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Eritrea

January 26, 2023

"Erythrea" redirects here. For other uses, see Erythrean (disambiguation), Eritrea (disambiguation), and Eritrean (disambiguation).
For the Greek town, see Eretria.

Coordinates: 15°N 39°E / 15°N 39°E / 15; 39

Eritrea (/ˌɛrɪˈtriː.ə, -ˈtreɪ-/)[15][16] (listen),[17] officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa region of Eastern Africa, with its capital and largest city at Asmara. It is bordered by Ethiopia in the south, Sudan in the west, and Djibouti in the southeast. The northeastern and eastern parts of Eritrea have an extensive coastline along the Red Sea. The nation has a total area of approximately 117,600 km2 (45,406 sq mi), and includes the Dahlak Archipelago and several of the Hanish Islands.

State of Eritrea
Anthem: "Ertra, Ertra, Ertra"
(English: "Eritrea, Eritrea, Eritrea")
Capital
and largest city
Asmara
15°20′N 38°55′E / 15.333°N 38.917°E / 15.333; 38.917
Official languagesNone[1] (see working languages)
Recognised national languages
Working languages
Ethnic groups
(2021)[3][4]
Religion
(2020)[a]
Demonym(s)
GovernmentUnitary one-party presidential republic under a totalitarian dictatorship[5][6][7][8][9]
Isaias Afwerki
LegislatureNational Assembly
Independence 
from Ethiopia
1 September 1961
• De facto
24 May 1991
• De jure
24 May 1993
Area
• Total
117,600 km2 (45,400 sq mi) (97th)
• Water (%)
14.1%
Population
• 2020 estimate
3.6-6.7 million[10][11][b]
GDP (PPP)2011 estimate
• Total
$6.88 billion[13]
• Per capita
$1,910[13]
GDP (nominal)2011 estimate
• Total
$2.25 billion[13]
• Per capita
$626[13]
HDI (2019) 0.459[14]
low · 180th
CurrencyNakfa (ERN)
Time zoneUTC+3 (EAT)
• Summer (DST)
UTC+3 (not observed)
Driving sideright
Calling code+291
ISO 3166 codeER
Internet TLD.er
  1. ^ There are no reliable figures on religious affiliation. See Religion in Eritrea for more information.
  2. ^ Eritrea has never conducted an official government census.[12]
You may need rendering support to display the Ethiopic text in this article correctly.

Human remains found in Eritrea have been dated to 1 million years old and anthropological research indicates that the area may contain significant records related to the evolution of humans. Contemporary Eritrea is a multi-ethnic country with nine recognised ethnic groups. Nine different languages are spoken by the nine recognised ethnic groups, the most widely spoken language being Tigrinya, the others being Tigre, Saho, Kunama, Nara, Afar, Beja, Bilen and Arabic.[18] Tigrinya, Arabic, and English serve as the three working languages.[2][19][20][21] Most residents speak languages from the Afroasiatic family, either of the Ethiopian Semitic languages or Cushitic branches. Among these communities, the Tigrinyas make up about 55% of the population, with the Tigre people constituting around 30% of inhabitants. In addition, there are several Nilo-Saharan-speaking Nilotic ethnic groups. Most people in the country adhere to Christianity or Islam, with a small minority adhering to traditional faiths.[22]

The Kingdom of Aksum, covering much of modern-day Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, was established during the first or second century AD.[23][24] It adopted Christianity around the middle of the fourth century.[25] In medieval times much of Eritrea fell under the Medri Bahri kingdom, with a smaller region being part of Hamasien. The creation of modern-day Eritrea is a result of the incorporation of independent, distinct kingdoms (for example, Medri Bahri and the Sultanate of Aussa) eventually resulting in the formation of Italian Eritrea. After the defeat of the Italian colonial army in 1942, Eritrea was administered by the British Military Administration until 1952. Following the UN General Assembly decision in 1952, Eritrea would govern itself with a local Eritrean parliament, but for foreign affairs and defense, it would enter into a federal status with Ethiopia for ten years. However, in 1962, the government of Ethiopia annulled the Eritrean parliament and formally annexed Eritrea. The Eritrean secessionist movement organised the Eritrean Liberation Front in 1961 and fought the Eritrean War of Independence until Eritrea gained de facto independence in 1991. Eritrea gained de jure independence in 1993 after an independence referendum.

Eritrea is a unitary one-party presidential republic in which national legislative and presidential elections have never been held.[26][7] Isaias Afwerki has served as president since its official independence in 1993. According to Human Rights Watch, the Eritrean government's human rights record is among the worst in the world.[27] The Eritrean government has dismissed these allegations as politically motivated.[28] Freedom of the press in Eritrea is extremely limited; the Press Freedom Index consistently ranks it as one of the least free countries. As of 2021 Reporters Without Borders considers the country to have the overall worst press freedom in the world, even lower than North Korea, as all media publications and access are heavily controlled by the government.[29]

Eritrea is a member of the African Union, the United Nations, and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development, and is an observer state in the Arab League alongside Brazil and Venezuela.[30]

Name

The name Eritrea is derived from the ancient Greek name for the Red Sea (Ἐρυθρὰ Θάλασσα Erythra Thalassa, based on the adjective ἐρυθρός erythros "red"). It was first formally adopted in 1890, with the formation of Italian Eritrea (Colonia Eritrea).[31] The name persisted over the course of subsequent British and Ethiopian occupation, and was reaffirmed by the 1993 independence referendum and 1997 constitution.[32]

History

Main article: History of Eritrea

Prehistory

 
Deka Rock Art in Deka Arbaa, Debub region of Eritrea dated to 100,000 years ago

Madam Buya is the name of a fossil found at an archaeological site in Eritrea by Italian anthropologists. She has been identified as among the oldest hominid fossils found to date that reveal significant stages in the evolution of humans and to represent a possible link between the earlier Homo erectus and an archaic Homo sapiens. Her remains have been dated to 1 million years old. She is the oldest skeletal find of her kind and provides a link between earlier hominids and the earliest anatomically modern humans.[33] It is believed that the section of the Danakil Depression in Eritrea was a major site in terms of human evolution and may contain other traces of evolution from Homo erectus hominids to anatomically modern humans.[34]

During the last interglacial period, the Red Sea coast of Eritrea was occupied by early anatomically modern humans.[35] It is believed that the area was on the route out of Africa that some scholars suggest was used by early humans to colonize the rest of the Old World.[35] In 1999, the Eritrean Research Project Team composed of Eritrean, Canadian, American, Dutch, and French scientists discovered a Paleolithic site with stone and obsidian tools dated to more than 125,000 years old near the Bay of Zula south of Massawa, along the Red Sea littoral. The tools are believed to have been used by early humans to harvest marine resources such as clams and oysters.[36][37][38][39]

Antiquity

Main articles: Gash Group, Land of Punt, and Dʿmt
 
Pre-Axumite monolithic columns in Qohaito
 
Adulis archeological site

Research shows tools found in the Barka Valley dating from 8000 BC appear to offer the first concrete evidence of human settlement in the area.[40] Research also shows that many of the ethnic groups of Eritrea were the first to inhabit these areas.[41]

Excavations in and near Agordat in central Eritrea yielded the remains of an ancient pre-Aksumite civilization known as the Gash Group.[42] Ceramics were discovered that were dated back to between 2500 and 1500 BC.[43]

Around 2000 BC, parts of Eritrea were most likely part of the Land of Punt, first mentioned in the twenty-fifth century BC.[44][45][46] It was known for producing and exporting gold, aromatic resins, blackwood, ebony, ivory, and wild animals. The region is known from ancient Egyptian records of trade expeditions to it, especially a well-documented expedition to Punt in approximately 1469 BC during the reestablishment of disrupted trade routes by Hatshepsut shortly after the beginning of her rule as the king of ancient Egypt.[47][48][49][50]

Excavations at Sembel found evidence of an ancient pre-Aksumite civilization in greater Asmara. This Ona urban culture is believed to have been among the oldest pastoral and agricultural communities in East Africa. Artifacts at the site have been dated to between 800 BC and 400 BC, contemporaneous with other pre-Aksumite settlements in the Eritrean and Ethiopian highlands during the mid-first millennium BC.[51][52][53]

Kingdom of D'mt

Main article: Dʿmt
 
Bronze oil lamp excavated at Matara, dating from the Kingdom of Dʿmt (first century BC or earlier)

Dʿmt was a kingdom that existed from the tenth to fifth centuries BC in what is now Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. Given the presence of a massive temple complex at Yeha, this area was most likely the kingdom's capital. Qohaito, often identified as the town of Koloe in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea,[54] as well as Matara were important ancient Dʿmt kingdom cities in southern Eritrea.

