appeal, his forces ceased fighting.[40] Compelled by strong peace sentiments in his army and threats of mutiny, Ali accepted a proposal for arbitration.[41]

Arbitration

The majority in Ali's army pressed for the reportedly neutral Abu Musa al-Ashari as their representative. Ali considered Abu Musa politically naive, but appointed him despite these reservations.[42] In an agreement on 2 August, 657 CE, Abu Musa represented Ali's army while Mu'awiya's top general, Amr ibn al-As, represented the other side.[43] The two representatives committed to adhere to the Quran and Sunnah, and to save the Muslim community from war and division.[44]

The two arbitrators met together, first at Dumat al-Jandal and then at Udhruh, and the proceedings likely lasted until mid April 658 CE.[45] At Dumat al-Jandal, the arbitrators reached the verdict that Uthman had been killed wrongfully and that Mu'awiya had the right to seek revenge.[46] According to scholar Wilferd Madelung, this verdict was political rather than judicial, and a blunder of the naive Abu Musa.[47] This verdict strengthened the Syrians' support for Mu'awiya and weakened the position of Ali.[48]

The second meeting at Udhruh likely broke up in disarray when Amr violated his earlier agreement with Abu Musa.[49] The Kufan delegation reacted furiously to Abu Musa's concessions, and the erstwhile arbitrator fled to Mecca in disgrace.[50] Conversely, Amr was received triumphantly by Mu'awiya on his return to Syria.[51] After the conclusion of the arbitration in 659 CE, Syrians pledged their allegiance to Mu'awiya as the next caliph.[52] Ali denounced the conduct of the two arbitrators as contrary to the Quran and began to organize a new expedition to Syria.[53]

Battle of Nahrawan

See also: Battle of Nahrawan

Following the Battle of Siffin, a group separated from Ali when he agreed to settle the dispute with Mu'awiya through arbitration, a move considered by the group as against the Quran.[54] Most of them had pressured Ali to accept the arbitration, but subsequently reversed course and declared that the right to judgment belonged to God alone.[55] While Ali largely succeeded in regaining their support, the remaining opponents of arbitration gathered in Nahrawan, on the east bank of the Tigris.[56] Due to their exodus, this group became known as the Kharijites, from the Arabic for "to go out" or "to rise in revolt".[57][58]

 
The Nahrawan Canal ran parallel to the east bank of the Tigris.

The Kharijites elected Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi as their caliph. They denounced Ali's leadership, and declared him, his followers, and the Syrians to be infidels. They declared the shedding blood of such infidels to be licit.[59] The Kharijites began interrogating civilians about their views on Uthman and Ali, and executing those who did not share their views.[60] In one notable incident, the Kharijites disemboweled a farmer's pregnant wife, cut out and killed her unborn infant, before beheading the farmer.[61] Kharijites have been viewed as the forerunners of Islamic extremists.[62]

 
A 1909 photograph of the Nahrawan Canal

Ali received the news of the Kharijites' violence and moved to Nahrawan with his army.[63] There, he asked the Kharjites to surrender the murderers and return to their families.[64] The Kharijites, however, responded defiantly that they were collectively responsible for the murders.[64] After multiple failed attempts at deescalation, Ali announced an amnesty (that did not apply to murderers) and barred his army from commencing hostilities.[65] The remaining Kharijites, estimated at 2,800, attacked and were vanquished by the vastly superior army of Ali. The injured, estimated at 400, were pardoned by Ali.[66]

In January 661, while praying at the Mosque of Kufa, Ali was assassinated by the Kharijite Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam.[67]

Peace treaty with Hasan

Main article: Hasan–Muawiya treaty

After the assassination of Ali in January 661, his eldest son, Hasan, was elected caliph in Kufa.[68] Mu'awiya quickly marched on Kufa with a large army, while Hasan's military response suffered defections in large numbers. These were facilitated by military commanders and tribal chiefs who had been swayed to Mu'awiya's side by promises and offers of money.[69] Hasan was wounded in a failed attempt on his life. By the time Hasan agreed to a peace treaty with Mu'awiya, his authority did not exceed the area around Kufa[70] Under this treaty, Hasan ceded the caliphate to Mu'awiya. The treaty stipulated a general amnesty for the people and the return of the caliphate to Hasan after Mu'awiya's death.[71] Mu'awiyah was crowned as caliph at a ceremony in Jerusalem in 661.[72]

Hasan predeceased Mu'awiya, dying in 670 at the age of 46.[73] It is believed that he was poisoned at the instigation of Mu'awiya.[74]

Notes

  1. ^ Grouping of the Meccan clans to which Muhammad and the caliphs, including Uthman, belonged.

