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Shah Jahan

Shihab-ud-Din Muhammad Khurram (5 January 1592 – 22 January 1666), also known as Shah Jahan the Architect (Persian: شاه جهان Persian pronunciation: [ʃɑːh d͡ʒahɑːn]; lit.'King of the World'), was the fifth emperor of the Mughal Empire, reigning from January 1628 until July 1658. Under his emperorship, the Mughals reached the peak of their architectural achievements and cultural glory.

Shah Jahan
Portrait of Shah Jahan by Bichitr, c. 1630
5th Emperor of the Mughal Empire
Reign19 January 1628 –31 July 1658[1]
Coronation14 February 1628,[2] Agra
PredecessorShahriyar (de facto)
Jahangir I
SuccessorAurangzeb
BornKhurram[3]
(1592-01-05)5 January 1592
Lahore Fort, Lahore, Mughal Empire
Died22 January 1666(1666-01-22) (aged 74)
Agra Fort, Agra, Mughal Empire
Burial
Consort
(m. 1612; died 1631)
Wives
Issue
among others...
Names
Shihab-ud-Din Muhammad Khurram Shah Jahan[4]
Regnal name
Shah Jahan[5]
Posthumous name
Firduas Ashiyani (lit.'One who nest in Paradise')
House House of Babur
Dynasty Timurid dynasty
FatherJahangir I
MotherBilqis Makani
ReligionSunni Islam (Hanafi)
Royal Seal

The third son of Jahangir (r. 1605–1627), Shah Jahan participated in the military campaigns against the Rajputs of Mewar and the Lodis of Deccan. After Jahangir's death in October 1627, Shah Jahan defeated his youngest brother Shahryar Mirza and crowned himself emperor in the Agra Fort. In addition to Shahryar, Shah Jahan executed most of his rival claimants to the throne. He commissioned many monuments, including the Red Fort, Shah Jahan Mosque and the Taj Mahal, where his favorite wife Mumtaz Mahal is entombed. In foreign affairs, Shah Jahan presided over the aggressive campaigns against the Deccan Sultanates, the conflicts with the Portuguese, and the wars with Safavids. He also suppressed several local rebellions, and dealt with the devastating Deccan famine of 1630–32.

In September 1657, Shah Jahan was ailing from an illness and he appointed his eldest son Dara Shikoh as his successor. This nomination led to a succession crisis among his three sons, after which Shah Jahan's third son Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707) emerged victorious and became the sixth emperor, executing all of his surviving brothers, including Crown Prince Dara Shikoh. After Shah Jahan returned from illness in July 1658, Aurangzeb imprisoned his father in the Agra Fort from July 1658 until his death in January 1666.[6] He was laid to rest next to his wife in the Taj Mahal. His reign is known for doing away with the liberal policies initiated by Akbar. During Shah Jahan's time, Islamic revivalist movements like the Naqsbandi began to shape Mughal policies.[7]

Early life

Birth and background

He was born on 5 January 1592 in Lahore, present-day Pakistan, as the ninth child and third son of Prince Salim (later known as 'Jahangir' upon his accession) by his wife, Jagat Gosain.[8][9] The name Khurram (Persian: خرم, lit.'joyous') was chosen for the young prince by his grandfather, Emperor Akbar, with whom the young prince shared a close relationship.[9] Jahangir stated that Akbar was very fond of Khurram and had often told him "There is no comparison between him and your other sons. I consider him my true son."[10]

When Khurram was born, Akbar considering him to be auspicious insisted the prince be raised in his household rather than Salim's and was thus entrusted to the care of Ruqaiya Sultan Begum. Ruqaiya assumed the primary responsibility for raising Khurram[11] and is noted to have raised Khurram affectionately. Jahangir noted in his memoirs that Ruqaiya had loved his son, Khurram, "a thousand times more than if he had been her own [son]."[12]

However, after the death of his grandfather Akbar in 1605, he returned to the care of his mother, Jagat Gosain whom he cared for and loved immensely. Although separated from her at birth, he had become devoted to her and had her addressed as Hazrat in court chronicles.[13][14] On the death of Jagat Gosain in Akbarabad on 8 April 1619, he is recorded to be inconsolable by Jahangir and mourned for 21 days. For these three weeks of the mourning period, he attended no public meetings and subsisted on simple vegetarian meals. His consort Mumtaz Mahal personally supervised the distribution of food to the poor during this period. She led the recitation of the Quran every morning and gave her husband many lessons on the substance of life and death and begged him not to grieve.[15]

Education

As a child, Khurram received a broad education befitting his status as a Mughal prince, which included martial training and exposure to a wide variety of cultural arts, such as poetry and music, most of which was inculcated, according to court chroniclers, by Jahangir. According to his chronicler Qazvini, prince Khurram was only familiar with a few Turki words and showed little interest in the study of the language as a child.[16] Khurram was attracted to Hindi literature since his childhood, and his Hindi letters were mentioned in his father's biography, Tuzuk-e-Jahangiri.[17] In 1605, as Akbar lay on his deathbed, Khurram, who at this point of time was 13,[18][full citation needed] remained by his bedside and refused to move even after his mother tried to retrieve him. Given the politically uncertain times immediately preceding Akbar's death, Khurram was in a fair amount of physical danger from political opponents of his father,[19] He was at last ordered to return to his quarters by the senior women of his grandfather's household namely Salima Sultan Begum and his grandmother Mariam-uz-Zamani as the health of Akbar deteriorated.[20]

Khusrau rebellion

In 1605, his father succeeded to the throne, after crushing a rebellion by Prince Khusrau – Khurram remained distant from court politics and intrigues in the immediate aftermath of that event.[citation needed] Khurram left Ruqaiya's care and returned to his mother's care.[21] As the third son, Khurram did not challenge the two major power blocs of the time, his father's and his half-brother's; thus, he enjoyed the benefits of imperial protection and luxury while being allowed to continue with his education and training. This relatively quiet and stable period of his life allowed Khurram to build his own support base in the Mughal court, which would be useful later on in his life.[22]

Jahangir assigned Khurram to guard the palace and treasury while he went to pursue Khusrau. He was later ordered to bring Mariam-uz-Zamani who was his grandmother and Jahangir's harem to him.[23]

During Khusrau's second rebellion, Khurram's informants informed him about Fatehullah, Nuruddin and Muhammad Sharif gathered around 500 men at Khusrau's instigation and lay await for the Emperor. Khurram relayed this information to Jahangir who praised him.[24]

Jahangir had Khurram weighed against gold, silver and other wealth at his mansion at Orta.[25]

Nur Jahan

Due to the long period of tensions between his father and his half-brother, Khusrau Mirza, Khurram began to drift closer to his father, and over time, started to be considered the de facto heir-apparent by court chroniclers. This status was given official sanction when Jahangir granted the sarkar of Hissar-Feroza, which had traditionally been the fief of the heir-apparent, to Khurram in 1608.[26] Nur Jahan gradually after her marriage to Jahangir in the year 1611, became an active participant in the decisions made by Jahangir. Slowly, while Jahangir became more indulgent in wine and opium, she was considered to be the actual power behind the throne. Her near and dear relatives acquired important positions in the Mughal court, termed the Nur Jahan junta by historians. Khurram was in constant conflict with his stepmother, Nur Jahan who favoured her son-in-law Shahryar Mirza for the succession to the Mughal throne over him. She tried to weaken his position in the Mughal court by sending him on campaigns far in Deccan while ensuring several favours were being bestowed on her son-in-law. Khurram after sensing the danger posed to his status as heir-apparent rebelled against his father in 1622 but did not succeed and eventually lost the favour of his father. A year before Jahangir's death in 1627, coins began to be struck containing Nur Jahan's name along with Jahangir's name. After the death of Jahangir in 1627, a feud followed between Khurram and his half-brother, Shahryar Mirza for the succession to the Mughal throne. Khurram won the battle of succession and became the fifth Mughal Emperor. Nur Jahan was subsequently deprived of her imperial stature, privileges and economic grants and was put under house arrest on the orders of Khurram and led a quiet life till her death.

Marriages

In 1607, Khurram became engaged to Arjumand Banu Begum (1593–1631), who is also known as Mumtaz Mahal (Persian for "the chosen one of the Palace"). They were about 14 and 15 when they were engaged, and five years later, got married. The young girl belonged to an illustrious Persian noble family that had been serving Mughal emperors since the reign of Akbar. The family's patriarch was Mirza Ghiyas Beg, who was also known by his title I'timād-ud-Daulah or "Pillar of the State". He had been Jahangir's finance minister and his son, Asaf Khan – Arjumand Banu's father – played an important role in the Mughal court, eventually serving as Chief Minister. Her aunt Mehr-un-Nissa later became the Empress Nur Jahan, chief wife of Emperor Jahangir.[27]

The prince would have to wait five years before he was married in 1612 (1021 AH), on a date selected by the court astrologers as most conducive to ensuring a happy marriage. This was an unusually long engagement for the time. However, Shah Jahan first married Princess Kandahari Begum, the daughter of a great-grandson of Shah Ismail I of Persia, with whom he had a daughter, his first child.[28]

 
Shah Jahan, accompanied by his three sons: Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja and Aurangzeb, and their maternal grandfather Asaf Khan IV

In 1612, aged 20, Khurram married Arjumand Banu Begum, who became known by the title Mumtaz Mahal, on the auspicious date chosen by court astrologers. The marriage was a happy one and Khurram remained devoted to her. She bore him fourteen children, out of whom seven survived into adulthood.