The realm developed irrigation schemes, used plows, grew millet, and made iron tools and weapons. After the fall of Dʿmt in the fifth century BC, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms. This lasted until the rise of one of these polities during the first century, the Kingdom of Aksum, which was able to reunite the area.[55]

Kingdom of Aksum

Main article: Kingdom of Aksum

The Kingdom of Aksum (or Axum) was a trading empire centered in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia.[56] It existed from approximately 100–940 AD, growing from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period around the fourth century BC to achieve prominence by the first century AD.

According to the medieval Liber Axumae (Book of Aksum), Aksum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush.[57] The capital was later moved to Axum in northern Ethiopia. The kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the fourth century.[23][24]

The Aksumites erected a number of large stelae, which served a religious purpose in pre-Christian times. One of these granite columns, the Obelisk of Aksum, is the largest such structure in the world, standing at 90 feet (27 metres).[58] Under Ezana (fl. 320–360), Aksum later adopted Christianity.[59]

Christianity was the first world religion to be adopted in modern Eritrea and the oldest monastery in the country Debre Sina was built during the fourth century. It is one of the oldest monasteries in Africa and the world.[60] Debre Libanos, the second oldest monastery, was said to have been founded in the late fifth or early sixth century. Originally located in the village of Ham, it was moved to an inaccessible location on the edge of a cliff below the Ham plateau. Its church contains the Golden Gospel, a metal-covered bible dating to the thirteenth century during which Debre Libanos was an important seat of religious power.[61]

In the seventh century AD, early Muslims from Mecca, at least companions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, sought refuge from Qurayshi persecution by travelling to the kingdom, a journey known in Islamic history as the First Hijrah. They reportedly built the first African mosque, that is the Mosque of the Companions, Massawa.[62]

The kingdom is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an important market place for ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world. At the time, Aksum was ruled by Zoskales, who also governed the port of Adulis.[63] The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own Aksumite currency.[64]

Middle Ages

Medri Bahri

Main articles: Medri Bahri, Habesh Eyalet, and Sultanate of Aussa
 
Medri Bahri at its height in the 1520s

After the decline of Aksum, the Eritrean highlands were under the domain of the Christian Kingdom of Medri Bahri, ruled by a Bahri Negus (or Bahri Negash, meaning "sea king"). The area was at first known as Ma'ikele Bahri ("between the seas/rivers", i.e. the land between the Red Sea and the Mereb river).[65] The entire coastal domain of Ma'ikele Bahri was under the Adal Sultanate during the reign of Sultan Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din.[66][67] The state was later reconquered by the Ethiopian Emperor Zara Yaqob and renamed the Medri Bahri ("Sea land" in Tigrinya, although it included some areas such as Shire in Ethiopia on the other side of the Mereb, today in Ethiopia).[68] With its capital at Debarwa,[69] the state's main provinces were Hamasien, Serae, and Akele Guzai.

 
Bahta Hagos was an important leader of the Eritrean resistance to foreign domination, specifically against northern Ethiopian and Italian colonialism.

By 1517, the Ottomans had succeeded in conquering Medri Bahri. They occupied all of northeastern present-day Eritrea for the next two decades, an area which stretched from Massawa to Swakin in Sudan.[70] The territory became an Ottoman governorate, known as the Habesh Eyalet. Massawa served as the new province's first capital. When the city became of secondary economical importance, the administrative capital was soon moved across the Red Sea to Jeddah.[71]

The first Westerner to document a visit to Eritrea was the Portuguese explorer Francisco Alvares in 1520. His books have the first description of the local powers of Tigray, the kingdom of Axum and Barnagais (the lord of the lands by the sea)[72]

The contemporary coast of Eritrea was the one that guaranteed the connection to the region of Tigray where the Portuguese had a small colony, and therefore the connection to the interior Ethiopian, allies of the Portuguese. Massawa was also the stage for the 1541 landing of troops by Cristóvão da Gama in the military campaign that would eventually defeat the Adal Sultanate in the final battle of Wayna Daga in 1543.[73]

The Turks tried to occupy the highland parts of Medri Bahri in 1559 and withdrew after they encountered resistance. They were pushed back by the Bahri Negash and highland forces. In 1578 they tried to expand into the highlands with the help of Bahri Negash Yisehaq, who had switched alliances due to a power struggle. Ethiopian emperor Sarsa Dengel made a punitive expedition against the Turks in 1588 in response to their raids in the northern provinces, and apparently by 1589, they were once again compelled to withdraw their forces to the coast.

The Ottomans were eventually driven out in the last quarter of the sixteenth century. However, they retained control over the seaboard until the establishment of Italian Eritrea in the late 1800s.[70][74][75]

In 1734, the Afar leader Kedafu, established the Mudaito Dynasty in Ethiopia, which later also came to include the southern Denkel lowlands of Eritrea, thus incorporating the southern Denkel lowlands to the Sultanate of Aussa. The sixteenth century also marked the arrival of the Ottomans, who began making inroads in the Red Sea area.[70][76][77][78][79][excessive citations]

Modern history

Italian Eritrea

Main article: Italian Eritrea
 
Eritrean Ascaris, colonial troops of the Italian Army, in a 1898 wood engraving
 
Postcard of the Carabinieri sent from Italian Eritrea in 1907
 
Piazza Roma in Italian Asmara

The boundaries of the present-day Eritrea nation state were established during the Scramble for Africa. In 1869 or 1870,[80] the ruling local chief sold lands surrounding the Bay of Assab to the Rubattino Shipping Company.[81] The area served as a coaling station along the shipping lanes introduced by the recently completed Suez Canal.

In the vacuum that followed the 1889 death of Emperor Yohannes IV, Gen. Oreste Baratieri occupied the highlands along the Eritrean coast and Italy proclaimed the establishment of the new colony of Italian Eritrea, a colony of the Kingdom of Italy. In the Treaty of Wuchale (It. Uccialli) signed the same year, King Menelik of Shewa, a southern Ethiopian kingdom, recognized the Italian occupation of his rivals' lands of Bogos, Hamasien, Akkele Guzay, and Serae in exchange for guarantees of financial assistance and continuing access to European arms and ammunition. His subsequent victory over his rival kings and enthronement as Emperor Menelek II (r. 1889–1913) made the treaty formally binding upon the entire territory.[82]

In 1888, the Italian administration launched its first development projects in the new colony. The Eritrean Railway was completed to Saati in 1888,[83] and reached Asmara in the highlands in 1911.[84] The Asmara–Massawa Cableway was the longest line in the world during its time, but was later dismantled by the British in World War II. Besides major infrastructural projects, the colonial authorities invested significantly in the agricultural sector. It also oversaw the provision of urban amenities in Asmara and Massawa, and employed many Eritreans in public service, particularly in the police and public works departments.[84] Thousands of Eritreans were concurrently enlisted in the army, serving during the Italo-Turkish War in Libya as well as the First and Second Italo-Abyssinian Wars.