References

  1. ^ Lewis (2002, pp. 49–51)
  2. ^ Donner (2010, p. 148)
  3. ^ Kennedy (2016, p. 59)
  4. ^ Kennedy (2016, pp. 60)
  5. ^ Wellhausen (1927, pp. 41–42). Lewis (2002, p. 59)
  6. ^ Donner (2010, p. 148). Lewis (2002, p. 60)
  7. ^ Wellhausen (1927, pp. 43)
  8. ^ Lewis (2002, p. 60)
  9. ^ Donner (2010, p. 148). Kennedy (2016, p. 63)
  10. ^ Donner (2010, pp. 149–150). Kennedy (2016, p. 63)
  11. ^ Kennedy (2016, pp. 61–62)
  12. ^ Kennedy (2016, pp. 64–65). Lewis (2002, p. 60)
  13. ^ Kennedy (2016, p. 65)
  14. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 157, 158). Rogerson (2006, pp. 289, 291)
  15. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 162, 163). Hazleton (2009, p. 107). Rogerson (2006, p. 294). Abbas (2021, p. 137). Veccia Vaglieri (2021b)
  16. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 166). Hazleton (2009, p. 107). Rogerson (2006, p. 295). Poonawala (1982). Veccia Vaglieri (2021). Veccia Vaglieri (2021b)
  17. ^ Donner (2010, p. 158–160)
  18. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 169, 170). Rogerson (2006, p. 295). Poonawala (1982). Gleave (2008)
  19. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 170, 171). Rogerson (2006, pp. 295, 296). Veccia Vaglieri (2021b)
  20. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 171, 172, 181)
  21. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 172, 173). Hazleton (2009, pp. 118–121). Abbas (2021, p. 140). Rogerson (2006, pp. 296, 297). Veccia Vaglieri (2021b)
  22. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 168–174)
  23. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 175, 179, 180). Hazleton (2009, p. 122). Abbas (2021, p. 141). Rogerson (2006, p. 298). Veccia Vaglieri (2021b)
  24. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 168–174, 180, 181). Hazleton (2009, p. 118). Abbas (2021, pp. 140, 141). Veccia Vaglieri (2021b)
  25. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 148, 197). Abbas (2021, p. 134). Hazleton (2009, p. 183)
  26. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 203). Gleave (2021)
  27. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 204). Hinds (2021)
  28. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 204, 205). Hazleton (2009, pp. 130, 136)
  29. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 205, 206)
  30. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 215). Rogerson (2006, pp. 303, 304)
  31. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 226). Donner (2010, pp. 161)
  32. ^ Lecker (2021)
  33. ^ Hazleton (2009, p. 196)
  34. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 135). Hazleton (2009, p. 197). Rogerson (2006, p. 306)
  35. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 231). Bowering et al. (2013, p. 31). Donner (2010, pp. 161)
  36. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 232). Rogerson (2006, p. 307). Donner (2010, pp. 161)
  37. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 238). Hazleton (2009, p. 198). Rogerson (2006, pp. 307, 308)
  38. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 238). Abbas (2021, p. on Amr's cunning advice). Hazleton (2009, p. 198). Rogerson (2006, p. 308). Mavani (2013, pp. 98). Aslan (2011, p. 137). Bowering et al. (2013, p. 43). Glassé (2001, p. 40)
  39. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 238). Hazleton (2009, pp. 198, 199). Rogerson (2006, p. 308). Bowering et al. (2013, p. 31)
