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Wikipedia

West Africa

February 07, 2023

For the region of the African Union, see Regions of the African Union § West.

West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo, as well as Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha (United Kingdom Overseas Territory).[8][9] The population of West Africa is estimated at 419 million[1][2] people as of 2021, and at 381,981,000 as of 2017, of which 189,672,000 are female and 192,309,000 male.[3] The region is demographically[10] and economically[11] one of the fastest growing on the African continent.

West Africa
  Western Africa (UN subregion)
Area5,112,903 km2 (1,974,103 sq mi) (7th)
Population418,544,337 (2021 est.) (3rd)[1][2]
381,981,000 (female: 189,672,000; male: 192,309,000 (2017 est.[3])
Density49.2/km2 (127.5/sq mi)
DemonymWest African
Countries
Sovereign states (16)
Dependencies Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
Time zonesUTC+0 to UTC+1
Major Regional OrganizationsEconomic Community of West African States (ECOWAS; established 1975)
Total GDP (PPP)US$752.983 billion (2013) (23rd)[4]
GDP (PPP) per capita$2,500 (2013)[5]
Total GDP (nominal)$656 billion (2013)[6][7]
Total GDP (nominal) per capita$1,929 (2013)[6]
Currency
List
Largest cities
Lagos, Nigeria
Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
Accra, Ghana
Abuja, Nigeria
Kano, Nigeria
Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Kumasi, Ghana
UN M.49 code011 – West Africa
202 – Sub-Saharan Africa
002 – Africa
001 – World

Early history in West Africa included a number of prominent regional powers that dominated different parts of both the coastal and internal trade networks, such as the Mali and Gao Empires. West Africa sat at the intersection of trade routes between Arab-dominated North Africa and specialized goods from further south on the continent, including gold, advanced iron-working, and ivory. After European exploration encountered rich local economies and kingdoms, the European slave trade exploited already existing slave systems to provide labor for colonies in the Americas. After the end of the slave trade in the early 19th century, European nations, especially France and Britain, continued to exploit the region through colonial relationships. For example, they continued exporting a number of extractive goods, including labor-intensive agricultural crops like cocoa and coffee, forestry products like tropical timber, and mineral resources like gold. Since independence, many West African countries, like Ivory Coast, Ghana, Nigeria and Senegal, have played important roles in the regional and global economies.

West Africa has a rich ecology, with strong biodiversity and several distinct regions. The area's climate and ecology are heavily influenced by the dry Sahara to the North and East, which provides dry winds during the Harmattan, as well as the Atlantic Ocean to the South and West, which provides seasonal monsoons. This mixture of climates gives West Africa a rich array of biomes, from biodiversity-rich tropical forests to drylands supporting rare and endangered fauna such as pangolins, rhinoceros, and elephants. Because of the pressure for economic development, many of these ecologies are threatened by processes like deforestation, biodiversity loss, overfishing, pollution from mining, plastics and other industries, and extreme changes resulting from climate change in West Africa.

History

Main article: History of West Africa
Further information: Sub-Saharan Africa § Western Africa, African empires § West Africa, and List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa § West Africa

The history of West Africa can be divided into five major periods: first, its prehistory, in which the first human settlers arrived, developed agriculture, and made contact with peoples to the north; the second, the Iron Age empires that consolidated both intra-Africa, and extra-Africa trade, and developed centralized states; third, major polities flourished, which would undergo an extensive history of contact with non-Africans; fourth, the colonial period, in which Great Britain and France controlled nearly the entire region; and fifth, the post-independence era, in which the current nations were formed.

Prehistory

Main article: Prehistoric West Africa § Early Stone Age 2

West African populations were considerably mobile and interacted with one another throughout the population history of West Africa.[12] Acheulean tool-using archaic humans may have dwelled throughout West Africa since at least between 780,000 BP and 126,000 BP (Middle Pleistocene).[13] During the Pleistocene, Middle Stone Age peoples (e.g., Iwo Eleru people,[14] possibly Aterians), who dwelled throughout West Africa between MIS 4 and MIS 2,[15] were gradually replaced by incoming Late Stone Age peoples, who migrated into West Africa[16] as an increase in humid conditions resulted in the subsequent expansion of the West African forest.[17] West African hunter-gatherers occupied western Central Africa (e.g., Shum Laka) earlier than 32,000 BP,[14] dwelled throughout coastal West Africa by 12,000 BP,[18] and migrated northward between 12,000 BP and 8000 BP as far as Mali, Burkina Faso,[18] and Mauritania.[19]

During the Holocene, Niger-Congo speakers independently created pottery in Ounjougou, Mali[20][21] – the earliest pottery in Africa[22] – by at least 9400 BCE,[20] and along with their pottery,[22] as well as wielding bows and arrows,[23] migrated into the Central Sahara,[22] which became their primary region of residence by 10,000 BP.[23] The emergence and expansion of ceramics in the Sahara may be linked with the origin of Round Head and Kel Essuf rock art, which occupy rockshelters in the same regions (e.g., Djado, Acacus, Tadrart).[24] Hunters in the Central Sahara farmed, stored, and cooked undomesticated central Saharan flora,[25] domesticated antelope,[26] and domesticated and shepherded Barbary sheep.[25] After the Kel Essuf Period and Round Head Period of the Central Sahara, the Pastoral Period followed.[27] Some of the hunter-gatherers who created the Round Head rock art may have adopted pastoral culture, and others may have not.[28] As a result of increasing aridification of the Green Sahara, Central Saharan hunter-gatherers and cattle herders may have used seasonal waterways as the migratory route taken to the Niger River and Chad Basin of West Africa.[29] Migration of Saharan peoples south of the Sahelian region resulted in seasonal interaction with and gradual absorption of West African hunter-gatherers, who primarily dwelt in the savannas and forests of West Africa.[18] After having persisted as late as 1000 BP,[18] or some period of time after 1500 CE,[30] remaining West African hunter-gatherers, many of whom dwelt in the forest-savanna region, were ultimately acculturated and admixed into the larger groups of West African agriculturalists, akin to the migratory Bantu agriculturalists and their encounters with Central African hunter-gatherers.[18]

Empires

Main article: History of West Africa § Iron Age
Further information: History of Africa § West Africa, History of Africa § West Africa 2, and Blacksmiths of western Africa
See also: Jews of Bilad el-Sudan
 
Mansa Musa depicted holding a gold nugget from a 1395 map of Africa and Europe

The development of the region's economy allowed more centralized states and civilizations to form, beginning with Dhar Tichitt that began in 1600 B.C. followed by Djenné-Djenno beginning in 300 B.C. This was then succeeded by the Ghana Empire that first flourished between the 9th and 12th centuries, which later gave way to the Mali Empire. In current-day Mauritania, there exist archaeological sites in the towns of Tichit and Oualata that were initially constructed around 2000 B.C., and were found to have originated from the Soninke branch of the Mandé peoples. Also, based on the archaeology of the city of Kumbi Saleh in modern-day Mauritania, the Mali empire came to dominate much of the region until its defeat by Almoravid invaders in 1052.

Three great kingdoms were identified in Bilad al-Sudan by the ninth century. They included Ghana, Gao and Kanem.[31]

The Sosso Empire sought to fill the void but was defeated (c. 1240) by the Mandinka forces of Sundiata Keita, founder of the new Mali Empire. The Mali Empire continued to flourish for several centuries, most particularly under Sundiata's grandnephew Musa I, before a succession of weak rulers led to its collapse under Mossi, Tuareg and Songhai invaders. In the 15th century, the Songhai would form a new dominant state based on Gao, in the Songhai Empire, under the leadership of Sonni Ali and Askia Mohammed.

 
13th-century Africa – Map of the main trade routes and states, kingdoms and empires.

Meanwhile, south of the Sudan, strong city-states arose in Igboland, such as the 10th-century Kingdom of Nri, which helped birth the arts and customs of the Igbo people, Bono State in the 11th century, which gave birth to the numerous Akan States, while Ife rose to prominence around the 12th century. Further east, Oyo arose as the dominant Yoruba state and the Aro Confederacy as a dominant Igbo state in modern-day Nigeria.

The Kingdom of Nri was a West African medieval state in present-day southeastern Nigeria and a subgroup of the Igbo people. The Kingdom of Nri was unusual in the history of world government in that its leader exercised no military power over his subjects. The kingdom existed as a sphere of religious and political influence over a third of Igboland and was administered by a priest-king called as an Eze Nri. The Eze Nri managed trade and diplomacy on behalf of the Nri people and possessed divine authority in religious matters.

The Oyo Empire was a Yoruba empire of what is today Western,North central Nigeria and southern Republic of Benin. Established in the 14th century, the Oyo Empire grew to become one of the largest West African states. It rose through the outstanding organizational skills of the Yoruba, wealth gained from trade and its powerful cavalry. The Oyo Empire was the most politically important state in the region from the mid-17th to the late 18th century, holding sway not only over most of the other kingdoms in Yorubaland, but also over nearby African states, notably the Fon Kingdom of Dahomey in the modern Republic of Benin to the west.

The Benin Empire was a post-classical empire located in what is now southern Nigeria. Its capital was Edo, now known as Benin City, Edo. It should not be confused with the modern-day country called Benin, formerly called Dahomey. The Benin Empire was "one of the oldest and most highly developed states in the coastal hinterland of West Africa, dating perhaps to the eleventh century CE",. The Benin Empire was governed by a sovereign Emperor with hundreds of thousands of soldiers and a powerful council rich in resources, wealth, ancient science and technology with cities described as beautiful and large as Haarlem. "Olfert Dapper, a Dutch writer, describing Benin in his book Description of Africa (1668) ". Its craft was the most adored and treasured bronze casting in the history of Africa. It was annexed by the British Empire in 1897 during the invasion and scramble of Africa.

European contact and enslavement

Main article: Atlantic slave trade
 
West Africa circa 1875

Portuguese traders began establishing settlements along the coast in 1445, followed by the French, English, Spanish, Danish and Dutch; the African slave trade began not long after, which over the following centuries would debilitate the region's economy and population.[32] The slave trade also encouraged the formation of states such as the Bono State, Bambara Empire and Dahomey, whose economic activities include but not limited to exchanging slaves for European firearms.[33]

Colonialism

Further information: Colonisation of Africa
 
French in West Africa circa 1913

In the early 19th century, a series of Fulani reformist jihads swept across Western Africa. The most notable include Usman dan Fodio's Fulani Empire, which replaced the Hausa city-states, Seku Amadu's Massina Empire, which defeated the Bambara, and El Hadj Umar Tall's Toucouleur Empire, which briefly conquered much of modern-day Mali.

However, the French and British continued to advance in the Scramble for Africa, subjugating kingdom after kingdom. With the fall of Samory Ture's new-founded Wassoulou Empire in 1898 and the Ashanti queen Yaa Asantewaa in 1902, most West African military resistance to colonial rule resulted in failure.

Part of the West-African regions underwent an increase in the numeracy level throughout the 19th century. The reason for such a growth was predetermined by a number of factors. Namely, the peanut production and trade, which was boosted by the demand of the colonial states. Importantly, the rise of the numeracy was higher in the regions which were less hierarchical and had less dependent from the slavery trade (e.g. Sine and Salum). Whereas areas with the opposite trends illustrated opposite tendencies (e.g. central and northern Senegal). Those patterns were further even more stimulated with the French colonial campaign.[34]

Britain controlled the Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ghana, and Nigeria throughout the colonial era, while France unified Senegal, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Benin, Ivory Coast, and Niger into French West Africa. Portugal founded the colony of Guinea-Bissau, while Germany claimed Togoland, but was forced to divide it between France and Britain following First World War due to the Treaty of Versailles. Only Liberia retained its independence, at the price of major territorial concessions.

Postcolonial eras

Further information: Decolonisation of Africa and Neocolonialism

Following World War II, nationalist movements arose across West Africa. In 1957, Ghana, under Kwame Nkrumah, became the first West African colony to achieve its independence, followed the next year by France's colonies (Guinea in 1958 under the leadership of President Ahmed Sekou Touré); by 1974, West Africa's nations were entirely autonomous.

Since independence, many West African nations have been submerged under political instability, with notable civil wars in Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Ivory Coast, and a succession of military coups in Ghana and Burkina Faso.

