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Timur

November 23, 2023

"Tamerlane" and "Tamerlan" redirect here. For the poem, see Tamerlane (poem). For people named Tamerlan, see Tamerlan (given name). For people named Timur or Temur, see Timur (name). For other uses, see Timur (disambiguation).

Timur[b] or Tamerlane[c] (8 April 1336[7] – 17–19 February 1405) was a Turco-Mongol conqueror who founded the Timurid Empire in and around modern-day Afghanistan, Iran, and Central Asia, becoming the first ruler of the Timurid dynasty. An undefeated commander, he is widely regarded as one of the greatest military leaders and tacticians in history, as well as one of the most brutal and deadly.[8][9][10] Timur is also considered a great patron of art and architecture as he interacted with intellectuals such as Ibn Khaldun, Hafez, and Hafiz-i Abru and his reign introduced the Timurid Renaissance.[11]

Timur
Timur facial reconstruction from skull, by Mikhail Mikhaylovich Gerasimov
Amir of the Timurid Empire
Reign9 April 1370 –
14 February 1405
Coronation9 April 1370, Balkh[3]
SuccessorKhalil Sultan
Born8 April 1336
Near Kesh, Chagatai Khanate
Died18 February 1405(1405-02-18) (aged 68)
Farab, Timurid Empire
Burial
Gur-e-Amir, Samarkand, Uzbekistan
ConsortSaray Mulk Khanum
Wives
  • Chulpan Mulk Agha
  • Aljaz Turkhan Agha
  • Tukal Khanum
  • Dil Shad Agha
  • Touman Agha
  • Other wives
Issue
Detail
Names
Shuja-ud-din Timur[4]
DynastyTimurid
FatherAmir Taraghai
MotherTekina Khatun
ReligionSunni Islam

Born into the Turkicized Barlas confederation in Transoxiana (in modern-day Uzbekistan) in the 1320s, Timur gained control of the western Chagatai Khanate by 1370. From that base, he led military campaigns across Western, South, and Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Southern Russia, defeating in the process the Khans of the Golden Horde, the Mamluks of Egypt and Syria, the emerging Ottoman Empire, as well as the late Delhi Sultanate of India, becoming the most powerful ruler in the Muslim world.[12] From these conquests, he founded the Timurid Empire, which fragmented shortly after his death. He spoke several languages, including Chagatai, an ancestor of modern Uzbek, as well as Mongolic and Persian, in which he wrote diplomatic correspondence.[13]

Timur was the last of the great nomadic conquerors of the Eurasian Steppe, and his empire set the stage for the rise of the more structured and lasting Islamic gunpowder empires in the 16th and 17th centuries.[14][15][16] Timur was of both Turkic and Mongol descent, and, while probably not a direct descendant on either side, he shared a common ancestor with Genghis Khan on his father's side,[17][18][19] though some authors have suggested his mother may have been a descendant of the Khan.[20][21] He clearly sought to invoke the legacy of Genghis Khan's conquests during his lifetime.[22] Timur envisioned the restoration of the Mongol Empire and according to Gérard Chaliand, saw himself as Genghis Khan's heir.[23]

To legitimize his conquests, Timur relied on Islamic symbols and language, referring to himself as the "Sword of Islam". He was a patron of educational and religious institutions. He styled himself as a ghazi in the last years of his life.[24] By the end of his reign, Timur had gained complete control over all the remnants of the Chagatai Khanate, the Ilkhanate, and the Golden Horde, and had even attempted to restore the Yuan dynasty in China. Timur's armies were inclusively multi-ethnic and were feared throughout Asia, Africa, and Europe,[8] sizable parts of which his campaigns laid waste.[25] Scholars estimate that his military campaigns caused the deaths of millions of people.[26][27] Of all the areas he conquered, Khwarazm suffered the most from his expeditions, as it rose several times against him.[28] Timur's campaigns have been characterized as genocidal.[29] He was the grandfather of the Timurid sultan, astronomer and mathematician Ulugh Beg, who ruled Central Asia from 1411 to 1449, and the great-great-great-grandfather of Babur (1483–1530), founder of the Mughal Empire.[30][31]

Ancestry

 
Genealogical relationship between Timur and Genghis Khan

Through his father, Timur claimed to be a descendant of Tumbinai Khan, a male-line ancestor he shared with Genghis Khan.[19] Tumanay's great-great-grandson Qarachar Noyan was a minister for the emperor who later assisted the latter's son Chagatai in the governorship of Transoxiana.[32][33] Though there are not many mentions of Qarachar in 13th and 14th century records, later Timurid sources greatly emphasized his role in the early history of the Mongol Empire.[34][35] These histories also state that Genghis Khan later established the "bond of fatherhood and sonship" by marrying Chagatai's daughter to Qarachar.[36] Through his alleged descent from this marriage, Timur claimed kinship with the Chagatai Khans.[37]

The origins of Timur's mother, Tekina Khatun, are less clear. The Zafarnama merely states her name without giving any information regarding her background. Writing in 1403, Johannes de Galonifontibus, Archbishop of Sultaniyya, claimed that she was of lowly origin.[32] The Mu'izz al-Ansab, written decades later, says that she was related to the Yasa'uri tribe, whose lands bordered that of the Barlas.[38] Ibn Khaldun recounted that Timur himself described to him his mother's descent from the legendary Persian hero Manuchehr.[39] Ibn Arabshah suggested that she was a descendant of Genghis Khan.[21] The 18th century Books of Timur identify her as the daughter of 'Sadr al-Sharia', which is believed to refer to the Hanafi scholar Ubayd Allah al-Mahbubi of Bukhara.[40]

Early life

Timur was born in Transoxiana near the city of Kesh (modern Shahrisabz, Uzbekistan), some 80 kilometres (50 mi) south of Samarkand, part of what was then the Chagatai Khanate.[41] His name Temur means "Iron" in the Chagatai language, his mother-tongue (cf. Uzbek Temir, Turkish Demir).[42] It is cognate with Genghis Khan's birth name of Temüjin.[43][44] Later Timurid dynastic histories claim that Timur was born on 8 April 1336, but most sources from his lifetime give ages that are consistent with a birthdate in the late 1320s. Historian Beatrice Forbes Manz suspects the 1336 date was designed to tie Timur to the legacy of Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan, the last ruler of the Ilkhanate descended from Hulagu Khan, who died in that year.[45]

 
Depiction of Timur granting audience on the occasion of his accession, in the near-contemporary Zafarnama (1424–1428), 1467 edition

He was a member of the Barlas, a Mongolian tribe[46][47] that had been turkified in many aspects.[48][49][50][51][52] His father, Taraghai was described as a minor noble of this tribe.[41] However, Manz believes that Timur may have later understated the social position of his father, so as to make his own successes appear more remarkable. She states that though he is not believed to have been especially powerful, Taraghai was reasonably wealthy and influential.[45]: 116  This is shown in the Zafarnama, which states that Timur later returning to his birthplace following the death of his father in 1360, suggesting concern over his estate.[53] Taraghai's social significance is further hinted at by Arabshah, who described him as a magnate in the court of Amir Husayn Qara'unas.[21] In addition to this, the father of the great Amir Hamid Kereyid of Moghulistan is stated as a friend of Taraghai's.[54]

In his childhood, Timur and a small band of followers raided travelers for goods, especially animals such as sheep, horses, and cattle.[45]: 116  Around 1363, it is believed that Timur tried to steal a sheep from a shepherd but was shot by two arrows, one in his right leg and another in his right hand, where he lost two fingers. Both injuries disabled him for life. Some believe that these injuries occurred while serving as a mercenary to the khan of Sistan in what is today the Dashti Margo in southwest Afghanistan. Timur's injuries and disability gave rise to the nickname "Timur the Lame" or Temūr(-i) Lang in Persian, which is the origin of Tamerlane, the name by which he is generally known in the West.[55]

Military leader

By about 1360, Timur had gained prominence as a military leader whose troops were mostly Turkic tribesmen of the region.[23] He took part in campaigns in Transoxiana with the Khan of the Chagatai Khanate. Allying himself both in cause and by family connection with Qazaghan, the dethroner and destroyer of Volga Bulgaria, he invaded Khorasan[56] at the head of a thousand horsemen. This was the second military expedition that he led, and its success led to further operations, among them the subjugation of Khwarazm and Urgench.[57]

Following Qazaghan's murder, disputes arose among the many claimants to sovereign power. Tughlugh Timur of Kashgar, the Khan of the Eastern Chagatai Khanate, another descendant of Genghis Khan, invaded, interrupting this infighting. Timur was sent to negotiate with the invader but joined with him instead and was rewarded with Transoxania. At about this time, his father died and Timur also became chief of the Barlas. Tughlugh then attempted to set his son Ilyas Khoja over Transoxania, but Timur repelled this invasion with a smaller force.[56]

Rise to power

 
Timur commanding the Siege of Balkh
 
Timur enthroned at Balkh

It was in this period that Timur reduced the Chagatai khans to the position of figureheads while he ruled in their name. Also during this period, Timur and his brother-in-law Amir Husayn, who were at first fellow fugitives and wanderers, became rivals and antagonists.[57] The relationship between them became strained after Husayn abandoned efforts to carry out Timur's orders to finish off Ilya Khoja (former governor of Mawarannah) close to Tashkent.[58]

Timur gained followers in Balkh, consisting of merchants, fellow tribesmen, Muslim clergy, aristocracy and agricultural workers, because of his kindness in sharing his belongings with them. This contrasted Timur's behavior with that of Husayn, who alienated these people, took many possessions from them via his heavy tax laws and selfishly spent the tax money building elaborate structures.[59] Around 1370, Husayn surrendered to Timur and was later assassinated, which allowed Timur to be formally proclaimed sovereign at Balkh. He married Husayn's wife Saray Mulk Khanum, a descendant of Genghis Khan, allowing him to become imperial ruler of the Chaghatay tribe.[8]

Legitimization of Timur's rule

Timur's Turco-Mongolian heritage provided opportunities and challenges as he sought to rule the Mongol Empire and the Muslim world.[45] According to the Mongol traditions, Timur could not claim the title of khan or rule the Mongol Empire because he was not a descendant of Genghis Khan. Therefore, Timur set up a puppet Chaghatayid Khan, Suyurghatmish, as the nominal ruler of Balkh as he pretended to act as a "protector of the member of a Chinggisid line, that of Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi".[60] Timur instead used the title of Amir meaning general, and acting in the name of the Chagatai ruler of Transoxania.[45]: 106  To reinforce this position, Timur claimed the title güregen (royal son-in-law) to a princess of Chinggisid line.[2]

As with the title of Khan, Timur similarly could not claim the supreme title of the Islamic world, Caliph, because the "office was limited to the Quraysh, the tribe of the Prophet Muhammad". Therefore, Timur reacted to the challenge by creating a myth and image of himself as a "supernatural personal power" ordained by God.[60] Timur's most famous title was Sahib Qiran ('Lord of Conjunction'), which is rooted in astrology[61] a title that was used before him to designate Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib, the paternal uncle of Muhammad[24] and which was taken by the Mamluk Sultan Baybars and by various rulers of the Ilkhanate to designate themselves.[24] In that regard, he simply pursued an existing tradition in the Muslim world to designate conquerors.[24]

The title was referring to the conjunction of the two "superior planets", Saturn and Jupiter, which was held to be an auspicious sign and the mark of a new era.[61] According to A. Azfar Moin, Sahib Qiran was a messianic title, implying that Timur might potentially be the "awaited messiah descended from the prophetic line" who would "inaugurate a new era, possibly the last one before the end of time."[61] Otherwise he depicted himself as a spiritual descendant of Ali, thus claiming the lineage of both Genghis Khan and the Quraysh.[62]

Period of expansion

 
Timur besieges the historic city of Urganj.

Timur spent the next 35 years in various wars and expeditions. He not only consolidated his rule at home by the subjugation of his foes, but sought extension of territory by encroachments upon the lands of foreign potentates. His conquests to the west and northwest led him to the lands near the Caspian Sea and to the banks of the Ural and the Volga. Conquests in the south and south-West encompassed almost every province in Persia, including Baghdad, Karbala and Northern Iraq.[57]

One of the most formidable of Timur's opponents was another Mongol ruler, a descendant of Genghis Khan named Tokhtamysh. After having been a refugee in Timur's court, Tokhtamysh became ruler both of the eastern Kipchak and the Golden Horde. After his accession, he quarreled with Timur over the possession of Khwarizm and Azerbaijan.[57] However, Timur still supported him against the Russians, and in 1382, Tokhtamysh invaded the Muscovite dominion and burned Moscow.[63]

Russian Orthodox tradition states that later, in 1395, having reached the frontier of the Principality of Ryazan, Timur had taken Yelets and started advancing towards Moscow. Vasily I of Moscow went with an army to Kolomna and halted at the banks of the Oka River. The clergy brought the famed Theotokos of Vladimir icon from Vladimir to Moscow. Along the way people prayed kneeling: "O Mother of God, save the land of Russia!".[64][65] Suddenly, Timur's armies retreated. In memory of this miraculous deliverance of the Russian land from Timur on 26 August, the all-Russian celebration in honor of the Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Most Holy Mother of God was established.[66]

Conquest of Persia

 
Emir Timur's army attacks the survivors of the town of Nerges, in Georgia, in the spring of 1396.

After the death of Abu Sa'id, ruler of the Ilkhanate, in 1335, there was a power vacuum in Persia. In the end, Persia was split amongst the Muzaffarids, Kartids, Eretnids, Chobanids, Injuids, Jalayirids, and Sarbadars. In 1383, Timur started his lengthy military conquest of Persia, though he already ruled over much of Persian Khorasan by 1381, after Khwaja Mas'ud, of the Sarbadar dynasty surrendered. Timur began his Persian campaign with Herat, capital of the Kartid dynasty. When Herat did not surrender he reduced the city to rubble and massacred most of its citizens; it remained in ruins until Shah Rukh ordered its reconstruction around 1415.[67] Timur then sent a general to capture rebellious Kandahar. With the capture of Herat the Kartid kingdom surrendered and became vassals of Timur; it would later be annexed outright less than a decade later in 1389 by Timur's son Miran Shah.[68]

Timur then headed west to capture the Zagros Mountains, passing through Mazandaran. During his travel through the north of Persia, he captured the then town of Tehran, which surrendered and was thus treated mercifully. He laid siege to Soltaniyeh in 1384. Khorasan revolted one year later, so Timur destroyed Isfizar, and the prisoners were cemented into the walls alive. The next year the kingdom of Sistan, under the Mihrabanid dynasty, was ravaged, and its capital at Zaranj was destroyed. Timur then returned to his capital of Samarkand, where he began planning for his Georgian campaign and Golden Horde invasion. In 1386, Timur passed through Mazandaran as he had when trying to capture the Zagros. He went near the city of Soltaniyeh, which he had previously captured but instead turned north and captured Tabriz with little resistance, along with Maragha.[69] He ordered heavy taxation of the people, which was collected by Adil Aqa, who was also given control over Soltaniyeh. Adil was later executed because Timur suspected him of corruption.[70]

Timur then went north to begin his Georgian and Golden Horde campaigns, pausing his full-scale invasion of Persia. When he returned, he found his generals had done well in protecting the cities and lands he had conquered in Persia.[71] Though many rebelled, and his son Miran Shah, who may have been regent, was forced to annex rebellious vassal dynasties, his holdings remained. So he proceeded to capture the rest of Persia, specifically the two major southern cities of Isfahan and Shiraz. When he arrived with his army at Isfahan in 1387, the city immediately surrendered; he treated it with relative mercy as he normally did with cities that surrendered (unlike Herat).[72] However, after Isfahan revolted against Timur's taxes by killing the tax collectors and some of Timur's soldiers, he ordered the massacre of the city's citizens; the death toll is reckoned at between 100,000 and 200,000.[73] An eye-witness counted more than 28 towers constructed of about 1,500 heads each.[74] This has been described as a "systematic use of terror against towns...an integral element of Tamerlane's strategic element", which he viewed as preventing bloodshed by discouraging resistance. His massacres were selective and he spared the artistic and educated.[73] This would later influence the next great Persian conqueror: Nader Shah.[75]

Timur then began a five-year campaign to the west in 1392, attacking Persian Kurdistan.[76][77][78] In 1393, Shiraz was captured after surrendering, and the Muzaffarids became vassals of Timur, though prince Shah Mansur rebelled but was defeated, and the Muzafarids were annexed. Shortly after Georgia was devastated so that the Golden Horde could not use it to threaten northern Iran.[79] In the same year, Timur caught Baghdad by surprise in August by marching there in only eight days from Shiraz. Sultan Ahmad Jalayir fled to Syria, where the Mamluk Sultan Barquq protected him and killed Timur's envoys. Timur left the Sarbadar prince Khwaja Mas'ud to govern Baghdad, but he was driven out when Ahmad Jalayir returned. Ahmad was unpopular but got help from Qara Yusuf of the Kara Koyunlu; he fled again in 1399, this time to the Ottomans.[80]

Tokhtamysh–Timur war

See also: Karsakpay inscription
 
Emir Timur and his forces advance against the Golden Horde, Khan Tokhtamysh.