  40. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 238). Abbas (2021, pp. you have been cheated). Rogerson (2006, pp. 308). Hazleton (2009, pp. 199–201)
  41. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 238, 241). Donner (2010, pp. 161)
  42. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 241, 242). Hazleton (2009, p. 211). Rogerson (2006, p. 308). Bowering et al. (2013, p. 43). Donner (2010, pp. 161). Veccia Vaglieri (2021c)
  43. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 241–243). Abbas (2021, p. politically ambitious Kufan). Hazleton (2009, pp. 210, 211). Rogerson (2006, p. 308). Bowering et al. (2013, p. 43)
  44. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 243). Abbas (2021, p. the mandate of the arbitration). Rogerson (2006, p. 309)
  45. ^ Donner (2010, p. 162). Madelung (1997, pp. 254, 255). Hazleton (2009, p. 210)
  46. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 255). Abbas (2021, p. Uthman had indeed been wrongfully killed). Aslan (2011, p. 137)
  47. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 256). Rogerson (2006, p. 312)
  48. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 255). Jafri (1979, p. 65). Momen (1985, p. 25). Bowering et al. (2013, p. 31). Donner (2010, pp. 162, 163)
  49. ^ Rogerson (2006, pp. 311, 312). Madelung (1997, p. 257). Glassé (2001, p. 40). Donner (2010, p. 165). Poonawala (1982)
  50. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 257). Hazleton (2009, p. 212)
  51. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 257). Hazleton (2009, pp. 212). Rogerson (2006, p. 312)
  52. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 257). Hazleton (2009, pp. 212). Rogerson (2006, p. 312). Bowering et al. (2013, p. 31). Donner (2010, p. 163). Hinds (2021)
  53. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 257). Glassé (2001, p. 40). Poonawala (1982). Veccia Vaglieri (2021)
  54. ^ Poonawala (1982). Hazleton (2009, p. 141)
  55. ^ Poonawala (1982). Hazleton (2009, p. 141). Veccia Vaglieri (2021)
  56. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 248, 249, 251, 252). Abbas (2021, pp. brought many of them out). Rogerson (2006, pp. 311, 313). Donner (2010, p. 163). Wellhausen (1901, p. 17). Poonawala (1982). Veccia Vaglieri (2021)
  57. ^ Francesca, Ersilia. Dammen McAuliffe, Jane (ed.). "Khārijīs". Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. Georgetown University. doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00103. Retrieved 18 Aug 2022 – via Brill.
  58. ^ Levi Della Vida (1978, pp. 1074, 1075). Poonawala (1982). Veccia Vaglieri (2021)
  59. ^ Donner (2010, p. 163). Wellhausen (1901, pp. 17–18). Hazleton (2009, p. 145)
  60. ^ Wellhausen (1901, pp. 17–18). Hazleton (2009, p. 143). Madelung (1997, p. 254)
  61. ^ Hazleton (2009, pp. 143, 144). Madelung (1997, pp. 254, 259)
  62. ^ Hazleton (2009, p. 144). Abbas (2021, p. 152)
  63. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 259, 260)
  64. ^ a b Madelung (1997, p. 259)
  65. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 260). Wellhausen (1901, p. 18)
  66. ^ Morony (2021)
  67. ^ Wellhausen (1901, p. 18)
  68. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 311). Glassé (2003, p. 423)
  69. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 317–320). Momen (1985, p. 27)
  70. ^ Madelung (1997, pp. 319, 322)
  71. ^ Momen (1985, p. 27). Madelung (1997, p. 322)
  72. ^ Avi-Yonah (2001)
  73. ^ Momen (1985, p. 28)
  74. ^ Madelung (1997, p. 331). Momen (1985, p. 28)