Since the end of colonialism, the region has been the stage for some brutal conflicts, including:

Geopolitical division

Geopolitically, the United Nations definition of subregion Western Africa includes the preceding states with the addition of Mauritania (which withdrew from ECOWAS in 1999), comprising an area of approximately 6.1 million square km.[35] The UN region also includes the United Kingdom Overseas Territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha in the south Atlantic Ocean.[8]

Area

In the United Nations scheme of African regions, the region of Western Africa includes 16 states and the United Kingdom Overseas Territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha:[8] Mali, Burkina Faso, Senegal and the Niger are mostly in the Sahel, a transition zone between the Sahara desert and the Sudanian Savanna; Benin, Ivory Coast, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Togo and Nigeria compose most of Guinea, the traditional name for the area near the Gulf of Guinea; Mauritania lies in the Maghreb, the northwestern region of Africa that has historically been inhabited by West African groups such as the Fulani, Soninke, Wolof, Serer and Toucouleur people,[36] along with Arab-Berber Maghrebi people such as the Tuareg; Cape Verde is an island country in the Atlantic Ocean; and Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha consists of eight main islands located in four different parts of the Atlantic. Due to Mauritania's increasingly close ties to the Arab World and its 1999 withdrawal from the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), in modern times it is often considered, especially in Africa, as now part of western North Africa.[37][38][39][40][41][42]

List of countries

Cities

Major and principal cities in West Africa include, geographically eastward:

Environment

Nature

 
A rhinoceros in Bandia Nature Reserve, Senegal.
Credit: Corine REZEL.

Before European colonisation, West African countries such as those from the Senegambia region (Senegal and the Gambia) used to have a diverse wildlife including lions, hippopotamus, elephants, antelopes, leopards etc.[43] However, during colonization, the European colonizers such as the French and British killed most of the wildlife particularly the lions, using their body parts as trophies. By the turn of the 20th century, the Senegambia region had lost most of its lion population and other exotic animals due to poaching. By the 1930s, the Gambian elephant population became extinct. That phenomenon was not only limited to the Senegambia region but affected much of West African as the region lost much of its "natural resources once tied so closely to its cultural identity. Poaching has stolen most of its wildlife." The British issued poaching licenses, and although they would later try to reverse the damage that had been done by attempting to preserve what was left of the local wildlife, but by that time, it was too late.[44][45] During the 1930s, the elephant population in the Gold Coast was about 300, and Sierra Leona between 500 and 600. Although a small number of elephants survived in Nigeria, hunting, agricultural expansion and clearing of forest in that country drastically affected its wildlife population, particularly elephants.[45]

Despite the historical damage that has been done to the region's wildlife populations, there are still some protected nature reserves within the region. Some of these include:

  1. The Ankasa Conservation Area in Ghana, animal life includes: the elephant, bongo, leopard, chimpanzee, Diana monkey, and other primates.[48]
  • The Mole National Park is Ghana's biggest wildlife refuge. It is home to over 83 mammal species including about 800 resident elephants, buffalo, hippos, and warthogs[49][50] as well as various fauna and flora.

West Africa is also home to several baobab trees and other plant life. Some baobab trees are several centuries old and form part of the local folklore, for example, a mythical baobab tree named Ngoye njuli in Senegal which is regarded as a sacred site by the Serer. The tree itself is rather majestic and looks like a huge phallus and a deformed animal or thing is protruding from it. It is said to be the dwelling place of a pangool. Ngoye njuli is protected by the Senegalese authorities and attracts visitors. In West Africa, as in other parts of Africa where the baobab tree is found, the leaves are mixed with couscous and eaten, the bark of the tree is used to make ropes, and the fruit and seeds used for drinks and oils.[44][51][52]

Deforestation

Further information: Deforestation in Nigeria

West Africa is greatly affected by deforestation and has one of worst deforestation rate.[53] Even "the beloved baobab tree" which is viewed as sacred by some West African cultures are under threat due to climate change, urbanization and population growth. "Huge swaths of forest are being razed to clear space for palm oil and cocoa plantations. Mangroves are being killed off by pollution. Even wispy acacias are hacked away for use in cooking fires to feed growing families."[44] Nigeria, Liberia, Guinea, Ghana and the Ivory Coast, have lost large areas of their rainforest.[54][55] In 2005, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ranked Nigeria as the state with the worst deforestation rate in the entire world. Causes include logging, subsistence agriculture, and the collection of fuelwoods.[56]

According to a ThoughtCo publication authored Steve Nix (2018), almost 90 percent of West Africa's original rainforest has been destroyed, and the rest "heavily fragmented and in a degraded state, being poorly used."[53]

Overfishing

Overfishing is a major issue in West Africa. Besides reducing fish stocks in the region, it also threatens food security and the livelihoods of many coastal communities who largely depend on artisanal fishing. The overfishing generally comes from foreign trawlers operating in the region.[57]

To combat the overfishing, Greenpeace has recommended countries reduce the number of registered trawlers operating in African waters, increase the monitoring and control and set up regional fisheries organizations.[58] Some steps have already been taken in the form of WARFP (the World Bank's West Africa Regional Fisheries Program which empowers west-African countries (i.e. Liberia, Sierra Leone, Cape Verde, and Senegal) with information, training and monitoring systems. Furthermore, Liberia enacted a fisheries regulations Act in 2010[59] and installed a satellite-based monitoring system and Senegal enacted a fisheries code in 2015. In Cape Verde, the fishermen communities of Palmiera and Santa Maria have organized themselves to protect fishing zones. Mozambique finally created a conservation area, including a coastline. [60][61]

Geography and climate

West Africa, broadly defined to include the western portion of the Maghreb (Western Sahara, Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia), occupies an area in excess of 6,140,000 km2, or approximately one-fifth of Africa. The vast majority of this land is plains lying less than 300 meters above sea level, though isolated high points exist in numerous states along the southern shore of West Africa.[62]

 
Satellite imagery from outer space of West Africa

The northern section of West Africa (narrowly defined to exclude the western Maghreb) is composed of semi-arid terrain known as Sahel, a transitional zone between the Sahara and the West Sudanian savanna. Forests form a belt between the savannas and the southern coast, ranging from 160 km to 240 km in width.[63]

The northwest African region of Mauritania periodically suffers country-wide plagues of locusts which consume water, salt and crops on which the human population relies.[64]

Background

West Africa is west of an imagined north–south axis lying close to 10° east longitude.[62] The Atlantic Ocean forms the western as well as the southern borders of the West African region.[62] The northern border is the Sahara Desert, with the Ranishanu Bend generally considered the northernmost part of the region.[65] The eastern border is less precise, with some placing it at the Benue Trough, and others on a line running from Mount Cameroon to Lake Chad.

Colonial boundaries are reflected in the modern boundaries between contemporary West African states, cutting across ethnic and cultural lines, often dividing single ethnic groups between two or more states.[66]

In contrast to most of Central, Southern, and Southeast Africa, West Africa is not populated by Bantu-speaking peoples.[67]

Climate change

This section is an excerpt from Climate change in Africa § West Africa and the Sahel.[edit]

The West African region can be divided into four climatic sub-regions namely the Guinea Coast, Soudano-Sahel, Sahel (extending eastward to the Ethiopian border) and the Sahara,[68] each with different climatic conditions. The seasonal cycle of rainfall is mainly driven by the south-north movement of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) which is characterised by the confluence between moist southwesterly monsoon winds and the dry northeasterly Harmattan.[69]

Based on the inter-annual rainfall variability, three main climatic periods have been observed over the Sahel: the wet period from 1950 to the early 1960s followed by a dry period from 1972 to 1990 and then the period from 1991 onwards which has seen a partial rainfall recovery.[70][71][72] During the dry period, the Sahel experienced a number of particularly severe drought events, with devastating effects.[73][74] The recent decades, have also witnessed a moderate increment in annual rainfall since the beginning of 1990s. However, total annual rainfall remains significantly below that observed during the 1950s.[75][73]

Some have identified the recent 2 decades as a recovery period.[76] Others refer to this as a period of ‘hydrological intensification’ with much of the annual rainfall increase coming from more severe rain events and sometimes flooding rather than more frequent rainfall, or similarly other works[77][78] underline the continuity of the drought even though the rainfall has increased. Since 1985, 54 percent of the population has been affected by five or more floods in the 17 Sahel region countries.[79] In 2012, severe drought conditions in the Sahel were reported. Governments in the region responded quickly, launching strategies to address the issue.[80]

The region is projected to experience changes in rainfall regime, with climate models suggesting that decreases in wet season rainfall are more likely in the western Sahel, and increases more likely in the central to east Sahel, although opposite trends cannot yet be ruled out.[81][82][83] These trends will affect the frequency and severity of floods, droughts, desertification, sand and dust storms, desert locust plagues and water shortages.[84][85]

However, irrespective of the changes in seasonal mean rain, the most intense storms are expected to become more intense, amplifying flood frequency.[86][87] Enhanced carbon emissions and global warming may also lead to an increase in dry spells especially across the Guinea Coast associated with a reduction of the wet spells under both 1.5℃ and 2℃ global warming level.[88]

Fifteen percent of Sahel region population has also experienced a temperature increase of more than 1 °C from 1970 to 2010. The Sahel region, in particular, will experience higher average temperatures over the course of the 21st century and changes in rainfall patterns, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

Transport

Rail transport

Main article: ECOWAS rail
 
Railway systems in West Africa, 2022

A Trans-ECOWAS project, established in 2007, plans to upgrade railways in this zone. One of the goals of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is the development of an integrated railroad network.[89] Aims include the extension of railways in member countries, the interconnection of previously isolated railways and the standardization of gauge, brakes, couplings, and other parameters. The first line would connect the cities and ports of Lagos, Cotonou, Lomé and Accra and would allow the largest container ships to focus on a smaller number of large ports, while efficiently serving a larger hinterland. This line connects 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) gauge and 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) metre gauge systems, which would require four rail dual gauge, which can also provide standard gauge.[89]

 
Railway systems in West Africa 2030, projection

Road transport

Main article: Trans–West African Coastal Highway
 

The Trans–West African Coastal Highway is a transnational highway project to link 12 West African coastal states, from Mauritania in the north-west of the region to Nigeria in the east, with feeder roads already existing to two landlocked countries, Mali and Burkina Faso.[90]

The eastern end of the highway terminates at Lagos, Nigeria. Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) consider its western end to be Nouakchott, Mauritania, or to be Dakar, Senegal, giving rise to these alternative names for the road:

  • Nouakchott–Lagos Highway
  • Lagos–Nouakchott Highway
  • Dakar–Lagos Highway
  • Lagos–Dakar Highway
  • Trans-African Highway 7 in the Trans-African Highway network

Air transport

The capitals' airports include:

Of the sixteen, the most important hub and entry point to West Africa are Kotoka International Airport, and Murtala Muhammed International Airport, offering many international connections.

Health

Main article: History of West Africa § Health

West Africa has made considerably improvement in the health outcomes of its populations, in spite of the challenges posed by pervasive poverty, epidemic diseases, and food insecurity. The traditional communicable diseases of HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis are still the major reasons of mortality. Primary health care is the best answer to curing diseases, as it provides the basic preventive strategies as it reduce the rate of child and maternal morbidity and mortality—two of the most preventable outcomes that can prolong life expectancy at birth.[91] Recently, mental health problems are on the rise in West Africa, as they are in many other world regions. However, the subject is largely a taboo, and professional treatment is still rare.[92]

Culture

Despite the wide variety of cultures in West Africa, from Nigeria through to Senegal, there are general similarities in dress, cuisine, music and culture that are not shared extensively with groups outside the geographic region. This long history of cultural exchange predates the colonization era of the region and can be approximately placed at the time of the Ghana Empire (proper: Wagadou Empire), Mali Empire or perhaps before these empires.

Art

Main article: African art § West Africa

Traditional architecture

Further information: Architecture of Africa § West Africa
 
A street and airport in the famous town of Timbuktu, Mali, showing the Sudano-Sahelian architectural style of the West African interior

The main traditional styles of building (in conjunction with modern styles) are the distinct Sudano-Sahelian style in inland areas, and the coastal forest styles more reminiscent of other sub-Saharan areas. They differ greatly in construction due to the demands made by the variety of climates in the area, from tropical humid forests to arid grasslands and deserts. Despite the architectural differences, buildings perform similar functions, including the compound structure central to West African family life or strict distinction between the private and public worlds needed to maintain taboos or social etiquette.

Clothing

Further information: Folk costume § Western Africa
 
Philip Emeagwali wearing the Boubou (or Agbada), a traditional robe symbolic of West Africa

In contrast to other parts of the continent south of the Sahara Desert, the concepts of hemming and embroidering clothing have been traditionally common to West Africa for centuries, demonstrated by the production of various breeches, shirts, tunics and jackets. As a result, the peoples of the region's diverse nations wear a wide variety of clothing with underlying similarities. Typical pieces of west African formal attire include the knee-to-ankle-length, flowing Boubou robe, Dashiki, and Senegalese Kaftan (also known as Agbada and Babariga), which has its origins in the clothing of nobility of various West African empires in the 12th century. Traditional half-sleeved, hip-long, woven smocks or tunics (known as fugu in Gurunsi, riga in Hausa) – worn over a pair of baggy trousers—is another popular garment.[93] In the coastal regions stretching from southern Ivory Coast to Benin, a huge rectangular cloth is wrapped under one arm, draped over a shoulder, and held in one of the wearer's hands—coincidentally, reminiscent of Romans' togas. The best-known of these toga-like garments is the Kente (made by the Akan people of Ghana and Ivory Coast), who wear them as a gesture of national pride.