Though there was genuine love between the two, Arjumand Banu Begum was a politically astute woman and served as a crucial advisor and confidante to her husband.[29] Later on, as empress, Mumtaz Mahal wielded immense power, such as being consulted by her husband in state matters and being responsible for the imperial seal, which allowed her to review official documents in their final draft.[citation needed]

 
The Taj Mahal, the burial place of Shah Jahan and his wife Mumtaz Mahal

Mumtaz Mahal died at age 38 (7 June 1631) while giving birth to Gauhar Ara Begum in Burhanpur. She died of a postpartum haemorrhage, which caused considerable blood-loss after painful labor of thirty hours.[30] Contemporary historians note that Princess Jahanara, aged 17, was so distressed by her mother's pain that she started distributing gems to the poor, hoping for divine intervention, and Shah Jahan was noted as being "paralysed by grief" and weeping fits.[31] Her body was temporarily buried in a walled pleasure garden known as Zainabad, originally constructed by Shah Jahan's uncle Prince Daniyal along the Tapti River. Her death had a profound impact on Shah Jahan's personality and inspired the construction of the Taj Mahal, where she was later reburied.[citation needed]

In the intervening years Khurram had taken other wives, among which are Kandahari Begum (m. 28 October 1610) and Izz un-Nisa Begum (m. 2 September 1617), the daughters of Muzaffar Husain Mirza Safawi and Shahnawaz Khan, son of Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana, respectively. But according to court chroniclers, his relationship with his other wives was more out of political consideration, and they enjoyed only the status of being royal wives.[18]

Khurram is also recorded to have married his maternal half-cousin, Lilavati Bai, daughter of Sakat Singh Rathore of Kharwa. The marriage took place when Khurram was in rebellion against his father, Jahangir.[32]

Accusation of incest

Francois Bernier, a French physician who visited India from 1659 to 1668, records the relationship of Shah Jahan with Jahanara Begum exceeded basic decency that it was rumoured that they were in an incestuous relationship.[33] Similar such claims are also alleged by De laet, Peter Mundy and Tavernier. Based on this Historian Vincent Smith also argues for the same thing. But as Historian B P Saksena shows, there is no support for such a claim.[34] Niccolao Manucci who was a contemporary of Bernier, who otherwise talks freely about the aberrations and love affairs of Jahanara repudiates his charge of incest and says:

She (Jahanara) served him with great diligence and love in order that her father should accede to her petitions (To marry). It was from this cause that the Common people hinted that she had intercourse with her father and this gave occasion to Monsieur Bernier to write a lot of things about this princess, founded entirely on the talks of Low people[35]

Further Manucci also says that what Bernier writes was also untrue. As asserted by Historian K. S. Lal, the rumour was fed by the malice of the courtiers and the verdict of the Mullas. Aurangzeb’s confining of Jahanara in the Agra Fort with the Royal prisoner and the talk of the low people. All these circumstances point to Aurangzeb's involvement in magnifying a rumour into a full-fledged scandal. Right from the beginning the relations between Dara and Aurangzeb were not cordial and Jahanara was a partisan of Dara . During the war of Succession, The nobles and courtiers had been divided into two camps in support of the two princes. When Aurangzeb won the throne the number of his supporters swelled. Mullas were also close to Aurangzeb. It was thus possible that with the verdict of the Maulanas Aurengzeb was seeking to destroy the images of both Shah Jahan and Jahanara at the same time.[36]

Early military campaigns

 
The Submission of Rana Amar Singh of Mewar to Prince Khurram, Tuzk-e-Jahangiri.

Prince Khurram showed extraordinary military talent. The first occasion for Khurram to test his military prowess was during the Mughal campaign against the Rajput state of Mewar, which had been a hostile force to the Mughals since Akbar's reign. In December 1613 at an auspicious hour, Prince Khurram was adorned with various, including the and sent to Mewar.[37]

After a year of a harsh war of attrition, Rana Amar Singh I surrendered conditionally to the Mughal forces and became a vassal state of the Mughal Empire.[38] In 1615, Khurram presented Kunwar Karan Singh, Amar Singh's heir to Jahangir. Khurram was sent to pay homage to his mother and stepmothers and was later awarded by Jahangir.[39] The same year, his mansab was increased from 12000/6000 to 15000/7000, to equal that his brother Parvez's and was further increased to 20000/10000 in 1616.[40][41]

In 1616, on Khurram's departure to Deccan, Jahangir awarded him the title Shah Sultan Khurram.[42]

In 1617, Khurram was directed to deal with the Lodis in the Deccan to secure the Empire's southern borders and to restore imperial control over the region. On his return 1617 after successes in these campaigns, Khurram performed koronush before Jahangir who called him to jharoka and rose from his seat to embrace him. Jahangir also granting him the title of Shah Jahan (Persian: "King of the World")[43] and raised his military rank to 30000/20000 and allowed him a special throne in his Durbar, an unprecedented honor for a prince.[44] Edward S. Holden writes, "He was flattered by some, envied by others, loved by none."[45]

In 1618, Shah Jahan was given the first copy of Jahangirnama by his father who considered him "the first of all my sons in everything."[46]

Rebel prince

 
Shah Jahan on horseback (during his youth).

Inheritance of food and water in the Mughal Empire was not determined through Coparcenary, but by princely sons competing to achieve military successes and consolidating their power at court. This often led to rebellions and wars of succession. As a result, a complex political climate surrounded the Mughal court in Khurram's formative years. In 1611 his father married Nur Jahan, the widowed daughter of a Persian noble. She rapidly became an important member of Jahangir's court and, together with her brother Asaf Khan, wielded considerable influence. Arjumand was Asaf Khan's daughter and her marriage to Khurram consolidated Nur Jahan and Asaf Khan's positions in court.

Court intrigues, however, including Nur Jahan's decision to have her daughter from her first marriage wed Prince Khurram's youngest brother Shahzada Shahryar and her support for his claim to the throne led to much internal division. Prince Khurram resented the influence Nur Jahan held over his father and was angered at having to play second fiddle to her favourite Shahryar, his half-brother and her son-in-law. When the Persians besieged Kandahar, Nur Jahan was at the helm of the affairs. She ordered Prince Khurram to march for Kandahar, but he refused. As a result of Prince Khurram's refusal to obey Nur Jahan's orders, Kandahar was lost to the Persians after a forty-five-day siege.[47] Prince Khurram feared that in his absence Nur Jahan would attempt to poison his father against him and convince Jahangir to name Shahryar the heir in his place. This fear brought Prince Khurram to rebel against his father rather than fight against the Persians.

In 1622, Prince Khurram raised an army and marched against his father and Nur Jahan.[47] He was defeated at Bilochpur in March 1623. Later he took refuge in Udaipur Mewar with Maharana Karan Singh II. He was first lodged in Delwada Ki Haveli and subsequently shifted to Jagmandir Palace on his request. Prince Khurram exchanged his turban with the Maharana and that turban is still preserved in Pratap Museum, Udaipur (R V Somani 1976). It is believed that the mosaic work of Jagmandir inspired him to use mosaic work in the Taj Mahal of Agra. In November 1623, he found safe asylum in Bengal Subah after he was driven from Agra and the Deccan. He advanced through Midnapur and Burdwan. At Akbarnagar, he defeated and killed the then Subahdar of Bengal, Ibrahim Khan Fath-i-Jang, on 20 April 1624.[48] He entered Dhaka and "all the elephants, horses, and 4,000,000 rupees in specie belonging to the Government were delivered to him". After a short stay he then moved to Patna.[49]: 6  His rebellion did not succeed in the end and he was forced to submit unconditionally after he was defeated near Allahabad. Although the prince was forgiven for his errors in 1626, tensions between Nur Jahan and her stepson continued to grow beneath the surface.

Upon the death of Jahangir in 1627, the wazir Asaf Khan, who had long been a quiet partisan of Prince Khurram, acted with unexpected forcefulness and determination to forestall his sister's plans to place Prince Shahryar on the throne. He put Nur Jahan in close confinement. He obtained control of Prince Khurram's three sons who were under her charge. Asaf Khan also managed palace intrigues to ensure Prince Khurram's succession to the throne.[50] Prince Khurram succeeded to the Mughal throne as Abu ud-Muzaffar Shihab ud-Din Mohammad Sahib ud-Quiran ud-Thani Shah Jahan Padshah Ghazi (Urdu: شهاب الدین محمد خرم), or Shah Jahan.[51]

His regnal name is divided into various parts. Shihab ud-Din, meaning "Star of the Faith", Sahib al-Quiran ud-Thani, meaning "Second Lord of the Happy Conjunction of Jupiter and Venus". Shah Jahan, meaning "King of the World", alluding to his pride in his Timurid roots and his ambitions. More epithets showed his secular and religious duties. He was also Khalifat Panahi ("Refuge of the Caliphate"), but Zill-i Allahi, or the "Shadow of God on Earth".[citation needed]

His first act as ruler was to execute his chief rivals and imprison his stepmother Nur Jahan. Upon Shah Jahan's orders, several executions took place on 23 January 1628. Those put to death included his brother Shahryar; his nephews Dawar and Garshasp, sons of Shah Jahan's previously executed brother Prince Khusrau; and his cousins Tahmuras and Hoshang, sons of the late Prince Daniyal Mirza.[52][53] This allowed Shah Jahan to rule his empire without contention.

Reign

Administration of the Mughal Empire

 
Shah Jahan at his Durbar, from the Windsor Padshahnama, c. 1657
 
Shah Jahan the Great Mogul
 
Throne of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan of India, Red Fort, Delhi

Evidence from the reign of Shah Jahan states that in 1648 the army consisted of 911,400 infantry, musketeers, and artillery men, and 185,000 Sowars commanded by princes and nobles.

His cultural and political initial steps have been described as a type of the Timurid Renaissance, in which he built historical and political bonds with his Timurid heritage mainly via his numerous unsuccessful military campaigns on his ancestral region of Balkh. In various forms, Shah Jahan appropriated his Timurid background and grafted it onto his imperial legacy.[54]

During his reign the Marwari horse was introduced, becoming Shah Jahan's favorite, and various Mughal cannons were mass-produced in the Jaigarh Fort. Under his rule, the empire became a huge military machine and the nobles and their contingents multiplied almost fourfold, as did the demands for more revenue from their citizens. But due to his measures in the financial and commercial fields, it was a period of general stability—the administration was centralized and court affairs systematized.

The Mughal Empire continued to expand moderately during his reign as his sons commanded large armies on different fronts. India at the time was a rich center of the arts, crafts and architecture, and some of the best of the architects, artisans, craftsmen, painters and writers of the world resided in Shah Jahan's empire. According to economist Angus Maddison, Mughal-era India's share of global gross domestic product (GDP) grew from 22.7% in 1600 to 24.4% in 1700, surpassing China to become the world's largest.[55][56] E. Dewick and Murray Titus, quoting Badshahnama, write that 76 temples in Benares were demolished on Shah Jahan's orders.[57]

Famine of 1630

A famine broke out in 1630–32 in Deccan, Gujarat and Khandesh as a result of three main crop failures.[58] Two million died of starvation, grocers sold dogs' flesh and mixed powdered bones with flour. Parents ate their own children. Some villages were completely destroyed, their streets filled with human corpses. In response to the devastation, Shah Jahan set up langar (free kitchens) for the victims of the famine.[59]

Successful military campaigns against Deccan Sultanates

In 1632, Shah Jahan captured the fortress at Daulatabad, Maharashtra and imprisoned Husein Shah of the Nizam Shahi Kingdom of Ahmednagar. Golconda submitted in 1635 and then Bijapur in 1636. Shah Jahan appointed Aurangzeb as Viceroy of the Deccan, consisting of Khandesh, Berar, Telangana, and Daulatabad. During his viceroyalty, Aurangzeb conquered Baglana, then Golconda in 1656, and then Bijapur in 1657.[60]

Sikh rebellion led by Guru Hargobind

A rebellion of the Sikhs led by Guru Hargobind took place and in return, Shah Jahan ordered their destruction Although Guru Hargobind Shahib defeated Mughals army in Battle of Amritsar, Battle of Kartarpur, Battle of Rohilla, Battle of Lahira

Relations with the Safavid dynasty

 
Painting of Shah Jahan hunting Asiatic lions at Burhanpur, present-day Madhya Pradesh, from 1630

Shah Jahan and his sons captured the city of Kandahar in 1638 from the Safavids, prompting the retaliation of the Persians led by their ruler Abbas II of Persia, who recaptured it in 1649. The Mughal armies were unable to recapture it despite repeated sieges during the Mughal–Safavid War.[61] Shah Jahan also expanded the Mughal Empire to the west beyond the Khyber Pass to Ghazna and Kandahar.