Additionally, the Italian Eritrea administration opened a number of new factories, which produced buttons, cooking oil, pasta, construction materials, packing meat, tobacco, hide, and other household commodities. In 1939, there were approximately 2,198 factories and most of the employees were Eritrean citizens. The establishment of industries also made an increase in the number of both Italians and Eritreans residing in the cities. The number of Italians residing in the territory increased from 4,600 to 75,000 in five years; and with the involvement of Eritreans in the industries, trade and fruit plantation was expanded across the nation, while some of the plantations were owned by Eritreans.[85]

In 1922, Benito Mussolini's rise to power in Italy brought profound changes to the colonial government in Italian Eritrea. After il Duce declared the birth of the Italian Empire in May 1936, Italian Eritrea (enlarged with northern Ethiopia's regions) and Italian Somaliland were merged with the just-conquered Ethiopia in the new Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana) administrative territory. This fascist period was characterized by imperial expansion in the name of a "new Roman Empire". Eritrea was chosen by the Italian government to be the industrial center of Italian East Africa.[86]

Asmara's architecture was greatly improved after 1935 to become a "modernist Art Deco city" (in 2017 has been declared a "UNESCO World City Heritage",[87]) featuring eclectic and rationalist built forms, well-defined open spaces, and public and private buildings, including cinemas, shops, banks, religious structures, public and private offices, industrial facilities, and residences (according to UNESCO's publications). The Italians designed more than 400 buildings in a construction boom that was only halted by Italy's involvement in WW2. These included art deco masterpieces like the worldwide famous Fiat Tagliero Building and the Cinema Impero[88]

British administration

Through the 1941 Battle of Keren, the British expelled the Italians and took over the administration of the country.[89]

The British placed Eritrea under British military administration until Allied forces could determine its fate.

In the absence of agreement amongst the Allies concerning the status of Eritrea, British administration continued for the remainder of World War II and until 1950. During the immediate postwar years, the British proposed that Eritrea be divided along religious community lines and annexed partly to the British colony of Sudan and partly to Ethiopia.[citation needed] The Soviet Union, anticipating a communist victory in the Italian polls, initially supported returning Eritrea to Italy under trusteeship or as a colony.[citation needed]

Annexation with Ethiopia

Main article: Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea
 
Eritrean War of Independence against Ethiopia 1961–1991

In the 1950s, the Ethiopian feudal administration under Emperor Haile Selassie sought to annex Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. He laid claim to both territories in a letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Paris Peace Conference and at the First Session of the United Nations.[90] In the United Nations, the debate over the fate of the former Italian colonies continued. The British and Americans preferred to cede all of Eritrea except the Western province to the Ethiopians as a reward for their support during World War II.[91] The Independence Bloc of Eritrean parties consistently requested from the United Nations General Assembly that a referendum be held immediately to settle the Eritrean question of sovereignty.

Following the adoption of U.N. Resolution 390A(V) in December 1950, Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia under the prompting of the United States.[92] The resolution called for Eritrea and Ethiopia to be linked through a loose federal structure under the sovereignty of the emperor. Eritrea was to have its own administrative and judicial structure, its own flag, and control over its domestic affairs, including police, local administration, and taxation.[90] The federal government, which for all practical purposes was the existing imperial government, was to control foreign affairs (including commerce), defense, finance, and transportation. The resolution ignored the wishes of Eritreans for independence, but guaranteed the population democratic rights and a measure of autonomy.[citation needed]

Independence

Main articles: Eritrean War of Independence, Flag of Eritrea, and Eritrea under Isaias Afwerki
 
A view over Asmara

In 1958, a group of Eritreans founded the Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM). The organization mainly consisted of Eritrean students, professionals, and intellectuals. It engaged in clandestine political activities intended to cultivate resistance to the centralizing policies of the imperial Ethiopian state.[93] On 1 September 1961, the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), under the leadership of Hamid Idris Awate, waged an armed struggle for independence. In 1962, Emperor Haile Selassie unilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament and annexed the territory. The ensuing Eritrean War of Independence went on for 30 years against successive Ethiopian governments until 1991, when the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF), a successor of the ELF, defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea and helped a coalition of Ethiopian rebel forces take control of the Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa.

Following a referendum in Eritrea supervised by the United Nations (dubbed UNOVER) in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence, Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993.[94] The EPLF seized power, established a one-party state along nationalist lines and banned further political activity. As of 2020, there have been no elections.[95][96][97][98] On 28 May 1993, Eritrea was admitted into the United Nations as the 182nd member state.[99]

The Eritrean–Ethiopian War from 1998 to 2000 involved a major border conflict, notably around Badme and Zalambessa, eventually resolved in 2018. In 2020, Eritrean troops intervened in Tigray War on the side of Ethiopian central government.[100][96][97][98] In April 2021, Eritrea confirmed its troops were fighting in Ethiopia.[101]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Eritrea
 
Map of Eritrea

Eritrea is located in East Africa. It is bordered to the northeast and east by the Red Sea, Sudan to the west, Ethiopia to the south, and Djibouti to the southeast. Eritrea lies between latitudes 12° and 18°N, and longitudes 36° and 44°E.

The country is virtually bisected by a branch of the East African Rift. Eritrea, at the southern end of the Red Sea, is the home of the fork in the rift. The Dahlak Archipelago and its fishing grounds are situated off the sandy and arid coastline.

Eritrea may be split into three ecoregions. To the east of the highlands are the hot, arid, coastal plains stretching down to the southeast of the country. The cooler, more fertile highlands, reaching up to 3,000 m, have a different habitat. Habitats here vary from the sub-tropical rainforest at Filfil Solomona to the precipitous cliffs and canyons of the southern highlands.[102] The Afar Triangle or Danakil Depression of Eritrea is the probable location of a triple junction where three tectonic plates are pulling away from one another. The highest point of the country, Emba Soira, is located in the center of Eritrea, at 3,018 meters (9,902 ft) above sea level.

The main cities of the country are the capital city of Asmara and the port town of Asseb in the southeast, as well as the towns of Massawa to the east, the northern town of Keren, and the central town Mendefera.

Eritrea is part of a 14-nation constituency within the Global Environment Facility, which partners with international institutions, civil society organizations, and the private sector to address global environmental issues while supporting national sustainable development initiatives.[103] Local variability in rainfall patterns and reduced precipitation are known to occur, which may precipitate soil erosion, floods, droughts, land degradation, and desertification.[104]

In 2006, Eritrea announced that it would become the first country in the world to turn its entire coast into an environmentally protected zone. The 1,347 km (837 mi) coastline, along with another 1,946 km (1,209 mi) of coast around its more than 350 islands, will come under governmental protection.

 
Highlands between Asmara and Massawa

Wildlife

Main article: Wildlife of Eritrea
See also: List of mammals in Eritrea and List of birds of Eritrea
 
Pelicans in a pond near Asmara

Eritrea has several species of mammals and a rich avifauna of 560 species of birds.[105]

Eritrea is home to an abundant amount of big game species. Enforced regulations have helped in steadily increasing their numbers throughout Eritrea.[106] Mammals commonly seen today include the Abyssinian hare, African wild cat, Black-backed jackal, African golden wolf, Genet, Ground squirrel, pale fox, Soemmerring's gazelle, and warthog. Dorcas gazelle are common on the coastal plains and in Gash-Barka.

 
Eritrean landscape near road to Massawa

Lions are said to inhabit the mountains of the Gash-Barka Region. Dik-diks may be found in many areas. The endangered African wild ass may be seen in Denakalia Region. Other local wildlife include bushbuck, duikers, greater kudu, Klipspringer, African leopards, oryx, and crocodiles.[107][108] The spotted hyena is widespread and fairly common.