Cuisine

Main article: West African cuisine
Further information: History of West Africa § Cuisine, African cuisine § West Africa, and List of African cuisines § West African cuisine
 
Jollof rice or Benachin, one of many Pan–West African dishes found only in West Africa

Scores of foreign visitors to West African nations (e.g., traders, historians, emigrants, colonists, missionaries) have benefited from its citizens' generosity, and even left with a piece of its cultural heritage, via its foods. West African cuisines have had a significant influence on those of Western civilization for centuries; several dishes of West African origin are currently enjoyed in the Caribbean (e.g., the West Indies and Haiti); Australia; the USA (particularly Louisiana, Virginia, North and South Carolina); Italy; and other countries. Although some of these recipes have been altered to suit the sensibilities of their adopters, they retain a distinct West African essence.[94]

West Africans cuisines include fish (especially among the coastal areas), meat, vegetables, and fruits—most of which are grown by the nations' local farmers. In spite of the obvious differences among the various local cuisines in this multinational region, the foods display more similarities than differences. The small difference may be in the ingredients used. Most foods are cooked via boiling or frying. Commonly featured, starchy vegetables include yams, plantains, cassava, and sweet potatoes.[95] Rice is also a staple food, as is the Serer people's sorghum couscous (called "Chereh" in Serer) particularly in Senegal and the Gambia.[96] Jollof rice—originally from the Kingdom of Jolof (now part of modern-day Senegal) but has spread to the Wolofs of Gambia—is also enjoyed in many Western nations, as well;[97] Mafé (proper: "Tigh-dege-na" or Domodah) from Mali (via the Bambara and Mandinka)[98]—a peanut-butter stew served with rice;[99][100] Akara (fried bean balls seasoned with spices served with sauce and bread) from Nigeria is a favorite breakfast for Gambians and Senegalese, as well as a favorite side snack or side dish in Brazil and the Caribbean just as it is in West Africa. It is said that its exact origin may be from Yorubaland in Nigeria.[101][102] Fufu (from the Twi language, a dough served with a spicy stew or sauce for example okra stew etc.) from Ghana is enjoyed throughout the region and beyond even in Central Africa with their own versions of it.[103] Dishes such as taguella, eghajira, etc. are popular among the Tuareg people.[104]

Recreation and sports

See also: West Africa cricket team
 
Supporters of ASEC Mimosas

The board game oware is quite popular in many parts of Southern Africa. The word "Oware" originates from the Akan people of Ghana. However, virtually all African peoples have a version of this board game.[105] The major multi-sport event of West Africa is the ECOWAS Games which commenced at the 2012 ECOWAS Games.

Football is also a pastime enjoyed by many, either spectating or playing. The major national teams of West Africa, the Ghana national football team, the Ivory Coast national football team, and the Nigeria national football team regularly win the Africa Cup of Nations.[106] Major football teams of West Africa are Asante Kotoko SC and Accra Hearts of Oak SC of the Ghana Premier League, Enyimba International of the Nigerian Premier League and ASEC Mimosas of the Ligue 1 (Ivory Coast). The football governing body of West Africa is the West African Football Union (WAFU) and the major tournament is the West African Club Championship and WAFU Nations Cup, along with the annual individual award of West African Footballer of the Year.[107][108]

Music

Main article: Music of West Africa
Further information: Music of Africa § West, Central, Southeast and South Africa; and Sub-Saharan African music traditions § West Africa
 
The talking drum is an instrument unique to West Africa.

Mbalax, Highlife, Fuji, Afrobeat, and Afrobeats are modern musical genres of West Africa and its diaspora. Traditional folk music is also well-preserved. Some types of folk music are religious in nature such as the "Tassou" tradition used in Serer religion.[109]

Griot artists

 
Kora-playing griots in Senegal, 1900. Both the Kora, a 21-stringed harp-lute, and the griot musical-caste are unique to West Africa.

Griot artists and praise-singing is an important musical tradition related to the oral history of West African culture. Traditionally, musical and oral history as conveyed over generations by griots are typical of West African culture in Mande, Wolof, Songhay, Serer and, to some extent, Fula areas in the far west. A hereditary caste occupying the fringes of society, the griots were charged with memorizing the histories of local rulers and personages and the caste was further broken down into music-playing griots (similar to bards) and non-music-playing griots. Like Praise-singers, the griot's main profession was musical acquisition and prowess, and patrons were the sole means of financial support. Modern griots enjoy higher status in the patronage of rich individuals in places such as Mali, Senegal, Mauritania and Guinea, and to some extent make up the vast majority of musicians in these countries. Examples of modern popular griot artists include Youssou N'Dour, Mamadou Diabate, Sona Jobareteh, and Toumani Diabate.

In other areas of West Africa, primarily among the Hausa, Mossi, Dagomba and Yoruba in the area encompassing Burkina Faso, northern Ghana, Nigeria and Niger, the traditional profession of non-hereditary praise-singers, minstrels, bards and poets play a vital role in extending the public show of power, lineage and prestige of traditional rulers through their exclusive patronage. Like the griot tradition, praise singers are charged with knowing the details of specific historical events and royal lineages, but more importantly need to be capable of poetic improvisation and creativity, with knowledge of traditional songs directed towards showing a patron's financial and political or religious power. Competition between Praise-singing ensembles and artistes are high, and artists responsible for any extraordinarily skilled prose, musical compositions, and panegyric songs are lavishly rewarded with money, clothing, provisions and other luxuries by patrons who are usually politicians, rulers, Islamic clerics and merchants; these successful praise-singers rise to national stardom. Examples include Mamman Shata, Souley Konko, Fati Niger, Saadou Bori and Dan Maraya. In the case of Niger, numerous praise songs are composed and shown on television in praise of local rulers, Islamic clerics, and politicians.

Theatre

Further information: History of theatre § West African theatre

Film industry

Further information: Cinema of Africa § West Africa

Nollywood of Nigeria, is the main film industry of West Africa. The Nigerian cinema industry is the second largest film industry in terms of number of annual film productions, ahead of the American film industry in Hollywood.[110] Senegal and Ghana also have long traditions of producing films. The late Ousmane Sembène, the Senegalese film director, producer and writer is from the region, as is the Ghanaian Shirley Frimpong-Manso.

Religion

Islam

Further information: Islam in Africa and Religion in Africa § Islam
 
The 13th-century Great Mosque of Djenné is a superb example of the indigenous Sahelian architectural style prevalent in the Savannah and Sahelian interior of West Africa. It is listed an UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Islam is the predominant religion of the West African interior and the far west coast of the continent (60% of West Africans); and was introduced to the region by traders in the 9th century. Islam is the religion of the region's biggest ethnic groups by population. Islamic rules on livelihood, values, dress and practices had a profound effect on the populations and cultures in their predominant areas, so much so that the concept of tribalism is less observed by Islamized groups like the Mande, Wolof, Hausa, Fula, Songhai, Zarma or Soninke, than they are by non-Islamized groups.[111] Ethnic intermarriage and shared cultural icons are established through a superseded commonality of belief or community, known as ummah.[112] Traditional Muslim areas include Senegal, Gambia, Mali, Mauritania, Guinea, Niger; the upper coast and inland two-thirds of Sierra Leone and inland Liberia; the western, northern and far-eastern regions of Burkina Faso; and the northern halves of the coastal nations of Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Ghana and Ivory Coast.[113]

African traditional

Further information: Traditional African religion § West Africa, West African Vodun, and Religion in Africa § African Traditional Religion
 
Voodoo altar with several fetishes in Abomey, Benin

Traditional African religions (noting the many different belief systems) are the oldest belief systems among the populations of this region, and include Akan religion, Yoruba religion, Odinani-Igbo, and Serer religion. They are spiritual but also linked to the historical and cultural heritage of the people.[114] Although traditional beliefs vary from one place to the next, there are more similarities than differences.[115]

Christianity

Further information: Christianity in Africa and Religion in Africa § Christianity

In 2010 around 36.5% of Western Africans identified as Christians.[116] Christianity was largely introduced from the late 19th century onward, when missionaries from European countries brought the religion to the region.[117] West African Christians are predominantly Roman Catholic or Anglican; some Evangelical churches have also been established. Christianity has become the predominant religion in the central and southern part of Nigeria, southern Ivory Coast, and the coastal regions stretching from southern Ghana to coastal parts of Sierra Leone. Like Islam, elements of traditional African religion are mixed with Christianity.[118]

Demographics and languages

Further information: Demographics of Africa, List of ethnic groups of Africa § West Africa, List of African countries by population, African diaspora, and Writing systems of Africa § West Africa
 

West Africans primarily speak Niger–Congo languages, belonging mostly, though not exclusively, to its non-Bantu branches, though some Nilo-Saharan and Afro-Asiatic speaking groups are also found in West Africa. The Niger–Congo-speaking Yoruba, Igbo, Fulani, Akan and Wolof ethnic groups are the largest and most influential. The Tiv people found in Nigeria and partly in Cameroon are also among the largest. In the central Sahara, Mandinka or Mande groups are most significant. Chadic-speaking groups, including the Hausa, are found in more northerly parts of the region nearest to the Sahara, and Nilo-Saharan communities, such as the Songhai, Kanuri and Zarma, are found in the eastern parts of West Africa bordering Central Africa. The population of West Africa is estimated at 419 million[1][2] people as of 2021. In Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso, the nomadic Tuareg speak the Tuareg language, a Berber language.

Colonial languages also play a pivotal cultural and political role, being adopted as the official languages of most countries in the region, as well as linguae franca in communication between the region's various ethnic groups. For historical reasons, Western European languages such as French, English and Portuguese predominate in Southern and Coastal subregions, whilst Arabic (in its Maghrebi varieties) spreads inland northwards.

Architecture

Further information in the sections of Architecture of Africa:

Science and technology

Further information in the sections of History of science and technology in Africa:

Economic and regional organizations

 
Map of petroleum and natural gas within West Africa

Economic Community of West Africa

This section is an excerpt from Economic Community of West African States.[edit]

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS; also known as CEDEAO in French and Portuguese) is a regional political and economic union of fifteen countries located in West Africa. Collectively, these countries comprise an area of 5,114,162 km2 (1,974,589 sq mi), and in 2015 had an estimated population of over 349 million.

Considered one of the pillar regional blocs of the continent-wide African Economic Community (AEC), the stated goal of ECOWAS is to achieve "collective self-sufficiency" for its member states by creating a single large trade bloc by building a full economic and trading union. The union was established on 28 May 1975, with the signing of the Treaty of Lagos, with its stated mission to promote economic integration across the region. A revised version of the treaty was agreed and signed on 24 July 1993 in Cotonou.

The ECOWAS also serves as a peacekeeping force in the region, with member states occasionally sending joint military forces to intervene in the bloc's member countries at times of political instability and unrest.[119][120]

West African Monetary Union

The West African Monetary Union (or UEMOA from its name in French, Union économique et monétaire ouest-africaine) is limited to the eight, mostly Francophone countries that employ the CFA franc as their common currency. The Liptako-Gourma Authority of Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso seeks to jointly develop the contiguous areas of the three countries.

Women's peace movement

Since the adoption of the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 in 2000, women have been engaged in rebuilding war-torn Africa. Starting with the Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace and Women in Peacebuilding Network (WIPNET), the peace movement has grown to include women across West Africa.

Established on May 8, 2006, Women Peace and Security Network – Africa (WIPSEN-Africa), is a women-focused, women-led Pan-African non-governmental organization based in Ghana.[121] The organization focuses on empowering women to have a role in political and peace governance in Africa.[121] It has a presence in Ghana, Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Liberia and Sierra Leone. Regional leaders of nonviolent resistance include Leymah Gbowee,[122] Comfort Freeman, and Aya Virginie Toure.