Military Campaign in Central Asia

Shah Jahan launched an invasion of Central Asia in 1646-1647.[62]

Relations with the Ottoman Empire

Shah Jahan sent an embassy to the Ottoman court in 1637. Led by Mir Zarif, it reached Sultan Murad IV the following year, while he was encamped in Baghdad. Zarif presented him with fine gifts and a letter which encouraged an alliance against Safavid Persia. The Sultan sent a return embassy led by Arsalan Agha. Shah Jahan received the ambassador in June 1640. They exchanged lavish presents, but Shah Jahan was displeased with Sultan Murad's return letter, the tone of which he found discourteous. Sultan Murad's successor, Sultan Ibrahim, sent Shah Jahan another letter encouraging him to wage war against the Persians, but there is no record of a reply.[63]

War with Portuguese

Shah Jahan gave orders in 1631 to Qasim Khan, the Mughal viceroy of Bengal, to drive out the Portuguese from their trading post at Port Hoogly. The post was heavily armed with cannons, battleships, fortified walls, and other instruments of war.[64] The Portuguese were accused of trafficking by high Mughal officials and due to commercial competition the Mughal-controlled port of Saptagram began to slump. Shah Jahan was particularly outraged by the activities of Jesuits in that region, notably when they were accused of abducting peasants. On 25 September 1632, the Mughal Army raised imperial banners and gained control over the Bandel region, and the garrison was punished.[65] On 23 of December 1635, Shah Jahan issued a farman ordering the Agra Church to be demolished. The Church was occupied by the Portuguese Jesuits. However the Emperor allowed the Jesuits to conduct their religious ceremonies in privacy. He also banned the Jesuits in preaching their religion and making converts from both Hindus and Muslims.[66][67]

Indian Ocean fleet

By the reign of Shah Jahan the navy of the Mughal Empire was based at Kozhikode, ready to secure the Indian Ocean trade that was vital to the economy of India.

Ministers

Shah Jahan's treasurer was Sheikh Farid, who founded the city of Faridabad.

Revolts against Shah Jahan

The Kolis of Gujarat were most rebellious under the rule of Shah Jahan. In 1622, Shah Jahan sent Raja Vikramjit who was Governor of Gujarat to subdue the Kolis of Ahmedabad.[68] Between 1632 and 1635, four viceroys were appointed due to they could not manage the Koli activities well. Kolis of Kankrej in North Gujarat committed excesses and the Jam of Nawanagar did not paid the tribute. Soon Azam Khan was appointed who put the province in order by subduing the Kolis. Azam Khan marched against Koli rebels, When Ázam Khán reached Sidhpur, the merchants complained bitterly of the outrages of one Kánji, a Chunvalia Koli, who had been especially daring in plundering merchandise and committing highway robberies. Ázam Khán, anxious to start with a show of vigour, before proceeding to Áhmedábád, marched against Kánji, who fled to the village of Bhádar near Kheralu, sixty miles north-east of Áhmedábád. Ázam Khán pursued him so hotly that Kánji surrendered, handed over his plunder, and gave security not only that he would not again commit robberies, but that he would pay an annual tribute of Rupees 10,000. Ázam Khán then built two fortified posts in the Koli country, naming one Ázamábád after himself, and the other Khalílábád after his son and He also made the Jam of Nawanagar surrender.[69] The next viceroy Ísa Tarkhán carried out financial reforms. In 1644, the Mughal prince Aurangzeb was appointed as the viceroy who was engaged in religious disputes for destroying a Jain temple in Ahmedabad. Due to his disputes, he was replaced by Shaista Khan who failed to subdue Kolis. So the prince Murad Bakhsh was appointed as the viceroy in 1654. He restored the disorder soon and defeated the Koli rebels.[70]

Illness and death

 
Shah Jahan and his eldest son Dara Shikoh.

When Shah Jahan became ill in 1658, Dara Shikoh (Mumtaz Mahal's eldest son) assumed the role of regent in his father's stead, which swiftly incurred the animosity of his brothers.[71] Upon learning of his assumption of the regency, his younger brothers, Shuja, Viceroy of Bengal, and Murad Baksh, Viceroy of Gujarat, declared their independence and marched upon Agra in order to claim their riches. Aurangzeb, the third son, gathered a well-trained army and became its chief commander. He faced Dara's army near Agra and defeated him during the Battle of Samugarh.[72] Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb declared him incompetent to rule and put him under house arrest in Agra Fort.

Jahanara Begum Sahib, Mumtaz Mahal's eldest surviving daughter, voluntarily shared his 8-year confinement and nursed him in his dotage. In January 1666, Shah Jahan fell ill. Confined to bed, he became progressively weaker until, on 30 January, he commended the ladies of the imperial court, particularly his consort of later years Akbarabadi Mahal, to the care of Jahanara. After reciting the Kal'ma (Laa ilaaha ill allah) and verses from the Quran, Shah Jahan died, aged 74.

 
The Passing of Shah Jahan

Shah Jahan's chaplain Sayyid Muhammad Qanauji and Kazi Qurban of Agra came to the fort, moved his body to a nearby hall, washed it, enshrouded it, and put it in a coffin of sandalwood.[29]

Princess Jahanara had planned a state funeral which was to include a procession with Shah Jahan's body carried by eminent nobles followed by the notable citizens of Agra and officials scattering coins for the poor and needy. Aurangzeb refused to accommodate such ostentation. The body was taken to the Taj Mahal and was interred there next to the body of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal.[73]

 
The actual tombs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan in the lower level of Tajil Mahal

Contributions to architecture

 
Imperial Seals of Shah Jahan

Shah Jahan left behind a grand legacy of structures constructed during his reign. He was one of the greatest patrons of Mughal architecture.[74] His reign ushered in the golden age of Mughal architecture.[75] His most famous building was the Taj Mahal, which he built out of love for his wife, the empress Mumtaz Mahal. His relationship with Mumtaz Mahal has been heavily adapted into Indian art, literature and cinema. Shah Jahan personally owned the royal treasury, and several precious stones such as the Kohinoor.

Its structure was drawn with great care and architects from all over the world were called for this purpose. The building took twenty years to complete and was constructed from white marble underlaid with brick. Upon his death, his son Aurangzeb had him interred in it next to Mumtaz Mahal. Among his other constructions are the Red Fort also called the Delhi Fort or Lal Qila in Urdu, large sections of Agra Fort, the Jama Masjid, the Wazir Khan Mosque, the Moti Masjid, the Shalimar Gardens, sections of the Lahore Fort, the Mahabat Khan Mosque in Peshawar, the Mini Qutub Minar[76] in Hastsal, the Jahangir mausoleum—his father's tomb, the construction of which was overseen by his stepmother Nur Jahan and the Shahjahan Mosque. He also had the Peacock Throne, Takht e Taus, made to celebrate his rule. Shah Jahan also placed profound verses of the Quran on his masterpieces of architecture.[citation needed]

The Shah Jahan Mosque in Thatta, Sindh province of Pakistan (100 km / 60 miles from Karachi) was built during the reign of Shah Jahan in 1647. The mosque is built with red bricks with blue coloured glaze tiles probably imported from another Sindh's town of Hala. The mosque has overall 93 domes and it is the world's largest mosque having such a number of domes. It has been built keeping acoustics in mind. A person speaking inside one end of the dome can be heard at the other end when the speech exceeds 100 decibels. It has been on the tentative UNESCO World Heritage list since 1993.[77]

Coins

Shah Jahan continued striking coins in three metals i.e. gold (mohur), silver (rupee) and copper (dam). His pre-accession coins bear the name Khurram.

Styles of
Shah Jahan
 
Reference styleShahanshah
Spoken styleHis Imperial Majesty
Alternative styleAlam Pana

Issue

Children of Shah Jahan
Name Portrait Lifespan Notes
Parhez Banu Begum 21 August 1611 -
1675
Shah Jahan's first child born to his first wife, Kandahari Begum. Parhez Banu was her mother's only child and died unmarried.
Hur-ul-Nisa Begum 30 March 1613 -
5 June 1616
The first of fourteen children born to Shah Jahan's second wife, Mumtaz Mahal. She died of smallpox at the age of 3.[79]
Jahanara Begum
Padshah Begum
  23 March 1614 -
16 September 1681
Shah Jahan's favourite and most influential daughter. Jahanara became the First Lady (Padshah Begum) of the Mughal Empire after her mother's death, despite the fact that her father had three other consorts. She died unmarried.
Dara Shikoh
Padshahzada-i-Buzurg Martaba, Jalal ul-Kadir, Sultan Muhammad Dara Shikoh, Shah-i-Buland Iqbal
  20 March 1615 -
30 August 1659
The eldest son and heir-apparent. He was favoured as a successor by his father, Shah Jahan, and his elder sister, Princess Jahanara Begum, but was defeated and later killed by his younger brother, Prince Muhiuddin (later the Emperor Aurangzeb), in a bitter struggle for the imperial throne. He married and had an issue.
Shah Shuja   23 June 1616 -
7 February 1661
He survived in the war of succession. He married and had an issue.
Roshanara Begum
Padshah Begum
  3 September 1617 -
11 September 1671
She was the most influential of Shah Jahan's daughters after Jahanara Begum and sided with Aurangzeb during the war of succession. She died unmarried.
Aurangzeb
Mughal emperor
  3 November 1618 -
3 March 1707
Succeeded his father as the sixth Mughal emperor after emerging victorious in the war of succession that took place after Shah Jahan's illness in 1657.
Jahan Afroz 25 June 1619 -
March 1621
The only child of Shah Jahan's third wife, Izz-un-Nissa (titled Akbarabadi Mahal). Jahan Afroz died at the age of one year and nine months.[80]
Izad Bakhsh 18 December 1619 -
February/March 1621[81]
Died in infancy.
Surayya Banu Begum 10 June 1621 -
28 April 1628[81]
Died of smallpox at the age of 7.[79]
Unnamed son 1622 Died soon after birth.[81]
Murad Bakhsh   8 October 1624 -
14 December 1661
He was killed in 1661 as per Aurangzeb's orders.[79] He married and had issue.
Lutf Allah 4 November 1626 -
13 May 1628[81]
Died at the age of one and a half years.[79]
Daulat Afza 8 May 1628 -
13 May 1629[82]
Died in infancy.
Husnara Begum 23 April 1629 -
1630[81]
Died in infancy.
Gauhara Begum 17 June 1631 -
1706
Mumtaz Mahal died while giving birth to her on 17 June 1631 in Burhanpur. She died unmarried.
Purhanara Begum[citation needed] died After 1666 ?
Nazarara Begum[citation needed] ? ?