Historically, a small population of African bush elephants were known to roam in some parts of the country. Between 1955 and 2001 there were no reported sightings of elephant herds, however, and they were thought to have fallen victim to the war of independence. In December 2001, a herd of approximately 30, including 10 juveniles, was observed in the vicinity of the Gash River. The elephants seemed to have formed a symbiotic relationship with olive baboons. The baboons use the water holes dug by the elephants and the elephants seem to be taking advantage of vocalizations made by baboons from the tree-tops as an early warning system. It is estimated that there are approximately 100 African bush elephant left in Eritrea, the most northerly of the East African elephants.[109]

The endangered African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) was previously found in Eritrea, but is now deemed extirpated from the entire country.[110] In Gash-Barka, snakes such as saw-scaled viper are common. Puff adder and red spitting cobra are widespread and may be found even in the highlands. In the coastal areas, marine species that are common include dolphin, dugong, whale shark, turtles, marlin, swordfish, and manta ray.[108]

Climate

Based on variations in temperature, Eritrea can be broadly divided into three major climate zones: the temperate zone, subtropical climate zone, and tropical climate zone.[111] The climate of Eritrea is shaped by its diverse topographical features and its location within the tropics. The diversity in landscape and topography in the highlands and lowlands of Eritrea result in the diversity of climate across the country. The highlands have temperate climate throughout the year. The climate of most lowland zones is arid and semiarid. The distribution of rainfall and vegetation types varies markedly throughout the country. Eritrean climate varies on the basis of seasonal and altitudinal differences.

An 2022 analysis found that the expected costs for Eritrea, to adapting to and avert the environmental consequences of climate change, are going to be high.[112]

Climate data for Eritrea in general, based on 14 cities
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Average high °C (°F) 27.3
(81.1) 		28.3
(82.9) 		29.8
(85.6) 		32.3
(90.1) 		33.3
(91.9) 		33
(91) 		32
(90) 		31.5
(88.7) 		32.3
(90.1) 		31.8
(89.2) 		30
(86) 		28.3
(82.9) 		31
(88)
Daily mean °C (°F) 20
(68) 		20.8
(69.4) 		22.5
(72.5) 		24.3
(75.7) 		25.6
(78.1) 		26
(79) 		25.1
(77.2) 		24.7
(76.5) 		24.4
(75.9) 		23.8
(74.8) 		22.1
(71.8) 		20.5
(68.9) 		23.3
(73.9)
Average low °C (°F) 17.8
(64.0) 		17.3
(63.1) 		18.3
(64.9) 		21
(70) 		23.3
(73.9) 		24.4
(75.9) 		24.4
(75.9) 		24.5
(76.1) 		23.3
(73.9) 		22.3
(72.1) 		20
(68) 		18.3
(64.9) 		20.8
(69.4)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 6.7
(0.26) 		6.9
(0.27) 		9
(0.4) 		14.8
(0.58) 		20.3
(0.80) 		26.5
(1.04) 		100
(3.9) 		99.7
(3.93) 		25.4
(1.00) 		8.6
(0.34) 		11.9
(0.47) 		9.4
(0.37) 		347
(13.7)
Source: weatherbase[113]

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Eritrea

The People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) is the only legal party in Eritrea.[114] Other political groups are not allowed to organize, although the unimplemented Constitution of 1997 provides for the existence of multi-party politics. The National Assembly has 150 seats. National elections have been periodically scheduled and cancelled; as of 2022, none has ever been held in the country.[22] President Isaias Afwerki has been in office since independence in 1993. In 1993, 75 representatives were elected to the National Assembly; the rest are appointed. As the report by the United Nations Human Rights Council explained: "No national elections have taken place since that time, and no presidential elections have ever taken place. Local or regional elections have not been held since 2003–2004. The National Assembly elected independent Eritrea’s first president, Isaias Afwerki, in 1993. Following his election, Afwerki consolidated his control of the Eritrean government." President Isaias Afwerki has regularly expressed his disdain for what he refers to as "western-style" democracy. In a 2008 interview with Al Jazeera, for example, the president stated that "Eritrea will wait three or four decades, maybe more, before it holds elections. Who knows?"[115]

National, regional, and local elections

Main article: Elections in Eritrea

Given that the full implementation of the Joint Declaration of Peace and Friendship between Eritrea and Ethiopia is still incomplete, the Eritrean authorities still do not consider that the peace agreement is formally implemented. However, local elections have continued in Eritrea. The most recent round of local government elections were held in 2010 and 2011.

Military

The Eritrean Defence Forces are now the official armed forces of the State of Eritrea. Eritrea's military is one of the largest in Africa.

Compulsory military service was instituted in 1995. Officially, conscripts, male and female, must serve for 18 months minimum, which includes six months of military training and 12 months during the regular school year to complete their last year of high school. Thus around 5% of Eritreans live in barracks in the desert doing projects such as road building as part of their service.

 
President Isaias Afewerki with U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, December 2002

The National Service Proclamation of 1995 does not recognize the right to conscientious objection to military service. According to the 1957 Ethiopian penal code adopted by Eritrea during independence, failure to enlist in the military or refusal to perform military service are punishable with imprisonment terms of six months to five years and up to ten years, respectively.[116] National service enlistment times may be extended during times of "national crisis"; since 1998, everyone under the age of 50 is enlisted in national service for an indefinite period until released, which may depend on the arbitrary decision of a commander. In a study of 200 escaped conscripts, the average service was 6.5 years, and some had served more than 12 years.[117]

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Eritrea
 
The 23d ISCOE East Africa Conference in Asmara in 2019

Eritrea is a member of the United Nations and the African Union. It is an observing member of the Arab League alongside Brazil, Venezuela, and Turkey.[30] The nation holds a seat on the United Nations Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions (ACABQ). Eritrea also holds memberships in the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Finance Corporation, International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL), Non-Aligned Movement, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Permanent Court of Arbitration, Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa, and the World Customs Organization.

The Eritrean government previously withdrew its representative to the African Union to protest the AU's alleged lack of leadership in facilitating the implementation of a binding border decision demarcating the border between Eritrea and Ethiopia. Since January 2011, the Eritrean government has appointed an envoy, Tesfa-Alem Tekle, to the AU.[118]

Eritrea maintains diplomatic ties with a number of other countries: it has more than 31 embassies and consulates abroad, and more than 22 consulates and embassies represented in the country,[119] including China, Denmark, Ethiopia, Djibouti, Israel, the United States, and Yemen. Its relations with Djibouti and Yemen are tense due to territorial disputes over the Doumeira Islands and Hanish Islands, respectively.

On 28 May 2019, the United States removed Eritrea from the "Counterterror Non-Cooperation List" which also includes Iran, North Korea, Syria, and Venezuela.[120] Moreover, Eritrea was visited two months earlier by a U.S. congressional delegation for the first time in 14 years.[121]

Relations with Ethiopia

See also: Eritrea–Ethiopia relations and Eritrean–Ethiopian War
Further information: Eritrean War of Independence and Eritrean independence referendum, 1993
 
Independence Day is one of the most important public holidays in Eritrea.