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Further reading

  • Djaït, Hichem (30 October 2008). La Grande Discorde: Religion et politique dans l'Islam des origines. Editions Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-035866-3. Arabic translation by Khalil Ahmad Khalil, Beirut, 2000, Dar al-Tali'a.
  • "Encyclopedia Iranica". Encyclopædia Iranica. Center for Iranian Studies, Columbia University. March 1997. ISBN 1-56859-050-4.

May 02, 2023
first, fitna, part, fitnas, region, under, control, caliph, region, under, control, awiyadate656, 661locationarabian, peninsularesultpeace, treaty, signed, awiya, begins, umayyad, caliphatebelligerentsrashidun, caliphatemu, awiya, forces, aisha, forceskharijit. First FitnaPart of the Fitnas Region under the control of Caliph Ali Region under the control of Mu awiyaDate656 661LocationArabian PeninsulaResultPeace treaty signed Mu awiya I begins the Umayyad CaliphateBelligerentsRashidun CaliphateMu awiya s forces and Aisha s forcesKharijitesCommanders and leadersAliAmmar ibn Yasir Malik al AshtarMuhammad ibn Abi Bakr Hujr ibn Adi Talha Zubayr ibn al Awwam Mu awiya I Amr ibn al AsAbd Allah ibn Wahb al Rasibi The First Fitna Arabic فتنة مقتل عثمان romanized fitnat maqtal ʻUthman lit strife sedition of the killing of Uthman was the first civil war in the Islamic community It led to the overthrow of the Rashidun Caliphate and the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate The civil war involved three main battles between the fourth Rashidun caliph Ali and the rebel groups The roots of the first civil war can be traced back to the assassination of the second caliph Umar Before he died from his wounds Umar formed a six member council which elected Uthman as the next caliph During the final years of Uthman s caliphate he was accused of nepotism and killed by rebels in 656 After Uthman s assassination Ali was elected the fourth caliph Aisha Talha and Zubayr revolted against Ali to depose him The two parties fought the Battle of the Camel in December 656 from which Ali emerged victorious Afterward Mu awiya the incumbent governor of Syria declared war on Ali ostensibly to avenge Uthman s death The two parties fought the Battle of Siffin in July 657 which ended in a stalemate and arbitration This arbitration was resented by the Kharijites who declared Ali Mu awiya and their followers infidels Following Kharijite violence against civilians Ali s forces crushed them in the Battle of Nahrawan Soon after Mu awiya also seized control of Egypt with the aid of Amr ibn al As In 661 Ali was assassinated by the Kharijite Abd al Rahman ibn Muljam After Ali s death his heir Hasan was elected caliph and soon after attacked by Mu awiya The embattled Hasan concluded a peace treaty acknowledging the rule of Mu awiya who subsequently founded the Umayyad Caliphate and ruled as its first caliph Contents 1 Background 2 Battle of the Camel 3 Battle of Siffin 3 1 Arbitration 4 Battle of Nahrawan 5 Peace treaty with Hasan 6 Notes 7 References 8 Sources 9 Further readingBackground Edit Byzantine Empire and Sasanian Empire 600 CEFollowing Muhammad s death in 632 Abu Bakr became the leader of the Muslim community After reasserting Muslim control over the dissident tribes of Arabia he sent armies to fight against the empires of Byzantium and Sasanian Persia initiating a wave of conquests which were continued by his successor Umar r 634 644 These battles brought about the near total collapse of the Sasanians and restricted the Byzantine Empire to Anatolia North Africa and its holdings in Europe 1 The conquests brought Muslims bounteous revenue and lands 2 In Iraq the lands of the Persian crown and aristocracy were now in Muslim hands These became state administered communal property The revenue was distributed among the conquering troops who settled in Iraq 3 Umar also left provincial administration to regional governors who ruled with considerable autonomy Provincial surplus was spent on the Muslim settlers of the conquered territories rather than forwarded to the capital Medina 4 Uthman succeeded Umar upon the latter s assassination by a slave in 644 The new caliph s policies elicited discontent among the Muslim elite as well as accusations of nepotism