Pray the Devil Back to Hell is a documentary film about the origin of this peace movement. The film has been used as an advocacy tool in post-conflict zones like Sudan and Zimbabwe, mobilizing African women to petition for peace and security.[123]

Gallery

Cityscapes of the largest cities

 
 
Bird's-eye view of the West Africa City of Lagos, Lagos State, Nigeria
 
 
 
Bird's-eye view of the West Africa City of Abuja, Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria
 
 
 
Bird's-eye view of the West Africa City of Accra, Greater Accra, Ghana
 
 
 
Bird's-eye view of the West Africa City of Abidjan, Lagunes, Ivory Coast
 
 
 
Bird's-eye view of the West Africa City of Kumasi, Ashanti, Ghana
 
 
Bird's-eye view of the West Africa City of Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria

Capital cities of West Africa

See also

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Further reading

  • Akyeampong, Emmanuel Kwaku. Themes in West Africa's History (2006).
  • Brydon, Lynne. "Constructing Avatime: questions of history and identity in a West African polity, c. 1690s to the twentieth century." Journal of African History 49.1 (2008): 23–42. online
  • Collins, Robert O. African History: Western African History (1990).
  • Davidson, Basil. A History of West Africa, 1000–1800 (1978), numerous editions
  • Delavignette, Robert. Freedom and Authority in French West Africa (Routledge, 2018).
  • Dueppen, Stephen A. "The archaeology of West Africa, ca. 800 BCE to 1500 CE." History Compass 14.6 (2016): 247–263.
  • Edgerton, Robert B. The Fall of the Asante Empire: The Hundred-Year War For Africa'S Gold Coast (2002).
  • Fage, J. D. A Guide to Original Sources for Precolonial Western Africa Published in European Languages (2nd ed. 1994); updated in Stanley B. Alpern, ed. Guide to Original Sources for Precolonial Western Africa (2006).
  • Festus, Jacob et al. eds. History of West Africa (Vol. 1, 1989).
  • Greene, S. E. Sacred Sites and the Colonial Encounter: A History of Meaning and Memory in Ghana (2002).
  • Griswold, Wendy. Writing African women: Gender, popular culture and literature in West Africa (Zed Books Ltd., 2017).
  • Ham, Anthony. West Africa (2013) online.
  • Hayward, Derek F., and Julius Oguntoyinbo. Climatology of West Africa (Routledge, 2019).
  • Hopkins, Antony Gerald. An economic history of West Africa (2014) online.
  • Huber, Caroline, Lyn Finelli, and Warren Stevens. "The economic and social burden of the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa." Journal of infectious diseases 218.Supplement_5 (2018): S698-S704.
  • Kane, Ousmane Oumar, Beyond Timbuktu: An Intellectual History of Muslim West Africa (2016).
  • Lavallée, Emmanuelle, and François Roubaud. "Corruption in the informal sector: evidence from West Africa." Journal of Development Studies 55.6 (2019): 1067–1080. online
  • Law, Robin. "Human sacrifice in pre-colonial West Africa." African Affairs 84.334 (1985): 53–87. online
  • Mann, Gregory. "Locating colonial histories: between France and West Africa." American Historical Review 110.2 (2005): 409–434. focus on local memories and memorials online
  • Martinez-Alvarez, Melisa, et al. "COVID-19 pandemic in West Africa." The Lancet Global Health 8.5 (2020): e631-e632. online
  • Mazrui, Ali A. Islam and the English language in East and West Africa (Routledge, 2017).
  • Meillassoux, Claude, ed. The development of indigenous trade and markets in West Africa: studies presented and discussed at the tenth International African seminar at Fourah Bay college, Freetown, december 1969 (Routledge, 2018).
  • Mendonsa, Eugene L. West Africa: An Introduction to Its History (2002)
  • O'Brien, Donal Cruise, Richard Rathbone, John Dunn, eds. Contemporary West African States (2002) online free to borrow
  • Soares, Benjamin. "The historiography of Islam in West Africa: an anthropologist's view." Journal of African History 55.1 (2014): 27–36. online
  • Tonkin, Elizabeth. Narrating our pasts: The social construction of oral history (Cambridge university press, 1995), on West Africa
  • Westermann, Diedrich, and Margaret Arminel Bryan. The Languages of West Africa: Handbook of African Languages (Routledge, 2017).

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Western Africa and West Africa.
 
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for West Africa.
  • West Africa by Region and Country – African Studies at Columbia University
  • ouestaf.com – Ouestaf, a West African online newspaper (in French)
  • Loccidental – An online West African newspaper (in French)
  • West Africa Review – An e-journal on West Africa research and scholarship (in English)
  • The Voyage of the Sieur Le Maire, to the Canary Islands, Cape-Verde, Senegal, and Gambia is the first published writing about Western Africa, dating from 1695 (in English)