The undemarcated border with Ethiopia is the primary external issue currently facing Eritrea. Eritrea's relations with Ethiopia turned from that of cautious mutual tolerance, following the 30-year war for Eritrean independence, to a deadly rivalry that led to the outbreak of hostilities from May 1998 to June 2000 that claimed approximately 70,000 lives from both sides.[122] The border conflict cost hundreds of millions of dollars.[123]

Disagreements following the war have resulted in stalemate punctuated by periods of elevated tension and renewed threats of war.[124][125][126] The stalemate led the president of Eritrea to urge the UN to take action on Ethiopia with the Eleven Letters penned by the president to the United Nations Security Council. The situation has been further escalated by the continued efforts of the Eritrean and Ethiopian leaders in supporting opposition in one another's countries.[127][128] In 2011, Ethiopia accused Eritrea of planting bombs at an African Union summit in Addis Ababa, which was later supported by a UN report. Eritrea denied the claims.[129]

A peace treaty between both nations was signed on 8 July 2018.[130] The next day, they signed a joint declaration that formally ended the Eritrean–Ethiopian border conflict.[131][132]

Legal profession

According to the NYU School of Law, the Legal Committee of the Ministry of Justice oversees the admission and requirements to practice law in Eritrea. Although the establishment of an independent bar association is not proscribed under Proclamation 88/96, among other domestic laws, there is no bar association. The community electorate in the local jurisdiction of the Community Court chooses the court judges. The Community Court's standing on women in the legal profession is unclear, but elected women judges have reserved seat.[133]

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Eritrea
 
Building of regional administration in Asmara

Eritrea is a one-party state in which national legislative elections have been repeatedly postponed.[26] According to Human Rights Watch, the government's human rights record is considered among the worst in the world.[27] Most countries have accused the Eritrean authorities of arbitrary arrest and detentions, and of detaining an unknown number of people without charge for their political activism. Both male and female same-sex sexual activity is illegal in Eritrea.[134]

A prominent group of fifteen Eritreans, called the G-15, including three cabinet members, were arrested in September 2001 after publishing an open letter to the government and President Isaias Afewerki calling for democratic dialogue. This group and thousands of others who were alleged to be affiliated with them are imprisoned without legal charges, hearing, trial, or judgment.[135][136]

Since Eritrea's conflict with Ethiopia in 1998–2001, the nation's human rights record has been criticized at the United Nations.[137] Human rights violations are allegedly often committed by the government or on behalf of the government. Freedom of speech, press, assembly, and association are limited. Those who practice "unregistered" religions, try to flee the nation, or escape military duty are arrested and put into prison.[137] By 2009, the number of political prisoners was in the range of 10,000–30,000, there was widespread and systematic torture and extrajudicial killings, with "anyone" for "any or no reason", including children eight years old, people more than 80 years old, and ill people, being liable to be arrested, and Eritrea was "one of the world's most totalitarian and human rights-abusing regimes".[138] During the Eritrean independence struggle and 1998 Eritrean-Ethiopian War, many atrocities were committed by the Ethiopian authorities against unarmed Eritrean civilians.[139][140]

 
Asmara, Eritrea in 2015
 
Traditional Eritrean agudo/tukul huts in a village near Barentu

In June 2016, a 500-page United Nations Human Rights Council report accused the Eritrean government of extrajudicial executions, torture, indefinitely prolonged national service (6.5 years on average), and forced labour, and it indicated that among state officials, sexual harassment, rape, and sexual servitude practices are widespread.[5][141] Barbara Lochbihler of the European Parliament Subcommittee on Human Rights said the report detailed 'very serious human rights violations', and asserted that EU funding for development would not continue as at present without change in Eritrea.[142] The Eritrean Foreign Ministry responded by describing the commission's report as being "wild allegations" that were "totally unfounded and devoid of all merit".[143] Representatives of the United States and China disputed the report's language and accuracy.[144]

All Eritreans aged between 18 and 40 years must complete a mandatory national service, which includes military service. This requirement was implemented after Eritrea gained independence from Ethiopia, as a means to protect Eritrea's sovereignty, to instill national pride, and to create a disciplined populace.[117] Eritrea's national service requires long, indefinite conscription (6.5 years on average), which some Eritreans leave the country in order to avoid.[117][145][146]

In an attempt at reform, Eritrean government officials and NGO representatives in 2006 participated in many public meetings and dialogues. In these sessions they answered questions as fundamental as, "What are human rights?", "Who determines what are human rights?", and "What should take precedence, human or communal rights?".[147]

In 2007, the Eritrean government banned female genital mutilation.[148] In Regional Assemblies and religious circles, Eritreans themselves speak out continuously against the use of female circumcision. They cite health concerns and individual freedom as being of primary concern when they say this. Furthermore, they implore rural peoples to cast away this ancient cultural practice.[149][150]

In 2009, a movement called Citizens for Democratic Rights in Eritrea formed to create dialogue between the government and political opposition. The group consists of ordinary citizens and some people close to the government.[151] Since the movement's creation, no significant effort has been made by the Eritrean government to improve its record on human rights.

In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Eritrea, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs and other Muslim minority groups in the Xinjiang region.[152]

Media freedom

Main article: Freedom of press in Eritrea
See also: Mass media in Eritrea

In its 2017 Press Freedom Index, Reporters Without Borders ranked the media environment in Eritrea at the bottom of a list of 180 countries.[153] According to the BBC, "Eritrea is the only African country to have no privately owned news media",[154] and Reporters Without Borders said of the public media, "[They] do nothing but relay the regime's belligerent and ultra-nationalist discourse... Not a single [foreign correspondent] now lives in Asmara."[155] The state-owned news agency censors news about external events.[156] Independent media have been banned since 2001.[156] The Eritrean authorities had reportedly imprisoned the fourth highest number of journalists after Turkey, China, and Egypt.[157]

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Regions of Eritrea and Districts of Eritrea

Eritrea is divided into six administrative regions. These areas are further divided into 58 districts.

 
A map of Eritrea regions. 1. Northern Red Sea, 2. Anseba, 3. Gash-Barka, 4. Central (to right), 5. Southern, 6. Southern Red Sea
Regions of Eritrea
Region Area (km2) Capital
Central 1,300 Asmara
Anseba 23,200 Keren
Gash-Barka 33,200 Barentu
Southern 8,000 Mendefera
Northern Red Sea 27,800 Massawa
Southern Red Sea 27,600 Assab


The regions of Eritrea are the primary geographical divisions through which the country is administered. Six in total, they include the Maekel/Central, Anseba, Gash-Barka, Debub/Southern, Northern Red Sea and Southern Red Sea regions. At the time of independence in 1993, Eritrea was arranged into ten provinces. These provinces were similar to the nine provinces operating during the colonial period. In 1996, these were consolidated into six regions (zobas). The boundaries of these new regions are based on water catchment basins.

Transportation

Main article: Transport in Eritrea
 
Eritrean mountain road

Transport in Eritrea includes highways, airports, railway, and seaports, in addition to various forms of public and private vehicular, maritime, and aerial transportation.

The Eritrean highway system is named according to the road classification. The three levels of classification are: primary (P), secondary (S), and tertiary (T). The lowest level road is tertiary and serves local interests. Typically the tertiary ones are improved earth roads that occasionally are paved. During the wet seasons these roads typically become impassable.

The next higher level road is a secondary road and typically is a single-layered asphalt road that connects district capitals together and those to the regional capitals. Roads that are considered primary roads are those that are fully constructed of asphalt (throughout their entire length) and in general they carry traffic between all the major cities and towns in Eritrea.

 
Steam train outside Asmara on the Eritrean Railway

As of 1999, there is a total of 317 kilometres of 950 mm (3 ft 1+3⁄8 in) (narrow gauge) rail line in Eritrea. The Eritrean Railway was built between 1887 and 1932.[158][159] Badly damaged during WWII and in later fighting, it was closed section by section, with the final closure coming in 1978.[160] After independence, a rebuilding effort commenced, and the first rebuilt section was reopened in 2003. As of 2009, the section from Massawa to Asmara was fully rebuilt and available for service.

Rehabilitation of the remainder and of the rolling stock has occurred in recent years. Current service is very limited due to the extreme age of most of the railway equipment and its limited availability. Further rebuilding is planned. The railway linking Agordat and Asmara with the port of Massawa had been inoperative since 1978 except for an approximately 5 kilometre stretch that was reopened in Massawa in 1994. A railway formerly ran from Massawa to Bishia via Asmara, and is under re-construction.