He began centralizing power by relying on his Umayyad relatives who had long opposed Muhammad before converting to Islam in 630 His favor toward relatives was to the exclusion of other members of the Quraysh a who had enjoyed significant authority during the reign of his two predecessors He appointed his kinsmen to all of the provincial governorships 5 Although Uthman continued Muslim expansion in Persia and Egypt these conquests came to a halt by the later half of his reign 6 The influx of spoils slowed magnifying economic issues that had previously been tempered by incoming revenue 7 This was coupled with Arab nomads antipathy toward central authority which had hitherto been superseded by the continued war effort 8 The continued migration of tribes from Arabia to the conquered territories also resulted in reduced payments from the revenue of the lands which led to resentment among the earlier settlers 9 Early settlers also saw their status threatened by land grants in the conquered territories to prominent Qurayshites like Talha ibn Ubayd Allah and Zubayr ibn al Awwam as well as land acquisitions by late arriving tribal chiefs such as Ashath ibn Qays These chiefs were given this territory in exchange for their lands in Arabia 10 Furthermore Uthman took control of the crown lands of Iraq as state assets and demanded that the provincial surplus be forwarded to the caliph This interference in provincial affairs brought about widespread opposition to his rule especially from Iraq and Egypt where the majority of the conquering armies had settled 11 Encouraged by the Medinese elite including prominent figures like Talha Zubayr Amr ibn al As a former governor of Egypt who Uthman deposed and Muhammad s widow Aisha the provincial opposition subsequently broadened into open rebellion Dissidents from Egypt and Iraq marched on Medina killing the caliph in June 656 12 Ali Muhammad s cousin and son in law was subsequently recognized caliph 13 Battle of the Camel EditMain article Battle of the Camel Aisha Talha and Zubayr opposed Ali s succession and gathered in Mecca where they demanded vengeance for Uthman s death and the election of a new caliph presumably either Talha or Zubayr through consultation 14 The rebels raised an army and captured Basra from Ali s governor inflicting heavy casualties on his men with the intention of strengthening their position 15 Ali sent his son Hasan to mobilize troops in Kufa 16 After Ali arrived in Kufa himself the combined army marched to Basra 17 The two armies met outside of Basra After three days of failed negotiations the battle began in the afternoon of 8 December 656 and lasted until the evening 18 Zubayr left the field without fighting Likely for the dishonorable act of leaving his fellow Muslims behind in a civil war he caused Zubayr was pursued and killed by the troops of al Ahnaf bin Qays a chief of the Banu Sa d who had remained on the sidelines of the battle 19 Talha was killed by the Umayyad Marwan ibn al Hakam 20 With the deaths of Talha and Zubayr the fate of the battle was sealed in favor of Ali However the fight continued until Ali s troops succeeded in killing Aisha s camel which her forces had rallied around From this camel the battle received its name 21 After admonishing Aisha Ali sent her back to Medina escorted by her brother 22 Ali also announced a public pardon and set the prisoners free 23 This pardon was also extended to high profile rebels including Marwan who soon joined with his Umayyad kinsman Mu awiya ibn Abi Sufyan the governor of Syria as a senior advisor 24 Battle of Siffin EditMain article Battle of Siffin Combat between the forces of Ali and Mu awiyah I during the Battle of Siffin from the Tarikhnama Shortly after assuming power Ali dismissed most governors whom he considered corrupt including Mu awiya Uthman s cousin 25 Mu awiya refused to step down and informed Ali through a representative that he would recognize Ali as caliph in exchange for the governorship of Syria and Egypt for life 26 Ali rejected this proposal 27 In response Mu awiya declared war on Ali on behalf of the Syrians demanding vengeance for Uthman s death The governor aimed to depose Ali and establish a Syrian council to appoint the next caliph who