In the meantime, Tokhtamysh, now khan of the Golden Horde, turned against his patron and in 1385 invaded Azerbaijan. The inevitable response by Timur resulted in the Tokhtamysh–Timur war. In the initial stage of the war, Timur won a victory at the Battle of the Kondurcha River. After the battle Tokhtamysh and some of his army were allowed to escape. After Tokhtamysh's initial defeat, Timur invaded Muscovy to the north of Tokhtamysh's holdings. Timur's army burned Ryazan and advanced on Moscow. He was pulled away before reaching the Oka River by Tokhtamysh's renewed campaign in the south.[81]

In the first phase of the conflict with Tokhtamysh, Timur led an army of over 100,000 men north for more than 700 miles into the steppe. He then rode west about 1,000 miles advancing in a front more than 10 miles wide. During this advance, Timur's army got far enough north to be in a region of very long summer days causing complaints by his Muslim soldiers about keeping a long schedule of prayers. It was then that Tokhtamysh's army was boxed in against the east bank of the Volga River in the Orenburg region and destroyed at the Battle of the Kondurcha River, in 1391.

In the second phase of the conflict, Timur took a different route against the enemy by invading the realm of Tokhtamysh via the Caucasus region. In 1395, Timur defeated Tokhtamysh in the Battle of the Terek River, concluding the struggle between the two monarchs. Tokhtamysh was unable to restore his power or prestige, and he was killed about a decade later in the area of present-day Tyumen. During the course of Timur's campaigns, his army destroyed Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde, and Astrakhan, subsequently disrupting the Golden Horde's Silk Road. The Golden Horde no longer held power after their losses to Timur.

Ismailis

In May 1393, Timur's army invaded the Anjudan, crippling the Ismaili village only a year after his assault on the Ismailis in Mazandaran. The village was prepared for the attack, evidenced by its fortress and system of tunnels. Undeterred, Timur's soldiers flooded the tunnels by cutting into a channel overhead. Timur's reasons for attacking this village are not yet well understood. However, it has been suggested that his religious persuasions and view of himself as an executor of divine will may have contributed to his motivations.[82] The Persian historian Khwandamir explains that an Ismaili presence was growing more politically powerful in Persian Iraq. A group of locals in the region was dissatisfied with this and, Khwandamir writes, these locals assembled and brought up their complaint with Timur, possibly provoking his attack on the Ismailis there.[82]

Campaign against the Tughlaq dynasty

 
 
Map of Timur's invasion of India in 1397-1399, and painting of Timur defeating the Sultan of Delhi, Nasir Al-Din Mahmud Tughluq, in the winter of 1397–1398 (painting dated 1595–1600).

In 1398, Timur invaded northern India, attacking the Delhi Sultanate ruled by Sultan Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq of the Tughlaq dynasty. After crossing the Indus River on 30 September 1398, he sacked Tulamba and massacred its inhabitants. Then he advanced and captured Multan by October.[83] His invasion was unopposed as most of the Indian nobility surrendered without a fight, however he did encounter resistance from the united army of Rajputs and Muslims at Bhatner[84] under the command of the Rajput king Dulachand,[85] Dulachand initially opposed Timur but when hard-pressed he considered surrender. He was locked outside the walls of Bhatner by his brother and was later killed by Timur. The garrison of Bhatner then fought and were slaughtered to the last man. Bhatner was looted and burned to the ground.[86]

While on his march towards Delhi, Timur was opposed by the Jat peasantry, who would loot caravans and then disappear in the forests. He had 2,000 Jats killed and many taken captive.[86][87] But the Sultanate at Delhi did nothing to stop his advance.[88][unreliable source?]

Capture of Delhi (1398)

Main article: Sack of Delhi (1398)

The battle took place on 17 December 1398. Before the battle, Timur slaughtered some 100,000 slaves who had been captured previously in the Indian campaign. This was done out of fear that they might revolt.[31][89]

Sultan Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq and the army of Mallu Iqbal had war elephants armored with chain mail and poison on their tusks.[90] As his Tatar forces were afraid of the elephants, Timur ordered his men to dig a trench in front of their positions. Timur then loaded his camels with as much wood and hay as they could carry. When the war elephants charged, Timur set the hay on fire and prodded the camels with iron sticks, causing them to charge at the elephants, howling in pain: Timur had understood that elephants were easily panicked. Faced with the strange spectacle of camels flying straight at them with flames leaping from their backs, the elephants turned around and stampeded back toward their own lines. Timur capitalized on the subsequent disruption in the forces of Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq, securing an easy victory. Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq fled with remnants of his forces.[91][92][93]

The capture of the Delhi Sultanate was one of Timur's largest and most devastating victories as at that time, Delhi was one of the richest cities in the world. The city of Delhi was sacked and reduced to ruins, with the population enslaved.[94] After the fall of the city, uprisings by its citizens against the Turkic-Mongols began to occur, causing a retaliatory bloody massacre within the city walls. After three days of citizens uprising within Delhi, it was said that the city reeked of the decomposing bodies of its citizens with their heads being erected like structures and the bodies left as food for the birds by Timur's soldiers. Timur's invasion and destruction of Delhi continued the chaos that was still consuming India, and the city would not be able to recover from the great loss it suffered for almost a century.[95]

Campaigns in the Levant

 
Timur defeating the Mamluk Sultan Nasir-ad-Din Faraj of Egypt

Before the end of 1399, Timur started a war with Bayezid I, sultan of the Ottoman Empire, and the Mamluk sultan of Egypt Nasir-ad-Din Faraj. Bayezid began annexing the territory of Turkmen and Muslim rulers in Anatolia. As Timur claimed sovereignty over the Turkoman rulers, they took refuge behind him.

In 1400, Timur invaded Armenia and Georgia. Of the surviving population, more than 60,000 of the local people were captured as slaves, and many districts were depopulated.[96] He also sacked Sivas in Asia Minor.[97]

Then Timur turned his attention to Syria, sacking Aleppo,[98] and Damascus.[99] The city's inhabitants were massacred, except for the artisans, who were deported to Samarkand.

Timur invaded Baghdad in June 1401. After the capture of the city, 20,000 of its citizens were massacred. Timur ordered that every soldier should return with at least two severed human heads to show him. When they ran out of men to kill, many warriors killed prisoners captured earlier in the campaign, and when they ran out of prisoners to kill, many resorted to beheading their own wives.[100] British historian David Nicolle, in his "The Mongol Warlords", quotes an anonymous contemporary historian who compared Timur's army to "ants and locusts covering the whole countryside, plundering and ravaging."[101]

Invasion of Anatolia

Main articles: Battle of Ankara and Ottoman Interregnum

In the meantime, years of insulting letters had passed between Timur and Bayezid. Both rulers insulted each other in their own way while Timur preferred to undermine Bayezid's position as a ruler and play down the significance of his military successes.

This is the excerpt from one of Timur's letters addressed to Ottoman sultan:

Believe me, you are but pismire ant: don't seek to fight the elephants for they'll crush you under their feet. Shall a petty prince such as you are contend with us? But your rodomontades (braggadocio) are not extraordinary; for a Turcoman never spake with judgement. If you don't follow our counsels you will regret it[102]

 
19th century painting depicting Bayezid I being held captive by Timur.

Finally, Timur invaded Anatolia and defeated Bayezid in the Battle of Ankara on 20 July 1402. Bayezid was captured in battle and subsequently died in captivity, initiating the twelve-year Ottoman Interregnum period. Timur's stated motivation for attacking Bayezid and the Ottoman Empire was the restoration of Seljuq authority. Timur saw the Seljuks as the rightful rulers of Anatolia as they had been granted rule by Mongol conquerors, illustrating again Timur's interest with Genghizid legitimacy.[citation needed]

In December 1402, Timur besieged and took the city of Smyrna, a stronghold of the Christian Knights Hospitalers, thus he referred to himself as ghazi or "Warrior of Islam". A mass beheading was carried out in Smyrna by Timur's soldiers.[103][104][105][106]

With the Treaty of Gallipoli in February 1402, Timur was furious with the Genoese and Venetians, as their ships ferried the Ottoman army to safety in Thrace. As Lord Kinross reported in The Ottoman Centuries, the Italians preferred the enemy they could handle to the one they could not.[citation needed]

During the early interregnum, Bayezid I's son Mehmed Çelebi acted as Timur's vassal. Unlike other princes, Mehmed minted coins that had Timur's name stamped as "Demur han Gürgân" (تيمور خان كركان), alongside his own as "Mehmed bin Bayezid han" (محمد بن بايزيد خان).[107][108] This was probably an attempt on Mehmed's part to justify to Timur his conquest of Bursa after the Battle of Ulubad. After Mehmed established himself in Rum, Timur had already begun preparations for his return to Central Asia, and took no further steps to interfere with the status quo in Anatolia.[107]

While Timur was still in Anatolia, Qara Yusuf assaulted Baghdad and captured it in 1402. Timur returned to Persia and sent his grandson Abu Bakr ibn Miran Shah to reconquer Baghdad, which he proceeded to do. Timur then spent some time in Ardabil, where he gave Ali Safavi, leader of the Safaviyya, a number of captives. Subsequently, he marched to Khorasan and then to Samarkhand, where he spent nine months celebrating and preparing to invade Mongolia and China.[109]

Attempts to attack the Ming dynasty

 
The fortress at Jiayu Pass was strengthened due to fear of an invasion by Timur.[110]

By 1368, Han Chinese forces had driven the Mongols out of China. The first of the new Ming dynasty's emperors, the Hongwu Emperor, and his son, the Yongle Emperor, produced tributary states of many Central Asian countries. The suzerain-vassal relationship between Ming empire and Timurid existed for a long time. In 1394, Hongwu's ambassadors eventually presented Timur with a letter addressing him as a subject. He had the ambassadors Fu An, Guo Ji, and Liu Wei detained.[111] Neither Hongwu's next ambassador, Chen Dewen (1397), nor the delegation announcing the accession of the Yongle Emperor fared any better.[111]

Timur eventually planned to invade China. To this end Timur made an alliance with surviving Mongol tribes based in Mongolia and prepared all the way to Bukhara. Engke Khan sent his grandson Öljei Temür Khan, also known as "Buyanshir Khan" after he converted to Islam while at the court of Timur in Samarkand.[112]

Death

 
Timurid Empire at Timur's death in 1405

Timur preferred to fight his battles in the spring. However, he died en route during an uncharacteristic winter campaign. In December 1404, Timur began military campaigns against Ming China and detained a Ming envoy. He became ill while encamped on the farther side of the Syr Daria and died at Farab on 17 February 1405,[113] before ever reaching the Chinese border.[114] After his death the Ming envoys such as Fu An and the remaining entourage were released[111] by his grandson Khalil Sultan.

Geographer Clements Markham, in his introduction to the narrative of Clavijo's embassy, states that, after Timur died, his body "was embalmed with musk and rose water, wrapped in linen, laid in an ebony coffin and sent to Samarkand, where it was buried".[115] His tomb, the Gur-e-Amir, still stands in Samarkand, though it has been heavily restored in recent years.[116]

Succession

Main article: Timurid Empire
 
Timur's mausoleum is located in Samarkand, Uzbekistan.

Timur had twice previously appointed an heir apparent to succeed him, both of whom he had outlived. The first, his son Jahangir, died of illness in 1376.[117][118]: 51  The second, his grandson Muhammad Sultan, had died from battle wounds in 1403.[119] After the latter's death, Timur did nothing to replace him. It was only when he was on his own death-bed that he appointed Muhammad Sultan's younger brother, Pir Muhammad as his successor.[120]

Pir Muhammad was unable to gain sufficient support from his relatives and a bitter civil war erupted amongst Timur's descendants, with multiple princes pursuing their claims. It was not until 1409 that Timur's youngest son, Shah Rukh was able to overcome his rivals and take the throne as Timur's successor.[121]

Wives and concubines

 
Lady travelling. Samarkand or Central Asian painting, circa 1400. Possibly depicting the wedding of Timur with Dilshad Aqa in 1375.[122]

Timur had forty-three wives and concubines, all of these women were also his consorts. Timur made dozens of women his wives and concubines as he conquered their fathers' or erstwhile husbands' lands.[123]

 
Emir Timur feasts in the gardens of Samarkand.
  • Turmish Agha, mother of Jahangir Mirza, Jahanshah Mirza and Aka Begi;
  • Oljay Turkhan Agha (m. 1357/58), daughter of Amir Mashlah and granddaughter of Amir Qazaghan;
  • Saray Mulk Khanum (m. 1367), widow of Amir Husain, and daughter of Qazan Khan;
  • Islam Agha (m. 1367), widow of Amir Husain, and daughter of Amir Bayan Salduz;
  • Ulus Agha (m. 1367), widow of Amir Husain, and daughter of Amir Khizr Yasuri;
  • Dilshad Agha (m. 1374), daughter of Shams ed-Din and his wife Bujan Agha;
  • Touman Agha (m. 1377), daughter of Amir Musa and his wife Arzu Mulk Agha, daughter of Amir Bayezid Jalayir;
  • Chulpan Mulk Agha, daughter of Haji Beg of Jetah;
  • Tukal Khanum (m. 1397), daughter of Mongol Khan Khizr Khawaja Oglan;[118]: 24–25 
  • Tolun Agha, concubine, and mother of Umar Shaikh Mirza I;
  • Mengli Agha, concubine, and mother of Miran Shah;
  • Toghay Turkhan Agha, lady from the Kara Khitai, widow of Amir Husain, and mother of Shah Rukh;
  • Tughdi Bey Agha, daughter of Aq Sufi Qongirat;
  • Sultan Aray Agha, a Nukuz lady;
  • Malikanshah Agha, a Filuni lady;
  • Khand Malik Agha, mother of Ibrahim Mirza;
  • Sultan Agha, mother of a son who died in infancy;

His other wives and concubines included: Dawlat Tarkan Agha, Burhan Agha, Jani Beg Agha, Tini Beg Agha, Durr Sultan Agha, Munduz Agha, Bakht Sultan Agha, Nowruz Agha, Jahan Bakht Agha, Nigar Agha, Ruhparwar Agha, Dil Beg Agha, Dilshad Agha, Murad Beg Agha, Piruzbakht Agha, Khoshkeldi Agha, Dilkhosh Agha, Barat Bey Agha, Sevinch Malik Agha, Arzu Bey Agha, Yadgar Sultan Agha, Khudadad Agha, Bakht Nigar Agha, Qutlu Bey Agha, and another Nigar Agha.[124]

Descendants

See also: Timurid family tree

Sons of Timur

Daughters of Timur

  • Aka Begi (died 1382) – by Turmish Agha. Married to Muhammad Beg, son of Amir Musa Tayichiud
  • Sultan Bakht Begum (died 1429/30) – by Oljay Turkhan Agha. Married first Muhammad Mirke Apardi, married second, 1389/90, Sulayman Shah Dughlat
  • Sa'adat Sultan – by Dilshad Agha
  • Bikijan – by Mengli Agha
  • Qutlugh Sultan Agha – by Toghay Turkhan Agha[125][126]

Sons of Umar Shaikh Mirza I

Sons of Jahangir

Sons of Miran Shah

Sons of Shah Rukh Mirza

Religious views

Timur was a practising Sunni Muslim, possibly belonging to the Naqshbandi school, which was influential in Transoxiana.[127] His chief official religious counsellor and adviser was the Hanafi scholar 'Abdu 'l-Jabbar Khwarazmi. In Tirmidh, he had come under the influence of his spiritual mentor Sayyid Baraka, a leader from Balkh who is buried alongside Timur in Gur-e-Amir.[128][129][130]

Timur was known to hold Ali and the Ahl al-Bayt in high regard and has been noted by various scholars for his "pro-Shia" stance. However, he also punished Shias for desecrating the memories of the Sahaba.[131] Timur was also noted for attacking the Shia with Sunni apologism, while at other times he attacked Sunnis on religious grounds as well.[132] In contrast, Timur held the Seljuk Sultan Ahmad Sanjar in high regard for attacking the Ismailis at Alamut, and Timur's own attack on Ismailis at Anjudan was equally brutal.[132]

Personality

 
Timur leading his troops at the 1393 Conquest of Baghdad. Near-contemporary portrait in Zafarnama, commissioned by his grandson Ibrahim Sultan in 1424–28. Published in 1435–36.