Even during the war, Eritrea developed its transportation infrastructure by asphalting new roads, improving its ports, and repairing war-damaged roads and bridges as a part of the Wefri Warsay Yika'alo program. The most significant of these projects was the construction of a coastal highway of more than 500 km connecting Massawa with Asseb, as well as the rehabilitation of the Eritrean Railway. The rail line has been restored between the port of Massawa and the capital Asmara, although services are sporadic. Steam locomotives are sometimes used for groups of enthusiasts.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Eritrea
 
Eritrea's main exports, 2013

The IMF estimates Eritrea's GDP at $2.1 billion in 2020, or $6.4 billion on a PPP basis.[161] The economy grew at a 3.9% annual rate from 2010 to 2020, an improvement from the 1.3% annual rate from 2000 to 2010. The pickup in growth has been attributed to the commencement of full operations in the gold and silver Bisha mine, the production of cement from the cement factory in Massawa,[162] and investment in Eritrea's copper, zinc, and Colluli potash mining operations by Australian[163] and Chinese[164] mining companies.

Worker remittances from abroad are estimated to account for 32% of gross domestic product.[16]

70% of the Eritrean workforce is employed in agriculture,[165] accounting for roughly one-third of the economy.[166] Eritrea's main agricultural products include sorghum, millet, barley, wheat, legumes, vegetables, fruits, sesame, linseed, cattle, sheep, goats, and camels.[167]

Tourism in Eritrea makes up less than 1% of the GDP.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Eritrea

Sources disagree as to the current population of Eritrea, with some proposing numbers as low as 3.6 million[10] and others as high as 6.7 million.[11] Eritrea has never conducted an official government census.[12]

 
 
Largest cities or towns in Eritrea
Geonames
Rank Name Region Pop.
 
Asmara
 
Keren 		1 Asmara Maekel 963,000  
Dekemhare
 
Massawa
2 Keren Anseba 120,000
3 Dekemhare Debub 120,000
4 Massawa Northern Red Sea 54,090
5 Mendefera Debub 53,000
6 Assab Southern Red Sea 28,000
7 Barentu Gash-Barka 15,891
8 Adi Keyh Debub 13,061
9 Edd Southern Red Sea 11,259
10 Ak'ordat Gash-Barka 8,857

Ethnic composition

 
A woman and a man in Barentu wearing traditional clothes

There are nine recognized ethnic groups according to the government of Eritrea.[22][168] An independent census has yet to be conducted, but the Tigrinya people make up approximately 55% and Tigre people make up approximately 30% of the population. A majority of the remaining ethnic groups belong to Afroasiatic-speaking communities of the Cushitic branch, such as the Saho, Hedareb, Afar, and Bilen. There are also a number of Nilotic ethnic groups, who are represented in Eritrea by the Kunama and Nara. Each ethnicity speaks a different native tongue but, typically, many of the minorities speak more than one language. The Arabic Rashaida people represent approximately 2% of Eritrea's population.[3] They reside in the northern coastal lowlands of Eritrea as well as the eastern coasts of Sudan. The Rashaida first came to Eritrea in the nineteenth century from the Hejaz region.[169]

In addition, there exist Italian Eritrean (concentrated in Asmara) and Ethiopian Tigrayan communities. Neither is generally given citizenship unless through marriage or, more rarely, by having it conferred upon them by the state. In 1941, Eritrea had approximately 760,000 inhabitants, including 70,000 Italians.[170] Most Italians left after Eritrea became independent from Italy. It is estimated that as many as 100,000 Eritreans are of Italian descent.[171][172]

Languages

Main article: Languages of Eritrea
 
Population pyramid of Eritrea 2016

Eritrea is a multilingual country. The nation has no official language, as the Constitution establishes the "equality of all Eritrean languages".[1] Eritrea has nine national languages which are Tigrinya, Tigre, Afar, Beja, Bilen, Kunama, Nara, and Saho. Tigrinya, Arabic, and English serve as de facto working languages, with English used in university education and many technical fields. While Italian, the former colonial language, holds no government recognized status in Eritrea, it is spoken by a few monolinguals and Asmara had the Scuola Italiana di Asmara, an Italian government-operated school that was shut down in 2020.[173] Also, native Eritreans assimilated the language of the Italian Eritreans and spoke a version of Italian mixed with many Tigrinya words: Eritrean Italian.[174]

Most of the languages spoken in Eritrea belong to the Ethiopian Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic family.[175] Other Afroasiatic languages belonging to the Cushitic branch are also widely spoken in the country.[175] The latter include Afar, Beja, Blin, and Saho. In addition, Nilo-Saharan languages (Kunama and Nara) are spoken as a native language by the Nilotic Kunama and Nara ethnic groups that live in the western and northwestern part of the country.[175]

Smaller groups speak other Afroasiatic languages, such as the newly recognized Dahlik and Arabic (the Hejazi and Hadhrami dialects spoken by the Rashaida and Hadhrami, respectively).

Religion

Main article: Religion in Eritrea
Eritrea religious groups
U.S Department of State 2019[176] Pew Research Center 2010[177]
Religion Percent
Christianity
 
 49%
Islam
 
 49%
Others
 
 2%
Religion Percent
Christianity
 
 63%
Islam
 
 36%
Others
 
 1%

The two main religion followed in Eritrea are Christianity and Islam. However, the number of adherents of each faith is subject to debate. According to the Pew Research Center, as of 2010, 62.9% of the population of Eritrea adhered to Christianity, 36.6% followed Islam, and 0.4% practiced traditional African religions. The remainder observed Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism, other faiths (<0.1% each), or were religiously unaffiliated (0.1%).[177] The U.S. Department of State estimated that, as of 2011, 50% of the population of Eritrea adhered to Christianity, 48% followed Islam, and 2% observed other religions, including traditional faiths and animism.[176] Christianity is the oldest world religion practiced in the country, and the first Christian monastery Debre Sina (monastery) was built during the fourth century. [178]

Since May 2002, the government of Eritrea has officially recognized the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church (Oriental Orthodox), Sunni Islam, the Eritrean Catholic Church (a Metropolitanate sui juris), and the Evangelical Lutheran church. All other faiths and denominations are required to undergo a registration process.[179] Among other things, the government registration system requires religious groups to submit personal information on their membership to be allowed to worship.[179]

The Eritrean government is against what it deems as "reformed" or "radical" versions of its established religions. Therefore, alleged radical forms of Islam and Christianity, Jehovah's Witnesses, and numerous other non-Protestant Evangelical denominations are not registered and cannot worship freely. Three named Jehovah's Witnesses are known to have been imprisoned since 1994 along with 51 others.[180][181][182] The government treats Jehovah's Witnesses especially harshly, denying them ration cards and work permits.[183] Jehovah's Witnesses were stripped of their citizenship and basic civil rights by presidential decree in October 1994.[184]

In its 2017 religious freedom report, the U.S. State Department named Eritrea a Country of Particular Concern (CPC).[185]

Health care

Main article: Health in Eritrea

Eritrea has achieved significant improvements in health care and is one of the few countries to be on target to meet its Millennium Development Goals (MDG) for health, in particular child health.[186] Life expectancy at birth increased from 39.1 years in 1960 to 66.44 years in 2020;[187] maternal and child mortality rates dropped dramatically and the health infrastructure expanded.[186]

The World Health Organisation (WHO) in 2008 found average life expectancy to be slightly less than 63 years, a number that has increased to 66.44 in 2020.[187] Immunisation and child nutrition have been tackled by working closely with schools in a multi-sectoral approach; the number of children vaccinated against measles almost doubled in seven years, from 40.7% to 78.5% and the prevalence of underweight children decreased by 12% from 1995 to 2002 (severe underweight prevalence by 28%).[186] The National Malaria Protection Unit of the Ministry of Health registered reductions in malarial mortality by as much as 85% and in the number of cases by 92% between 1998 and 2006.[186] The Eritrean government has banned female genital mutilation (FGM), saying the practice was painful and put women at risk of life-threatening health problems.[188]

However, Eritrea still faces many challenges. Although the number of physicians increased from only 0.2 in 1993 to 0.5 in 2004 per 1000 people, this is still very low.[186] Malaria and tuberculosis are common.[189] HIV prevalence for ages 15 to 49 years exceeds 2%.[189] The fertility rate is about 4.1 births per woman.[189] Maternal mortality dropped by more than half from 1995 to 2002, but is still high.[186] Similarly, the number of births attended by skilled health personnel doubled from 1995 to 2002, but still is only 28.3%.[186] A major cause of death in newborns is severe infection.[189] Per-capita expenditure on health is low.[189]

Education

Main article: Education in Eritrea
 
Eritrean pupils in uniform

There are five levels of education in Eritrea: pre-primary, primary, middle, secondary, and post-secondary. There are nearly 1,270,000 students in the primary, middle, and secondary levels of education.[190] There are approximately 824 schools,[191] two universities, (the University of Asmara and the Eritrea Institute of Technology), and several smaller colleges and technical schools.