Coordinates: 12°N 3°E / 12°N 3°E / 12; 3

February 07, 2023
west, africa, region, african, union, regions, african, union, west, western, africa, westernmost, region, africa, united, nations, defines, western, africa, countries, benin, burkina, faso, cape, verde, gambia, ghana, guinea, guinea, bissau, ivory, coast, lib. For the region of the African Union see Regions of the African Union West West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of Africa The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin Burkina Faso Cape Verde The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea Bissau Ivory Coast Liberia Mali Mauritania Niger Nigeria Senegal Sierra Leone and Togo as well as Saint Helena Ascension and Tristan da Cunha United Kingdom Overseas Territory 8 9 The population of West Africa is estimated at 419 million 1 2 people as of 2021 and at 381 981 000 as of 2017 of which 189 672 000 are female and 192 309 000 male 3 The region is demographically 10 and economically 11 one of the fastest growing on the African continent West Africa Western Africa UN subregion Area5 112 903 km2 1 974 103 sq mi 7th Population418 544 337 2021 est 3rd 1 2 381 981 000 female 189 672 000 male 192 309 000 2017 est 3 Density49 2 km2 127 5 sq mi DemonymWest AfricanCountriesSovereign states 16 Benin Burkina Faso Cape Verde Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea Bissau Ivory Coast Liberia Mauritania Mali Niger Nigeria Senegal Sierra Leone TogoDependencies Saint Helena Ascension and Tristan da CunhaTime zonesUTC 0 to UTC 1Major Regional OrganizationsEconomic Community of West African States ECOWAS established 1975 Total GDP PPP US 752 983 billion 2013 23rd 4 GDP PPP per capita 2 500 2013 5 Total GDP nominal 656 billion 2013 6 7 Total GDP nominal per capita 1 929 2013 6 CurrencyList Cedi GHS Dalasi GMD Franc GNF Dollar LRD Ouguiya MRU Naira NGN Pound SHP Leone SLL W African CFA franc XOF Largest citiesLagos NigeriaAbidjan Cote d IvoireAccra GhanaAbuja NigeriaKano NigeriaPort Harcourt NigeriaKumasi GhanaUN M 49 code011 West Africa202 Sub Saharan Africa002 Africa001 WorldEarly history in West Africa included a number of prominent regional powers that dominated different parts of both the coastal and internal trade networks such as the Mali and Gao Empires West Africa sat at the intersection of trade routes between Arab dominated North Africa and specialized goods from further south on the continent including gold advanced iron working and ivory After European exploration encountered rich local economies and kingdoms the European slave trade exploited already existing slave systems to provide labor for colonies in the Americas After the end of the slave trade in the early 19th century European nations especially France and Britain continued to exploit the region through colonial relationships For example they continued exporting a number of extractive goods including labor intensive agricultural crops like cocoa and coffee forestry products like tropical timber and mineral resources like gold Since independence many West African countries like Ivory Coast Ghana Nigeria and Senegal have played important roles in the regional and global economies West Africa has a rich ecology with strong biodiversity and several distinct regions The area s climate and ecology are heavily influenced by the dry Sahara to the North and East which provides dry winds during the Harmattan as well as the Atlantic Ocean to the South and West which provides seasonal monsoons This mixture of climates gives West Africa a rich array of biomes from biodiversity rich tropical forests to drylands supporting rare and endangered fauna such as pangolins rhinoceros and elephants Because of the pressure for economic development many of these ecologies are threatened by processes like deforestation biodiversity loss overfishing pollution from mining plastics and other industries and extreme changes resulting from climate change in West Africa Contents 1 History 1 1 Prehistory 1 2 Empires 1 3 European contact and enslavement 1 4 Colonialism 1 5 Postcolonial eras 2 Geopolitical division 2 1 Area 2 2 List of countries 2 3 Cities 3 Environment 3 1 Nature 3 2 Deforestation 3 3 Overfishing 3 4 Geography and climate 3 4 1 Background 3 5 Climate change 4 Transport 4 1 Rail transport 4 2 Road transport 4 3 Air transport 5 Health 6 Culture 6 1 Art 6 2 Traditional architecture 6 3 Clothing 6 4 Cuisine 6 5 Recreation and sports 6 6 Music 6 6 1 Griot artists 6 7 Theatre 6 8 Film industry 7 Religion 7 1 Islam 7 2 African traditional 7 3 Christianity 8 Demographics and languages 9 Architecture 10 Science and technology 11 Economic and regional organizations 11 1 Economic Community of West Africa 11 2 West African Monetary Union 11 3 Women s peace movement 12 Gallery 12 1 Cityscapes of the largest cities 12 2 Capital cities of West Africa 13 See also 14 References 15 Further reading 16 External linksHistory EditMain article History of West Africa Further information Sub Saharan Africa Western Africa African empires West Africa and List of kingdoms in pre colonial Africa West Africa The history of West Africa can be divided into five major periods first its prehistory in which the first human settlers arrived developed agriculture and made contact with peoples to the north the second the Iron Age empires that consolidated both intra Africa and extra Africa trade and developed centralized states third major polities flourished which would undergo an extensive history of contact with non Africans fourth the colonial period in which Great Britain and France controlled nearly the entire region and fifth the post independence era in which the current nations were formed Prehistory Edit Main article Prehistoric West Africa Early Stone Age 2 West African populations were considerably mobile and interacted with one another throughout the population history of West Africa 12 Acheulean tool using archaic humans may have dwelled throughout West Africa since at least between 780 000 BP and 126 000 BP Middle Pleistocene 13 During the Pleistocene Middle Stone Age peoples e g Iwo Eleru people 14 possibly Aterians who dwelled throughout West Africa between MIS 4 and MIS 2 15 were gradually replaced by incoming Late Stone Age peoples who migrated into West Africa 16 as an increase in humid conditions resulted in the subsequent expansion of the West African forest 17 West African hunter gatherers occupied western Central Africa e g Shum Laka earlier than 32 000 BP 14 dwelled throughout coastal West Africa by 12 000 BP 18 and migrated northward between 12 000 BP and 8000 BP as far as Mali Burkina Faso 18 and Mauritania 19 During the Holocene Niger Congo speakers independently created pottery in Ounjougou Mali 20 21 the earliest pottery in Africa 22 by at least 9400 BCE 20 and along with their pottery 22 as well as wielding bows and arrows 23 migrated into the Central Sahara 22 which became their primary region of residence by 10 000 BP 23 The emergence and expansion of ceramics in the Sahara may be linked with the origin of Round Head and Kel Essuf rock art which occupy rockshelters in the same regions e g Djado Acacus Tadrart 24 Hunters in the Central Sahara farmed stored and cooked undomesticated central Saharan flora 25 domesticated antelope 26 and domesticated and shepherded Barbary sheep 25 After the Kel Essuf Period and Round Head Period of the Central Sahara the Pastoral Period followed 27 Some of the hunter gatherers who created the Round Head rock art may have adopted pastoral culture and others may have not 28 As a result of increasing aridification of the Green Sahara Central Saharan hunter gatherers and cattle herders may have used seasonal waterways as the migratory route taken to the Niger River and Chad Basin of West Africa 29 Migration of Saharan peoples south of the Sahelian region resulted in seasonal interaction with and gradual absorption of West African hunter gatherers who primarily dwelt in the savannas and forests of West Africa 18 After having persisted as late as 1000 BP 18 or some period of time after 1500 CE 30 remaining West African hunter gatherers many of whom dwelt in the forest savanna region were ultimately acculturated and admixed into the larger groups of West African agriculturalists akin to the migratory Bantu agriculturalists and their encounters with Central African hunter gatherers 18 Empires Edit Main article History of West Africa Iron Age Further information History of Africa West Africa History of Africa West Africa 2 and Blacksmiths of western Africa See also Jews of Bilad el Sudan Mansa Musa depicted holding a gold nugget from a 1395 map of Africa and Europe The development of the region s economy allowed more centralized states and civilizations to form beginning with Dhar Tichitt that began in 1600 B C followed by Djenne Djenno beginning in 300 B C This was then succeeded by the Ghana Empire that first flourished between the 9th and 12th centuries which later gave way to the Mali Empire In current day Mauritania there exist archaeological sites in the towns of Tichit and Oualata that were initially constructed around 2000 B C and were found to have originated from the Soninke branch of the Mande peoples Also based on the archaeology of the city of Kumbi Saleh in modern day Mauritania the Mali empire came to dominate much of the region until its defeat by Almoravid invaders in 1052 Three great kingdoms were identified in Bilad al Sudan by the ninth century They included Ghana Gao and Kanem 31 The Sosso Empire sought to fill the void but was defeated c 1240 by the Mandinka forces of Sundiata Keita founder of the new Mali Empire The Mali Empire continued to flourish for several centuries most particularly under Sundiata s grandnephew Musa I before a succession of weak rulers led to its collapse under Mossi Tuareg and Songhai invaders In the 15th century the Songhai would form a new dominant state based on Gao in the Songhai Empire under the leadership of Sonni Ali and Askia Mohammed 13th century Africa Map of the main trade routes and states kingdoms and empires Meanwhile south of the Sudan strong city states arose in Igboland such as the 10th century Kingdom of Nri which helped birth the arts and customs of the Igbo people Bono State in the 11th century which gave birth to the numerous Akan States while Ife rose to prominence around the 12th century Further east Oyo arose as the dominant Yoruba state and the Aro Confederacy as a dominant Igbo state in modern day Nigeria The Kingdom of Nri was a West African medieval state in present day southeastern Nigeria and a subgroup of the Igbo people The Kingdom of Nri was unusual in the history of world government in that its leader exercised no military power over his subjects The kingdom existed as a sphere of religious and political influence over a third of Igboland and was administered by a priest king called as an Eze Nri The Eze Nri managed trade and diplomacy on behalf of the Nri people and possessed divine authority in religious matters The Oyo Empire was a Yoruba empire of what is today Western North central Nigeria and southern Republic of Benin Established in the 14th century the Oyo Empire grew to become one of the largest West African states It rose through the outstanding organizational skills of the Yoruba wealth gained from trade and its powerful cavalry The Oyo Empire was the most politically important state in the region from the mid 17th to the late 18th century holding sway not only over most of the other kingdoms in Yorubaland but also over nearby African states notably the Fon Kingdom of Dahomey in the modern Republic of Benin to the west The Benin Empire was a post classical empire located in what is now southern Nigeria Its capital was Edo now known as Benin City Edo It should not be confused with the modern day country called Benin formerly called Dahomey The Benin Empire was one of the oldest and most highly developed states in the coastal hinterland of West Africa dating perhaps to the eleventh century CE The Benin Empire was governed by a sovereign Emperor with hundreds of thousands of soldiers and a powerful council rich in resources wealth ancient science and technology with cities described as beautiful and large as Haarlem Olfert Dapper a Dutch writer describing Benin in his book Description of Africa 1668 Its craft was the most adored and treasured bronze casting in the history of Africa It was annexed by the British Empire in 1897 during the invasion and scramble of Africa European contact and enslavement Edit Main article Atlantic slave trade West Africa circa 1875 Portuguese traders began establishing settlements along the coast in 1445 followed by the French English Spanish Danish and Dutch the African slave trade began not long after which over the following centuries would debilitate the region s economy and population 32 The slave trade also encouraged the formation of states such as the Bono State Bambara Empire and Dahomey whose economic activities include but not limited to exchanging slaves for European firearms 33 Colonialism Edit Further information Colonisation of Africa French in West Africa circa 1913 In the early 19th century a series of Fulani reformist jihads swept across Western Africa The most notable include Usman dan Fodio s Fulani Empire which replaced the Hausa city states Seku Amadu s Massina Empire which defeated the Bambara and El Hadj Umar Tall s Toucouleur Empire which briefly conquered much of modern day Mali However the French and British continued to advance in the Scramble for Africa subjugating kingdom after kingdom With the fall of Samory Ture s new founded Wassoulou Empire in 1898 and the Ashanti queen Yaa Asantewaa in 1902 most West African military resistance to colonial rule resulted in failure Part of the West African regions underwent an increase in the numeracy level throughout the 19th century The reason for such a growth was predetermined by a number of factors Namely the peanut production and trade which was boosted by the demand of the colonial states Importantly the rise of the numeracy was higher in the regions which were less hierarchical and had less dependent from the slavery trade e g Sine and Salum Whereas areas with the opposite trends illustrated opposite tendencies e g central and northern Senegal Those patterns were further even more stimulated with the French colonial campaign 34 Britain controlled the Gambia Sierra Leone Ghana and Nigeria throughout the colonial era while France unified Senegal Guinea Mali Burkina Faso Benin Ivory Coast and Niger into French West Africa Portugal founded the colony of Guinea Bissau while Germany claimed Togoland but was forced to divide it between France and Britain following First World War due to the Treaty of Versailles Only Liberia retained its independence at the price of major territorial concessions Postcolonial eras Edit Further information Decolonisation of Africa and Neocolonialism Following World War II nationalist movements arose across West Africa In 1957 Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah became the first West African colony to achieve its independence followed the next year by France s colonies Guinea in 1958 under the leadership of President Ahmed Sekou Toure by 1974 West Africa s nations were entirely autonomous Since independence many West African nations have been submerged under political instability with notable civil wars in Nigeria Sierra Leone Liberia and Ivory Coast and a succession of military coups in Ghana and Burkina Faso Since the end of colonialism the region has been the stage for some brutal conflicts including Nigerian Civil War First Liberian Civil War Second Liberian Civil War Guinea Bissau Civil War Ivorian Civil War Sierra Leone Rebel War Mali WarGeopolitical division Edit Geopolitical States of West Africa Benin Burkina Faso Cape Verde Ivory Coast The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea Bissau Liberia Mali Niger Nigeria Senegal Sierra Leone Togo Geopolitically the United Nations definition of subregion Western Africa includes the preceding states with the addition of Mauritania which withdrew from ECOWAS in 1999 comprising an area of approximately 6 1 million square km 35 The UN region also includes the United Kingdom Overseas Territory of Saint Helena Ascension and Tristan da Cunha in the south Atlantic Ocean 8 Area Edit In the United Nations scheme of African regions the region of Western Africa includes 16 states and the United Kingdom Overseas Territory of Saint Helena Ascension and Tristan da Cunha 8 Mali Burkina Faso Senegal and the Niger are mostly