would presumably be Mu awiya himself 28 Ali responded by letter that Mu awiya was welcome to bring his case to Ali s court of justice asking him to offer any evidence that would incriminate Ali in the murder of Uthman Ali also challenged Mu awiya to name any Syrian who would qualify for a council 29 Ali called a council of Islamic ruling elite which urged him to fight Mu awiya 30 The two armies met at Siffin west of the Euphrates in 657 CE 31 There the two sides negotiated for weeks 32 Notably Mu awiya repeated his proposition to recognize Ali in return for Syria and Egypt which was again rejected 33 In turn Ali challenged Mu awiya to a one on one duel to settle the matters and avoid the bloodshed This offer was declined by Mu awiya 34 The negotiations ceased without success on 18 July 657 and the two sides prepared for the battle 35 Fighting began on Wednesday 26 July and lasted for three or four days 36 By the final day the balance had shifted in Ali s favor 37 When Mu awiya was informed his army could not win he decided to appeal to the Quran 38 Before noon Syrians raised copies of the book on their lances shouting Let the book of God be the judge between us 39 Although Ali was suspicious of this appeal his forces ceased fighting 40 Compelled by strong peace sentiments in his army and threats of mutiny Ali accepted a proposal for arbitration 41 Arbitration Edit The majority in Ali s army pressed for the reportedly neutral Abu Musa al Ashari as their representative Ali considered Abu Musa politically naive but appointed him despite these reservations 42 In an agreement on 2 August 657 CE Abu Musa represented Ali s army while Mu awiya s top general Amr ibn al As represented the other side 43 The two representatives committed to adhere to the Quran and Sunnah and to save the Muslim community from war and division 44 The two arbitrators met together first at Dumat al Jandal and then at Udhruh and the proceedings likely lasted until mid April 658 CE 45 At Dumat al Jandal the arbitrators reached the verdict that Uthman had been killed wrongfully and that Mu awiya had the right to seek revenge 46 According to scholar Wilferd Madelung this verdict was political rather than judicial and a blunder of the naive Abu Musa 47 This verdict strengthened the Syrians support for Mu awiya and weakened the position of Ali 48 The second meeting at Udhruh likely broke up in disarray when Amr violated his earlier agreement with Abu Musa 49 The Kufan delegation reacted furiously to Abu Musa s concessions and the erstwhile arbitrator fled to Mecca in disgrace 50 Conversely Amr was received triumphantly by Mu awiya on his return to Syria 51 After the conclusion of the arbitration in 659 CE Syrians pledged their allegiance to Mu awiya as the next caliph 52 Ali denounced the conduct of the two arbitrators as contrary to the Quran and began to organize a new expedition to Syria 53 Battle of Nahrawan EditSee also Battle of Nahrawan Following the Battle of Siffin a group separated from Ali when he agreed to settle the dispute with Mu awiya through arbitration a move considered by the group as against the Quran 54 Most of them had pressured Ali to accept the arbitration but subsequently reversed course and declared that the right to judgment belonged to God alone 55 While Ali largely succeeded in regaining their support the remaining opponents of arbitration gathered in Nahrawan on the east bank of the Tigris 56 Due to their exodus this group became known as the Kharijites from the Arabic for to go out or to rise in revolt 57 58 The Nahrawan Canal ran parallel to the east bank of the Tigris The Kharijites elected Abd Allah ibn Wahb al Rasibi as their caliph They denounced Ali s leadership and declared him his followers and the Syrians to be infidels They declared the shedding blood of such infidels to be licit 59 The Kharijites began interrogating civilians about their views on Uthman and Ali and executing those who did not share their views 60 In one notable incident the Kharijites disemboweled a farmer s pregnant wife cut out and killed her unborn infant before beheading the farmer 61 Kharijites have been viewed as the forerunners of Islamic extremists 62 A 1909 photograph of the Nahrawan Canal Ali received