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ Shujauddin, Mohammad; Shujauddik, Razia (1967). The Life and Times of Noor Jahan. Lahore: Caravan Book House. p. 121. OCLC 638031657.
  2. ^ Necipoğlu, Gülru, ed. (1994). Muqarnas : an annual on Islamic art and architecture. Vol. 11. Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill. p. 143. ISBN 978-90-04-10070-1.
  3. ^ Fenech, Louis E. (2014). "The Evolution of the Sikh Community". In Singh, Pashaura; Fenech, Louis E. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies. Oxford University Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-19-969930-8. Jahangir's son, ponkua, better known as the emperor Shah Jahan the Architect
  4. ^ Singh, Pashaura; Fenech, Louis E., eds. (2014). "Index". The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies. Oxford University Press. p. 649. ISBN 978-0-19-969930-8. Shah Jahan, Emperor Shahabuddin Muhammad Khurram
  5. ^ Flood, Finbarr Barry; Necipoglu, Gulru (2017). A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture. John Wiley & Sons. p. 897. ISBN 978-1-119-06857-0.
  6. ^ Illustrated dictionary of the Muslim world. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Reference. 2011. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-7614-7929-1.
  7. ^ Richards 1993, Shah Jahan, pp. 121–122.
  8. ^ "Shah Jahan". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  9. ^ a b Findly 1993, p. 125
  10. ^ Jahangir (1999). The Jahangirnama: Memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India. Translated by Thackston, W. M. Oxford University Press. p. 30. ISBN 0-19-512718-8.
  11. ^ Eraly 2000, p. 299
  12. ^ Jahangir (1999). The Jahangirnama: Memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India. Translated by Thackston, W. M. Oxford University Press. p. 46. ISBN 0-19-512718-8.
  13. ^ Kamboh, Muhammad Saleh. Amal I Salih. During her stay at Fatehpur, the mother of Shah Jahan, Hazrat Bilqis Makani, a resident of Agra became ill. The treatment did not work. Finally, on 4th Jamadi-ul-Awal, she passed away and according to her will, she was buried at Dehra Bagh, near Noor Manzil.
  14. ^ Perston, Diana; Perston, Micheal. A Teardrop on the Cheek of Time: The Story of the Taj Mahal. Although removed from his mother at birth, Shah Jahan had become devoted to her.
  15. ^ Lal, Muni (1986). Shah Jahan. Vikas Publishing House. p. 52.
  16. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena (1932). History Of Shahjahan Of Dihli 1932. Indian Press Limited.
  17. ^ Saiyada Asad Alī (2000). Influence of Islam on Hindi Literature. Idarah-i-Adabiyat-Delli. p. 48.
  18. ^ a b Qazvini, Asad Beg; Mughal-era historian
  19. ^ Prasad 1930, p. 189 "During his grandfather's last illness, he [Khurram] refused to leave the bedside surrounded by his enemies. Neither the advice of his father nor the entreaties of his mother could prevail on him to prefer the safety of his life to his last duty to the father."
  20. ^ Nicoll 2009, p. 49
  21. ^ Faruqui, Munis D. (2012). The Princes of the Mughal Empire, 1504–1719. Cambridge University Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-107-02217-1.
  22. ^ Nicoll 2009, p. 56
  23. ^ Emperor, Jahangir (1999). The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp. 61. ISBN 9780195127188.
  24. ^ Emperor, Jahangir (1999). The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp. 84. ISBN 9780195127188.
  25. ^ Emperor, Jahangir (1999). The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp. 81. ISBN 9780195127188.
  26. ^ Prasad 1930, p. 190 "Khusrau conspired, rebelled, and lost the favour of his father ... Of all the sons of Jahangir, Khurram was marked out to be the heir-apparent and successor ... In 1608 the assignment of the sarkar of Hissar Firoz to him proclaimed to the world that he was intended for the throne.
  27. ^ Nicoll 2009, p. 66
  28. ^ Eraly 2000, p. 300
  29. ^ a b Eraly 2000, p. 379
  30. ^ Kumar, Anant (January–June 2014). "Monument of Love or Symbol of Maternal Death: The Story Behind the Taj Mahal". Case Reports in Women's Health. 1: 4–7. doi:10.1016/j.crwh.2014.07.001. Retrieved 21 December 2015.
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  32. ^ The Mertiyo Rathors of Merta, Rajasthan. Vol. II. p. 45.
  33. ^ Constable, Archibald, ed. (1916), "Begum Saheb", Travels in Mogul India, Oxford University Press, p. 11
  34. ^ Saksena, ed. (1932), "The Charge of Incest", History of Shahjahan of Dihli, The Indian press ltd, Allahabad, p. 339
  35. ^ Irvine, William, ed. (1907), "Begum Saheb", Storia Do Mogor Vol 1, Oxford University press, pp. 216–217.
  36. ^ Lal, Kishori Saran, ed. (1988), "The Charge of Incest", The Mughal Harem, Adithya Prakashan, pp. 93–94
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  38. ^ Prasad 1930, p. 239 "Constant skirmishes were thinning the Rajput ranks ... [Amar Singh] offered to recognize Mughal supremacy ... Jahangir gladly and unreservedly accepted the terms."
  39. ^ Emperor, Jahangir (1999). The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp. 116. ISBN 9780195127188.
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  49. ^ Hossain, Syud (1909). Echoes from Old Dacca. Edinburgh Press.
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  54. ^ Sufism and Society: Arrangements of the Mystical in the Muslim World, 1200–1800 edited by John Curry, Erik Ohlander, Page 141
  55. ^ Maddison, Angus (2006). The World Economy Volumes 1–2. Development Center of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. p. 639. doi:10.1787/456125276116. ISBN 92-64-02261-9.
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Bibliography

External links

  • Shah Jehan in Christian Art
  • Shah Jahan's 353rd death anniversary observed at Taj Mahal at TwoCircles.net
  • History of Islam in India at IndiaNest.com
  • Shah Jahan's Coin Database
  • Shah Jahan
Shah Jahan
Born: 5 January 1592 Died: 22 January 1666
Regnal titles
Preceded by Mughal Emperor
1627–1658
Succeeded by