in the Sahel a transition zone between the Sahara desert and the Sudanian Savanna Benin Ivory Coast The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea Bissau Liberia Sierra Leone Togo and Nigeria compose most of Guinea the traditional name for the area near the Gulf of Guinea Mauritania lies in the Maghreb the northwestern region of Africa that has historically been inhabited by West African groups such as the Fulani Soninke Wolof Serer and Toucouleur people 36 along with Arab Berber Maghrebi people such as the Tuareg Cape Verde is an island country in the Atlantic Ocean and Saint Helena Ascension and Tristan da Cunha consists of eight main islands located in four different parts of the Atlantic Due to Mauritania s increasingly close ties to the Arab World and its 1999 withdrawal from the Economic Community of West African States ECOWAS in modern times it is often considered especially in Africa as now part of western North Africa 37 38 39 40 41 42 List of countries Edit Region Country or territoryWestern Africa Benin Burkina Faso Cabo Verde Cape Verde Cote d Ivoire Ivory Coast The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea Bissau Liberia Mali Mauritania Niger Nigeria Saint Helena Ascension and Tristan da Cunha United Kingdom Overseas Territory Senegal Sierra Leone TogoCities Edit Major and principal cities in West Africa include geographically eastward Dakar Senegal Touba Senegal Serrekunda The Gambia Bissau Guinea Bissau Conakry Guinea Freetown Sierra Leone Monrovia Liberia Bamako Mali Abidjan Ivory Coast Yamoussoukro Ivory Coast Bouake Ivory Coast Ouagadougou Burkina Faso Bobo Dioulasso Burkina Faso Accra Ghana Kumasi Ghana Lome Togo Cotonou Benin Abuja Nigeria Lagos Nigeria Ibadan Nigeria Port Harcourt Nigeria Kano Nigeria Benin City Nigeria Jos NigeriaEnvironment EditNature Edit A rhinoceros in Bandia Nature Reserve Senegal Credit Corine REZEL African bush elephants in Yankari National Park Nigeria Before European colonisation West African countries such as those from the Senegambia region Senegal and the Gambia used to have a diverse wildlife including lions hippopotamus elephants antelopes leopards etc 43 However during colonization the European colonizers such as the French and British killed most of the wildlife particularly the lions using their body parts as trophies By the turn of the 20th century the Senegambia region had lost most of its lion population and other exotic animals due to poaching By the 1930s the Gambian elephant population became extinct That phenomenon was not only limited to the Senegambia region but affected much of West African as the region lost much of its natural resources once tied so closely to its cultural identity Poaching has stolen most of its wildlife The British issued poaching licenses and although they would later try to reverse the damage that had been done by attempting to preserve what was left of the local wildlife but by that time it was too late 44 45 During the 1930s the elephant population in the Gold Coast was about 300 and Sierra Leona between 500 and 600 Although a small number of elephants survived in Nigeria hunting agricultural expansion and clearing of forest in that country drastically affected its wildlife population particularly elephants 45 Despite the historical damage that has been done to the region s wildlife populations there are still some protected nature reserves within the region Some of these include The Bandia Nature Reserve in Senegal French Reserve de Bandia animal life includes giraffes zebras rhinos a variety of antelopes buffaloes monkeys crocodiles tortoises apes and a variety of exotic birds 46 The Yankari National Park in Nigeria animal life includes the African bush elephant olive baboon patas monkey Tantalus monkey roan antelope western hartebeest West African lion African buffalo waterbuck bushbuck and hippopotamus 47 The Ankasa Conservation Area in Ghana animal life includes the elephant bongo leopard chimpanzee Diana monkey and other primates 48 The Mole National Park is Ghana s biggest wildlife refuge It is home to over 83 mammal species including about 800 resident elephants buffalo hippos and warthogs 49 50 as well as various fauna and flora West Africa is also home to several baobab trees and other plant life Some baobab trees are several centuries old and form part of the local folklore for example a mythical baobab tree named Ngoye njuli in Senegal which is regarded as a sacred site by the Serer The tree itself is rather majestic and looks like a huge phallus and a deformed animal or thing is protruding from it It is said to be the dwelling place of a pangool Ngoye njuli is protected by the Senegalese authorities and attracts visitors In West Africa as in other parts of Africa where the baobab tree is found the leaves are mixed with couscous and eaten the bark of the tree is used to make ropes and the fruit and seeds used for drinks and oils 44 51 52 Deforestation in Nigeria Deforestation Edit Further information Deforestation in Nigeria West Africa is greatly affected by deforestation and has one of worst deforestation rate 53 Even the beloved baobab tree which is viewed as sacred by some West African cultures are under threat due to climate change urbanization and population growth Huge swaths of forest are being razed to clear space for palm oil and cocoa plantations Mangroves are being killed off by pollution Even wispy acacias are hacked away for use in cooking fires to feed growing families 44 Nigeria Liberia Guinea Ghana and the Ivory Coast have lost large areas of their rainforest 54 55 In 2005 the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ranked Nigeria as the state with the worst deforestation rate in the entire world Causes include logging subsistence agriculture and the collection of fuelwoods 56 According to a ThoughtCo publication authored Steve Nix 2018 almost 90 percent of West Africa s original rainforest has been destroyed and the rest heavily fragmented and in a degraded state being poorly used 53 Overfishing Edit Overfishing is a major issue in West Africa Besides reducing fish stocks in the region it also threatens food security and the livelihoods of many coastal communities who largely depend on artisanal fishing The overfishing generally comes from foreign trawlers operating in the region 57 To combat the overfishing Greenpeace has recommended countries reduce the number of registered trawlers operating in African waters increase the monitoring and control and set up regional fisheries organizations 58 Some steps have already been taken in the form of WARFP the World Bank s West Africa Regional Fisheries Program which empowers west African countries i e Liberia Sierra Leone Cape Verde and Senegal with information training and monitoring systems Furthermore Liberia enacted a fisheries regulations Act in 2010 59 and installed a satellite based monitoring system and Senegal enacted a fisheries code in 2015 In Cape Verde the fishermen communities of Palmiera and Santa Maria have organized themselves to protect fishing zones Mozambique finally created a conservation area including a coastline 60 61 Geography and climate Edit West Africa broadly defined to include the western portion of the Maghreb Western Sahara Morocco Algeria and Tunisia occupies an area in excess of 6 140 000 km2 or approximately one fifth of Africa The vast majority of this land is plains lying less than 300 meters above sea level though isolated high points exist in numerous states along the southern shore of West Africa 62 Western Afrotropical realmBeninBurkina FasoThe GambiaGhanaGuinea BissauGuineaIvory CoastLiberiaMaliMauritaniaNigeriaNigerSenegalSierra LeoneTogo State The biostate Location in Afrotropic Satellite imagery from outer space of West Africa The northern section of West Africa narrowly defined to exclude the western Maghreb is composed of semi arid terrain known as Sahel a transitional zone between the Sahara and the West Sudanian savanna Forests form a belt between the savannas and the southern coast ranging from 160 km to 240 km in width 63 The northwest African region of Mauritania periodically suffers country wide plagues of locusts which consume water salt and crops on which the human population relies 64 Background Edit West Africa is west of an imagined north south axis lying close to 10 east longitude 62 The Atlantic Ocean forms the western as well as the southern borders of the West African region 62 The northern border is the Sahara Desert with the Ranishanu Bend generally considered the northernmost part of the region 65 The eastern border is less precise with some placing it at the Benue Trough and others on a line running from Mount Cameroon to Lake Chad Colonial boundaries are reflected in the modern boundaries between contemporary West African states cutting across ethnic and cultural lines often dividing single ethnic groups between two or more states 66 In contrast to most of Central Southern and Southeast Africa West Africa is not populated by Bantu speaking peoples 67 Climate change Edit This section is an excerpt from Climate change in Africa West Africa and the Sahel edit The West African region can be divided into four climatic sub regions namely the Guinea Coast Soudano Sahel Sahel extending eastward to the Ethiopian border and the Sahara 68 each with different climatic conditions The seasonal cycle of rainfall is mainly driven by the south north movement of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone ITCZ which is characterised by the confluence between moist southwesterly monsoon winds and the dry northeasterly Harmattan 69 Based on the inter annual rainfall variability three main climatic periods have been observed over the Sahel the wet period from 1950 to the early 1960s followed by a dry period from 1972 to 1990 and then the period from 1991 onwards which has seen a partial rainfall recovery 70 71 72 During the dry period the Sahel experienced a number of particularly severe drought events with devastating effects 73 74 The recent decades have also witnessed a moderate increment in annual rainfall since the beginning of 1990s However total annual rainfall remains significantly below that observed during the 1950s 75 73 Some have identified the recent 2 decades as a recovery period 76 Others refer to this as a period of hydrological intensification with much of the annual rainfall increase coming from more severe rain events and sometimes flooding rather than more frequent rainfall or similarly other works 77 78 underline the continuity of the drought even though the rainfall has increased Since 1985 54 percent of the population has been affected by five or more floods in the 17 Sahel region countries 79 In 2012 severe drought conditions in the Sahel were reported Governments in the region responded quickly launching strategies to address the issue 80 The region is projected to experience changes in rainfall regime with climate models suggesting that decreases in wet season rainfall are more likely in the western Sahel and increases more likely in the central to east Sahel although opposite trends cannot yet be ruled out 81 82 83 These trends will affect the frequency and severity of floods droughts desertification sand and dust storms desert locust plagues and water shortages 84 85 However irrespective of the changes in seasonal mean rain the most intense storms are expected to become more intense amplifying flood frequency 86 87 Enhanced carbon emissions and global warming may also lead to an increase in dry spells especially across the Guinea Coast associated with a reduction of the wet spells under both 1 5 and 2 global warming level 88 Fifteen percent of Sahel region population has also experienced a temperature increase of more than 1 C from 1970 to 2010 The Sahel region in particular will experience higher average temperatures over the course of the 21st century and changes in rainfall patterns according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPCC Transport EditRail transport Edit Main article ECOWAS rail Railway systems in West Africa 2022 A Trans ECOWAS project established in 2007 plans to upgrade railways in this zone One of the goals of the Economic Community of West African States ECOWAS is the development of an integrated railroad network 89 Aims include the extension of railways in member countries the interconnection of previously isolated railways and the standardization of gauge brakes couplings and other parameters The first line would connect the cities and ports of Lagos Cotonou Lome and Accra and would allow the largest container ships to focus on a smaller number of large ports while efficiently serving a larger hinterland This line connects 3 ft 6 in 1 067 mm gauge and 1 000 mm 3 ft 3 3 8 in metre gauge systems which would require four rail dual gauge which can also provide standard gauge 89 Railway systems in West Africa 2030 projection Road transport Edit Main article Trans West African Coastal Highway The Trans West African Coastal Highway is a transnational highway project to link 12 West African coastal states from Mauritania in the north west of the region to Nigeria in the east with feeder roads already existing to two landlocked countries Mali and Burkina Faso 90 The eastern end of the highway terminates at Lagos Nigeria Economic Community of West African States ECOWAS consider its western end to be Nouakchott Mauritania or to be Dakar Senegal giving rise to these alternative names for the road Nouakchott Lagos Highway Lagos Nouakchott Highway Dakar Lagos Highway Lagos Dakar Highway Trans African Highway 7 in the Trans African Highway networkAir transport Edit The capitals airports include Cadjehoun Airport COO International Cotonou Benin Ouagadougou Airport OUA Ouagadougou Burkina Faso Amilcar Cabral International Airport SID Praia Cape Verde Banjul International Airport BJL International Banjul Gambia Kotoka International Airport ACC Accra Ghana Conakry International Airport CKY Conakry Guinea Osvaldo Vieira International Airport OXB Bissau Guinea Bissau Port Bouet Airport ABJ Abidjan Ivory Coast Roberts International Airport ROB Monrovia Liberia Bamako Senou International Airport BKO Bamako Mali Diori Hamani International Airport NIM Niamey Niger Murtala Muhammed International Airport LOS Lagos Nigeria Saint Helena Airport Jamestown Saint Helena Blaise Diagne International Airport DSS Dakar Senegal Lungi International Airport FNA Freetown Sierra Leone Lome Tokoin Airport LFW Lome TogoOf the sixteen the most important hub and entry point to West Africa are Kotoka International Airport and Murtala Muhammed International Airport offering many international connections Health EditMain article History of West Africa Health West Africa has made considerably improvement in the health outcomes of its populations in spite of the challenges posed by pervasive poverty epidemic diseases and food insecurity The traditional communicable diseases of HIV AIDS malaria and tuberculosis are still the major reasons of mortality Primary health care is the best answer to curing diseases as it provides the basic preventive strategies as it reduce the rate of child and maternal morbidity and mortality two of the most preventable outcomes that can prolong life expectancy at birth 91 Recently mental health problems are on the rise in West Africa as they are in many other world regions However the subject is largely a taboo and professional treatment is still rare 92 Culture EditDespite the wide variety of cultures in West Africa from Nigeria through to Senegal there are general similarities in dress cuisine music and culture that are not shared extensively with groups outside the geographic region This long history of cultural exchange predates the colonization era of the region and can be approximately placed at the time of the Ghana Empire proper Wagadou Empire Mali Empire or perhaps before these empires Art Edit Main article African art West Africa Traditional architecture Edit Further information Architecture of Africa West Africa A street and airport in the famous town of Timbuktu Mali showing the Sudano Sahelian architectural style of the West African interior The main traditional styles of building in conjunction with modern styles are the distinct Sudano Sahelian style in inland areas and the coastal forest styles more reminiscent of other sub Saharan areas They differ greatly in construction due to the demands made by the variety of climates in the area from tropical humid forests to arid grasslands and deserts Despite the architectural differences buildings perform similar