Education in Eritrea is officially compulsory for children aged 6 to 13 years.[190]

Education system in Eritrea[192]
Basic Education – 7 years
Middle – Junior High School (Years included in basic)
Secondary – Secondary School – 4 years
Post-secondary – Advanced Diploma – 3 years
Higher Education – Bachelor – 4/5 years
Higher Education – Master – 2 years

Statistics vary at the elementary level, suggesting that 70% to 90% of school-aged children attend primary school; Approximately 61% attend secondary school. Student-teacher ratios are high: 45:1 at the elementary level and 54:1 at the secondary level. Class sizes average 63 and 97 students per classroom at the elementary and secondary school levels, respectively. Learning hours at school are often fewer than six hours per day.

Barriers to education in Eritrea include traditional taboos, school fees (for registration and materials), and the opportunity costs of low-income households.[193]

The Eritrea Institute of Technology "EIT" is a technological institute located near the town Himbrti, Mai Nefhi outside Asmara. The institute has three colleges: Science, Engineering and Technology, and Education. The institute began with approximately 5,500 students during the 2003–2004 academic year.

Literacy rate Eritrea 2018, source: World bank, UNESCO[194][192]
Literacy rate Percent (%)
All Adults
76.6
Age: 15–24
93.3

The EIT was opened after the University of Asmara was reorganized. According to the Ministry of Education, the institution was established, as one of many efforts to achieve equal distribution of higher learning in areas outside the capital city, Asmara. Accordingly, several similar colleges are also established in different other parts of the country. The Eritrea Institute of Technology is the main local institute of higher studies in science, engineering, and education. The University of Asmara is the oldest university in the country and was opened in 1958.[195] It is currently not in operation.

The overall adult literacy rate in Eritrea is 76.6% (84.4% for men and 68.9% for women). For youth 15–24, the overall literacy rate is 93.3% (93.8% for men and 92.7% for women).[196]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Eritrea

One of the most recognizable parts of Eritrean culture is the coffee ceremony.[197] Coffee (Ge'ez ቡን būn) is offered when visiting friends, during festivities, or as a daily staple of life. During the coffee ceremony, there are traditions that are upheld. The coffee is served in three rounds: the first brew or round is called awel in Tigrinya (meaning "first"), the second round is called kalaay (meaning "second"), and the third round is called bereka (meaning "to be blessed").

Traditional Eritrean attire is quite varied among the ethnic groups of Eritrea. In the larger cities, most people dress in Western casual dress such as jeans and shirts. In offices, both men and women often dress in suits. A common traditional clothing for Christian Tigrinya highlanders consists of bright white gowns called zurias for the women, and a white shirt accompanied by white pants for the men. In Muslim communities in the Eritrean lowland, the women traditionally dress in brightly colored clothes. Besides convergent culinary tastes, Eritreans share an appreciation for similar music and lyrics, jewelry and fragrances, and tapestry and fabrics, as many other populations in the region.[198]

Cuisine

See also: Eritrean cuisine
 
Eritrean injera with various stews

A typical traditional Eritrean dish consists of injera accompanied by a spicy stew, which frequently includes beef, chicken, lamb, or fish.[199] Overall, Eritrean cuisine strongly resembles that of neighboring Ethiopia,[199][200] though Eritrean cooking tends to feature more seafood than Ethiopian cuisine on account of their coastal location.[199] Eritrean dishes are also frequently "lighter" in texture than Ethiopian meals. They likewise tend to employ less seasoned butter and spices and more tomatoes, as in the tsebhi dorho delicacy.

Additionally, owing to its colonial history, cuisine in Eritrea features more Italian influences than are present in Ethiopian cooking, including more pasta and greater use of curry powders and cumin. The Italian Eritrean cuisine started to be practiced during the colonial times of the Kingdom of Italy, when a large number of Italians moved to Eritrea. They brought the use of pasta to Italian Eritrea, and it is one of the main foods eaten in present-day Asmara. An Italian Eritrean cuisine emerged, and common dishes are "pasta al sugo e berbere" (pasta with tomato sauce and berbere spice), lasagna, and "cotoletta alla Milanese" (veal Milanese).[201]

In addition to coffee, local alcoholic beverages are enjoyed. These include sowa, a bitter drink made from fermented barley, and mies, a fermented honey wine.[202]

UNESCO World Heritage Site

On 8 July 2017, the entire capital city of Asmara was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, with the inscription taking place during the 41st World Heritage Committee Session.

The city has thousands of Art Deco, futurist, modernist, and rationalist buildings, constructed during the period of Italian Eritrea.[203][204][205][206][207][208] Asmara, a small town in the nineteenth century, started to grow quickly during 1889.[209] The city also became a place "to experiment with radical new designs", mainly futuristic and art deco inspired.[210] Even though city planners, architects, and engineers were largely European, members of the indigenous population were largely used as construction workers, Asmarinos still identify with their city's legacy.[211]

 
Eritrean national museum in Asmara
 
The Fiat Tagliero Building

The city shows off most early twentieth-century architectural styles. Some buildings are neo-Romanesque, such as the Church of Our Lady of the Rosary. Art Deco influences are found throughout the city. Essences of Cubism may be found on the Africa Pension Building, and on a small collection of buildings. The Fiat Tagliero Building shows almost the height of futurism, just as it was becoming fashionable in Italy. In recent times, some buildings have been functionally built, which sometimes can spoil the atmosphere of some cities, but they fit into Asmara as it is such a modern city.

Many buildings such as opera houses, hotels, and cinemas were built during this period. Some notable buildings include the Art Deco Cinema Impero (opened in 1937 and considered by the experts one of the world's finest examples of Art Déco style building,[212]) Cubist Africa Pension, eclectic Eritrean Orthodox Enda Mariam Cathedral, and Asmara Opera, the futurist Fiat Tagliero Building, the neoclassical Asmara city hall.

A statement from UNESCO read:

It is an exceptional example of early modernist urbanism at the beginning of the 20th century and its application in an African context.

— UNESCO[203]

Music

Main article: Music of Eritrea
 
Eritrean artist Helen Meles

Eritrea's ethnic groups each have their own styles of music and accompanying dances. Amongst the Tigrinya, the best known traditional musical genre is the guaila. Traditional instruments of Eritrean folk music include the stringed krar, kebero, begena, masenqo, and the wata (a distant/rudimentary cousin of the violin). A popular Eritrean artist is the Tigrinya singer Helen Meles, who is noted for her powerful voice and wide singing range.[213] Other prominent local musicians include the Kunama singer Dehab Faytinga, Ruth Abraha, Bereket Mengisteab, the late Yemane Ghebremichael, and the late Abraham Afewerki.

Sports

See also: Sport in Eritrea
 
Tour of Eritrea cycling competition in Asmara, Eritrea.