shah, jahan, confused, with, jahan, shah, other, people, named, disambiguation, shihab, muhammad, khurram, january, 1592, january, 1666, also, known, architect, persian, شاه, جهان, persian, pronunciation, ʃɑːh, ʒahɑːn, king, world, fifth, emperor, mughal, empi. Not to be confused with Jahan Shah For other people named Shah Jahan see Shah Jahan disambiguation Shihab ud Din Muhammad Khurram 5 January 1592 22 January 1666 also known as Shah Jahan the Architect Persian شاه جهان Persian pronunciation ʃɑːh d ʒahɑːn lit King of the World was the fifth emperor of the Mughal Empire reigning from January 1628 until July 1658 Under his emperorship the Mughals reached the peak of their architectural achievements and cultural glory Shah JahanPortrait of Shah Jahan by Bichitr c 16305th Emperor of the Mughal EmpireReign19 January 1628 31 July 1658 1 Coronation14 February 1628 2 AgraPredecessorShahriyar de facto Jahangir ISuccessorAurangzebBornKhurram 3 1592 01 05 5 January 1592Lahore Fort Lahore Mughal EmpireDied22 January 1666 1666 01 22 aged 74 Agra Fort Agra Mughal EmpireBurialTaj Mahal AgraConsortMumtaz Mahal m 1612 died 1631 wbr WivesQandahari Mahal m 1610 wbr Akbarabadi Mahal m 1617 wbr Lilavati Bai of KharwaFatehpuri MahalIssueamong others Parhez BanuHur un NisaJahanaraDara ShikohShah ShujaRoshanaraAurangzebMurad BakhshGauhararaNamesShihab ud Din Muhammad Khurram Shah Jahan 4 Regnal nameShah Jahan 5 Posthumous nameFirduas Ashiyani lit One who nest in Paradise HouseHouse of BaburDynastyTimurid dynastyFatherJahangir IMotherBilqis MakaniReligionSunni Islam Hanafi Royal SealThe third son of Jahangir r 1605 1627 Shah Jahan participated in the military campaigns against the Rajputs of Mewar and the Lodis of Deccan After Jahangir s death in October 1627 Shah Jahan defeated his youngest brother Shahryar Mirza and crowned himself emperor in the Agra Fort In addition to Shahryar Shah Jahan executed most of his rival claimants to the throne He commissioned many monuments including the Red Fort Shah Jahan Mosque and the Taj Mahal where his favorite wife Mumtaz Mahal is entombed In foreign affairs Shah Jahan presided over the aggressive campaigns against the Deccan Sultanates the conflicts with the Portuguese and the wars with Safavids He also suppressed several local rebellions and dealt with the devastating Deccan famine of 1630 32 In September 1657 Shah Jahan was ailing from an illness and he appointed his eldest son Dara Shikoh as his successor This nomination led to a succession crisis among his three sons after which Shah Jahan s third son Aurangzeb r 1658 1707 emerged victorious and became the sixth emperor executing all of his surviving brothers including Crown Prince Dara Shikoh After Shah Jahan returned from illness in July 1658 Aurangzeb imprisoned his father in the Agra Fort from July 1658 until his death in January 1666 6 He was laid to rest next to his wife in the Taj Mahal His reign is known for doing away with the liberal policies initiated by Akbar During Shah Jahan s time Islamic revivalist movements like the Naqsbandi began to shape Mughal policies 7 Contents 1 Early life 1 1 Birth and background 1 2 Education 1 3 Khusrau rebellion 1 4 Nur Jahan 2 Marriages 2 1 Accusation of incest 3 Early military campaigns 4 Rebel prince 5 Reign 5 1 Administration of the Mughal Empire 5 2 Famine of 1630 5 3 Successful military campaigns against Deccan Sultanates 5 4 Sikh rebellion led by Guru Hargobind 5 5 Relations with the Safavid dynasty 5 6 Military Campaign in Central Asia 5 7 Relations with the Ottoman Empire 5 8 War with Portuguese 5 9 Indian Ocean fleet 5 10 Ministers 6 Revolts against Shah Jahan 7 Illness and death 8 Contributions to architecture 9 Coins 10 Issue 11 See also 12 References 12 1 Notes 12 2 Bibliography 13 External linksEarly life EditBirth and background Edit He was born on 5 January 1592 in Lahore present day Pakistan as the ninth child and third son of Prince Salim later known as Jahangir upon his accession by his wife Jagat Gosain 8 9 The name Khurram Persian خرم lit joyous was chosen for the young prince by his grandfather Emperor Akbar with whom the young prince shared a close relationship 9 Jahangir stated that Akbar was very fond of Khurram and had often told him There is no comparison between him and your other sons I consider him my true son 10 When Khurram was born Akbar considering him to be auspicious insisted the prince be raised in his household rather than Salim s and was thus entrusted to the care of Ruqaiya Sultan Begum Ruqaiya assumed the primary responsibility for raising Khurram 11 and is noted to have raised Khurram affectionately Jahangir noted in his memoirs that Ruqaiya had loved his son Khurram a thousand times more than if he had been her own son 12 However after the death of his grandfather Akbar in 1605 he returned to the care of his mother Jagat Gosain whom he cared for and loved immensely Although separated from her at birth he had become devoted to her and had her addressed as Hazrat in court chronicles 13 14 On the death of Jagat Gosain in Akbarabad on 8 April 1619 he is recorded to be inconsolable by Jahangir and mourned for 21 days For these three weeks of the mourning period he attended no public meetings and subsisted on simple vegetarian meals His consort Mumtaz Mahal personally supervised the distribution of food to the poor during this period She led the recitation of the Quran every morning and gave her husband many lessons on the substance of life and death and begged him not to grieve 15 Education Edit As a child Khurram received a broad education befitting his status as a Mughal prince which included martial training and exposure to a wide variety of cultural arts such as poetry and music most of which was inculcated according to court chroniclers by Jahangir According to his chronicler Qazvini prince Khurram was only familiar with a few Turki words and showed little interest in the study of the language as a child 16 Khurram was attracted to Hindi literature since his childhood and his Hindi letters were mentioned in his father s biography Tuzuk e Jahangiri 17 In 1605 as Akbar lay on his deathbed Khurram who at this point of time was 13 18 full citation needed remained by his bedside and refused to move even after his mother tried to retrieve him Given the politically uncertain times immediately preceding Akbar s death Khurram was in a fair amount of physical danger from political opponents of his father 19 He was at last ordered to return to his quarters by the senior women of his grandfather s household namely Salima Sultan Begum and his grandmother Mariam uz Zamani as the health of Akbar deteriorated 20 Khusrau rebellion Edit In 1605 his father succeeded to the throne after crushing a rebellion by Prince Khusrau Khurram remained distant from court politics and intrigues in the immediate aftermath of that event citation needed Khurram left Ruqaiya s care and returned to his mother s care 21 As the third son Khurram did not challenge the two major power blocs of the time his father s and his half brother s thus he enjoyed the benefits of imperial protection and luxury while being allowed to continue with his education and training This relatively quiet and stable period of his life allowed Khurram to build his own support base in the Mughal court which would be useful later on in his life 22 Jahangir assigned Khurram to guard the palace and treasury while he went to pursue Khusrau He was later ordered to bring Mariam uz Zamani who was his grandmother and Jahangir s harem to him 23 During Khusrau s second rebellion Khurram s informants informed him about Fatehullah Nuruddin and Muhammad Sharif gathered around 500 men at Khusrau s instigation and lay await for the Emperor Khurram relayed this information to Jahangir who praised him 24 Jahangir had Khurram weighed against gold silver and other wealth at his mansion at Orta 25 Nur Jahan Edit Due to the long period of tensions between his father and his half brother Khusrau Mirza Khurram began to drift closer to his father and over time started to be considered the de facto heir apparent by court chroniclers This status was given official sanction when Jahangir granted the sarkar of Hissar Feroza which had traditionally been the fief of the heir apparent to Khurram in 1608 26 Nur Jahan gradually after her marriage to Jahangir in the year 1611 became an active participant in the decisions made by Jahangir Slowly while Jahangir became more indulgent in wine and opium she was considered to be the actual power behind the throne Her near and dear relatives acquired important positions in the Mughal court termed the Nur Jahan junta by historians Khurram was in constant conflict with his stepmother Nur Jahan who favoured her son in law Shahryar Mirza for the succession to the Mughal throne over him She tried to weaken his position in the Mughal court by sending him on campaigns far in Deccan while ensuring several favours were being bestowed on her son in law Khurram after sensing the danger posed to his status as heir apparent rebelled against his father in 1622 but did not succeed and eventually lost the favour of his father A year before Jahangir s death in 1627 coins began to be struck containing Nur Jahan s name along with Jahangir s name After the death of Jahangir in 1627 a feud followed between Khurram and his half brother Shahryar Mirza for the succession to the Mughal throne Khurram won the battle of succession and became the fifth Mughal Emperor Nur Jahan was subsequently deprived of her imperial stature privileges and economic grants and was put under house arrest on the orders of Khurram and led a quiet life till her death Marriages EditIn 1607 Khurram became engaged to Arjumand Banu Begum 1593 1631 who is also known as Mumtaz Mahal Persian for the chosen one of the Palace They were about 14 and 15 when they were engaged and five years later got married The young girl belonged to an illustrious Persian noble family that had been serving Mughal emperors since the reign of Akbar The family s patriarch was Mirza Ghiyas Beg who was also known by his title I timad ud Daulah or Pillar of the State He had been Jahangir s finance minister and his son Asaf Khan Arjumand Banu s father played an important role in the Mughal court eventually serving as Chief Minister Her aunt Mehr un Nissa later became the Empress Nur Jahan chief wife of Emperor Jahangir 27 The prince would have to wait five years before he was married in 1612 1021 AH on a date selected by the court astrologers as most conducive to ensuring a happy marriage This was an unusually long engagement for the time However Shah Jahan first married Princess Kandahari Begum the daughter of a great grandson of Shah Ismail I of Persia with whom he had a daughter his first child 28 Shah Jahan accompanied by his three sons Dara Shikoh Shah Shuja and Aurangzeb and their maternal grandfather Asaf Khan IV In 1612 aged 20 Khurram married Arjumand Banu Begum who became known by the title Mumtaz Mahal on the auspicious date chosen by court astrologers The marriage was a happy one and Khurram remained devoted to her She bore him fourteen children out of whom seven survived into adulthood Though there was genuine love between the two Arjumand Banu Begum was a politically astute woman and served as a crucial advisor and confidante to her husband 29 Later on as empress Mumtaz Mahal wielded immense power such as being consulted by her husband in state matters and being responsible for the imperial seal which allowed her to review official documents in their final draft citation needed The Taj Mahal the burial place of Shah Jahan and his wife Mumtaz Mahal Mumtaz Mahal died at age 38 7 June 1631 while giving birth to Gauhar Ara Begum in Burhanpur She died of a postpartum haemorrhage which caused considerable blood loss after painful labor of thirty hours 30 Contemporary historians note that Princess Jahanara aged 17 was so distressed by her mother s