functions including the compound structure central to West African family life or strict distinction between the private and public worlds needed to maintain taboos or social etiquette Clothing Edit Further information Folk costume Western Africa Philip Emeagwali wearing the Boubou or Agbada a traditional robe symbolic of West Africa In contrast to other parts of the continent south of the Sahara Desert the concepts of hemming and embroidering clothing have been traditionally common to West Africa for centuries demonstrated by the production of various breeches shirts tunics and jackets As a result the peoples of the region s diverse nations wear a wide variety of clothing with underlying similarities Typical pieces of west African formal attire include the knee to ankle length flowing Boubou robe Dashiki and Senegalese Kaftan also known as Agbada and Babariga which has its origins in the clothing of nobility of various West African empires in the 12th century Traditional half sleeved hip long woven smocks or tunics known as fugu in Gurunsi riga in Hausa worn over a pair of baggy trousers is another popular garment 93 In the coastal regions stretching from southern Ivory Coast to Benin a huge rectangular cloth is wrapped under one arm draped over a shoulder and held in one of the wearer s hands coincidentally reminiscent of Romans togas The best known of these toga like garments is the Kente made by the Akan people of Ghana and Ivory Coast who wear them as a gesture of national pride Cuisine Edit Main article West African cuisine Further information History of West Africa Cuisine African cuisine West Africa and List of African cuisines West African cuisine Jollof rice or Benachin one of many Pan West African dishes found only in West Africa Scores of foreign visitors to West African nations e g traders historians emigrants colonists missionaries have benefited from its citizens generosity and even left with a piece of its cultural heritage via its foods West African cuisines have had a significant influence on those of Western civilization for centuries several dishes of West African origin are currently enjoyed in the Caribbean e g the West Indies and Haiti Australia the USA particularly Louisiana Virginia North and South Carolina Italy and other countries Although some of these recipes have been altered to suit the sensibilities of their adopters they retain a distinct West African essence 94 West Africans cuisines include fish especially among the coastal areas meat vegetables and fruits most of which are grown by the nations local farmers In spite of the obvious differences among the various local cuisines in this multinational region the foods display more similarities than differences The small difference may be in the ingredients used Most foods are cooked via boiling or frying Commonly featured starchy vegetables include yams plantains cassava and sweet potatoes 95 Rice is also a staple food as is the Serer people s sorghum couscous called Chereh in Serer particularly in Senegal and the Gambia 96 Jollof rice originally from the Kingdom of Jolof now part of modern day Senegal but has spread to the Wolofs of Gambia is also enjoyed in many Western nations as well 97 Mafe proper Tigh dege na or Domodah from Mali via the Bambara and Mandinka 98 a peanut butter stew served with rice 99 100 Akara fried bean balls seasoned with spices served with sauce and bread from Nigeria is a favorite breakfast for Gambians and Senegalese as well as a favorite side snack or side dish in Brazil and the Caribbean just as it is in West Africa It is said that its exact origin may be from Yorubaland in Nigeria 101 102 Fufu from the Twi language a dough served with a spicy stew or sauce for example okra stew etc from Ghana is enjoyed throughout the region and beyond even in Central Africa with their own versions of it 103 Dishes such as taguella eghajira etc are popular among the Tuareg people 104 Recreation and sports Edit See also West Africa cricket team Supporters of ASEC Mimosas The board game oware is quite popular in many parts of Southern Africa The word Oware originates from the Akan people of Ghana However virtually all African peoples have a version of this board game 105 The major multi sport event of West Africa is the ECOWAS Games which commenced at the 2012 ECOWAS Games Football is also a pastime enjoyed by many either spectating or playing The major national teams of West Africa the Ghana national football team the Ivory Coast national football team and the Nigeria national football team regularly win the Africa Cup of Nations 106 Major football teams of West Africa are Asante Kotoko SC and Accra Hearts of Oak SC of the Ghana Premier League Enyimba International of the Nigerian Premier League and ASEC Mimosas of the Ligue 1 Ivory Coast The football governing body of West Africa is the West African Football Union WAFU and the major tournament is the West African Club Championship and WAFU Nations Cup along with the annual individual award of West African Footballer of the Year 107 108 Music Edit Main article Music of West Africa Further information Music of Africa West Central Southeast and South Africa and Sub Saharan African music traditions West Africa The talking drum is an instrument unique to West Africa Mbalax Highlife Fuji Afrobeat and Afrobeats are modern musical genres of West Africa and its diaspora Traditional folk music is also well preserved Some types of folk music are religious in nature such as the Tassou tradition used in Serer religion 109 Griot artists Edit Kora playing griots in Senegal 1900 Both the Kora a 21 stringed harp lute and the griot musical caste are unique to West Africa Griot artists and praise singing is an important musical tradition related to the oral history of West African culture Traditionally musical and oral history as conveyed over generations by griots are typical of West African culture in Mande Wolof Songhay Serer and to some extent Fula areas in the far west A hereditary caste occupying the fringes of society the griots were charged with memorizing the histories of local rulers and personages and the caste was further broken down into music playing griots similar to bards and non music playing griots Like Praise singers the griot s main profession was musical acquisition and prowess and patrons were the sole means of financial support Modern griots enjoy higher status in the patronage of rich individuals in places such as Mali Senegal Mauritania and Guinea and to some extent make up the vast majority of musicians in these countries Examples of modern popular griot artists include Youssou N Dour Mamadou Diabate Sona Jobareteh and Toumani Diabate In other areas of West Africa primarily among the Hausa Mossi Dagomba and Yoruba in the area encompassing Burkina Faso northern Ghana Nigeria and Niger the traditional profession of non hereditary praise singers minstrels bards and poets play a vital role in extending the public show of power lineage and prestige of traditional rulers through their exclusive patronage Like the griot tradition praise singers are charged with knowing the details of specific historical events and royal lineages but more importantly need to be capable of poetic improvisation and creativity with knowledge of traditional songs directed towards showing a patron s financial and political or religious power Competition between Praise singing ensembles and artistes are high and artists responsible for any extraordinarily skilled prose musical compositions and panegyric songs are lavishly rewarded with money clothing provisions and other luxuries by patrons who are usually politicians rulers Islamic clerics and merchants these successful praise singers rise to national stardom Examples include Mamman Shata Souley Konko Fati Niger Saadou Bori and Dan Maraya In the case of Niger numerous praise songs are composed and shown on television in praise of local rulers Islamic clerics and politicians Theatre Edit Further information History of theatre West African theatre Film industry Edit Further information Cinema of Africa West Africa Nollywood of Nigeria is the main film industry of West Africa The Nigerian cinema industry is the second largest film industry in terms of number of annual film productions ahead of the American film industry in Hollywood 110 Senegal and Ghana also have long traditions of producing films The late Ousmane Sembene the Senegalese film director producer and writer is from the region as is the Ghanaian Shirley Frimpong Manso Religion EditIslam Edit Further information Islam in Africa and Religion in Africa Islam The 13th century Great Mosque of Djenne is a superb example of the indigenous Sahelian architectural style prevalent in the Savannah and Sahelian interior of West Africa It is listed an UNESCO World Heritage Site Islam is the predominant religion of the West African interior and the far west coast of the continent 60 of West Africans and was introduced to the region by traders in the 9th century Islam is the religion of the region s biggest ethnic groups by population Islamic rules on livelihood values dress and practices had a profound effect on the populations and cultures in their predominant areas so much so that the concept of tribalism is less observed by Islamized groups like the Mande Wolof Hausa Fula Songhai Zarma or Soninke than they are by non Islamized groups 111 Ethnic intermarriage and shared cultural icons are established through a superseded commonality of belief or community known as ummah 112 Traditional Muslim areas include Senegal Gambia Mali Mauritania Guinea Niger the upper coast and inland two thirds of Sierra Leone and inland Liberia the western northern and far eastern regions of Burkina Faso and the northern halves of the coastal nations of Nigeria Benin Togo Ghana and Ivory Coast 113 African traditional Edit Further information Traditional African religion West Africa West African Vodun and Religion in Africa African Traditional Religion Voodoo altar with several fetishes in Abomey Benin Traditional African religions noting the many different belief systems are the oldest belief systems among the populations of this region and include Akan religion Yoruba religion Odinani Igbo and Serer religion They are spiritual but also linked to the historical and cultural heritage of the people 114 Although traditional beliefs vary from one place to the next there are more similarities than differences 115 Christianity Edit Further information Christianity in Africa and Religion in Africa Christianity In 2010 around 36 5 of Western Africans identified as Christians 116 Christianity was largely introduced from the late 19th century onward when missionaries from European countries brought the religion to the region 117 West African Christians are predominantly Roman Catholic or Anglican some Evangelical churches have also been established Christianity has become the predominant religion in the central and southern part of Nigeria southern Ivory Coast and the coastal regions stretching from southern Ghana to coastal parts of Sierra Leone Like Islam elements of traditional African religion are mixed with Christianity 118 Demographics and languages EditFurther information Demographics of Africa List of ethnic groups of Africa West Africa List of African countries by population African diaspora and Writing systems of Africa West Africa West Africans primarily speak Niger Congo languages belonging mostly though not exclusively to its non Bantu branches though some Nilo Saharan and Afro Asiatic speaking groups are also found in West Africa The Niger Congo speaking Yoruba Igbo Fulani Akan and Wolof ethnic groups are the largest and most influential The Tiv people found in Nigeria and partly in Cameroon are also among the largest In the central Sahara Mandinka or Mande groups are most significant Chadic speaking groups including the Hausa are found in more northerly parts of the region nearest to the Sahara and Nilo Saharan communities such as the Songhai Kanuri and Zarma are found in the eastern parts of West Africa bordering Central Africa The population of West Africa is estimated at 419 million 1 2 people as of 2021 In Mali Niger and Burkina Faso the nomadic Tuareg speak the Tuareg language a Berber language Colonial languages also play a pivotal cultural and political role being adopted as the official languages of most countries in the region as well as linguae franca in communication between the region s various ethnic groups For historical reasons Western European languages such as French English and Portuguese predominate in Southern and Coastal subregions whilst Arabic in its Maghrebi varieties spreads inland northwards Architecture EditFurther information in the sections of Architecture of Africa Prehistoric West African Architecture Ancient West African Architecture Medieval West African ArchitectureScience and technology EditFurther information in the sections of History of science and technology in Africa Education Astronomy Mathematics Metallurgy Medicine Agriculture Textiles Maritime technology Architecture Communication systems Warfare Commerce By countryEconomic and regional organizations Edit Map of petroleum and natural gas within West Africa Economic Community of West Africa Edit This section is an excerpt from Economic Community of West African States edit The Economic Community of West African States ECOWAS also known as CEDEAO in French and Portuguese is a regional political and economic union of fifteen countries located in West Africa Collectively these countries comprise an area of 5 114 162 km2 1 974 589 sq mi and in 2015 had an estimated population of over 349 million Considered one of the pillar regional blocs of the continent wide African Economic Community AEC the stated goal of ECOWAS is to achieve collective self sufficiency for its member states by creating a single large trade bloc by building a full economic and trading union The union was established on 28 May 1975 with the signing of the Treaty of Lagos with its stated mission to promote economic integration across the region A revised version of the treaty was agreed and signed on 24 July 1993 in Cotonou The ECOWAS also serves as a peacekeeping force in the region with member states occasionally sending joint military forces to intervene in the bloc s member countries at times of political instability and unrest 119 120 West African Monetary Union Edit The West African Monetary Union or UEMOA from its name in French Union economique et monetaire ouest africaine is limited to the eight mostly Francophone countries that employ the CFA franc as their common currency The Liptako Gourma Authority of Mali Niger and Burkina Faso seeks to jointly develop the contiguous areas of the three countries Women s peace movement Edit Since the adoption of the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 in 2000 women have been engaged in rebuilding war torn Africa Starting with the Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace and Women in Peacebuilding Network WIPNET the peace movement has grown to include women across West Africa Established on May 8 2006 Women Peace and Security Network Africa WIPSEN Africa is a women focused women led Pan African non governmental organization based in Ghana 121 The organization focuses on empowering women to have a role in political and peace governance in Africa 121 It has a presence in Ghana Nigeria Ivory Coast Liberia and Sierra Leone Regional leaders of nonviolent resistance include Leymah Gbowee 122 Comfort Freeman and Aya Virginie Toure Pray the Devil Back to Hell is a documentary film about the origin of this peace movement The film has been used as an advocacy tool in post conflict zones like Sudan and Zimbabwe mobilizing African women to petition for peace and security 123 Gallery EditCityscapes of the largest cities Edit Bird s eye view of the West Africa City of Lagos Lagos State Nigeria Bird s eye view of the West Africa City of Abuja Federal Capital Territory Nigeria Bird s eye view of the West Africa City of Accra Greater Accra Ghana Bird s eye view of the West Africa City of Abidjan Lagunes Ivory Coast Bird s eye view of the West Africa City of Kumasi Ashanti Ghana Bird s eye view of the West Africa City of Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria Capital cities of West Africa Edit Capital cities of West Africa Praia Cape Verde Dakar Senegal Lome Togo Porto Novo Benin Niamey Niger Ouagadougou Burkina Faso Freetown Sierra Leone Banjul Gambia Conakry Guinea Bissau Guinea Bissau Monrovia Liberia Bamako Mali Nouakchott Mauritania Abuja