Timur is regarded as a military genius and as a brilliant tactician with an uncanny ability to work within a highly fluid political structure to win and maintain a loyal following of nomads during his rule in Central Asia. He was also considered extraordinarily intelligent – not only intuitively but also intellectually.[133] In Samarkand and his many travels, Timur, under the guidance of distinguished scholars, was able to learn the Persian, Mongolian, and Turkish languages[134] (according to Ahmad ibn Arabshah, Timur could not speak Arabic).[135] However, it was Persian which was held in distinction by Timur as it was the language not only of his court, but also that of his chancellery.[136]

According to John Joseph Saunders, Timur was "the product of an Islamized and Iranized society", and not steppe nomadic.[137] More importantly, Timur was characterized as an opportunist. Taking advantage of his Turco-Mongolian heritage, Timur frequently used either the Islamic religion or the sharia law, fiqh, and traditions of the Mongol Empire to achieve his military goals or domestic political aims.[8] Timur was a learned king, and enjoyed the company of scholars; he was tolerant and generous to them. He was a contemporary of the Persian poet Hafez, and a story of their meeting explains that Timur summoned Hafiz, who had written a ghazal with the following verse:

For the black mole on thy cheek
I would give the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara.

Timur upbraided him for this verse and said, "By the blows of my well tempered sword I have conquered the greater part of the world to enlarge Samarkand and Bukhara, my capitals and residences; and you, pitiful creature, would exchange these two cities for a mole." Hafez, undaunted, replied, "It is by similar generosity that I have been reduced, as you see, to my present state of poverty." It is reported that the King was pleased by the witty answer and the poet departed with magnificent gifts.[138][139]

There is a shared view that Timur's real motive for his campaigns was his imperialistic ambition, as expressed by his statement: "The whole expanse of the inhabited part of the world is not large enough to have two kings." However, besides Iran, Timur simply plundered the states he invaded with a purpose of enriching his native Samarqand and neglected the conquered areas, which may have resulted in a relatively quick disintegration of his Empire after his death.[140]

Timur used Persian expressions in his conversations often, and his motto was the Persian phrase rāstī rustī (راستی رستی, meaning "truth is safety" or "veritas salus").[135] He is credited with the invention of the Tamerlane chess variant, played on a 10×11 board.[141]

Exchanges with Europe

Main article: Timurid relations with Europe
 
Letter of Timur to Charles VI of France, 1402, a witness to Timurid relations with Europe. Archives Nationales, Paris.

Timur had numerous epistolary and diplomatic exchanges with various European states, especially Spain and France. Relations between the court of Henry III of Castile and that of Timur played an important part in medieval Castilian diplomacy. In 1402, the time of the Battle of Ankara, two Spanish ambassadors were already with Timur: Pelayo de Sotomayor and Fernando de Palazuelos. Later, Timur sent to the court of the Kingdom of León and Castile a Chagatai ambassador named Hajji Muhammad al-Qazi with letters and gifts.

In return, Henry III of Castile sent a famous embassy to Timur's court in Samarkand in 1403–06, led by Ruy González de Clavijo, with two other ambassadors, Alfonso Paez and Gomez de Salazar. On their return, Timur affirmed that he regarded the king of Castile "as his very own son".

According to Clavijo, Timur's good treatment of the Spanish delegation contrasted with the disdain shown by his host toward the envoys of the "lord of Cathay" (i.e., the Yongle Emperor), the Chinese ruler. Clavijo's visit to Samarkand allowed him to report to the European audience on the news from Cathay (China), which few Europeans had been able to visit directly in the century that had passed since the travels of Marco Polo.

The French archives preserve:

  • A 30 July 1402 letter from Timur to Charles VI of France, suggesting that he send traders to Asia. It is written in Persian.[142]
  • A May 1403 letter. This is a Latin transcription of a letter from Timur to Charles VI, and another from Miran Shah, his son, to the Christian princes, announcing their victory over Bayezid I at Smyrna.[143]

A copy has been kept of the answer of Charles VI to Timur, dated 15 June 1403.[144]

In addition, Byzantine John VII Palaiologos who was a regent during his uncle's absence in the West, sent a Dominican friar in August 1401 to Timur, to pay his respect and propose paying tribute to him instead of the Turks, once he managed to defeat them.[97]

Legacy

Timur's legacy is a mixed one. While Central Asia blossomed under his reign, other places, such as Baghdad, Damascus, Delhi and other Arab, Georgian, Persian, and Indian cities were sacked and destroyed and their populations massacred. Thus, while Timur still retains a positive image in Muslim Central Asia, he is vilified by many in Arabia, Iraq, Persia, and India, where some of his greatest atrocities were carried out. However, Ibn Khaldun praises Timur for having unified much of the Muslim world when other conquerors of the time could not.[145] The next great conqueror of the Middle East, Nader Shah, was greatly influenced by Timur and almost re-enacted Timur's conquests and battle strategies in his own campaigns. Like Timur, Nader Shah conquered most of Caucasia, Persia, and Central Asia along with also sacking Delhi.[146]

Timur's short-lived empire also melded the Turko-Persian tradition in Transoxiana, and, in most of the territories that he incorporated into his fiefdom, Persian became the primary language of administration and literary culture (diwan), regardless of ethnicity.[147] In addition, during his reign, some contributions to Turkic literature were penned, with Turkic cultural influence expanding and flourishing as a result. A literary form of Chagatai Turkic came into use alongside Persian as both a cultural and an official language.[148]

Tamerlane virtually exterminated the Church of the East, which had previously been a major branch of Christianity but afterwards became largely confined to a small area now known as the Assyrian Triangle.[149]

 
Statue of Tamerlane in Uzbekistan. In the background are the ruins of his summer palace in Shahrisabz.

Timur is officially recognized as a national hero in Uzbekistan. His monument in Tashkent now occupies the place where Karl Marx's statue once stood.

In 1794, Sake Dean Mahomed published his travel book, The Travels of Dean Mahomet. The book begins with the praise of Genghis Khan, Timur, and particularly the first Mughal emperor, Babur. He also gives important details on the then incumbent Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.

The poem "Tamerlane" by Edgar Allan Poe follows a fictionalized version of Timur's life.

Historical sources

 
Ahmad ibn Arabshah's work on the Life of Timur

The earliest known history of his reign was Nizam al-Din Shami's Zafarnama, which was written during Timur's lifetime. Between 1424 and 1428, Sharaf ad-Din Ali Yazdi wrote a second Zafarnama drawing heavily on Shami's earlier work. Ahmad ibn Arabshah wrote a much less favorable history in Arabic. Arabshah's history was translated into Latin by the Dutch Orientalist Jacobus Golius in 1636.

As Timurid-sponsored histories, the two Zafarnamas present a dramatically different picture from Arabshah's chronicle. William Jones remarked that the former presented Timur as a "liberal, benevolent and illustrious prince" while the latter painted him as "deformed and impious, of a low birth and detestable principles".[57]

Malfuzat-i Timuri

The Malfuzat-i Timurī and the appended Tuzūk-i Tīmūrī, supposedly Timur's own autobiography, are almost certainly 17th-century fabrications.[31][150] The scholar Abu Taleb Hosayni presented the texts to the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, a distant descendant of Timur, in 1637–1638, supposedly after discovering the Chagatai language originals in the library of a Yemeni ruler. Due to the distance between Yemen and Timur's base in Transoxiana and the lack of any other evidence of the originals, most historians consider the story highly implausible, and suspect Hosayni of inventing both the text and its origin story.[150]

European views

Timur arguably had a significant impact on the Renaissance culture and early modern Europe.[151] His achievements both fascinated and horrified Europeans from the fifteenth century to the early nineteenth century.

European views of Timur were mixed throughout the fifteenth century, with some European countries calling him an ally and others seeing him as a threat to Europe because of his rapid expansion and brutality.[152]: 341 

When Timur captured the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid at Ankara, he was often praised and seen as a trusted ally by European rulers, such as Charles VI of France and Henry IV of England, because they believed he was saving Christianity from the Turkic Empire in the Middle East. Those two kings also praised him because his victory at Ankara allowed Christian merchants to remain in the Middle East and allowed for their safe return home to both France and England. Timur was also praised because it was believed that he helped restore the right of passage for Christian pilgrims to the Holy Land.[152]: 341–344 

Other Europeans viewed Timur as a barbaric enemy who presented a threat to both European culture and the religion of Christianity. His rise to power moved many leaders, such as Henry III of Castile, to send embassies to Samarkand to scout out Timur, learn about his people, make alliances with him, and try to convince him to convert to Christianity in order to avoid war.[152]: 348–349 

In the introduction to a 1723 translation of Yazdi's Zafarnama, the translator wrote:[153]

[M. Petis de la Croix] tells us, that there are calumnies and impostures, which have been published by authors of romances, and Turkish writers who were his enemies, and envious at his glory: among whom is Ahmed Bin Arabschah ... As Timur-Bec had conquered the Turks and Arabians of Syria, and had even taken the Sultan Bajazet prisoner, it is no wonder that he has been misrepresented by the historians of those nations, who, in despite of truth, and against the dignity of history, have fallen into great excesses on this subject.

Exhumation and alleged curse

Timur's body was exhumed from his tomb on 19 June 1941 and his remains examined by the Soviet anthropologists Mikhail M. Gerasimov, Lev V. Oshanin and V. Ia. Zezenkova. Gerasimov reconstructed the likeness of Timur from his skull and found that his facial characteristics displayed "typical Mongoloid features", i.e. East Asian in modern terms.[154][155][156] An anthropologic study of Timur's cranium shows that he belonged predominately to the "South Siberian Mongoloid type".[157] At 5 feet 8 inches (173 centimeters), Timur was tall for his era. The examinations confirmed that Timur was lame and had a withered right arm due to his injuries. His right thighbone had knitted together with his kneecap, and the configuration of the knee joint suggests that he kept his leg bent at all times and therefore would have had a pronounced limp.[158] He appears to have been broad-chested and his hair and beard were red.[159] It is alleged that Timur's tomb was inscribed with the words, "When I rise from the dead, the world shall tremble". It is also said that when Gerasimov exhumed the body, an additional inscription inside the casket was found, which read, "Whomsoever [sic] opens my tomb shall unleash an invader more terrible than I."[160] Even though people close to Gerasimov claim that this story is a fabrication, the legend persists.[161][better source needed] In any case, three days after Gerasimov began the exhumation, Adolf Hitler invaded the Soviet Union.[162] Timur was re-buried with full Islamic ritual in November 1942 just before the Soviet victory at the Battle of Stalingrad.[8]

In the arts

See also

References

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ To legitimize his rule, Timur claimed the title güregen (lit. 'royal son-in-law') to a princess of Chinggisid line.[2]
  2. ^ /tɪˈmʊər/; Chagatay: تيمور Temür, lit. 'Iron'
     • Sometimes spelled Taimur or Temur.
     • Historically best known as Amir Timur or as Sahib-i-Qiran (lit. 'Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction'), his epithet.[5]
  3. ^ /ˈtæmərleɪn/; Persian: تيمور لنگ Temūr(-i) Lang; Chagatay: اقساق تیمور Aqsaq Temür,[6] lit. 'Timur the Lame'