pain that she started distributing gems to the poor hoping for divine intervention and Shah Jahan was noted as being paralysed by grief and weeping fits 31 Her body was temporarily buried in a walled pleasure garden known as Zainabad originally constructed by Shah Jahan s uncle Prince Daniyal along the Tapti River Her death had a profound impact on Shah Jahan s personality and inspired the construction of the Taj Mahal where she was later reburied citation needed In the intervening years Khurram had taken other wives among which are Kandahari Begum m 28 October 1610 and Izz un Nisa Begum m 2 September 1617 the daughters of Muzaffar Husain Mirza Safawi and Shahnawaz Khan son of Abdul Rahim Khan I Khana respectively But according to court chroniclers his relationship with his other wives was more out of political consideration and they enjoyed only the status of being royal wives 18 Khurram is also recorded to have married his maternal half cousin Lilavati Bai daughter of Sakat Singh Rathore of Kharwa The marriage took place when Khurram was in rebellion against his father Jahangir 32 Accusation of incest Edit Francois Bernier a French physician who visited India from 1659 to 1668 records the relationship of Shah Jahan with Jahanara Begum exceeded basic decency that it was rumoured that they were in an incestuous relationship 33 Similar such claims are also alleged by De laet Peter Mundy and Tavernier Based on this Historian Vincent Smith also argues for the same thing But as Historian B P Saksena shows there is no support for such a claim 34 Niccolao Manucci who was a contemporary of Bernier who otherwise talks freely about the aberrations and love affairs of Jahanara repudiates his charge of incest and says She Jahanara served him with great diligence and love in order that her father should accede to her petitions To marry It was from this cause that the Common people hinted that she had intercourse with her father and this gave occasion to Monsieur Bernier to write a lot of things about this princess founded entirely on the talks of Low people 35 Further Manucci also says that what Bernier writes was also untrue As asserted by Historian K S Lal the rumour was fed by the malice of the courtiers and the verdict of the Mullas Aurangzeb s confining of Jahanara in the Agra Fort with the Royal prisoner and the talk of the low people All these circumstances point to Aurangzeb s involvement in magnifying a rumour into a full fledged scandal Right from the beginning the relations between Dara and Aurangzeb were not cordial and Jahanara was a partisan of Dara During the war of Succession The nobles and courtiers had been divided into two camps in support of the two princes When Aurangzeb won the throne the number of his supporters swelled Mullas were also close to Aurangzeb It was thus possible that with the verdict of the Maulanas Aurengzeb was seeking to destroy the images of both Shah Jahan and Jahanara at the same time 36 Early military campaigns Edit The Submission of Rana Amar Singh of Mewar to Prince Khurram Tuzk e Jahangiri Prince Khurram showed extraordinary military talent The first occasion for Khurram to test his military prowess was during the Mughal campaign against the Rajput state of Mewar which had been a hostile force to the Mughals since Akbar s reign In December 1613 at an auspicious hour Prince Khurram was adorned with various including the and sent to Mewar 37 After a year of a harsh war of attrition Rana Amar Singh I surrendered conditionally to the Mughal forces and became a vassal state of the Mughal Empire 38 In 1615 Khurram presented Kunwar Karan Singh Amar Singh s heir to Jahangir Khurram was sent to pay homage to his mother and stepmothers and was later awarded by Jahangir 39 The same year his mansab was increased from 12000 6000 to 15000 7000 to equal that his brother Parvez s and was further increased to 20000 10000 in 1616 40 41 In 1616 on Khurram s departure to Deccan Jahangir awarded him the title Shah Sultan Khurram 42 In 1617 Khurram was directed to deal with the Lodis in the Deccan to secure the Empire s southern borders and to restore imperial control over the region On his return 1617 after successes in these campaigns Khurram performed koronush before Jahangir who called him to jharoka and rose from his seat to embrace him Jahangir also granting him the title of Shah Jahan Persian King of the World 43 and raised his military rank to 30000 20000 and allowed him a special throne in his Durbar an unprecedented honor for a prince 44 Edward S Holden writes He was flattered by some envied by others loved by none 45 In 1618 Shah Jahan was given the first copy of Jahangirnama by his father who considered him the first of all my sons in everything 46 Rebel prince Edit Shah Jahan on horseback during his youth Inheritance of food and water in the Mughal Empire was not determined through Coparcenary but by princely sons competing to achieve military successes and consolidating their power at court This often led to rebellions and wars of succession As a result a complex political climate surrounded the Mughal court in Khurram s formative years In 1611 his father married Nur Jahan the widowed daughter of a Persian noble She rapidly became an important member of Jahangir s court and together with her brother Asaf Khan wielded considerable influence Arjumand was Asaf Khan s daughter and her marriage to Khurram consolidated Nur Jahan and Asaf Khan s positions in court Court intrigues however including Nur Jahan s decision to have her daughter from her first marriage wed Prince Khurram s youngest brother Shahzada Shahryar and her support for his claim to the throne led to much internal division Prince Khurram resented the influence Nur Jahan held over his father and was angered at having to play second fiddle to her favourite Shahryar his half brother and her son in law When the Persians besieged Kandahar Nur Jahan was at the helm of the affairs She ordered Prince Khurram to march for Kandahar but he refused As a result of Prince Khurram s refusal to obey Nur Jahan s orders Kandahar was lost to the Persians after a forty five day siege 47 Prince Khurram feared that in his absence Nur Jahan would attempt to poison his father against him and convince Jahangir to name Shahryar the heir in his place This fear brought Prince Khurram to rebel against his father rather than fight against the Persians In 1622 Prince Khurram raised an army and marched against his father and Nur Jahan 47 He was defeated at Bilochpur in March 1623 Later he took refuge in Udaipur Mewar with Maharana Karan Singh II He was first lodged in Delwada Ki Haveli and subsequently shifted to Jagmandir Palace on his request Prince Khurram exchanged his turban with the Maharana and that turban is still preserved in Pratap Museum Udaipur R V Somani 1976 It is believed that the mosaic work of Jagmandir inspired him to use mosaic work in the Taj Mahal of Agra In November 1623 he found safe asylum in Bengal Subah after he was driven from Agra and the Deccan He advanced through Midnapur and Burdwan At Akbarnagar he defeated and killed the then Subahdar of Bengal Ibrahim Khan Fath i Jang on 20 April 1624 48 He entered Dhaka and all the elephants horses and 4 000 000 rupees in specie belonging to the Government were delivered to him After a short stay he then moved to Patna 49 6 His rebellion did not succeed in the end and he was forced to submit unconditionally after he was defeated near Allahabad Although the prince was forgiven for his errors in 1626 tensions between Nur Jahan and her stepson continued to grow beneath the surface Upon the death of Jahangir in 1627 the wazir Asaf Khan who had long been a quiet partisan of Prince Khurram acted with unexpected forcefulness and determination to forestall his sister s plans to place Prince Shahryar on the throne He put Nur Jahan in close confinement He obtained control of Prince Khurram s three sons who were under her charge Asaf Khan also managed palace intrigues to ensure Prince Khurram s succession to the throne 50 Prince Khurram succeeded to the Mughal throne as Abu ud Muzaffar Shihab ud Din Mohammad Sahib ud Quiran ud Thani Shah Jahan Padshah Ghazi Urdu شهاب الدین محمد خرم or Shah Jahan 51 His regnal name is divided into various parts Shihab ud Din meaning Star of the Faith Sahib al Quiran ud Thani meaning Second Lord of the Happy Conjunction of Jupiter and Venus Shah Jahan meaning King of the World alluding to his pride in his Timurid roots and his ambitions More epithets showed his secular and religious duties He was also Khalifat Panahi Refuge of the Caliphate but Zill i Allahi or the Shadow of God on Earth citation needed His first act as ruler was to execute his chief rivals and imprison his stepmother Nur Jahan Upon Shah Jahan s orders several executions took place on 23 January 1628 Those put to death included his brother Shahryar his nephews Dawar and Garshasp sons of Shah Jahan s previously executed brother Prince Khusrau and his cousins Tahmuras and Hoshang sons of the late Prince Daniyal Mirza 52 53 This allowed Shah Jahan to rule his empire without contention Reign EditAdministration of the Mughal Empire Edit Shah Jahan at his Durbar from the Windsor Padshahnama c 1657 Shah Jahan the Great Mogul Throne of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan of India Red Fort Delhi Evidence from the reign of Shah Jahan states that in 1648 the army consisted of 911 400 infantry musketeers and artillery men and 185 000 Sowars commanded by princes and nobles His cultural and political initial steps have been described as a type of the Timurid Renaissance in which he built historical and political bonds with his Timurid heritage mainly via his numerous unsuccessful military campaigns on his ancestral region of Balkh In various forms Shah Jahan appropriated his Timurid background and grafted it onto his imperial legacy 54 During his reign the Marwari horse was introduced becoming Shah Jahan s favorite and various Mughal cannons were mass produced in the Jaigarh Fort Under his rule the empire became a huge military machine and the nobles and their contingents multiplied almost fourfold as did the demands for more revenue from their citizens But due to his measures in the financial and commercial fields it was a period of general stability the administration was centralized and court affairs systematized The Mughal Empire continued to expand moderately during his reign as his sons commanded large armies on different fronts India at the time was a rich center of the arts crafts and architecture and some of the best of the architects artisans craftsmen painters and writers of the world resided in Shah Jahan s empire According to economist Angus Maddison Mughal era India s share of global gross domestic product GDP grew from 22 7 in 1600 to 24 4 in 1700 surpassing China to become the world s largest 55 56 E Dewick and Murray Titus quoting Badshahnama write that 76 temples in Benares were demolished on Shah Jahan s orders 57 Famine of 1630 Edit Main article Deccan famine of 1630 32 A famine broke out in 1630 32 in Deccan Gujarat and Khandesh as a result of three main crop failures 58 Two million died of starvation grocers sold dogs flesh and mixed powdered bones with flour Parents ate their own children Some villages were completely destroyed their streets filled with human corpses In response to the devastation Shah Jahan set up langar free kitchens for the victims of the famine 59 Successful military campaigns against Deccan Sultanates Edit In 1632 Shah Jahan captured the fortress at Daulatabad Maharashtra and imprisoned Husein Shah of the Nizam Shahi Kingdom of Ahmednagar Golconda submitted in 1635 and then Bijapur in 1636 Shah Jahan appointed Aurangzeb as Viceroy of the Deccan consisting of Khandesh Berar Telangana and Daulatabad During his viceroyalty Aurangzeb conquered Baglana then Golconda in 1656 and then Bijapur in 1657 60 Sikh rebellion led by Guru