the news of the Kharijites violence and moved to Nahrawan with his army 63 There he asked the Kharjites to surrender the murderers and return to their families 64 The Kharijites however responded defiantly that they were collectively responsible for the murders 64 After multiple failed attempts at deescalation Ali announced an amnesty that did not apply to murderers and barred his army from commencing hostilities 65 The remaining Kharijites estimated at 2 800 attacked and were vanquished by the vastly superior army of Ali The injured estimated at 400 were pardoned by Ali 66 In January 661 while praying at the Mosque of Kufa Ali was assassinated by the Kharijite Abd al Rahman ibn Muljam 67 Peace treaty with Hasan EditMain article Hasan Muawiya treaty After the assassination of Ali in January 661 his eldest son Hasan was elected caliph in Kufa 68 Mu awiya quickly marched on Kufa with a large army while Hasan s military response suffered defections in large numbers These were facilitated by military commanders and tribal chiefs who had been swayed to Mu awiya s side by promises and offers of money 69 Hasan was wounded in a failed attempt on his life By the time Hasan agreed to a peace treaty with Mu awiya his authority did not exceed the area around Kufa 70 Under this treaty Hasan ceded the caliphate to Mu awiya The treaty stipulated a general amnesty for the people and the return of the caliphate to Hasan after Mu awiya s death 71 Mu awiyah was crowned as caliph at a ceremony in Jerusalem in 661 72 Hasan predeceased Mu awiya dying in 670 at the age of 46 73 It is believed that he was poisoned at the instigation of Mu awiya 74 Notes Edit Grouping of the Meccan clans to which Muhammad and the caliphs including Uthman belonged References Edit Lewis 2002 pp 49 51 Donner 2010 p 148 Kennedy 2016 p 59 Kennedy 2016 pp 60 Wellhausen 1927 pp 41 42 Lewis 2002 p 59 Donner 2010 p 148 Lewis 2002 p 60 Wellhausen 1927 pp 43 Lewis 2002 p 60 Donner 2010 p 148 Kennedy 2016 p 63 Donner 2010 pp 149 150 Kennedy 2016 p 63 Kennedy 2016 pp 61 62 Kennedy 2016 pp 64 65 Lewis 2002 p 60 Kennedy 2016 p 65 Madelung 1997 pp 157 158 Rogerson 2006 pp 289 291 Madelung 1997 pp 162 163 Hazleton 2009 p 107 Rogerson 2006 p 294 Abbas 2021 p 137 Veccia Vaglieri 2021b Madelung 1997 p 166 Hazleton 2009 p 107 Rogerson 2006 p 295 Poonawala 1982 Veccia Vaglieri 2021 Veccia Vaglieri 2021b Donner 2010 p 158 160 Madelung 1997 pp 169 170 Rogerson 2006 p 295 Poonawala 1982 Gleave 2008 Madelung 1997 pp 170 171 Rogerson 2006 pp 295 296 Veccia Vaglieri 2021b Madelung 1997 pp 171 172 181 Madelung 1997 pp 172 173 Hazleton 2009 pp 118 121 Abbas 2021 p 140 Rogerson 2006 pp 296 297 Veccia Vaglieri 2021b Madelung 1997 pp 168 174 Madelung 1997 pp 175 179 180 Hazleton 2009 p 122 Abbas 2021 p 141 Rogerson 2006 p 298 Veccia Vaglieri 2021b Madelung 1997 pp 168 174 180 181 Hazleton 2009 p 118 Abbas 2021 pp 140 141 Veccia Vaglieri 2021b Madelung 1997 pp 148 197 Abbas 2021 p 134 Hazleton 2009 p 183 Madelung 1997 p 203 Gleave 2021 Madelung 1997 pp 204 Hinds 2021 Madelung 1997 pp 204 205 Hazleton 2009 pp 130 136 Madelung 1997 pp 205 206 Madelung 1997 p 215 Rogerson 2006 pp 303 304 Madelung 1997 p 226 Donner 2010 pp 161 Lecker 2021 Hazleton 2009 p 196 Madelung 1997 p 135 Hazleton 2009 p 197 Rogerson 2006 p 306 Madelung 1997 p 231 Bowering et al 2013 p 31 Donner 2010 pp 161 Madelung 1997 p 232 Rogerson 2006 p 307 Donner 2010 pp 161 Madelung 1997 p 238 Hazleton 2009 p 198 Rogerson 2006 pp 307 308 Madelung 1997 p 238 Abbas 2021 p on Amr s cunning advice Hazleton 2009 p 198 Rogerson 2006 p 308 Mavani 2013 pp 98 Aslan 2011 p 137 Bowering et al 2013 p 43 Glasse 2001 p 40 Madelung 1997 p 238 Hazleton 2009 pp 198 199 Rogerson 2006 p 308 Bowering et al 2013 p 31 Madelung 1997 p 238 Abbas 2021 pp you have been cheated Rogerson 2006 pp 308 Hazleton 2009 pp 199 201 Madelung 1997 pp 238 241 Donner 2010 pp 161 Madelung 1997 pp 241 242 Hazleton 2009 p 211 Rogerson 2006 p 308 Bowering et al 2013 p 43 Donner 2010 pp 161 Veccia Vaglieri 2021c Madelung 1997 pp 241 243 Abbas 2021 p politically ambitious Kufan Hazleton 2009 pp 210 211 Rogerson 2006 p 308 Bowering et al 2013 p 43 Madelung 1997 p 243 Abbas 2021 p the mandate of the arbitration Rogerson 2006 p 309 Donner 