Citations

  1. ^ Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Vol. 9. Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 1847. p. 377.
  2. ^ a b Manz 1999, p. 14.
  3. ^ Muntakhab-al Lubab, Khafi Khan Nizam-ul-Mulki, Vol I, p. 49. Printed in Lahore, 1985
  4. ^ W. M. Thackston, A Century of Princes: Sources on Timurid History and Art (1989), p. 239
  5. ^ ʻInāyat Khān; Muḥammad Ṭāhir Āšnā ʿInāyat Ḫān (1990). The Shah Jahan Nama of 'Inayat Khan: An Abridged History of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, Compiled by His Royal Librarian: the Nineteenth-century Manuscript Translation of A.R. Fuller (British Library, Add. 30,777. Oxford University Press. pp. 11–17.
  6. ^ Johanson, Lars (1998). The Turkic Languages. Routledge. p. 27. ISBN 0415082005.
  7. ^ Manz, Beatrice F. (24 April 2012). "Tīmūr Lang". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). Tīmūr Lang. Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. The birthdate commonly ascribed to Tīmūr, 25 S̲h̲aʿbān 736/8 April 1336, is probably an invention from the time of his successor S̲h̲āh Ruk̲h̲ [q.v.], the day chosen for astrological meaning and the year to coincide with the death of the last Il-K̲h̲ān
  8. ^ a b c d e Marozzi 2004, p. [page needed].
  9. ^ Josef W. Meri (2005). Medieval Islamic Civilization. Routledge. p. 812. ISBN 978-0415966900.
  10. ^ "Timur | Biography, Conquests, Empire, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 28 September 2022.
  11. ^ Marozzi 2004, pp. 341–342.
  12. ^ Shahane, Girish (28 December 2016). "Counterview: Taimur's actions were uniquely horrific in Indian history". Scroll.in.
  13. ^ Silvestre de Sacy, Antoine-Isaac (1822). "Mémoire sur une correspondance inédite de Tamerlan avec Charles VI". Mémoires de l'Institut de France. 6 (1): 470–522. doi:10.3406/minf.1822.1201.
  14. ^ Darwin, John (2008). After Tamerlane: the rise and fall of global empires, 1400–2000. Bloomsbury Press. pp. 29, 92. ISBN 978-1596917606.
  15. ^ Manz 1999, p. 1.
  16. ^ Marozzi, Justin (2006). Tamerlane: Sword of Islam, Conqueror of the World. Da Capo Press. p. 342. ISBN 978-0306814655.
  17. ^ Donald M. Seekins; Richard F. Nyrop (1986). Afghanistan A Country Study. The Studies. p. 11. ISBN 978-0160239298 – via Google Books. Timur was of both Turkish and Mongol descent and claimed Genghis Khan as an ancestor
  18. ^ International Association for Mongol Studies (2002). Монгол Улсын Ерөнхийлөгч Н. Багабандийн ивээлд болж буй Олон Улсын Монголч Эрдэмтний VIII их хурал (Улаанбаатар хот 2002.VIII.5-11): Илтгэлүүдийн товчлол [Eighth International Congress of Mongolists being convened under the patronage of N. Bagabandi, president of Mongolia (Ulaanbaatar city 2002.VIII.5-11): Summary of presentations] (in Mongolian). OUMSKh-ny Nariĭn bichgiĭn darga naryn gazar. p. 377 – via Google Books. First of all, Timur's genealogy gives him a common ancestor with Chinggis Khan in Tumbinai – sechen or Tumanay Khan
  19. ^ a b Woods, John E. (2002). Timur and Chinggis Khan. Eighth International Congress of Mongolists being convened under the patronage of N. Bagabandi, president of Mongolia. Ulaanbaatar: OUMSKh-ny Nariĭn bichgiĭn darga naryn gazar. p. 377.
  20. ^ Henry Cabot Lodge (1916). The History of Nations. Vol. 14. P. F. Collier & son. p. 46. Timur the Lame, from the effects of an early wound, a name which some European writers have converted into Tamerlane, or Tamberlaine. He was of Mongol origin, and a direct descendant, by the mother's side, of Genghis Khan
  21. ^ a b c Ahmad ibn Arabshah; McChesney, Robert D. (2017). Tamerlane: The Life of the Great Amir. Translated by M. M. Khorramia. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 4. ISBN 978-1784531706.
  22. ^ Richard C. Martin, Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World A–L, Macmillan Reference, 2004, ISBN 978-0028656045, p. 134.
  23. ^ a b Gérard Chaliand, Nomadic Empires: From Mongolia to the Danube translated by A.M. Berrett, Transaction Publishers, 2004. translated by A.M. Berrett. Transaction Publishers, p. 75. ISBN 076580204X. Limited preview at Google Books. p. 75., ISBN 076580204X, p. 75., "Timur Leng (Tamerlane) Timur, known as the lame (1336–1405) was a Muslim Turk. He aspired to recreate the empire of his ancestors. He was a military genius who loved to play chess in his spare time to improve his military tactics and skill. And although he wielded absolute power, he never called himself more than an emir.", "Timur Leng (Tamerlane) Timur, known as the lame (1336–1405) was a Muslim Turk from the Umus of Chagatai who saw himself as Genghis Khan's heir."
  24. ^ a b c d Chann, Naindeep Singh (2009). "Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction: Origins of the Ṣāḥib-Qirān". Iran & the Caucasus. 13 (1): 93–110. doi:10.1163/160984909X12476379007927. ISSN 1609-8498. JSTOR 25597394.
  25. ^ Matthew White: Atrocitology: Humanity's 100 Deadliest Achievements, Canongate Books, 2011, ISBN 978-0857861252, section "Timur"
  26. ^ "The Rehabilitation of Tamerlane". Chicago Tribune. 17 January 1999.
  27. ^ J.J. Saunders, The history of the Mongol conquests (page 174), Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1971, ISBN 0812217667
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  32. ^ a b Woods, John E. (1990). Martin Bernard Dickson; Michel M. Mazzaoui; Vera Basch Moreen (eds.). "Timur's Genealogy". Intellectual Studies on Islam: Essays Written in Honor of Martin B. Dickson. University of Utah Press: 97. ISBN 978-0874803426.
  33. ^ Mackenzie, Franklin (1963). The Ocean and the Steppe: The Life and Times of the Mongol Conqueror Genghis Khan, 1155–1227. Vantage Press. p. 322.
  34. ^ Woods 1990, p. 90.
  35. ^ Woods, John E. (1991). The Timurid dynasty. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. p. 9.
  36. ^ Haidar, Mansura (2004). Indo-Central Asian Relations: From Early Times to Medieval Period. Manohar. p. 126. ISBN 978-8173045080.
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  41. ^ a b . AsianHistory. Archived from the original on 5 October 2011. Retrieved 1 November 2013.
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  49. ^ G. R. Garthwaite, The Persians, Malden, ISBN 978-1557868602, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2007. (p.148) Quotation: "Timur's tribe, the Barlas, had Mongol origins but had become Turkic-speaking ... However, the Barlus tribe is considered one of the original Mongol tribes and there are "Barlus Ovogton" people who belong to Barlus tribe in modern Mongolia."
  50. ^ M.S. Asimov & Clifford Edmund Bosworth, History of Civilizations of Central Asia, UNESCO Regional Office, 1998, ISBN 9231034677, p. 320: "One of his followers was [...] Timur of the Barlas tribe. This Mongol tribe had settled [...] in the valley of Kashka Darya, intermingling with the Turkic population, adopting their religion (Islam) and gradually giving up its own nomadic ways, like a number of other Mongol tribes in Transoxania ..."
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  53. ^ Sharaf ad-Din Ali Yazdi, Zafarnama (1424–1428), p. 35
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Sources

  • Knobler, Adam (1995). "The Rise of Tīmūr and Western Diplomatic Response, 1390–1405". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Third Series. 5 (3): 341–349. doi:10.1017/S135618630000660X. S2CID 162421202.
  • Knobler, Adam (2001). "Timur the (Terrible/Tartar) Trope: a Case of Repositioning in Popular Literature and History". Medieval Encounters. 7 (1): 101–112. doi:10.1163/157006701X00102.
  • Manz, Beatrice Forbes (1999). The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521633840.
  • Marozzi, Justin (2004). Tamerlane: Sword of Islam, Conqueror of the World. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 9780306815430.
  • May, Timothy. "Timur ("the Lame") (1336–1405)". The Encyclopedia of War.
  • Melville, Charles (2020). Melville, Charles (ed.). The Timurid Century: The Idea of Iran, Volume IX. University of Cambridge, England: Bloomsbury Publishing. doi:10.5040/9781838606169. ISBN 978-1838606152. S2CID 242682831.
  • Nicol, Donald M. (1993). The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521439916.
  • Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry (2002). Perpetual Happiness: the Ming Emperor Yongle. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0295981246. OCLC 870409962.
  •   This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Goldsmid, Frederic John (1911). "Timūr". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 994–995.

Further reading

  • Abazov, Rafis (2008). "Timur (Tamerlane) and the Timurid Empire in Central Asia". The Palgrave Concise Historical Atlas of Central Asia. pp. 56–57. doi:10.1057/9780230610903. ISBN 978-1-4039-7542-3.
  • Forbes, Andrew, & Henley, David: "Timur's Legacy: The Architecture of Bukhara and Samarkand" (CPA Media)
  • González de Clavijo, Ruy; Embassy to Tamerlane, 1403–1406, translated by Guy Le Strange, with a new Introduction by Caroline Stone (Hardinge Simpole, 2009).[ISBN missing]
    • Narrative of the Embassy of Ruy Gonzalez De Clavijo to the Court of Timour, at Samarcand, A.D. 1403–6 – Full text at Google Books
  • Lamb, Harold (1929). Tamerlane: The Earth Shaker (Hardback). London: Thorndon Butterworth.
  • Marlowe, Christopher. Tamburlaine the Great. Ed. J. S. Cunningham. Manchester University Press, Manchester 1981.
  • Manz, Beatrice Forbes (1998). "Temür and the Problem of a Conqueror's Legacy". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 8 (1): 21–41. doi:10.1017/S1356186300016412. ISSN 1356-1863. JSTOR 25183464. S2CID 154734091.
  • Marozzi, Justin. "Tamerlane", in: The Art of War: great commanders of the ancient and medieval world, Andrew Roberts (editor), London: Quercus Military History, 2008. ISBN 978-1847242594
  • Novosel'tsev, A. P. (1973). "On the Historical Evaluation of Tamerlane". Soviet Studies in History. 12 (3): 37–70. doi:10.2753/RSH1061-1983120337. ISSN 0038-5867.
  • Paksoy, H. B. "Nationality or Religion: Views of Central Asian Islam".
  • Shterenshis, Michael V. "Approach to Tamerlane: Tradition and Innovation." Central Asia and the Caucasus 2 (2000).
  • Sykes, P. M. (1915). "Tamerlane". Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society. 2 (1): 17–33. doi:10.1080/03068371508724717. ISSN 0035-8789.
  • Yüksel, Musa Şamil. "Timur'un Yükselişi ve Batı'nın Diplomatik Cevabı, 1390–1405." Selçuk Üniversitesi Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi 1.18 (2005): 231–243.

External links

  •   Media related to Timur at Wikimedia Commons
Timur
Preceded by
None
 Timurid Empire
1370–1405 		Succeeded by