Hargobind Edit A rebellion of the Sikhs led by Guru Hargobind took place and in return Shah Jahan ordered their destruction Although Guru Hargobind Shahib defeated Mughals army in Battle of Amritsar Battle of Kartarpur Battle of Rohilla Battle of Lahira Relations with the Safavid dynasty Edit Painting of Shah Jahan hunting Asiatic lions at Burhanpur present day Madhya Pradesh from 1630 Shah Jahan and his sons captured the city of Kandahar in 1638 from the Safavids prompting the retaliation of the Persians led by their ruler Abbas II of Persia who recaptured it in 1649 The Mughal armies were unable to recapture it despite repeated sieges during the Mughal Safavid War 61 Shah Jahan also expanded the Mughal Empire to the west beyond the Khyber Pass to Ghazna and Kandahar Military Campaign in Central Asia Edit Shah Jahan launched an invasion of Central Asia in 1646 1647 62 Relations with the Ottoman Empire Edit Shah Jahan sent an embassy to the Ottoman court in 1637 Led by Mir Zarif it reached Sultan Murad IV the following year while he was encamped in Baghdad Zarif presented him with fine gifts and a letter which encouraged an alliance against Safavid Persia The Sultan sent a return embassy led by Arsalan Agha Shah Jahan received the ambassador in June 1640 They exchanged lavish presents but Shah Jahan was displeased with Sultan Murad s return letter the tone of which he found discourteous Sultan Murad s successor Sultan Ibrahim sent Shah Jahan another letter encouraging him to wage war against the Persians but there is no record of a reply 63 War with Portuguese Edit Shah Jahan gave orders in 1631 to Qasim Khan the Mughal viceroy of Bengal to drive out the Portuguese from their trading post at Port Hoogly The post was heavily armed with cannons battleships fortified walls and other instruments of war 64 The Portuguese were accused of trafficking by high Mughal officials and due to commercial competition the Mughal controlled port of Saptagram began to slump Shah Jahan was particularly outraged by the activities of Jesuits in that region notably when they were accused of abducting peasants On 25 September 1632 the Mughal Army raised imperial banners and gained control over the Bandel region and the garrison was punished 65 On 23 of December 1635 Shah Jahan issued a farman ordering the Agra Church to be demolished The Church was occupied by the Portuguese Jesuits However the Emperor allowed the Jesuits to conduct their religious ceremonies in privacy He also banned the Jesuits in preaching their religion and making converts from both Hindus and Muslims 66 67 Indian Ocean fleet Edit By the reign of Shah Jahan the navy of the Mughal Empire was based at Kozhikode ready to secure the Indian Ocean trade that was vital to the economy of India Ministers Edit Shah Jahan s treasurer was Sheikh Farid who founded the city of Faridabad Revolts against Shah Jahan EditThe Kolis of Gujarat were most rebellious under the rule of Shah Jahan In 1622 Shah Jahan sent Raja Vikramjit who was Governor of Gujarat to subdue the Kolis of Ahmedabad 68 Between 1632 and 1635 four viceroys were appointed due to they could not manage the Koli activities well Kolis of Kankrej in North Gujarat committed excesses and the Jam of Nawanagar did not paid the tribute Soon Azam Khan was appointed who put the province in order by subduing the Kolis Azam Khan marched against Koli rebels When Azam Khan reached Sidhpur the merchants complained bitterly of the outrages of one Kanji a Chunvalia Koli who had been especially daring in plundering merchandise and committing highway robberies Azam Khan anxious to start with a show of vigour before proceeding to Ahmedabad marched against Kanji who fled to the village of Bhadar near Kheralu sixty miles north east of Ahmedabad Azam Khan pursued him so hotly that Kanji surrendered handed over his plunder and gave security not only that he would not again commit robberies but that he would pay an annual tribute of Rupees 10 000 Azam Khan then built two fortified posts in the Koli country naming one Azamabad after himself and the other Khalilabad after his son and He also made the Jam of Nawanagar surrender 69 The next viceroy Isa Tarkhan carried out financial reforms In 1644 the Mughal prince Aurangzeb was appointed as the viceroy who was engaged in religious disputes for destroying a Jain temple in Ahmedabad Due to his disputes he was replaced by Shaista Khan who failed to subdue Kolis So the prince Murad Bakhsh was appointed as the viceroy in 1654 He restored the disorder soon and defeated the Koli rebels 70 Illness and death Edit Shah Jahan and his eldest son Dara Shikoh When Shah Jahan became ill in 1658 Dara Shikoh Mumtaz Mahal s eldest son assumed the role of regent in his father s stead which swiftly incurred the animosity of his brothers 71 Upon learning of his assumption of the regency his younger brothers Shuja Viceroy of Bengal and Murad Baksh Viceroy of Gujarat declared their independence and marched upon Agra in order to claim their riches Aurangzeb the third son gathered a well trained army and became its chief commander He faced Dara s army near Agra and defeated him during the Battle of Samugarh 72 Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness Aurangzeb declared him incompetent to rule and put him under house arrest in Agra Fort Jahanara Begum Sahib Mumtaz Mahal s eldest surviving daughter voluntarily shared his 8 year confinement and nursed him in his dotage In January 1666 Shah Jahan fell ill Confined to bed he became progressively weaker until on 30 January he commended the ladies of the imperial court particularly his consort of later years Akbarabadi Mahal to the care of Jahanara After reciting the Kal ma Laa ilaaha ill allah and verses from the Quran Shah Jahan died aged 74 The Passing of Shah Jahan Shah Jahan s chaplain Sayyid Muhammad Qanauji and Kazi Qurban of Agra came to the fort moved his body to a nearby hall washed it enshrouded it and put it in a coffin of sandalwood 29 Princess Jahanara had planned a state funeral which was to include a procession with Shah Jahan s body carried by eminent nobles followed by the notable citizens of Agra and officials scattering coins for the poor and needy Aurangzeb refused to accommodate such ostentation The body was taken to the Taj Mahal and was interred there next to the body of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal 73 The actual tombs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan in the lower level of Tajil MahalContributions to architecture Edit Imperial Seals of Shah Jahan Shah Jahan left behind a grand legacy of structures constructed during his reign He was one of the greatest patrons of Mughal architecture 74 His reign ushered in the golden age of Mughal architecture 75 His most famous building was the Taj Mahal which he built out of love for his wife the empress Mumtaz Mahal His relationship with Mumtaz Mahal has been heavily adapted into Indian art literature and cinema Shah Jahan personally owned the royal treasury and several precious stones such as the Kohinoor Its structure was drawn with great care and architects from all over the world were called for this purpose The building took twenty years to complete and was constructed from white marble underlaid with brick Upon his death his son Aurangzeb had him interred in it next to Mumtaz Mahal Among his other constructions are the Red Fort also called the Delhi Fort or Lal Qila in Urdu large sections of Agra Fort the Jama Masjid the Wazir Khan Mosque the Moti Masjid the Shalimar Gardens sections of the Lahore Fort the Mahabat Khan Mosque in Peshawar the Mini Qutub Minar 76 in Hastsal the Jahangir mausoleum his father s tomb the construction of which was overseen by his stepmother Nur Jahan and the Shahjahan Mosque He also had the Peacock Throne Takht e Taus made to celebrate his rule Shah Jahan also placed profound verses of the Quran on his masterpieces of architecture citation needed The Shah Jahan Mosque in Thatta Sindh province of Pakistan 100 km 60 miles from Karachi was built during the reign of Shah Jahan in 1647 The mosque is built with red bricks with blue coloured glaze tiles probably imported from another Sindh s town of Hala The mosque has overall 93 domes and it is the world s largest mosque having such a number of domes It has been built keeping acoustics in mind A person speaking inside one end of the dome can be heard at the other end when the speech exceeds 100 decibels It has been on the tentative UNESCO World Heritage list since 1993 77 Red Fort The elegant Naulakha Pavilion at the Lahore Fort was built during the reign of Shah Jahan Agra Fort Shah Jahan and the Mughal Army return after attending a congregation in the Jama Masjid Delhi Lahore s Wazir Khan Mosque is considered to be the most ornate Mughal era mosque 78 Moti Masjid Red Fort Finial Tamga of the Mughal Empire combining a crescent and a spear pendant with the word Allah Coins EditShah Jahan continued striking coins in three metals i e gold mohur silver rupee and copper dam His pre accession coins bear the name Khurram Gold Mohur from Akbarabad Agra Silver rupee coin of Shah Jahan from Patna Copper Dam from Daryakot mint Silver Rupee from MultanStyles of Shah Jahan Reference styleShahanshahSpoken styleHis Imperial MajestyAlternative styleAlam PanaIssue EditChildren of Shah JahanThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Shah Jahan news newspapers books scholar JSTOR January 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Name Portrait Lifespan NotesParhez Banu Begum 21 August 1611 1675 Shah Jahan s first child born to his first wife Kandahari Begum Parhez Banu was her mother s only child and died unmarried Hur ul Nisa Begum 30 March 1613 5 June 1616 The first of fourteen children born to Shah Jahan s second wife Mumtaz Mahal She died of smallpox at the age of 3 79 Jahanara BegumPadshah Begum 23 March 1614 16 September 1681 Shah Jahan s favourite and most influential daughter Jahanara became the First Lady Padshah Begum of the Mughal Empire after her mother s death despite the fact that her father had three other consorts She died unmarried Dara Shikoh Padshahzada i Buzurg Martaba Jalal ul Kadir Sultan Muhammad Dara Shikoh Shah i Buland Iqbal 20 March 1615 30 August 1659 The eldest son and heir apparent He was favoured as a successor by his father Shah Jahan and his elder sister Princess Jahanara Begum but was defeated and later killed by his younger brother Prince Muhiuddin later the Emperor Aurangzeb in a bitter struggle for the imperial throne He married and had an issue Shah Shuja 23 June 1616 7 February 1661 He survived in the war of succession He married and had an issue Roshanara Begum Padshah Begum 3 September 1617 11 September 1671 She was the most influential of Shah Jahan s daughters after Jahanara Begum and sided with Aurangzeb during the war of succession She died unmarried Aurangzeb Mughal emperor 3 November 1618 3 March 1707 Succeeded his father as the sixth Mughal emperor after emerging victorious in the war of succession that took place after Shah Jahan s illness in 1657 Jahan Afroz 25 June 1619 March 1621 The only child of Shah Jahan s third wife Izz un Nissa titled Akbarabadi Mahal Jahan Afroz died at the age of one year and nine months 80 Izad Bakhsh 18 December 1619 February March 1621 81 Died in infancy Surayya Banu Begum 10 June 1621 28 April 1628 81 Died of smallpox at the age of 7 79 Unnamed son 1622 Died soon after birth 81 Murad Bakhsh 8 October 1624 14 December 1661 He was killed in 1661 as per Aurangzeb s orders 79 He married and had issue Lutf Allah 4 November 1626 13 May 1628 81 Died at the age of one and a half years 79 Daulat Afza 8 May 1628 13 May 1629 82 Died in infancy Husnara Begum 23 April 1629 1630 81 Died in infancy Gauhara Begum 17 June 1631 1706 Mumtaz Mahal died while giving birth to her on 17 June 1631 in Burhanpur She died unmarried Purhanara Begum citation needed died After 1666 Nazarara