Nigeria Accra Ghana Abidjan Ivory Coast Yamoussoukro Ivory Coast Jamestown Saint Helena Ascension and Tristan da CunhaSee also Edit Africa portal Geography portalAfrican historiography Agroecology in West Africa Ajami Arabic word referring to people whose first language is not Arabic COVID 19 pandemic in Africa Ongoing COVID 19 viral pandemic in Africa Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa 2013 2016 major disease outbreak List of regions of Africa Manillas West African money a form of archaic money unique to West Africa N Ko script Alphabet for the Manding languages of West Africa North Africa Northernmost region of Africa Nsibidi Script Ancient writing system an indigenously developed West African writing system Sub Saharan Africa Region south of the Sahara Desert Central Africa Core region of African continent East Africa Eastern region of the African continent Southern Africa Southernmost region of the African continent Vai syllabary Writing system West African Craton One of the five cratons of the Precambrian basement rock of Africa that make up the African Plate Western Sahara Territory in North and West AfricaReferences Edit a b c World Population Prospects 2022 population un org United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division Retrieved 17 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12219 9 OCLC 59347952 Brodowsky Pamela K 2009 Destination wildlife an international site by site guide to the best places to experience endangered rare and fascinating animals and their habitats National Wildlife Federation New York Penguin ISBN 978 0 399 53486 7 OCLC 233549707 Martin Victor Becker Charles Lieux de culte et emplacements celebres dans les pays sereer Senegal 1 Publie dans le Bulletin de l Institut Fondamental d Afrique Noire Tome 41 Serie B n 1 janvier 1979 p 133 189 5 The Seereer Resource Centre SRC The Seereer Resource Centre SRC a b ThoughtCo The Territory and Current Status of the African Rainforest by Steve Nix November 04 2018 6 Retrieved 2 April 2019 Deforestation by Country amp Region Country Forest Data sorted by region in Mongabay com Retrieved 2 April 2019 Rainforest Destruction in rainforestweb org Archived by Wayback Machine 7 Retrieved 2 April 2019 Mongabay News Nigeria has worst deforestation rate FAO revises figures 17 November 2005 by Rhett A Butler 8 Retrieved 2 April 2019 Overfishing destroying livelihoods Africa Renewal www un org 12 May 2017 Greenpeace welcomes cancellation of fishing licences of 29 foreign trawlers African Manager 4 May 2012 Retrieved 1 July 2022 Liberia Gets New Fisheries Regulations Fisheries Committee for the West Central Gulf of Guinea 5 January 2011 Retrieved 1 July 2022 Cape Verde Greenpeace Raises Awareness on the State Of Fisheries in West Africa Archived from the original on 28 July 2019 Retrieved 28 July 2019 Overfishing threatens food security off Africa s western and central coast as many fish species in the region face extinction IUCN report IUCN 19 January 2017 a b c Peter Speth Impacts of Global Change on the Hydrological Cycle in West and Northwest Africa p 33 Springer 2010 ISBN 3 642 12956 0 Peter Speth Impacts of Global Change on the Hydrological Cycle in West and Northwest Africa p 33 Springer 2010 Prof Kayode Omitoogun 2011 ISBN 3 642 12956 0 National Geographic February 2013 p 8 Anthony Ham West Africa p 79 Lonely Planet 2009 ISBN 1 74104 821 4 Celestine Oyom Bassey Oshita Oshita Governance and Border Security in Africa p 261 African Books Collective 2010 ISBN 978 8422 07 1 Ian Shaw Robert Jameson A Dictionary of Archaeology p 28 Wiley Blackwell 2002 ISBN 0 631 23583 3 Agyeman Richard Yao Kuma Quansah Emmannuel Lamptey Benjamin Annor Thompson Agyekum Jacob 2018 Evaluation of CMIP5 Global Climate Models over the Volta Basin Precipitation Advances in Meteorology 2018 1 24 doi 10 1155 2018 4853681 Sultan Benjamin Janicot Serge 1 November 2003 The West African Monsoon Dynamics Part II The Preonset and Onset of the Summer Monsoon Journal of Climate 16 21 3407 3427 Bibcode 2003JCli 16 3407S doi 10 1175 1520 0442 2003 016 lt 3407 TWAMDP gt 2 0 CO 2 ISSN 0894 8755 Le Barbe Luc Lebel Thierry Tapsoba Dominique 1 January 2002 Rainfall Variability in West Africa during the Years 1950 90 Journal of Climate 15 2 187 202 Bibcode 2002JCli 15 187L doi 10 1175 1520 0442 2002 015 lt 0187 RVIWAD gt 2 0 CO 2 ISSN 0894 8755 Rowell David P 2003 The Impact of Mediterranean SSTS on the Sahelian Rainfall Season Journal of Climate 16 5 849 862 doi 10 1175 1520 0442 2003 016 lt 0849 tiomso gt 2 0 co 2 Nicholson Sharon E Fink Andreas H Funk Chris 2018 Assessing recovery and change in West Africa s rainfall regime from a 161 year record International Journal of Climatology 38 10 3770 3786 Bibcode 2018IJCli 38 3770N doi 10 1002 joc 5530 S2CID 134207640 a b Funk Chris Fink Andreas H Nicholson Sharon E 1 August 2018 Assessing recovery and change in West Africa s rainfall regime from a 161 year record International Journal of Climatology 38 10 3770 3786 Bibcode 2018IJCli 38 3770N doi 10 1002 joc 5530 Nicholson Sharon E 2013 The West African Sahel A Review of Recent Studies on the Rainfall Regime and Its Interannual Variability ISRN Meteorology 2013 1 32 doi 10 1155 2013 453521 Panthou G et al 2018 Rainfall intensification in tropical semi arid regions the Sahelian case Environmental Research Letters 13 6 064013 Bibcode 2018ERL 13f4013P doi 10 1088 1748 9326 aac334 Sanogo Souleymane Fink Andreas H Omotosho Jerome A Ba Abdramane Redl Robert Ermert Volker 2015 Spatio temporal characteristics of the recent rainfall recovery in West Africa International Journal of Climatology 35 15 4589 4605 Bibcode 2015IJCli 35 4589S doi 10 1002 joc 4309 ISSN 1097 0088 S2CID 129607595 L HOTE YANN MAHE GIL SOME BONAVENTURE 1 June 2003 The 1990s rainfall in the Sahel the third driest decade since the beginning of the century Hydrological Sciences Journal 48 3 493 496 doi 10 1623 hysj 48 3 493 45283 ISSN 0262 6667 Nicholson S E Some B Kone B 1 July 2000 An Analysis of Recent Rainfall Conditions in West Africa Including the Rainy Seasons of the 1997 El Nino and the 1998 La Nina Years Journal of Climate 13 14 2628 2640 Bibcode 2000JCli 13 2628N doi 10 1175 1520 0442 2000 013 lt 2628 AAORRC gt 2 0 CO 2 ISSN 0894 8755 Livelihood Security Climate Change Migration and Conflict in the Sahel 2011 Fominyen George Coming weeks critical to tackle Sahel hunger U N humanitarian chief Thomson Reuters Foundation Archived from the original on 3 June 2012 Retrieved 10 June 2012 Rowell David P Senior Catherine A Vellinga Michael Graham Richard J 2016 Can climate projection uncertainty be constrained over Africa using metrics of contemporary performance Climatic Change 134 4 621 633 Bibcode 2016ClCh 134 621R doi 10 1007 s10584 015 1554 4 Berthou S Rowell D P Kendon E J Roberts M J Stratton R Crook J and Wilcox C 2019 Improved climatological precipitation characteristics over West Africa at convection permitting scales Climate Dynamics 53 1991 2011 Kendon Elizabeth J Stratton Rachel A Tucker Simon Marsham John H Berthou Segolene Rowell David P Senior Catherine A 2019 Enhanced future changes in wet and dry extremes over Africa at convection permitting scale Nature Communications 10 1 1794 Bibcode 2019NatCo 10 1794K doi 10 1038 s41467 019 09776 9 ISSN 2041 1723 PMC 6478940 PMID 31015416 IPCC Sees Severe Climate Change Impacts on Africa ABC Live ABC Live Retrieved 7 September 2016 Vogel Coleen Why Africa is particularly vulnerable to climate change The Conversation Retrieved 7 August 2017 Berthou Segolene Rowell David P Kendon Elizabeth J Roberts Malcolm J Stratton Rachel A Crook Julia A Wilcox Catherine 12 April 2019 Improved climatological precipitation characteristics over West Africa at convection permitting scales Climate Dynamics 53 3 4 1991 2011 Bibcode 2019ClDy 53 1991B doi 10 1007 s00382 019 04759 4 ISSN 0930 7575 Kendon Elizabeth J Stratton Rachel A Tucker Simon Marsham John H Berthou Segolene Rowell David P Senior Catherine A 23 April 2019 Enhanced future changes in wet and dry extremes over Africa at convection permitting scale Nature Communications 10 1 1794 Bibcode 2019NatCo 10 1794K doi 10 1038 s41467 019 09776 9 ISSN 2041 1723 PMC 6478940 PMID 31015416 Klutse Nana Ama Browne Ajayi Vincent O Gbobaniyi Emiola Olabode Egbebiyi Temitope S Kouadio Kouakou Nkrumah Francis Quagraine Kwesi Akumenyi Olusegun Christiana Diasso Ulrich May 2018 Potential impact of 1 5 hspace0 167em C and 2 hspace0 167em C global warming on consecutive dry and wet days over West Africa Environmental Research Letters 13 5 055013 doi 10 1088 1748 9326 aab37b ISSN 1748 9326 a b Proposed Ecowas railway Archived 2009 10 24 at the Wayback Machine railwaysafrica com Itai Madamombe 2006 NEPAD promotes better transport networks Africa Renewal Vol 20 No 3 October 2006 p 14 Azevedo Mario J February 2017 The State of Health System s in Africa Challenges and Opportunities Historical Perspectives on the State of Health and Health Systems in Africa Volume Ii 1 73 doi 10 1007 978 3 319 32564 4 1 ISBN 978 3 319 32563 7 PMC 7123888 Abi Samir Metaphysical explanations D C Development and Cooperation Barbara K Nordquist Susan B Aradeon Howard University School of Human Ecology Museum of African Art U S Traditional African dress and textiles an exhibition of the Susan B Aradeon collection of West African dress at the Museum of African Art 1975 pp 9 15 Chidi Asika Enahoro A Slice of Africa Exotic West African Cuisines Introduction iUniverse 2004 ISBN 0 595 30528 8 Pamela Goyan Kittler Kathryn Sucher Food and Culture p 212 Cengage Learning 2007 ISBN 0 495 11541 X UNESCO The Case for indigenous West African food culture p 4 BREDA series Vol 9 1995 UNESCO Alan Davidson Tom Jaine The Oxford Companion to Food p 423 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0 19 280681 5 Mafe or Maafe is a Wolof word for it the proper name is Domodah among the Mandinka people of Senegal and Gambia who are the originators of this dish or Tigh dege na among the Bambara people or Mandinka people of Mali Domodah is also used by all Senegambians borrowed from the Mandinka language James McCann Stirring the Pot A History of African Cuisine p 132 Ohio University Press 2009 ISBN 0 89680 272 8 Emma Gregg Richard Trillo Rough Guide to The Gambia p 39 Rough Guides 2003 ISBN 1 84353 083 X Carole Boyce Davies ed Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora Origins Experiences and Culture Volume 1 p 72 ABC CLIO 2008 ISBN 1 85109 700 7 Toyin Ayeni I Am a Nigerian Not a Terrorist p 2 Dog Ear Publishing 2010 ISBN 1 60844 735 9 Dayle Hayes Rachel Laudan Food and Nutrition Dayle Hayes Rachel Laudan editorial advisers Volume 7 p 1097 Marshall Cavendish 2008 ISBN 0 7614 7827 2 Customs amp Cuisine of Niger Amman Imman Dining for Women Retrieved 29 May 2020 West Africa issues 4106 4119 pp 1487 8 Afrimedia International 1996 Why does the West dominate African football BBC Wafu Cup to make a comeback BBC Sport 29 September 2008 Retrieved 15 July 2015 Caf have split the West African Football Union into two separate zones Goal com Goal com 17 May 2011 Retrieved 15 July 2014 Ali Colleen Neff Tassou the Ancient Spoken Word of African Women 2010 Nigeria surpasses Hollywood as world s second largest film producer UN United Nations 5 May 2009 Retrieved 30 September 2009 The Islamic World to 1600 The Fractured Caliphate and the Regional Dynasties West Africa Archived from the original on 25 October 2013 Muslim Societies in African History New Approaches to African History David Robinson Chapter 1 Spread of Islam in West Africa part 1 of 3 The Empire of Ghana Prof A Rahman I Doi Spread of Islam in West Africa http www islamreligion com articles 304 John S Mbiti Introduction to African Religion p 19 East African Publishers 1992 ISBN 9966 46 928 1 William J Duiker Jackson J Spielvogel World History To 1800 p 224 Cengage Learning 2006 ISBN 0 495 05053 9 Johnson Todd M Zurlo Gina A Hickman Albert W Crossing Peter F November 2017 Christianity 2018 More African Christians and Counting Martyrs International Bulletin of Mission Research 42 1 20 28 doi 10 1177 2396939317739833 S2CID 165905763 Retrieved 24 September 2019 Robert O Collins African History Western African History p 153 Markus Wiener Publishers 1990 ISBN 1 55876 015 6 Emmanuel Kwaku Akyeampong Themes in West Africa s History p 152 James Currey Publishers 2006 ISBN 0 85255 995 X Adeyemi Segun 6 August 2003 West African Leaders Agree on Deployment to Liberia Jane s Defence Weekly The 5 previous West African military interventions Yahoo News AFP 20 January 2017 Retrieved 27 January 2017 a b WIPSEN Retrieved 17 October 2014 WIPSEN EMPOWERS WOMEN To fight for their rights Ghana Media Group 11 December 2010 Archived from the original article on 17 September 2011 November 2009 MEDIAGLOBAL Archived 2010 07 10 at the Wayback MachineFurther reading EditAkyeampong Emmanuel Kwaku Themes in West Africa s History 2006 Brydon Lynne Constructing Avatime questions of history and identity in a West African polity c 1690s to the twentieth century Journal of African History 49 1 2008 23 42 online Collins Robert O African History Western African History 1990 Davidson Basil A History of West Africa 1000 1800 1978 numerous editions Delavignette Robert Freedom and Authority in French West Africa Routledge 2018 Dueppen Stephen A The archaeology of West Africa ca 800 BCE to 1500 CE History Compass 14 6 2016 247 263 Edgerton Robert B The Fall of the Asante Empire The Hundred Year War For Africa S Gold Coast 2002 Fage J D A Guide to Original Sources for Precolonial Western Africa Published in European Languages 2nd ed 1994 updated in Stanley B Alpern ed Guide to Original Sources for Precolonial Western Africa 2006 Festus Jacob et al eds History of West Africa Vol 1 1989 Greene S E Sacred Sites and the Colonial Encounter A History of Meaning and Memory in Ghana 2002 Griswold Wendy Writing African women Gender popular culture and literature in West Africa Zed Books Ltd 2017 Ham Anthony West Africa 2013 online Hayward Derek F and Julius Oguntoyinbo Climatology of West Africa Routledge 2019 Hopkins Antony Gerald An economic history of West Africa 2014 online Huber Caroline Lyn Finelli and Warren Stevens The economic and social burden of the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa Journal of infectious diseases 218 Supplement 5 2018 S698 S704 Kane Ousmane Oumar Beyond Timbuktu An Intellectual History of Muslim West Africa 2016 Lavallee Emmanuelle and Francois Roubaud Corruption in the informal sector evidence from West Africa Journal of Development Studies 55 6 2019 1067 1080 online Law Robin Human sacrifice in pre colonial West Africa African Affairs 84 334 1985 53 87 online Mann Gregory Locating colonial histories between France and West Africa American Historical Review 110 2 2005 409 434 focus on local memories and memorials online Martinez Alvarez Melisa et al COVID 19 pandemic in West Africa The Lancet Global Health 8 5 2020 e631 e632 online Mazrui Ali A Islam and the English language in East and West Africa Routledge 2017 Meillassoux Claude ed The development of indigenous trade and markets in West Africa studies presented and discussed at the tenth International African seminar at Fourah Bay college Freetown december 1969 Routledge 2018 Mendonsa Eugene L West Africa An Introduction to Its History 2002 O Brien Donal Cruise Richard Rathbone John Dunn eds Contemporary West African States 2002 online free to borrow Soares Benjamin The historiography of Islam in West Africa an anthropologist s view Journal of African History 55 1 2014 27 36 online Tonkin Elizabeth Narrating our pasts The social construction of oral history Cambridge university press 1995 on West Africa Westermann Diedrich and Margaret Arminel Bryan The Languages of West Africa Handbook of African Languages Routledge 2017 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to wbr Western Africa and wbr West Africa Wikivoyage has a travel guide for West Africa West Africa by Region and Country African Studies at Columbia University ouestaf com Ouestaf a West African online newspaper in French Loccidental An online West African newspaper in French West Africa Review An e journal on West Africa research and scholarship in English The Voyage of the Sieur Le Maire to the Canary Islands Cape Verde Senegal and Gambia is the first published writing about Western Africa dating from 1695 in English Coordinates 12 N 3 E 12 N 3 E 12 3 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title West Africa amp oldid 1137986833, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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