November 23, 2023
timur, tamerlane, tamerlan, redirect, here, poem, tamerlane, poem, people, named, tamerlan, tamerlan, given, name, people, named, temur, name, other, uses, disambiguation, tamerlane, april, 1336, february, 1405, turco, mongol, conqueror, founded, empire, aroun. Tamerlane and Tamerlan redirect here For the poem see Tamerlane poem For people named Tamerlan see Tamerlan given name For people named Timur or Temur see Timur name For other uses see Timur disambiguation Timur b or Tamerlane c 8 April 1336 7 17 19 February 1405 was a Turco Mongol conqueror who founded the Timurid Empire in and around modern day Afghanistan Iran and Central Asia becoming the first ruler of the Timurid dynasty An undefeated commander he is widely regarded as one of the greatest military leaders and tacticians in history as well as one of the most brutal and deadly 8 9 10 Timur is also considered a great patron of art and architecture as he interacted with intellectuals such as Ibn Khaldun Hafez and Hafiz i Abru and his reign introduced the Timurid Renaissance 11 TimurBeg Sultan 1 Guregen a Timur facial reconstruction from skull by Mikhail Mikhaylovich GerasimovAmir of the Timurid EmpireReign9 April 1370 14 February 1405Coronation9 April 1370 Balkh 3 SuccessorKhalil SultanBorn8 April 1336Near Kesh Chagatai KhanateDied18 February 1405 1405 02 18 aged 68 Farab Timurid EmpireBurialGur e Amir Samarkand UzbekistanConsortSaray Mulk KhanumWivesChulpan Mulk Agha Aljaz Turkhan Agha Tukal Khanum Dil Shad Agha Touman Agha Other wivesIssueDetailUmar Shaikh Mirza I Jahangir Mirza I Miran Shah Shah RukhNamesShuja ud din Timur 4 DynastyTimuridFatherAmir TaraghaiMotherTekina KhatunReligionSunni Islam Born into the Turkicized Barlas confederation in Transoxiana in modern day Uzbekistan in the 1320s Timur gained control of the western Chagatai Khanate by 1370 From that base he led military campaigns across Western South and Central Asia the Caucasus and Southern Russia defeating in the process the Khans of the Golden Horde the Mamluks of Egypt and Syria the emerging Ottoman Empire as well as the late Delhi Sultanate of India becoming the most powerful ruler in the Muslim world 12 From these conquests he founded the Timurid Empire which fragmented shortly after his death He spoke several languages including Chagatai an ancestor of modern Uzbek as well as Mongolic and Persian in which he wrote diplomatic correspondence 13 Timur was the last of the great nomadic conquerors of the Eurasian Steppe and his empire set the stage for the rise of the more structured and lasting Islamic gunpowder empires in the 16th and 17th centuries 14 15 16 Timur was of both Turkic and Mongol descent and while probably not a direct descendant on either side he shared a common ancestor with Genghis Khan on his father s side 17 18 19 though some authors have suggested his mother may have been a descendant of the Khan 20 21 He clearly sought to invoke the legacy of Genghis Khan s conquests during his lifetime 22 Timur envisioned the restoration of the Mongol Empire and according to Gerard Chaliand saw himself as Genghis Khan s heir 23 To legitimize his conquests Timur relied on Islamic symbols and language referring to himself as the Sword of Islam He was a patron of educational and religious institutions He styled himself as a ghazi in the last years of his life 24 By the end of his reign Timur had gained complete control over all the remnants of the Chagatai Khanate the Ilkhanate and the Golden Horde and had even attempted to restore the Yuan dynasty in China Timur s armies were inclusively multi ethnic and were feared throughout Asia Africa and Europe 8 sizable parts of which his campaigns laid waste 25 Scholars estimate that his military campaigns caused the deaths of millions of people 26 27 Of all the areas he conquered Khwarazm suffered the most from his expeditions as it rose several times against him 28 Timur s campaigns have been characterized as genocidal 29 He was the grandfather of the Timurid sultan astronomer and mathematician Ulugh Beg who ruled Central Asia from 1411 to 1449 and the great great great grandfather of Babur 1483 1530 founder of the Mughal Empire 30 31 Contents 1 Ancestry 2 Early life 3 Military leader 4 Rise to power 5 Legitimization of Timur s rule 6 Period of expansion 7 Conquest of Persia 7 1 Tokhtamysh Timur war 7 2 Ismailis 8 Campaign against the Tughlaq dynasty 8 1 Capture of Delhi 1398 9 Campaigns in the Levant 10 Invasion of Anatolia 11 Attempts to attack the Ming dynasty 12 Death 13 Succession 14 Wives and concubines 15 Descendants 15 1 Sons of Timur 15 2 Daughters of Timur 15 3 Sons of Umar Shaikh Mirza I 15 4 Sons of Jahangir 15 5 Sons of Miran Shah 15 6 Sons of Shah Rukh Mirza 16 Religious views 17 Personality 18 Exchanges with Europe 19 Legacy 19 1 Historical sources 19 1 1 Malfuzat i Timuri 19 2 European views 19 3 Exhumation and alleged curse 19 4 In the arts 20 See also 21 References 21 1 Explanatory notes 21 2 Citations 22 Sources 23 Further reading 24 External linksAncestry nbsp Genealogical relationship between Timur and Genghis KhanThrough his father Timur claimed to be a descendant of Tumbinai Khan a male line ancestor he shared with Genghis Khan 19 Tumanay s great great grandson Qarachar Noyan was a minister for the emperor who later assisted the latter s son Chagatai in the governorship of Transoxiana 32 33 Though there are not many mentions of Qarachar in 13th and 14th century records later Timurid sources greatly emphasized his role in the early history of the Mongol Empire 34 35 These histories also state that Genghis Khan later established the bond of fatherhood and sonship by marrying Chagatai s daughter to Qarachar 36 Through his alleged descent from this marriage Timur claimed kinship with the Chagatai Khans 37 The origins of Timur s mother Tekina Khatun are less clear The Zafarnama merely states her name without giving any information regarding her background Writing in 1403 Johannes de Galonifontibus Archbishop of Sultaniyya claimed that she was of lowly origin 32 The Mu izz al Ansab written decades later says that she was related to the Yasa uri tribe whose lands bordered that of the Barlas 38 Ibn Khaldun recounted that Timur himself described to him his mother s descent from the legendary Persian hero Manuchehr 39 Ibn Arabshah suggested that she was a descendant of Genghis Khan 21 The 18th century Books of Timur identify her as the daughter of Sadr al Sharia which is believed to refer to the Hanafi scholar Ubayd Allah al Mahbubi of Bukhara 40 Early lifeTimur was born in Transoxiana near the city of Kesh modern Shahrisabz Uzbekistan some 80 kilometres 50 mi south of Samarkand part of what was then the Chagatai Khanate 41 His name Temur means Iron in the Chagatai language his mother tongue cf Uzbek Temir Turkish Demir 42 It is cognate with Genghis Khan s birth name of Temujin 43 44 Later Timurid dynastic histories claim that Timur was born on 8 April 1336 but most sources from his lifetime give ages that are consistent with a birthdate in the late 1320s Historian Beatrice Forbes Manz suspects the 1336 date was designed to tie Timur to the legacy of Abu Sa id Bahadur Khan the last ruler of the Ilkhanate descended from Hulagu Khan who died in that year 45 nbsp Depiction of Timur granting audience on the occasion of his accession in the near contemporary Zafarnama 1424 1428 1467 editionHe was a member of the Barlas a Mongolian tribe 46 47 that had been turkified in many aspects 48 49 50 51 52 His father Taraghai was described as a minor noble of this tribe 41 However Manz believes that Timur may have later understated the social position of his father so as to make his own successes appear more remarkable She states that though he is not believed to have been especially powerful Taraghai was reasonably wealthy and influential 45 116 This is shown in the Zafarnama which states that Timur later returning to his birthplace following the death of his father in 1360 suggesting concern over his estate 53 Taraghai s social significance is further hinted at by Arabshah who described him as a magnate in the court of Amir Husayn Qara unas 21 In addition to this the father of the great Amir Hamid Kereyid of Moghulistan is stated as a friend of Taraghai s 54 In his childhood Timur and a small band of followers raided travelers for goods especially animals such as sheep horses and cattle 45 116 Around 1363 it is believed that Timur tried to steal a sheep from a shepherd but was shot by two arrows one in his right leg and another in his right hand where he lost two fingers Both injuries disabled him for life Some believe that these injuries occurred while serving as a mercenary to the khan of Sistan in what is today the Dashti Margo in southwest Afghanistan Timur s injuries and disability gave rise to the nickname Timur the Lame or Temur i Lang in Persian which is the origin of Tamerlane the name by which he is generally known in the West 55 Military leaderBy about 1360 Timur had gained prominence as a military leader whose troops were mostly Turkic tribesmen of the region 23 He took part in campaigns in Transoxiana with the Khan of the Chagatai Khanate Allying himself both in cause and by family connection with Qazaghan the dethroner and destroyer of Volga Bulgaria he invaded Khorasan 56 at the head of a thousand horsemen This was the second military expedition that he led and its success led to further operations among them the subjugation of Khwarazm and Urgench 57 Following Qazaghan s murder disputes arose among the many claimants to sovereign power Tughlugh Timur of Kashgar the Khan of the Eastern Chagatai Khanate another descendant of Genghis Khan invaded interrupting this infighting Timur was sent to negotiate with the invader but joined with him instead and was rewarded with Transoxania At about this time his father died and Timur also became chief of the Barlas Tughlugh then attempted to set his son Ilyas Khoja over Transoxania but Timur repelled this invasion with a smaller force 56 Rise to power nbsp Timur commanding the Siege of Balkh nbsp Timur enthroned at BalkhIt was in this period that Timur reduced the Chagatai khans to the position of figureheads while he ruled in their name Also during this period Timur and his brother in law Amir Husayn who were at first fellow fugitives and wanderers became rivals and antagonists 57 The relationship between them became strained after Husayn abandoned efforts to carry out Timur s orders to finish off Ilya Khoja former governor of Mawarannah close to Tashkent 58 Timur gained followers in Balkh consisting of merchants fellow tribesmen Muslim clergy aristocracy and agricultural workers because of his kindness in sharing his belongings with them This contrasted Timur s behavior with that of Husayn who alienated these people took many possessions from them via his heavy tax laws and selfishly spent the tax money building elaborate structures 59 Around 1370 Husayn surrendered to Timur and was later assassinated which allowed Timur to be formally proclaimed sovereign at Balkh He married Husayn s wife Saray Mulk Khanum a descendant of Genghis Khan allowing him to become imperial ruler of the Chaghatay tribe 8 Legitimization of Timur s ruleTimur s Turco Mongolian heritage provided opportunities and challenges as he sought to rule the Mongol Empire and the Muslim world 45 According to the Mongol traditions Timur could not claim the title of khan or rule the Mongol Empire because he was not a descendant of Genghis Khan Therefore Timur set up a puppet Chaghatayid Khan Suyurghatmish as the nominal ruler of Balkh as he pretended to act as a protector of the member of a Chinggisid line that of Genghis Khan s eldest son Jochi 60 Timur instead used the title of Amir meaning general and acting in the name of the Chagatai ruler of Transoxania 45 106 To reinforce this position Timur claimed the title guregen royal son in law to a princess of Chinggisid line 2 As with the title of Khan Timur similarly could not claim the supreme title of the Islamic world Caliph because the office was limited to the Quraysh the tribe of the Prophet Muhammad Therefore Timur reacted to the challenge by creating a myth and image of himself as a supernatural personal power ordained by God 60 Timur s most famous title was Sahib Qiran Lord of Conjunction which is rooted in astrology 61 a title that was used before him to designate Hamza ibn Abd al Muttalib the paternal uncle of Muhammad 24 and which was taken by the Mamluk Sultan Baybars and by various rulers of the Ilkhanate to designate themselves 24 In that regard he simply pursued an existing tradition in the Muslim world to designate conquerors 24 The title was referring to the conjunction of the two superior planets Saturn and Jupiter which was held to be an auspicious sign and the mark of a new era 61 According to A Azfar Moin Sahib Qiran was a messianic title implying that Timur might potentially be the awaited messiah descended from the prophetic line who would inaugurate a new era possibly the last one before the end of time 61 Otherwise he depicted himself as a spiritual descendant of Ali thus claiming the lineage of both Genghis Khan and the Quraysh 62 Period of expansion nbsp Timur besieges the historic city of Urganj Timur spent the next 35 years in various wars and expeditions He not only consolidated his rule at home by the subjugation of his foes but sought extension of territory by encroachments upon the lands of foreign potentates His conquests to the west and northwest led him to the lands near the Caspian Sea and to the banks of the Ural and the Volga Conquests in the south and south West encompassed almost every province in Persia including Baghdad Karbala and Northern Iraq 57 One of the most formidable of Timur s opponents was another Mongol ruler a descendant of Genghis Khan named Tokhtamysh After having been a refugee in Timur s court Tokhtamysh became ruler both of the eastern Kipchak and the Golden Horde After his accession he quarreled with Timur over the possession of Khwarizm and Azerbaijan 57 However Timur still supported him against the Russians and in 1382 Tokhtamysh invaded the Muscovite dominion and burned Moscow 63 Russian Orthodox tradition states that later in 1395 having reached the frontier of the Principality of Ryazan Timur had taken Yelets and started advancing towards Moscow Vasily I of Moscow went with an army to Kolomna and halted at the banks of the Oka River The clergy brought the famed Theotokos of Vladimir icon from Vladimir to Moscow Along the way people prayed kneeling O Mother of God save the land of Russia 64 65 Suddenly Timur s armies retreated In memory of this miraculous deliverance of the Russian land from Timur on 26 August the all Russian celebration in honor of the Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Most Holy Mother of God was established 66 Conquest of Persia nbsp Emir Timur s army attacks the survivors of the town of Nerges in Georgia in the spring of 1396 After the death of Abu Sa id ruler of the Ilkhanate in 1335 there was a power vacuum in Persia In the end Persia was split amongst the Muzaffarids Kartids Eretnids Chobanids Injuids Jalayirids and Sarbadars In 1383 Timur started his lengthy military conquest of Persia though he already ruled over much of Persian Khorasan by 1381 after Khwaja Mas ud of the Sarbadar dynasty surrendered Timur began his Persian campaign with Herat capital of the Kartid dynasty When Herat did not surrender he reduced the city to rubble and massacred most of its citizens it remained in ruins until Shah Rukh ordered its reconstruction around 1415 67 Timur then sent a general to capture rebellious Kandahar With the capture of Herat the Kartid kingdom surrendered and became vassals of Timur it would later be annexed outright less than a decade later in 1389 by Timur s son Miran Shah 68 Timur then headed west to capture the Zagros Mountains passing through Mazandaran During his travel through the north of Persia he captured the then town of Tehran which surrendered and was thus treated mercifully He laid siege to Soltaniyeh in 1384 Khorasan revolted one year later so Timur destroyed Isfizar and the prisoners were cemented into the walls alive The next year the kingdom of Sistan under the Mihrabanid dynasty was ravaged and its capital at Zaranj was destroyed Timur then returned to his capital of Samarkand where he began planning for his Georgian campaign and Golden Horde invasion In 1386 Timur passed through Mazandaran as he had when trying to capture the Zagros He went near the city of Soltaniyeh which he had previously captured but instead turned north and captured Tabriz with little resistance along with Maragha 69 He ordered heavy taxation of the people which was collected by Adil Aqa who was also given control over Soltaniyeh Adil was later executed because Timur suspected him of corruption 70 Timur then went north to begin his Georgian and Golden Horde campaigns pausing his full scale invasion of Persia When he returned he found his generals had done well in protecting the cities and lands he had conquered in Persia 71 Though many rebelled and his son Miran Shah who may have been regent was forced to annex rebellious vassal dynasties his holdings remained So he proceeded to capture the rest of Persia specifically the two major southern cities of Isfahan and Shiraz When he arrived with his army at Isfahan in 1387 the city immediately surrendered he treated it with relative mercy as he normally did with cities that surrendered unlike Herat 72 However after Isfahan revolted against Timur s taxes by killing the tax collectors and some of Timur s soldiers he ordered the massacre of the city s citizens the death toll is reckoned at between 100 000 and 200 000 73 An eye witness counted more than 28 towers constructed of about 1 500 heads each 74 This has been described as a systematic use of terror against towns an integral element of Tamerlane s strategic element which he viewed as preventing bloodshed by discouraging resistance His massacres were selective and he spared the artistic and educated 73 This would later influence the next great Persian conqueror Nader Shah 75 Timur then began a five year campaign to the west in 1392 attacking Persian Kurdistan 76 77 78 In 1393 Shiraz was captured after surrendering and the Muzaffarids became vassals of Timur though prince Shah Mansur rebelled but was defeated and the Muzafarids were annexed Shortly after Georgia was devastated so that the Golden Horde could not use it to threaten northern Iran 79 In the same year Timur caught Baghdad by surprise in August by marching there in only eight days from Shiraz Sultan Ahmad Jalayir fled to Syria where the Mamluk Sultan Barquq protected him and killed Timur s envoys Timur left the Sarbadar prince Khwaja Mas ud to govern Baghdad but he was driven out when Ahmad Jalayir returned Ahmad was unpopular but got