Begum citation needed See also EditShah Jahan II Shah Jahan III Wine cup of Shah JahanReferences EditNotes Edit Shujauddin Mohammad Shujauddik Razia 1967 The Life and Times of Noor Jahan Lahore Caravan Book House p 121 OCLC 638031657 Necipoglu Gulru ed 1994 Muqarnas an annual on Islamic art and architecture Vol 11 Leiden Netherlands E J Brill p 143 ISBN 978 90 04 10070 1 Fenech Louis E 2014 The Evolution of the Sikh Community In Singh Pashaura Fenech Louis E eds The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies Oxford University Press p 46 ISBN 978 0 19 969930 8 Jahangir s son ponkua better known as the emperor Shah Jahan the Architect Singh Pashaura Fenech Louis E eds 2014 Index The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies Oxford University Press p 649 ISBN 978 0 19 969930 8 Shah Jahan Emperor Shahabuddin Muhammad Khurram Flood Finbarr Barry Necipoglu Gulru 2017 A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture John Wiley amp Sons p 897 ISBN 978 1 119 06857 0 Illustrated dictionary of the Muslim world Tarrytown NY Marshall Cavendish Reference 2011 p 136 ISBN 978 0 7614 7929 1 Richards 1993 Shah Jahan pp 121 122 Shah Jahan Encyclopaedia Britannica a b Findly 1993 p 125 Jahangir 1999 The Jahangirnama Memoirs of Jahangir Emperor of India Translated by Thackston W M Oxford University Press p 30 ISBN 0 19 512718 8 Eraly 2000 p 299 Jahangir 1999 The Jahangirnama Memoirs of Jahangir Emperor of India Translated by Thackston W M Oxford University Press p 46 ISBN 0 19 512718 8 Kamboh Muhammad Saleh Amal I Salih During her stay at Fatehpur the mother of Shah Jahan Hazrat Bilqis Makani a resident of Agra became ill The treatment did not work Finally on 4th Jamadi ul Awal she passed away and according to her will she was buried at Dehra Bagh near Noor Manzil Perston Diana Perston Micheal A Teardrop on the Cheek of Time The Story of the Taj Mahal Although removed from his mother at birth Shah Jahan had become devoted to her Lal Muni 1986 Shah Jahan Vikas Publishing House p 52 Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1932 History Of Shahjahan Of Dihli 1932 Indian Press Limited Saiyada Asad Ali 2000 Influence of Islam on Hindi Literature Idarah i Adabiyat Delli p 48 a b Qazvini Asad Beg Mughal era historian Prasad 1930 p 189 During his grandfather s last illness he Khurram refused to leave the bedside surrounded by his enemies Neither the advice of his father nor the entreaties of his mother could prevail on him to prefer the safety of his life to his last duty to the father Nicoll 2009 p 49 Faruqui Munis D 2012 The Princes of the Mughal Empire 1504 1719 Cambridge University Press p 71 ISBN 978 1 107 02217 1 Nicoll 2009 p 56 Emperor Jahangir 1999 The Jahangirnama Freer Gallery of Art Arthur M Sackler Gallery Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press pp 61 ISBN 9780195127188 Emperor Jahangir 1999 The Jahangirnama Freer Gallery of Art Arthur M Sackler Gallery Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press pp 84 ISBN 9780195127188 Emperor Jahangir 1999 The Jahangirnama Freer Gallery of Art Arthur M Sackler Gallery Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press pp 81 ISBN 9780195127188 Prasad 1930 p 190 Khusrau conspired rebelled and lost the favour of his father Of all the sons of Jahangir Khurram was marked out to be the heir apparent and successor In 1608 the assignment of the sarkar of Hissar Firoz to him proclaimed to the world that he was intended for the throne Nicoll 2009 p 66 Eraly 2000 p 300 a b Eraly 2000 p 379 Kumar Anant January June 2014 Monument of Love or Symbol of Maternal Death The Story Behind the Taj Mahal Case Reports in Women s Health 1 4 7 doi 10 1016 j crwh 2014 07 001 Retrieved 21 December 2015 Nicoll 2009 p 177 The Mertiyo Rathors of Merta Rajasthan Vol II p 45 Constable Archibald ed 1916 Begum Saheb Travels in Mogul India Oxford University Press p 11 Saksena ed 1932 The Charge of Incest History of Shahjahan of Dihli The Indian press ltd Allahabad p 339 Irvine William ed 1907 Begum Saheb Storia Do Mogor Vol 1 Oxford University press pp 216 217 Lal Kishori Saran ed 1988 The Charge of Incest The Mughal Harem Adithya Prakashan pp 93 94 Emperor Jahangir 1999 The Jahangirnama Freer Gallery of Art Arthur M Sackler Gallery Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press pp 154 ISBN 9780195127188 Prasad 1930 p 239 Constant skirmishes were thinning the Rajput ranks Amar Singh offered to recognize Mughal supremacy Jahangir gladly and unreservedly accepted the terms Emperor Jahangir 1999 The Jahangirnama Freer Gallery of Art Arthur M Sackler Gallery Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press pp 116 ISBN 9780195127188 Emperor Jahangir 1999 The Jahangirnama Freer Gallery of Art Arthur M Sackler Gallery Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press pp 175 ISBN 9780195127188 Emperor Jahangir 1999 The Jahangirnama Freer Gallery of Art Arthur M Sackler Gallery Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press pp 192 ISBN 9780195127188 Emperor Jahangir 1999 The Jahangirnama Freer Gallery of Art Arthur M Sackler Gallery Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press pp 201 ISBN 9780195127188 Middleton John 2015 World Monarchies and Dynasties Routledge p 451 ISBN 978 1 317 45158 7 Emperor Jahangir 1999 The Jahangirnama Freer Gallery of Art Arthur M Sackler Gallery Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press pp 228 29 ISBN 9780195127188 Holden Edward S 2004 First published 1895 Mughal Emperors of Hindustan 1398 1707 New Delhi India Asian Educational Service p 257 ISBN 978 81 206 1883 1 Emperor Jahangir 1999 The Jahangirnama Freer Gallery of Art Arthur M Sackler Gallery Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press pp 271 ISBN 9780195127188 a b Satish Chandra 2007 History of Medieval India 800 1700 Orient BlackSwan ISBN 978 8125032267 Retrieved 24 September 2020 Muazzam Hussain Khan 2012 Ibrahim Khan Fath i Jang In Islam Sirajul Miah Sajahan Khanam Mahfuza Ahmed Sabbir eds Banglapedia the National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh Online ed Dhaka Bangladesh Banglapedia Trust Asiatic Society of Bangladesh ISBN 984 32 0576 6 OCLC 52727562 Retrieved 21 February 2023 Hossain Syud 1909 Echoes from Old Dacca Edinburgh Press Richards 1993 p 117 Nicoll 2009 p 157 Elliot H M 1867 1877 The History of India as Told by Its Own Historians Vol VI London Findly 1993 pp 275 282 284 Sufism and Society Arrangements of the Mystical in the Muslim World 1200 1800 edited by John Curry Erik Ohlander Page 141 Maddison Angus 2006 The World Economy Volumes 1 2 Development Center of the Organisation for Economic Co operation and Development p 639 doi 10 1787 456125276116 ISBN 92 64 02261 9 Matthews Chris 5 October 2014 The 5 most dominant economic empires of all time Fortune Retrieved 18 August 2016 Titus Murray T Dewick E C 1979 Indian Islam Delhi Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers p 24 ISBN 978 8170690962 o Grada Cormac March 2007 Making Famine History Journal of Economic Literature 45 1 5 38 doi 10 1257 jel 45 1 5 hdl 10197 492 JSTOR 27646746 S2CID 54763671 Well known famines associated with back to back harvest failures include the Deccan famine of 1630 32 Mahajan Vidya Dhar 1971 First published in 1961 Mughal Rule in India 10th ed Delhi S Chand pp 148 149 OCLC 182638309 Sen 2013 pp 170 171 Sen 2013 pp 169 170 https www peepultree world livehistoryindia story religious places balkh campaign Farooqi Naimur Rahman 1989 Mughal Ottoman Relations A Study of Political amp Diplomatic Relations Between Mughal India and the Ottoman Empire 1556 1748 Idarah i Adabiyat i Delli pp 26 30 OCLC 20894584 Ikram S M 1964 Muslim Civilization in India Columbia University Press pp 175 188 ISBN 978 0 231 02580 5 via Frances W Pritchett Duiker William J Spielvogel Jackson J 2006 World History From 1500 Cengage Learning pp 431 475 ISBN 978 0 495 05054 4 Sharma Ram ed 1962 Shah Jahan The Religious policy of the Mughal Emperors Asian publishing house pp 104 105 Farman of Shah Jahan Behera Maguni Charan 2019 Tribal Studies in India Perspectives of History Archaeology and Culture New Delhi India Springer Nature p 46 ISBN 978 981 329 026 6 Campbell James Macnabb 1896 Chapter III Mughal Viceroys A D 1573 1758 History of Gujarat Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency Vol I II The Government Central Press p 279 This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain Ashburner Bhagvanlal Indraji 1839 1888 John Whaley Watson 1838 1889 Jervoise Athelstane Baines 1847 1925 L R History of Gujarat www gutenberg org pp 278 283 Retrieved 16 October 2022 Gonzalez Valerie 2016 Aesthetic Hybridity in Mughal Painting 1526 1658 Routledge p 116 ISBN 978 1 317 18487 4 Richards 1993 p 158 ASI India Taj Mahal asi nic in Archeological Survey of India Retrieved 8 December 2018 Asher 2003 p 169 Mehta Jaswant Lal 1984 First published 1981 Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India Vol II 2nd ed Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd p 59 ISBN 978 81 207 1015 3 OCLC 1008395679 A Qutub Minar that not many knew even existed The Times of India Retrieved 21 September 2018 Shah Jahan Mosque UNESCO World Heritage Centre Retrieved 10 February 2011 Dani A H 2003 The Architecture of the Mughal Empire North Western Regions PDF In Adle Chahryar Habib Irfan eds History of Civilizations of Central Asia Vol V UNESCO p 524 ISBN 978 92 3 103876 1 a b c d Moosvi Shireen 2008 People Taxation and Trade in Mughal India Oxford Oxford University Press p 115 ISBN 978 0 19 569315 7 Jahangir 1999 The Jahangirnama Memoirs of Jahangir Emperor of India Translated by Thackston W M Oxford University Press p 362 ISBN 0 19 512718 8 March 1621 March 1622 Shah Shuja escaped the brink of death and another son born of Shahnawaz Khan s daughter Izz un Nisa Begum in Burhanpur died a b c d e Sarker Kobita 2007 Shah Jahan and his paradise on earth the story of Shah Jahan s creations in Agra and Shahjahanabad in the golden days of the Mughals Kolkata K P Bagchi amp Co p 40 ISBN 978 8170743002 Begley W E Desai Z A eds 1989 Taj Mahal The Illumined Tomb An Anthology of Seventeenth Century Mughal and European Documentary Sources Cambridge Massachusetts Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture p 23 ISBN 978 0 295 96944 2 Bibliography Edit Asher Catherine Ella Blanshard 2003 First published 1992 Architecture of Mughal India The New Cambridge History of India Vol I 4 Cambridge University Press p 368 ISBN 978 0 521 26728 1 Eraly Abraham 2000 Emperors of the Peacock Throne The Saga of the Great Mughals Penguin Books India ISBN 978 0 14 100143 2 Findly Ellison Banks 1993 Nur Jahan Empress of Mughal India Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 536060 8 Koch Ebba 2006 The Complete Taj Mahal And the Riverfront Gardens of Agra London Thames amp Hudson Ltd ISBN 978 0 500 34209 1 Nicoll Fergus 2009 Shah Jahan The Rise and Fall of the Mughal Emperor London Haus ISBN 978 1 906598 18 1 Prasad Beni 1930 First published 1922 History of Jahangir Second ed Allahabad The Indian Press Richards John F 1993 The Mughal Empire The New Cambridge History of India Vol V Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 56603 2 Sen Sailendra 2013 Textbook of Medieval Indian History Primus Books ISBN 978 93 80607 34 4 External links Edit Wikiquote has quotations related to Shah Jahan Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shah Jahan I Shah Jehan in Christian Art Shah Jahan s 353rd death anniversary observed at Taj Mahal at TwoCircles net History of Islam in India at IndiaNest com Shah Jahan s Coin Database Shah JahanShah JahanTimurid dynastyBorn 5 January 1592 Died 22 January 1666Regnal titlesPreceded byJahangir Mughal Emperor1627 1658 Succeeded byAurangzeb Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Shah Jahan amp oldid 1140665893, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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