2010 p 162 Madelung 1997 pp 254 255 Hazleton 2009 p 210 Madelung 1997 p 255 Abbas 2021 p Uthman had indeed been wrongfully killed Aslan 2011 p 137 Madelung 1997 p 256 Rogerson 2006 p 312 Madelung 1997 p 255 Jafri 1979 p 65 Momen 1985 p 25 Bowering et al 2013 p 31 Donner 2010 pp 162 163 Rogerson 2006 pp 311 312 Madelung 1997 p 257 Glasse 2001 p 40 Donner 2010 p 165 Poonawala 1982 Madelung 1997 p 257 Hazleton 2009 p 212 Madelung 1997 p 257 Hazleton 2009 pp 212 Rogerson 2006 p 312 Madelung 1997 p 257 Hazleton 2009 pp 212 Rogerson 2006 p 312 Bowering et al 2013 p 31 Donner 2010 p 163 Hinds 2021 Madelung 1997 p 257 Glasse 2001 p 40 Poonawala 1982 Veccia Vaglieri 2021 Poonawala 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28 Madelung 1997 p 331 Momen 1985 p 28 Sources EditBowering Gerhard Crone Patricia Kadi Wadad Mirza Mahan Stewart Devin J Zaman Muhammad Qasim eds 2013 Ali b Abi Talib ca 599 661 The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought Princeton University Press ISBN 9780691134840 Donner Fred M 2010 Muhammad and the Believers at the Origins of Islam Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 05097 6 Glasse Cyril ed 2003 The New Encyclopedia of Islam Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam AltaMira Press ISBN 978 0 7591 0190 6 Gleave Robert M 2008 Ali ibn Abi Talib Encyclopaedia of Islam THREE Brill Online Archived from the original on 2 April 2013 Retrieved 29 March 2013 Holt P M Bernard Lewis 1977 Cambridge History of Islam Vol 1 Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 29136 4 Lapidus Ira 2002 A History of Islamic Societies 2nd ed Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 77933 3 Levi Della Vida G 1978 Kharidjites In van Donzel E Lewis B Pellat Ch amp Bosworth C E eds The 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Julius 1927 The Arab Kingdom and Its Fall Translated by Margaret Graham Weir Calcutta University of Calcutta OCLC 752790641 Abbas Hassan 2021 The Prophet s Heir The Life of Ali ibn Abi Talib Yale University Press ISBN 9780300252057 Hazleton Lesley 2009 After the Prophet The Epic Story of the Shia Sunni Split in Islam Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group ISBN 9780385532099 Rogerson Barnaby 2006 The Heirs of the Prophet Muhammad And the Roots of the Sunni Shia Schism Abacus ISBN 9780349117577 Bowering Gerhard ed 2013 Ali b Abi Talib The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought Princeton University Press ISBN 9780691134840 Jafri S H M 1979 Origins and Early Development of Shia Islam London Longman Glasse Cyril 2001 The new encyclopedia of Islam AltaMira Press ISBN 9780759101890 Aslan Reza 2011 No god but God The origins evolution and future of Islam Random House ISBN 9780812982442 Momen Moojan 1985 An introduction to Shi i Islam Yale University Press ISBN 9780853982005 Avi Yonah Michael 2001 History of Israel and the Holy Land A amp C Black ISBN 9780826415264 Nasr Seyyed Hossein Afsaruddin Asma 2021 Ali Encyclopedia Britannica Poonawala I K 1982 Ali b Abi Taleb I Life Encyclopaedia Iranica Online ed Veccia Vaglieri L 2021 Ali b Abi Talib Encyclopaedia of Islam Second ed Brill Reference Online Gleave Robert M 2021 Ali b Abi Talib Encyclopaedia of Islam Third ed Brill Reference Online Veccia Vaglieri L 2021b Al Djamal Encyclopaedia of Islam Second ed Brill Reference Online Bodley R V C 1946 The Messenger the Life of Mohammed Doubleday amp Company Inc Morony M 2021 Al Nahrawan Encyclopaedia of Islam Second ed Brill Reference Online Veccia Vaglieri L 2021c Al Ashari Abu Musa Encyclopaedia of Islam Second ed Brill Reference Online Hinds M 2021 Muawiya I Encyclopaedia of Islam Second ed Brill Reference Online Further reading EditDjait Hichem 30 October 2008 La Grande Discorde Religion et politique dans l Islam des origines Editions Gallimard ISBN 978 2 07 035866 3 Arabic translation by Khalil Ahmad Khalil Beirut 2000 Dar al Tali a Encyclopedia Iranica Encyclopaedia Iranica Center for Iranian Studies Columbia University March 1997 ISBN 1 56859 050 4 Islam portal Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title First Fitna amp oldid 1151571467, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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