help from Qara Yusuf of the Kara Koyunlu he fled again in 1399 this time to the Ottomans 80 Tokhtamysh Timur war See also Karsakpay inscription nbsp Emir Timur and his forces advance against the Golden Horde Khan Tokhtamysh In the meantime Tokhtamysh now khan of the Golden Horde turned against his patron and in 1385 invaded Azerbaijan The inevitable response by Timur resulted in the Tokhtamysh Timur war In the initial stage of the war Timur won a victory at the Battle of the Kondurcha River After the battle Tokhtamysh and some of his army were allowed to escape After Tokhtamysh s initial defeat Timur invaded Muscovy to the north of Tokhtamysh s holdings Timur s army burned Ryazan and advanced on Moscow He was pulled away before reaching the Oka River by Tokhtamysh s renewed campaign in the south 81 In the first phase of the conflict with Tokhtamysh Timur led an army of over 100 000 men north for more than 700 miles into the steppe He then rode west about 1 000 miles advancing in a front more than 10 miles wide During this advance Timur s army got far enough north to be in a region of very long summer days causing complaints by his Muslim soldiers about keeping a long schedule of prayers It was then that Tokhtamysh s army was boxed in against the east bank of the Volga River in the Orenburg region and destroyed at the Battle of the Kondurcha River in 1391 In the second phase of the conflict Timur took a different route against the enemy by invading the realm of Tokhtamysh via the Caucasus region In 1395 Timur defeated Tokhtamysh in the Battle of the Terek River concluding the struggle between the two monarchs Tokhtamysh was unable to restore his power or prestige and he was killed about a decade later in the area of present day Tyumen During the course of Timur s campaigns his army destroyed Sarai the capital of the Golden Horde and Astrakhan subsequently disrupting the Golden Horde s Silk Road The Golden Horde no longer held power after their losses to Timur Ismailis In May 1393 Timur s army invaded the Anjudan crippling the Ismaili village only a year after his assault on the Ismailis in Mazandaran The village was prepared for the attack evidenced by its fortress and system of tunnels Undeterred Timur s soldiers flooded the tunnels by cutting into a channel overhead Timur s reasons for attacking this village are not yet well understood However it has been suggested that his religious persuasions and view of himself as an executor of divine will may have contributed to his motivations 82 The Persian historian Khwandamir explains that an Ismaili presence was growing more politically powerful in Persian Iraq A group of locals in the region was dissatisfied with this and Khwandamir writes these locals assembled and brought up their complaint with Timur possibly provoking his attack on the Ismailis there 82 Campaign against the Tughlaq dynasty nbsp nbsp Map of Timur s invasion of India in 1397 1399 and painting of Timur defeating the Sultan of Delhi Nasir Al Din Mahmud Tughluq in the winter of 1397 1398 painting dated 1595 1600 In 1398 Timur invaded northern India attacking the Delhi Sultanate ruled by Sultan Nasir ud Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq of the Tughlaq dynasty After crossing the Indus River on 30 September 1398 he sacked Tulamba and massacred its inhabitants Then he advanced and captured Multan by October 83 His invasion was unopposed as most of the Indian nobility surrendered without a fight however he did encounter resistance from the united army of Rajputs and Muslims at Bhatner 84 under the command of the Rajput king Dulachand 85 Dulachand initially opposed Timur but when hard pressed he considered surrender He was locked outside the walls of Bhatner by his brother and was later killed by Timur The garrison of Bhatner then fought and were slaughtered to the last man Bhatner was looted and burned to the ground 86 While on his march towards Delhi Timur was opposed by the Jat peasantry who would loot caravans and then disappear in the forests He had 2 000 Jats killed and many taken captive 86 87 But the Sultanate at Delhi did nothing to stop his advance 88 unreliable source Capture of Delhi 1398 Main article Sack of Delhi 1398 The battle took place on 17 December 1398 Before the battle Timur slaughtered some 100 000 slaves who had been captured previously in the Indian campaign This was done out of fear that they might revolt 31 89 Sultan Nasir ud Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq and the army of Mallu Iqbal had war elephants armored with chain mail and poison on their tusks 90 As his Tatar forces were afraid of the elephants Timur ordered his men to dig a trench in front of their positions Timur then loaded his camels with as much wood and hay as they could carry When the war elephants charged Timur set the hay on fire and prodded the camels with iron sticks causing them to charge at the elephants howling in pain Timur had understood that elephants were easily panicked Faced with the strange spectacle of camels flying straight at them with flames leaping from their backs the elephants turned around and stampeded back toward their own lines Timur capitalized on the subsequent disruption in the forces of Nasir ud Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq securing an easy victory Nasir ud Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq fled with remnants of his forces 91 92 93 The capture of the Delhi Sultanate was one of Timur s largest and most devastating victories as at that time Delhi was one of the richest cities in the world The city of Delhi was sacked and reduced to ruins with the population enslaved 94 After the fall of the city uprisings by its citizens against the Turkic Mongols began to occur causing a retaliatory bloody massacre within the city walls After three days of citizens uprising within Delhi it was said that the city reeked of the decomposing bodies of its citizens with their heads being erected like structures and the bodies left as food for the birds by Timur s soldiers Timur s invasion and destruction of Delhi continued the chaos that was still consuming India and the city would not be able to recover from the great loss it suffered for almost a century 95 Campaigns in the Levant nbsp Timur defeating the Mamluk Sultan Nasir ad Din Faraj of EgyptBefore the end of 1399 Timur started a war with Bayezid I sultan of the Ottoman Empire and the Mamluk sultan of Egypt Nasir ad Din Faraj Bayezid began annexing the territory of Turkmen and Muslim rulers in Anatolia As Timur claimed sovereignty over the Turkoman rulers they took refuge behind him In 1400 Timur invaded Armenia and Georgia Of the surviving population more than 60 000 of the local people were captured as slaves and many districts were depopulated 96 He also sacked Sivas in Asia Minor 97 Then Timur turned his attention to Syria sacking Aleppo 98 and Damascus 99 The city s inhabitants were massacred except for the artisans who were deported to Samarkand Timur invaded Baghdad in June 1401 After the capture of the city 20 000 of its citizens were massacred Timur ordered that every soldier should return with at least two severed human heads to show him When they ran out of men to kill many warriors killed prisoners captured earlier in the campaign and when they ran out of prisoners to kill many resorted to beheading their own wives 100 British historian David Nicolle in his The Mongol Warlords quotes an anonymous contemporary historian who compared Timur s army to ants and locusts covering the whole countryside plundering and ravaging 101 Invasion of AnatoliaMain articles Battle of Ankara and Ottoman Interregnum In the meantime years of insulting letters had passed between Timur and Bayezid Both rulers insulted each other in their own way while Timur preferred to undermine Bayezid s position as a ruler and play down the significance of his military successes This is the excerpt from one of Timur s letters addressed to Ottoman sultan Believe me you are but pismire ant don t seek to fight the elephants for they ll crush you under their feet Shall a petty prince such as you are contend with us But your rodomontades braggadocio are not extraordinary for a Turcoman never spake with judgement If you don t follow our counsels you will regret it 102 nbsp 19th century painting depicting Bayezid I being held captive by Timur Finally Timur invaded Anatolia and defeated Bayezid in the Battle of Ankara on 20 July 1402 Bayezid was captured in battle and subsequently died in captivity initiating the twelve year Ottoman Interregnum period Timur s stated motivation for attacking Bayezid and the Ottoman Empire was the restoration of Seljuq authority Timur saw the Seljuks as the rightful rulers of Anatolia as they had been granted rule by Mongol conquerors illustrating again Timur s interest with Genghizid legitimacy citation needed In December 1402 Timur besieged and took the city of Smyrna a stronghold of the Christian Knights Hospitalers thus he referred to himself as ghazi or Warrior of Islam A mass beheading was carried out in Smyrna by Timur s soldiers 103 104 105 106 With the Treaty of Gallipoli in February 1402 Timur was furious with the Genoese and Venetians as their ships ferried the Ottoman army to safety in Thrace As Lord Kinross reported in The Ottoman Centuries the Italians preferred the enemy they could handle to the one they could not citation needed During the early interregnum Bayezid I s son Mehmed Celebi acted as Timur s vassal Unlike other princes Mehmed minted coins that had Timur s name stamped as Demur han Gurgan تيمور خان كركان alongside his own as Mehmed bin Bayezid han محمد بن بايزيد خان 107 108 This was probably an attempt on Mehmed s part to justify to Timur his conquest of Bursa after the Battle of Ulubad After Mehmed established himself in Rum Timur had already begun preparations for his return to Central Asia and took no further steps to interfere with the status quo in Anatolia 107 While Timur was still in Anatolia Qara Yusuf assaulted Baghdad and captured it in 1402 Timur returned to Persia and sent his grandson Abu Bakr ibn Miran Shah to reconquer Baghdad which he proceeded to do Timur then spent some time in Ardabil where he gave Ali Safavi leader of the Safaviyya a number of captives Subsequently he marched to Khorasan and then to Samarkhand where he spent nine months celebrating and preparing to invade Mongolia and China 109 Attempts to attack the Ming dynasty nbsp The fortress at Jiayu Pass was strengthened due to fear of an invasion by Timur 110 By 1368 Han Chinese forces had driven the Mongols out of China The first of the new Ming dynasty s emperors the Hongwu Emperor and his son the Yongle Emperor produced tributary states of many Central Asian countries The suzerain vassal relationship between Ming empire and Timurid existed for a long time In 1394 Hongwu s ambassadors eventually presented Timur with a letter addressing him as a subject He had the ambassadors Fu An Guo Ji and Liu Wei detained 111 Neither Hongwu s next ambassador Chen Dewen 1397 nor the delegation announcing the accession of the Yongle Emperor fared any better 111 Timur eventually planned to invade China To this end Timur made an alliance with surviving Mongol tribes based in Mongolia and prepared all the way to Bukhara Engke Khan sent his grandson Oljei Temur Khan also known as Buyanshir Khan after he converted to Islam while at the court of Timur in Samarkand 112 Death nbsp Timurid Empire at Timur s death in 1405Timur preferred to fight his battles in the spring However he died en route during an uncharacteristic winter campaign In December 1404 Timur began military campaigns against Ming China and detained a Ming envoy He became ill while encamped on the farther side of the Syr Daria and died at Farab on 17 February 1405 113 before ever reaching the Chinese border 114 After his death the Ming envoys such as Fu An and the remaining entourage were released 111 by his grandson Khalil Sultan Geographer Clements Markham in his introduction to the narrative of Clavijo s embassy states that after Timur died his body was embalmed with musk and rose water wrapped in linen laid in an ebony coffin and sent to Samarkand where it was buried 115 His tomb the Gur e Amir still stands in Samarkand though it has been heavily restored in recent years 116 SuccessionMain article Timurid Empire nbsp Timur s mausoleum is located in Samarkand Uzbekistan Timur had twice previously appointed an heir apparent to succeed him both of whom he had outlived The first his son Jahangir died of illness in 1376 117 118 51 The second his grandson Muhammad Sultan had died from battle wounds in 1403 119 After the latter s death Timur did nothing to replace him It was only when he was on his own death bed that he appointed Muhammad Sultan s younger brother Pir Muhammad as his successor 120 Pir Muhammad was unable to gain sufficient support from his relatives and a bitter civil war erupted amongst Timur s descendants with multiple princes pursuing their claims It was not until 1409 that Timur s youngest son Shah Rukh was able to overcome his rivals and take the throne as Timur s successor 121 Wives and concubines nbsp Lady travelling Samarkand or Central Asian painting circa 1400 Possibly depicting the wedding of Timur with Dilshad Aqa in 1375 122 Timur had forty three wives and concubines all of these women were also his consorts Timur made dozens of women his wives and concubines as he conquered their fathers or erstwhile husbands lands 123 nbsp Emir Timur feasts in the gardens of Samarkand Turmish Agha mother of Jahangir Mirza Jahanshah Mirza and Aka Begi Oljay Turkhan Agha m 1357 58 daughter of Amir Mashlah and granddaughter of Amir Qazaghan Saray Mulk Khanum m 1367 widow of Amir Husain and daughter of Qazan Khan Islam Agha m 1367 widow of Amir Husain and daughter of Amir Bayan Salduz Ulus Agha m 1367 widow of Amir Husain and daughter of Amir Khizr Yasuri Dilshad Agha m 1374 daughter of Shams ed Din and his wife Bujan Agha Touman Agha m 1377 daughter of Amir Musa and his wife Arzu Mulk Agha daughter of Amir Bayezid Jalayir Chulpan Mulk Agha daughter of Haji Beg of Jetah Tukal Khanum m 1397 daughter of Mongol Khan Khizr Khawaja Oglan 118 24 25 Tolun Agha concubine and mother of Umar Shaikh Mirza I Mengli Agha concubine and mother of Miran Shah Toghay Turkhan Agha lady from the Kara Khitai widow of Amir Husain and mother of Shah Rukh Tughdi Bey Agha daughter of Aq Sufi Qongirat Sultan Aray Agha a Nukuz lady Malikanshah Agha a Filuni lady Khand Malik Agha mother of Ibrahim Mirza Sultan Agha mother of a son who died in infancy His other wives and concubines included Dawlat Tarkan Agha Burhan Agha Jani Beg Agha Tini Beg Agha Durr Sultan Agha Munduz Agha Bakht Sultan Agha Nowruz Agha Jahan Bakht Agha Nigar Agha Ruhparwar Agha Dil Beg Agha Dilshad Agha Murad Beg Agha Piruzbakht Agha Khoshkeldi Agha Dilkhosh Agha Barat Bey Agha Sevinch Malik Agha Arzu Bey Agha Yadgar Sultan Agha Khudadad Agha Bakht Nigar Agha Qutlu Bey Agha and another Nigar Agha 124 DescendantsSee also Timurid family tree Sons of Timur Umar Shaikh Mirza I with Tolun Agha Jahangir Mirza with Turmish Agha Miran Shah Mirza with Mengli Agha Shah Rukh Mirza with Toghay Turkhan AghaDaughters of Timur Aka Begi died 1382 by Turmish Agha Married to Muhammad Beg son of Amir Musa Tayichiud Sultan Husayn Tayichiud Sultan Bakht Begum died 1429 30 by Oljay Turkhan Agha Married first Muhammad Mirke Apardi married second 1389 90 Sulayman Shah Dughlat Sa adat Sultan by Dilshad Agha Bikijan by Mengli Agha Qutlugh Sultan Agha by Toghay Turkhan Agha 125 126 Sons of Umar Shaikh Mirza I Pir Muhammad Iskandar Rustam Bayqara I Mansur Sultan Husayn Bayqarah Badi al Zaman Muhammed Mu min Muhammad Zaman Mirza Muzaffar Hussein Ibrahim HusseinSons of Jahangir Muhammad Sultan Mirza Pir MuhammadSons of Miran Shah Khalil Sultan Abu Bakr Muhammad Mirza Abu Sa id Mirza Umar Shaikh Mirza II Zahir ud din Muhammad Babur the Mughals Jahangir Mirza IISons of Shah Rukh Mirza Mirza Muhammad Taraghay better known as Ulugh Beg Abdul Latif Ghiyath al Din Baysunghur Ala al Dawla Mirza Ibrahim Mirza Sultan Muhammad Yadigar Muhammad Abul Qasim Babur Mirza Sultan Ibrahim Mirza Abdullah Mirza Mirza Soyurghatmish Khan Muhammad JukiReligious viewsTimur was a practising Sunni Muslim possibly belonging to the Naqshbandi school which was influential in Transoxiana 127 His chief official religious counsellor and adviser was the Hanafi scholar Abdu l Jabbar Khwarazmi In Tirmidh he had come under the influence of his spiritual mentor Sayyid Baraka a leader from Balkh who is buried alongside Timur in Gur e Amir 128 129 130 Timur was known to hold Ali and the Ahl al Bayt in high regard and has been noted by various scholars for his pro Shia stance However he also punished Shias for desecrating the memories of the Sahaba 131 Timur was also noted for attacking the Shia with Sunni apologism while at other times he attacked Sunnis on religious grounds as well 132 In contrast Timur held the Seljuk Sultan Ahmad Sanjar in high regard for attacking the Ismailis at Alamut and Timur s own attack on Ismailis at Anjudan was equally brutal 132 Personality nbsp Timur leading his troops at the 1393 Conquest of Baghdad Near contemporary portrait in Zafarnama commissioned by his grandson Ibrahim Sultan in 1424 28 Published in 1435 36 Timur is regarded as a military genius and as a brilliant tactician with an uncanny ability to work within a highly fluid political structure to win and maintain a loyal following of nomads during his rule in Central Asia He was also considered extraordinarily intelligent not only intuitively but also intellectually 133 In Samarkand and his many travels Timur under the guidance of distinguished scholars was able to learn the Persian Mongolian and Turkish languages 134 according to Ahmad ibn Arabshah Timur could not speak Arabic 135 However it was Persian which was held in distinction by Timur as it was the language not only of his court but also that of his chancellery 136 According to John Joseph Saunders Timur was the product of an Islamized and Iranized society and not steppe nomadic 137 More importantly Timur was characterized as an opportunist Taking advantage of his Turco Mongolian heritage Timur frequently used either the Islamic religion or the sharia law fiqh and traditions of the Mongol Empire to achieve his military goals or domestic political aims 8 Timur was a learned king and enjoyed the company of scholars he was tolerant and generous to them He was a contemporary of the Persian poet Hafez and a story of their meeting explains that Timur summoned Hafiz who had written a ghazal with the following verse For the black mole on thy cheek I would give the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara Timur upbraided him for this verse and said By the blows of my well tempered sword I have conquered the greater part of the world to enlarge Samarkand and Bukhara my capitals and residences and you pitiful creature would exchange these two cities for a mole Hafez undaunted replied It is by similar generosity that I have been reduced as you see to my present state of poverty It is reported that the King was pleased by the witty answer and the poet departed with magnificent gifts 138 139 There is a shared view that Timur s real motive for his campaigns was his imperialistic ambition as expressed by his statement The whole expanse of the inhabited part of the world is not large enough to have two kings However besides Iran Timur simply plundered the states he invaded with a purpose of enriching his native Samarqand and neglected the conquered areas which may have resulted in a relatively quick disintegration of his Empire after his death 140 Timur used Persian expressions in his conversations often and his motto was the Persian phrase rasti rusti راستی رستی meaning truth is safety or veritas salus 135 He is credited with the invention of the Tamerlane chess variant played on a 10 11 board 141 Exchanges with EuropeMain article Timurid relations with Europe nbsp Letter of Timur to Charles VI of France 1402 a witness to Timurid relations with Europe Archives Nationales Paris Timur had numerous epistolary and diplomatic exchanges with various European states especially Spain and France Relations between the court of Henry III of Castile and that of Timur played an important part in medieval Castilian diplomacy In 1402 the time of the Battle of Ankara two Spanish ambassadors were already with Timur Pelayo de Sotomayor and Fernando de Palazuelos Later Timur sent to the court of the Kingdom of Leon and Castile a Chagatai ambassador named Hajji Muhammad al Qazi with letters and gifts In return Henry III of Castile sent a famous embassy to Timur s court in Samarkand in 1403 06 led by Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo with two other ambassadors Alfonso Paez and Gomez de Salazar On their return Timur affirmed that he regarded the king of Castile as his very own son According to Clavijo Timur s good treatment of the Spanish delegation contrasted with the disdain shown by his host toward the envoys of the lord of Cathay i e the Yongle Emperor the Chinese ruler Clavijo s visit to Samarkand allowed him to report to the European audience on the news from Cathay China which few Europeans had been able to visit directly in the century that had passed since the travels of Marco Polo The French archives preserve A 30 July 1402 letter from Timur to Charles VI of France suggesting that he send traders to Asia It is written in Persian 142 A May 1403 letter This is a Latin transcription of a letter from Timur to Charles VI and another from Miran Shah his son to the Christian princes announcing their victory over Bayezid I at Smyrna 143 A copy has been kept of the answer of Charles VI to Timur dated 15 June 1403 144 In addition Byzantine John VII Palaiologos who was a regent during his uncle s absence in the West sent a Dominican friar in August 1401 to Timur to pay his respect and propose paying tribute to him instead of the Turks once he managed to defeat them 97 LegacyTimur s legacy is a mixed one While Central Asia blossomed under his reign other places such as Baghdad Damascus Delhi and other Arab Georgian Persian and Indian cities were sacked and destroyed and their populations massacred Thus while Timur still retains a positive image in Muslim Central Asia he is vilified by many in Arabia Iraq Persia and India where some of his greatest atrocities were carried out However Ibn Khaldun praises Timur for having unified much of the Muslim world when other conquerors of the time could not 145 The next great conqueror of the Middle East Nader Shah was greatly influenced by Timur and almost re enacted Timur s conquests and battle strategies in his own campaigns Like Timur Nader Shah conquered most of Caucasia Persia and Central Asia along with also sacking Delhi 146 Timur s short lived empire also melded the Turko Persian tradition in Transoxiana and in most of the territories that he incorporated into his fiefdom Persian became the primary language of administration and literary culture diwan regardless of ethnicity 147 In addition during his reign some contributions to Turkic literature were penned with Turkic cultural influence expanding and flourishing as a result A literary form of Chagatai Turkic came into use alongside Persian as both a cultural and an official language 148 Tamerlane virtually exterminated the Church of the East which had previously been a major branch of Christianity but afterwards became largely confined to a small area now known as the Assyrian Triangle 149 nbsp Statue of Tamerlane in Uzbekistan In the background are the ruins of his summer palace in Shahrisabz Timur is officially recognized as a national hero in Uzbekistan His monument in Tashkent now occupies the place where Karl Marx s statue once stood In 1794 Sake Dean Mahomed published his travel book The Travels of Dean Mahomet The book begins with the praise of Genghis Khan Timur and particularly the first Mughal emperor Babur He also gives important details on the then incumbent Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II The poem Tamerlane by Edgar Allan Poe follows a fictionalized version of Timur s life Historical sources nbsp Ahmad ibn Arabshah s work on the Life of TimurThe earliest known history of his reign was Nizam al Din Shami s Zafarnama which was written during Timur s lifetime Between 1424 and 1428 Sharaf ad Din Ali Yazdi wrote a second Zafarnama drawing heavily on Shami s earlier work Ahmad ibn Arabshah wrote a much less favorable history in Arabic Arabshah s history was translated into Latin by the Dutch Orientalist Jacobus Golius in 1636 As Timurid sponsored histories the two Zafarnamas present a dramatically different picture from Arabshah s chronicle William Jones remarked that the former presented Timur as a liberal benevolent and illustrious prince while the latter painted him as deformed and impious of a low birth and detestable principles 57 Malfuzat i Timuri The Malfuzat i Timuri and the appended Tuzuk i Timuri supposedly Timur s own autobiography are almost certainly 17th century fabrications 31 150 The scholar Abu Taleb Hosayni presented the texts to the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan a distant descendant of Timur in 1637 1638 supposedly after discovering the Chagatai language originals in the library of a Yemeni ruler Due to the distance between Yemen and Timur s base in Transoxiana and the lack of any other evidence of the originals most historians consider the story highly implausible and suspect Hosayni of inventing both the text and its origin story 150 European views Timur arguably had a significant impact on the Renaissance culture and early modern Europe 151 His achievements both fascinated and horrified Europeans from the fifteenth century to the early nineteenth century European views of Timur were mixed throughout the fifteenth century with some European countries calling him an ally and others seeing him as a threat to Europe because of his rapid expansion and brutality 152 341 When Timur captured the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid at Ankara he was often praised and seen as a trusted ally by European rulers such as Charles VI of France and Henry IV of England because they believed he was saving Christianity from the Turkic Empire in the Middle East Those two kings also praised him because his victory at Ankara allowed Christian merchants to remain in the Middle East and allowed for their safe return home to both France and England Timur was also praised because it was believed that he helped restore the right of passage for Christian pilgrims to the Holy Land 152 341 344 Other Europeans viewed Timur as a barbaric enemy who presented a threat to both European culture and the religion of Christianity His rise to power moved many leaders such as Henry III of Castile to send embassies to Samarkand to scout out Timur learn about his people make alliances with him and try to convince him to convert to Christianity in order to avoid war 152 348 349 In the introduction to a 1723 translation of Yazdi s Zafarnama the translator wrote 153 M Petis de la Croix tells us that there are calumnies and impostures which have been published by authors of romances and Turkish writers who were his enemies and envious at his glory among whom is Ahmed Bin Arabschah As Timur Bec had conquered the Turks and Arabians of Syria and had even taken the Sultan Bajazet prisoner it is no wonder that he has been misrepresented by the historians of those nations who in despite of truth and against the dignity of history have fallen into great excesses on this subject Exhumation and alleged curse Timur s body was exhumed from his tomb on 19 June 1941 and his remains examined by the Soviet anthropologists Mikhail M Gerasimov Lev V Oshanin and V Ia Zezenkova Gerasimov reconstructed the likeness of Timur from his skull and found that his facial characteristics displayed typical Mongoloid features i e East Asian in modern terms 154 155 156 An anthropologic study of Timur s cranium shows that he belonged predominately to the South Siberian Mongoloid type 157 At 5 feet 8 inches 173 centimeters Timur was tall for his era The examinations confirmed that Timur was lame and had a withered right arm due to his injuries His right thighbone had knitted together with his kneecap and the configuration of the knee joint suggests that he kept his leg bent at all times and therefore would have had a pronounced limp 158 He appears to have been broad chested and his hair and beard were red 159 It is alleged that Timur s tomb was inscribed with the words When I rise from the dead the world shall tremble It is also said that when Gerasimov exhumed the body an additional inscription inside the casket was found which read Whomsoever sic opens my tomb shall unleash an invader more terrible than I 160 Even though people close to Gerasimov claim that this story is a fabrication the legend persists 161 better source needed In any case three days after Gerasimov began the exhumation Adolf Hitler invaded the Soviet Union 162 Timur was re buried with full Islamic ritual in November 1942 just before the Soviet victory at the Battle of Stalingrad 8 In the arts Tamburlaine the Great Parts I and II English 1563 1594 play by Christopher Marlowe Tamerlan ou la mort de Bajazet Tamerlane or the Death of Bajazet 1675 play by Jacques Pradon Tamerlane 1701 play by Nicholas Rowe English Tamerlano 1724 opera by George Frideric Handel in Italian based on the 1675 Pradon play Bajazet 1735 opera by Antonio Vivaldi portrays the capture of Bayezid I by Timur Il gran Tamerlano 1772 opera by Josef Myslivecek which also portrays the capture of Bayezid I by Timur Timour the Tartar 1811 equestrian drama by Matthew Lewis Tamerlane published 1827 first published poem of Edgar Allan Poe Turandot 1924 opera by Giacomo Puccini libretto by Giuseppe Adami and Renato Simoni in which Timur is the deposed blind former King of Tartary and father of the protagonist Calaf Lord of Samarkand The Lame Man published 1932 story by Robert E Howard in which Timour appears Nesimi 1973 Azerbaijani film in which Timur was portrayed by Yusif Veliyev 163 Tamerlan 2003 Spanish language novel by Colombian writer Enrique Serrano 164 Day Watch 2006 Russian film in which Tamerlane in his youth is portrayed by Emir Baygazin and in maturity by Gani Kulzhanov 165 Tamburlaine Shadow of God broadcast 2008 a BBC Radio 3 play by John Fletcher presenting a fictitious encounter between Tamburlaine Ibn Khaldun and Hafez 166 Age of Empires II Definitive Edition 2019 a video game containing a six chapter campaign titled Tamerlane 167 Jagio Na Amay Jagio Na Don t wake me up 2022 a Bengali novel by Himadri Kishor Dashgupta set on the story of exhumation of Tamerlane skeleton 168 See alsoList of largest empires Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent Timuri Timurid conquests and invasions TimurlengiaReferencesExplanatory notes To legitimize his rule Timur claimed the title guregen lit royal son in law to a princess of Chinggisid line 2 t ɪ ˈ m ʊer Chagatay تيمور Temur lit Iron Sometimes spelled Taimur or Temur Historically best known as Amir Timur or as Sahib i Qiran lit Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction his epithet 5 ˈ t ae m er l eɪ n Persian تيمور لنگ Temur i Lang Chagatay اقساق تیمور Aqsaq Temur 6 lit Timur the Lame Citations Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland Vol 9 Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 1847 p 377 a b Manz 1999 p 14 Muntakhab al Lubab Khafi Khan Nizam ul Mulki Vol I p 49 Printed in Lahore 1985 W M Thackston A Century of Princes Sources on Timurid History and Art 1989 p 239 ʻInayat Khan Muḥammad Ṭahir Asna ʿInayat Ḫan 1990 The Shah Jahan Nama of Inayat Khan An Abridged History of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan Compiled by His Royal Librarian the Nineteenth century Manuscript Translation of A R Fuller British Library Add 30 777 Oxford University Press pp 11 17 Johanson Lars 1998 The Turkic Languages Routledge p 27 ISBN 0415082005 Manz Beatrice F 24 April 2012 Timur Lang In P Bearman Th Bianquis C E Bosworth E van Donzel W P Heinrichs eds Timur Lang Encyclopaedia of Islam Second Edition The birthdate commonly ascribed to Timur 25 S h aʿban 736 8 April 1336 is probably an invention from the time of his successor S h ah Ruk h q v the day chosen for astrological meaning and the year to coincide with the death of the last Il K h an a b c d e Marozzi 2004 p page needed Josef W Meri 2005 Medieval Islamic Civilization Routledge p 812 ISBN 978 0415966900 Timur Biography Conquests Empire amp Facts Britannica www britannica com Retrieved 28 September 2022 Marozzi 2004 pp 341 342 Shahane Girish 28 December 2016 Counterview Taimur s actions were uniquely horrific in Indian history Scroll in Silvestre de Sacy Antoine Isaac 1822 Memoire sur une correspondance inedite de Tamerlan avec Charles VI Memoires de l Institut de France 6 1 470 522 doi 10 3406 minf 1822 1201 Darwin John 2008 After Tamerlane the rise and fall of global empires 1400 2000 Bloomsbury Press pp 29 92 ISBN 978 1596917606 Manz 1999 p 1 Marozzi Justin 2006 Tamerlane Sword of Islam Conqueror of the World Da Capo Press p 342 ISBN 978 0306814655 Donald M Seekins Richard F Nyrop 1986 Afghanistan A Country Study The Studies p 11 ISBN 978 0160239298 via Google Books Timur was of both Turkish and Mongol descent and claimed Genghis Khan as an ancestor International Association for Mongol Studies 2002 Mongol Ulsyn Eronhijlogch N Bagabandijn iveeld bolzh buj Olon Ulsyn Mongolch Erdemtnij VIII ih hural Ulaanbaatar hot 2002 VIII 5 11 Iltgelүүdijn tovchlol Eighth International Congress of Mongolists being convened under the patronage of N Bagabandi president of Mongolia Ulaanbaatar city 2002 VIII 5 11 Summary of presentations in Mongolian OUMSKh ny Nariĭn bichgiĭn darga naryn gazar p 377 via Google Books First of all Timur s genealogy gives him a common ancestor with Chinggis Khan in Tumbinai sechen or Tumanay Khan a b Woods John E 2002 Timur and Chinggis Khan Eighth International Congress of Mongolists being convened under the patronage of N Bagabandi president of Mongolia Ulaanbaatar OUMSKh ny Nariĭn bichgiĭn darga naryn gazar p 377 Henry Cabot Lodge 1916 The History of Nations Vol 14 P F Collier amp son p 46 Timur the Lame from the effects of an early wound a name which some European writers have converted into Tamerlane or Tamberlaine He was of Mongol origin and a direct descendant by the mother s side of Genghis Khan a b c Ahmad ibn Arabshah McChesney Robert D 2017 Tamerlane The Life of the Great Amir Translated by M M Khorramia Bloomsbury Academic p 4 ISBN 978 1784531706 Richard C Martin Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World A L Macmillan Reference 2004 ISBN 978 0028656045 p 134 a b Gerard Chaliand Nomadic Empires From Mongolia to the Danube translated by A M Berrett Transaction Publishers 2004 translated by A M Berrett Transaction Publishers p 75 ISBN 076580204X Limited preview at Google Books p 75 ISBN 076580204X p 75 Timur Leng Tamerlane Timur known as the lame 1336 1405 was a Muslim Turk He aspired to recreate the empire of his ancestors He was a military genius who loved to play chess in his spare time to improve his military tactics and skill And although he wielded absolute power he never called himself more than an emir Timur Leng Tamerlane Timur known as the lame 1336 1405 was a Muslim Turk from the Umus of Chagatai who saw himself as Genghis Khan s heir a b c d Chann Naindeep Singh 2009 Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction Origins of the Ṣaḥib Qiran Iran amp the Caucasus 13 1 93 110 doi 10 1163 160984909X12476379007927 ISSN 1609 8498 JSTOR 25597394 Matthew White Atrocitology Humanity s 100 Deadliest Achievements Canongate Books 2011 ISBN 978 0857861252 section Timur The Rehabilitation of Tamerlane Chicago Tribune 17 January 1999 J J Saunders The history of the Mongol conquests page 174 Routledge amp Kegan Paul Ltd 1971 ISBN 0812217667 Barthold V V 1962 Four studies on the History of Central Asia vol 1 Second Printing ed Leiden E J Brill p 61 Foss Clive 1992 Genocide in History PDF In Freedman Apsel Joyce Fein Helen eds Teaching About Genocide A Guidebook for College and University Teachers Critical Essays Syllabi and Assignments Ottawa Human Rights Internet p 27 ISBN 189584200X Retrieved 29 November 2022 Timur Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Academic Edition 2007 a b c Beatrice F Manz 2000 Timur Lang Encyclopaedia of Islam Vol 10 2nd ed Brill Archived from the original on 7 February 2015 Retrieved 24 April 2014 a b Woods John E 1990 Martin Bernard Dickson Michel M Mazzaoui Vera Basch Moreen eds Timur s Genealogy Intellectual Studies on Islam Essays Written in Honor of Martin B Dickson University of Utah Press 97 ISBN 978 0874803426 Mackenzie Franklin 1963 The Ocean and the Steppe The Life and Times of the Mongol Conqueror Genghis Khan 1155 1227 Vantage Press p 322 Woods 1990 p 90 Woods John E 1991 The Timurid dynasty Indiana University Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies p 9 Haidar Mansura 2004 Indo Central Asian Relations From Early Times to Medieval Period Manohar p 126 ISBN 978 8173045080 Keene H G 2001 1878 The Turks in India Honolulu University Press of the Pacific p 20 ISBN 978 0898755343 Manz 1999 pp 164 165 Fischel Walter J 1952 Ibn Khaldun and Tamerlane Berkeley and Los Angeles University of California Press p 37 Sela Ron 2011 The Legendary Biographies of Tamerlane Islam and Heroic Apocrypha in Central Asia Cambridge University Press p 27 ISBN 978 1139498340 a b Tamerlane AsianHistory Archived from the original on 5 October 2011 Retrieved 1 November 2013 Richard Peters The Story of the Turks From Empire to Democracy 1959 p 24 Glasse Cyril 2001 The new encyclopedia of Islam Rev ed Walnut Creek CA AltaMira Press ISBN 0759101892 OCLC 48553252 Sinor Denis 1990 Introduction The concept of Inner Asia The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia Cambridge University Press pp 1 18 doi 10 1017 chol9780521243049 002 ISBN 978 0521243049 a b c d e Manz Beatrice Forbes 1988 Tamerlane and the symbolism of sovereignty Iranian Studies 21 1 2 105 122 doi 10 1080 00210868808701711 ISSN 0021 0862 JSTOR 4310596 Central Asia history of Timur in Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Edition 2007 Quotation Under his leadership Timur united the Mongol tribes located in the basins of the two rivers Islamic world in Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Edition 2007 Quotation Timur Tamerlane was of Mongol descent and he aimed to restore Mongol power Carter V Findley The Turks in World History Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978 0195177268 p 101 G R Garthwaite The Persians Malden ISBN 978 1557868602 MA Blackwell Pub 2007 p 148 Quotation Timur s tribe the Barlas had Mongol origins but had become Turkic speaking However the Barlus tribe is considered one of the original Mongol tribes and there are Barlus Ovogton people who belong to Barlus tribe in modern Mongolia M S Asimov amp Clifford Edmund Bosworth History of Civilizations of Central Asia UNESCO Regional Office 1998 ISBN 9231034677 p 320 One of his followers was Timur of the Barlas tribe This Mongol tribe had settled in the valley of Kashka Darya intermingling with the Turkic population adopting their religion Islam and gradually giving up its own nomadic ways like a number of other Mongol tribes in Transoxania Kravets S L et al eds 2016 TIMU R TAMERLAN Timur Tamerlan Great Russian Encyclopedia in Russian Vol 32 Televizionnaya bashnya Ulan Bator Moscow Great Russian Encyclopedia ISBN 978 5 85270 369 9 Retrieved 26 October 2023 Syn beka Taragaya iz tyurkizirovannogo mong plemeni barlas Son of Bek Taragai from the Turkified Mongol Barlas tribe Timur Encyclopaedia Britannica 5 September 2023 Life Retrieved 26 October 2023 Timur was a member of the Turkicized Barlas tribe a Mongol subgroup that had settled in Transoxania now roughly corresponding to Uzbekistan after taking part in Genghis Khan s son Chagatai s campaigns in that region Sharaf ad Din Ali Yazdi Zafarnama 1424 1428 p 35 Sharaf ad Din Ali Yazdi Zafarnama 1424 1428 p 75 Marozzi 2004 p 31 a b Ian C Hannah 1900 A brief history of eastern Asia T F Unwin p 92 Retrieved 30 December 2015 a b c d e Goldsmid 1911 p 994 Marozzi 2004 p 40 Marozzi 2004 pp 41 42 a b Manz Beatrice Forbes 2002 Tamerlane s Career and Its Uses Journal of World History 13 3 doi 10 1353 jwh 2002 0017 S2CID 143436772 a b c Moin A Azfar 2012 The Millennial Sovereign Sacred Kingship and Sainthood in Islam New York Columbia University Press pp 40 43 ISBN 978 0231504713 OCLC 967261884 Aigle Denise 2014 The Mongol Empire between Myth and Reality Studies in Anthropological History Leiden Brill p 132 ISBN 978 90 04 27749 6 OCLC 994352727 Nicholas V Raisanovsky Mark D Steinberg A History of Russia Seventh Edition p 93 ISBN missing Tradigo Alfredo 2006 Icons and Saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church Getty Publications p 177 ISBN 978 0 89236 845 7 Moscow Church Herald Moscow Patriarchate 1989 p 3 Commemoration of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God and the deliverance of Moscow from the Invasion of Tamerlane oca org Retrieved 5 February 2019 Wescoat James L Wolschke Bulmahn Joachim 1996 Mughal Gardens Dumbarton Oaks ISBN 978 0884022350 via google ca Melville 2020 p 32 Timur 2013 The Mulfuzat Timury Or Autobiographical Memoirs of the Moghul Emperor Timur Written in the Jagtay Turky Language Cambridge University Press pp vii xxxvii ISBN 978 1108056021 Melville 2020 p 56 Manz 1999 pp 67 71 Melville 2020 pp 97 100 a b Chaliand Gerard Arnaud Blin 2007 The History of Terrorism From Antiquity to Al Qaeda University of California Press p 87 ISBN 978 0520247093 isfahan Timur Fisher W B Jackson P Lockhart L Boyle J A The Cambridge History of Iran p 55 Strange 1905 pp 267 287 Manz 1999 pp 123 125 Melville 2020 p 109 Shterenshis Michael 2002 Tamerlane and the Jews Psychology Press pp 144 189 ISBN 978 0700716968 Strange Guy Le 1905 The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate Mesopotamia Persia and Central Asia from the Moslem Conquest to the Time of Timur University Press p 235 ISBN 978 1107600140 Morgan David 2014 Medieval Persia 1040 1797 Routledge pp 167 184 ISBN 978 1317871408 Nicholas V Raisanovsky Mark D Steinberg A History of Russia Seventh Edition p 94 ISBN missing a b Virani Shafique N The Ismailis in the Middle Ages A History of Survival A Search for Salvation New York Oxford University Press 2007 p 116 Hunter William Wilson 1909 The Indian Empire Timur s invasion 1398 The Imperial Gazetteer of India Vol 2 p 366 Kenneth Pletcher ed 2010 The History of India The Rosen Publishing Group p 131 ISBN 978 1615301225 Hooja Rima 2006 A History of Rajasthan Rupa and company p 371 ISBN 978 8129108906 Bhatner was taken in 1391 by Timur from the Bhati Rajput King named Dulachand a b Henry Miers Elliot 2013 History of India as Told by Its Own Historians The Muhammadan Period Cambridge University Press pp 489 493 ISBN 978 1108055857 Sen Sudipta 2019 Ganga The Many Pasts of a River Penguin Random House India ISBN 978 9353054489 via Google Books Singh Raj Pal 1988 Rise of the Jat power Harman Publishing House ISBN 978 8185151052 Retrieved 22 May 2012 Phillips Charles Battle of Delhi www britannica com Marozzi 2004 p 267 Ibn Arabsah 1986 164 166 missing long citation Ibn Hacer 1994 pp II 9 10 missing long citation Ibn Tagribirdi 1956 XII 262 263 missing long citation Battle of Delhi 17 December 1398 History on this day Retrieved 28 September 2022 Marozzi 2004 pp 269 274 The Turco Mongol Invasions Rbedrosian com Retrieved 22 May 2012 a b Nicol 1993 p 314 Masters Bruce 1999 Aleppo the Ottoman Empire s caravan city In Eldem Edhem Goffman Daniel Master Bruce eds The Ottoman City Between East and West Aleppo Izmir and Istanbul Cambridge University Press p 20 Margaret Meserve Empires of Islam in Renaissance Historical Thought Harvard University Press 2008 207 ʻArabshah Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad Ibn 1976 Tamerlane Or Timur the Great Amir Progressive Books p 168 Nicolle David Hook Richard 1998 The Mongol Warlords Genghis Khan Kublai Khan Hulegu Tamerlane Brockhampton Press p 161 ISBN 1860194079 Rhoads Murphey Exploring Ottoman Sovereignty Tradition Image and Practice in the Ottoman Imperial Household 1400 1800 published by Continium 2008 p 58 Kevin Reilly 2012 The Human Journey A Concise Introduction to World History Rowman amp Littlefield pp 164 ISBN 978 1442213845 Henry Cabot Lodge 1913 The History of Nations P F Collier pp 51 Marina Belozerskaya 2012 Medusas Gaze The Extraordinary Journey of the Tazza Farnese Oxford University Press pp 88 ISBN 978 0199876426 Vertot abbe de 1856 The History of the Knights Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem Styled Afterwards the Knights of Rhodes and at Present the Knights of Malta J W Leonard amp Company pp 104 a b Dimitris J Kastritsis 2007 The Sons of Bayezid Empire Building and Representation in the Ottoman Civil War of 1402 1413 Brill p 49 Nuri Pere 1968 Osmanlilarda madeni paralar Yapi ve Kredi Bankasinin Osmanli madeni paralari kolleksiyonu Yapi ve Kredi Bankasi p 64 Stevens John The history of Persia Containing the lives and memorable actions of its kings from the first erecting of that monarchy to this time an exact Description of all its Dominions a curious Account of India China Tartary Kermon Arabia Nixabur and the Islands of Ceylon and Timor as also of all Cities occasionally mention d as Schiras Samarkand Bokara amp c Manners and Customs of those People Persian Worshippers of Fire Plants Beasts Product and Trade With many instructive and pleasant digressions being remarkable Stories or Passages occasionally occurring as Strange Burials Burning of the Dead Liquors of several Countries Hunting Fishing Practice of Physick famous Physicians in the East Actions of Tamerlan amp c To which is added an abridgment of the lives of the kings of Harmuz or Ormuz The Persian history written in Arabick by Mirkond a famous Eastern Author that of Ormuz by Torunxa King of that Island both of them translated into Spanish by Antony Teixeira who liv d several Years in Persia and India and now render d into English Turnbull Stephen 2007 The Great Wall of China 221 BC 1644 AD Osprey Publishing p 23 ISBN 978 1846030048 Retrieved 26 March 2010 a b c Tsai 2002 pp 188 189 C P Atwood Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire see Northern Yuan Dynasty Adela C Y Lee Tamerlane 1336 1405 The Last Great Nomad Power Silkroad Foundation Retrieved 22 May 2012 Tsai 2002 p 161 James Louis Garvin Franklin Henry Hooper Warren E Cox Encyclopaedia Britannica Volume 22 1929 p 233 Abdulla Vakhabov Muslims in the USSR 1980 pp 63 64 ISBN missing Roya Marefat Beyond the Architecture of Death Shrine of the Shah i Zinda in Samarqand 1991 p 238 a b Vasilii Vladimirovitch Barthold Four Studies on the History of Central Asia Vol 2 1959 Marthe Bernus Taylor Tombs of Paradise The Shah e Zende in Samarkand and Architectural Ceramics of Central Asia 2003 p 27 Beatrice Forbes Manz Power Politics and Religion in Timurid Iran 2007 p 16 William Bayne Fisher Peter Jackson Peter Avery Lawrence Lockhart John Andrew Boyle Ilya Gershevitch Richard Nelson Frye Charles Melville Gavin Hambly The Cambridge History of Iran Volume VI 1986 pp 99 101 Sims Eleanor 2002 Peerless images Persian painting and its sources New Haven Yale University Press pp 201 203 ISBN 978 0300090383 Szczepanski Kallie 21 July 2019 Biography of Tamerlane 14th Century Conqueror of Asia ThoughtCo Retrieved 20 February 2020 Nogueira Adeilson 28 March 2020 Timur Clube de Autores p 9 10 Woods 1991 pp 17 19 Vasilii Vladimirovitch Barthold Four Studies on the History of Central Asia Vol 2 1963 p 31 Manz 1999 p 17 The Descendants of Sayyid Ata and the Rank of Naqib in Central Asia by Devin DeWeese Journal of the American Oriental Society Vol 115 No 4 Oct Dec 1995 pp 612 634 Four studies on the history of Central Asia Volume 1 By Vasilij Vladimirovic Bartold p 19 Islamic art By Barbara Brend p 130 Michael Shterenshis Tamerlane and the Jews Routledge ISBN 978 1136873669 p 38 a b Virani Shafique N The Ismailis in the Middle Ages A History of Survival A Search for Salvation New York Oxford University Press 2007 p 114 Manz 1999 p 16 Marozzi 2004 p 9 a b Walter Joseph Fischel Ibn Khaldun in Egypt His Public Functions and His Historical Research 1382 1406 a Study in Islamic Historiography University of California Press 1967 p 51 footnote Roemer H R Timur in Iran The Cambridge History of Iran edited by Peter Jackson and Lawrence Lockhart vol 6 Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1986 pp 86 87 Saunders J J 2001 The History of the Mongol Conquests University of Pennsylvania Press pp 173 ISBN 978 0812217667 Holden Edward S 2004 1895 The Mogul Emperors of Hindustan 1398 1707 A D New Delhi Westminster Archibald Constable and Co pp 47 48 ISBN 978 8120618831 Cowell Professor first name not given MacMillan s Magazine vol XXX via Google Books London MacMillan amp Co 1874 p 252 Barthold V V 1962 Four studies on the History of Central Asia vol 1 Second Printing 1962 ed Leiden E J Brill pp 59 60 Cazaux Jean Louis and Knowlton Rick 2017 A World of Chess p 31 McFarland ISBN 978 0786494279 Often known as Tamerlane chess its invention is traditionally attributed to the conqueror himself Document preserved at Le Musee de l Histoire de France code AE III 204 Mentioned Dossier II 7 J936 Mentioned Dossier II 7 bis Mentioned Dossier II 7 ter Frances Carney Gies September October 1978 The Man Who Met Tamerlane Saudi Aramco World 29 5 Archived from the original on 8 July 2011 Retrieved 26 July 2011 Axworthy Michael 2006 The Sword of Persia Nader Shah from Tribal Warrior to Conquering Tyrant I B Tauris ISBN 978 1850437062 Manz 1999 p 109 In Temur s government as in those of most nomad dynasties it is impossible to find a clear distinction between civil and military affairs or to identify the Persian bureaucracy as solely civil or the Turko Mongolian solely with military government In fact it is difficult to define the sphere of either side of the administration and we find Persians and Chaghatays sharing many tasks In discussing the settled bureaucracy and the people who worked within it I use the word Persian in a cultural rather than ethnological sense In almost all the territories which Temur incorporated into his realm Persian was the primary language of administration and literary culture Thus the language of the settled diwan was Persian and its scribes had to be thoroughly adept in Persian culture whatever their ethnic origin Temur s Chaghatay emirs were often involved in civil and provincial administration and even in financial affairs traditionally the province of Persian bureaucracy Roy Olivier 2007 The new Central Asia I B Tauris p 7 ISBN 978 1845115524 Nestorianism Definition History amp Churches Britannica www britannica com 2 June 2023 a b Hameed ud Din 2011 Abu Ṭaleb Ḥosayni Encyclopaedia Iranica Retrieved 17 September 2014 Milwright Marcus 2006 So Despicable a Vessel Representations of Tamerlane in Printed Books of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries Muqarnas 23 317 doi 10 1163 22118993 90000105 a b c Knobler Adam November 1995 The Rise of Timur and Western Diplomatic Response 1390 1405 Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Third Series 5 3 341 349 doi 10 1017 s135618630000660x S2CID 162421202 ad DinʿAli Yazdi Sharaf 1723 The History of Timur Bec Vol 1 pp xii ix Punctuation and spelling modernized Lev Vasil evich Oshanin 1964 Anthropological composition of the population of Central Asia and the ethnogenesis of its peoples Vol 2 Peabody Museum p 39 Berna Ozcan Gul 2018 Diverging Paths of Development in Central Asia Routledge ISBN 978 1351739429 Yah Lim Chong 2001 Southeast Asia The Long Road Ahead Singapore World Scientific Publishing Company p 3 ISBN 978 9813105843 Russian Translation Series of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Harvard University 1964 Mikhail Mikhailovich Gerasimov 1971 The face finder Hutchinson p 135 ISBN 978 0091055103 Congress United States Congressional Record Proceedings and Debates of the United States Congress U S Government Printing Office p A7238 Uzbekistan On the bloody trail of Tamerlane The Independent London 9 July 2006 Archived from the original on 20 December 2013 Retrieved 17 April 2016 Facial Reconstruction Nazis and Siberia The story of Mikhail Gerasimov 25 January 2011 Retrieved 9 November 2020 Mark amp Ruth Dickens Timurid Architecture in Samarkand Oxuscom com Archived from the original on 2 July 2013 Retrieved 22 May 2012 Nasimi 1973 IMDb Retrieved 31 August 2020 Enrique Serrano 2 January 2011 Tamerlan Biblioteca Breve Spanish ed Planeta Colombiana Editorial ISBN 978 9584205407 Day Watch Full Cast amp Crew IMDb Retrieved 31 August 2020 John Fletcher Radio Plays amp Dramatisations suttonelms org Retrieved 31 August 2020 Age of Empires 2 Definitive Edition review PC Gamer 12 November 2019 sharodiya kishor bharati 1429 boierpathshala blogspot com pdf Google Docs Retrieved 13 October 2022 SourcesKnobler Adam 1995 The Rise of Timur and Western Diplomatic Response 1390 1405 Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Third Series 5 3 341 349 doi 10 1017 S135618630000660X S2CID 162421202 Knobler Adam 2001 Timur the Terrible Tartar Trope a Case of Repositioning in Popular Literature and History Medieval Encounters 7 1 101 112 doi 10 1163 157006701X00102 Manz Beatrice Forbes 1999 The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0521633840 Marozzi Justin 2004 Tamerlane Sword of Islam Conqueror of the World London HarperCollins ISBN 9780306815430 May Timothy Timur the Lame 1336 1405 The Encyclopedia of War Melville Charles 2020 Melville Charles ed The Timurid Century The Idea of Iran Volume IX University of Cambridge England Bloomsbury Publishing doi 10 5040 9781838606169 ISBN 978 1838606152 S2CID 242682831 Nicol Donald M 1993 The Last Centuries of Byzantium 1261 1453 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0521439916 Tsai Shih Shan Henry 2002 Perpetual Happiness the Ming Emperor Yongle Seattle University of Washington Press ISBN 978 0295981246 OCLC 870409962 nbsp This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain Goldsmid Frederic John 1911 Timur In Chisholm Hugh ed Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 26 11th ed Cambridge University Press pp 994 995 Further readingAbazov Rafis 2008 Timur Tamerlane and the Timurid Empire in Central Asia The Palgrave Concise Historical Atlas of Central Asia pp 56 57 doi 10 1057 9780230610903 ISBN 978 1 4039 7542 3 Forbes Andrew amp Henley David Timur s Legacy The Architecture of Bukhara and Samarkand CPA Media Gonzalez de Clavijo Ruy Embassy to Tamerlane 1403 1406 translated by Guy Le Strange with a new Introduction by Caroline Stone Hardinge Simpole 2009 ISBN missing Narrative of the Embassy of Ruy Gonzalez De Clavijo to the Court of Timour at Samarcand A D 1403 6 Full text at Google Books Lamb Harold 1929 Tamerlane The Earth Shaker Hardback London Thorndon Butterworth Marlowe Christopher Tamburlaine the Great Ed J S Cunningham Manchester University Press Manchester 1981 Manz Beatrice Forbes 1998 Temur and the Problem of a Conqueror s Legacy Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 8 1 21 41 doi 10 1017 S1356186300016412 ISSN 1356 1863 JSTOR 25183464 S2CID 154734091 Marozzi Justin Tamerlane in The Art of War great commanders of the ancient and medieval world Andrew Roberts editor London Quercus Military History 2008 ISBN 978 1847242594 Novosel tsev A P 1973 On the Historical Evaluation of Tamerlane Soviet Studies in History 12 3 37 70 doi 10 2753 RSH1061 1983120337 ISSN 0038 5867 Paksoy H B Nationality or Religion Views of Central Asian Islam Shterenshis Michael V Approach to Tamerlane Tradition and Innovation Central Asia and the Caucasus 2 2000 Sykes P M 1915 Tamerlane Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society 2 1 17 33 doi 10 1080 03068371508724717 ISSN 0035 8789 Yuksel Musa Samil Timur un Yukselisi ve Bati nin Diplomatik Cevabi 1390 1405 Selcuk Universitesi Turkiyat Arastirmalari Dergisi 1 18 2005 231 243 External links nbsp Media related to Timur at Wikimedia CommonsTimurTimurid dynastyPreceded byNone Timurid Empire1370 1405 Succeeded byPir Muhammad ibn Jahangirand Khalil Sultan Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Timur amp oldid 1186263347, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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