Football and cycling are the most popular sports in Eritrea. Cycling has a long tradition in Eritrea and was first introduced during the colonial period.[214][215]

The Tour of Eritrea, a multi-stage cycling event, has been held annually since 1946 throughout the country.

The national cycling teams of both men and women are ranked first on the African continent, and Eritrea is ranked among the best cycling nations in the world.[216]

The Eritrea national cycling team has experienced a lot of success, winning the African continental cycling championship several years in a row. In 2013, the women's team won the gold medal in the African Continental Cycling Championships for the first time, and for the second time in 2015 and third time in 2019. The men's team have won gold 7 times in the last 9 years in the African continental cycling championships, between 2010 and 2019.[217][218][219][220]

More than six Eritrean riders have signed professional contracts to international cycling teams, including Natnael Berhane and Daniel Teklehaimanot. Berhane was named African Sportsman of the Year in 2013, while Teklehaimanot became the first Eritrean to ride the Vuelta a España in 2012.[221] In 2015, Teklehaimanot won the King of the Mountains classification in the Critérium du Dauphiné. Teklehaimanot and fellow Eritrean Merhawi Kudus became the first black cyclists from Africa to compete in the Tour de France, when they were selected by the MTN–Qhubeka team for the 2015 edition of the race.[222] In July of the year, Teklehaimanot also became the first rider from an African team to wear the polka dot jersey at the Tour de France.[223]

Eritrean athletes have also seen increasing success in the international arena in other sports. Zersenay Tadese, an Eritrean athlete, formerly held the world record in the half marathon.[224] Ghirmay Ghebreslassie became the first Eritrean to win a gold medal at a World Championships in Athletics for his country when he took the marathon at the 2015 World Championships.[225] Eritrea made its Winter Olympic debut 25 February 2018, when they competed at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea 2018. Eritrea's team was represented by their flagbearer Shannon-Ogbnai Abeda who competed as alpine skier.[226] In 2022, Biniam Girmay was the first black African rider to win both the Gent-Wevelgem and a stage in one of the Grand Tours. However, he was forced to abandon the race the next day, as he accidentally fired the cork of a Prosecco bottle into his own eye.[227][228]

See also

References

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  • Christine, Owen. "Navigating difference between Tigrigna and Tigrinya". Navigating Differences: Tigrigna vs Tigrinya December 16, 2010

Further reading

  • Beretekeab, R. (2000); Eritrea: The Making of a Nation 1890–1991. Thesis. Uppsala University, Uppsala. ISBN 9789150613872. OCLC 632423867.
  • Cliffe, Lionel; Connell, Dan; Davidson, Basil (2005), Taking on the Superpowers: Collected Articles on the Eritrean Revolution (1976–1982). Red Sea Press, ISBN 1-56902-188-0
  • Cliffe, Lionel & Davidson, Basil (1988), The Long Struggle of Eritrea for Independence and Constructive Peace. Spokesman Press, ISBN 0-85124-463-7
  • Connell, Dan (1997), Against All Odds: A Chronicle of the Eritrean Revolution With a New Afterword on the Postwar Transition. Red Sea Press, ISBN 1-56902-046-9
  • Connell, Dan (2001), Rethinking Revolution: New Strategies for Democracy & Social Justice: The Experiences of Eritrea, South Africa, Palestine & Nicaragua. Red Sea Press, ISBN 1-56902-145-7
  • Connell, Dan (2004), Conversations with Eritrean Political Prisoners. Red Sea Press, ISBN 1-56902-235-6
  • Connell, Dan (2005), Building a New Nation: Collected Articles on the Eritrean Revolution (1983–2002). Red Sea Press, ISBN 1-56902-198-8
  • Firebrace, James & Holand, Stuart (1985), Never Kneel Down: Drought, Development and Liberation in Eritrea. Red Sea Press, ISBN 0-932415-00-8
  • Drudi, Emilio (2021). Una storia eritrea. Beyan, Adam, Amr. Calamaro Edizioni. ISBN 9788894463927
  • Gebre-Medhin, Jordan (1989), Peasants and Nationalism in Eritrea. Red Sea Press, ISBN 0-932415-38-5
  • Hatem Elliesie: Decentralisation of Higher Education in Eritrea, Afrika Spectrum, Vol. 43 (2008) No. 1, p. 115–120.
  • Hill, Justin (2002), Ciao Asmara, A classic account of contemporary Africa. Little, Brown, ISBN 978-0-349-11526-9
  • Iyob, Ruth (1997), The Eritrean Struggle for Independence: Domination, Resistance, Nationalism, 1941–1993. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-59591-6
  • Jacquin-Berdal, Dominique; Plaut, Martin (2004), Unfinished Business: Ethiopia and Eritrea at War. Red Sea Press, ISBN 1-56902-217-8
  • Johns, Michael (1992), "Does Democracy Have a Chance", Congressional Record, 6 May 1992 23 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  • Keneally, Thomas (1990), To Asmara ISBN 0-446-39171-9
  • Kendie, Daniel (2005), The Five Dimensions of the Eritrean Conflict 1941–2004: Deciphering the Geo-Political Puzzle. Signature Book Printing, ISBN 1-932433-47-3
  • Killion, Tom (1998), Historical Dictionary of Eritrea. Scarecrow Press, ISBN 0-8108-3437-5
  • Mauri, Arnaldo (2004), "Eritrea's Early Stages in Monetary and Banking Development", International Review of Economics, Vol. LI, n. 4.
  • Mauri, Arnaldo (1998), "The First Monetary and Banking Experiences in Eritrea", African Review of Money, Finance and Banking, n. 1–2.
  • Miran, Jonathan (2009), Red Sea Citizens: Cosmopolitan Society and Cultural Change in Massawa. Indiana University Press, ISBN 978-0-253-22079-0
  • Müller, Tanja R.: Bare life and the developmental State: the Militarization of Higher Education in Eritrea, Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 46 (2008), No. 1, p. 1–21.
  • Negash T. (1987); Italian Colonisation in Eritrea: Policies, Praxis and Impact, Uppsala Univwersity, Uppsala.
  • Ogbaselassie, G (10 January 2006). . Archived from the original on 16 November 2006. Retrieved 7 June 2006.
  • Pateman, Roy (1998), Eritrea: Even the Stones Are Burning. Red Sea Press, ISBN 1-56902-057-4
  • Phillipson, David W. (1998), Ancient Ethiopia.
  • Reid, Richard. (2011). Frontiers of Violence in North-East Africa: Genealogies of Conflict Since c. 1800. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199211883
  • Wrong, Michela (2005), I Didn't Do It For You: How the World Betrayed a Small African Nation. Harper Collins. ISBN 0-06-078092-4

External links

 
Scholia has a topic profile for Eritrea.

Government

Others

  • Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in Eritrea, United Nations Human Rights Council Report, 8 June 2015
  • HRCE – Human Rights Concern – Eritrea
  • Tigrinya online learning with numbers, alphabet and history (Eritrea and north Ethiopia (Tigray-Province)).
  • Ferrovia Eritrea Eritrean Railway (in Italian)
  • Atlas of Eritrea
  • About Eritrea (in Italian)
  • Key Development Forecasts for Eritrea from International Futures.

Magazines

  • Special section about Eritrea from Espresso online magazine (in Italian)
  • History of Eritrea: First recordings – Munzinger – exploitation by colonialism and fight against colonialism (Italy, England, Ethiopia, Soviet Union, USA, Israel) – independence 12 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine

[[Category:Totalitarian states]

January 26, 2023
eritrea, erythrea, redirects, here, other, uses, erythrean, disambiguation, disambiguation, disambiguation, greek, town, eretria, coordinates, listen, officially, state, country, horn, africa, region, eastern, africa, with, capital, largest, city, asmara, bord. Erythrea redirects here For other uses see Erythrean disambiguation Eritrea disambiguation and Eritrean disambiguation For the Greek town see Eretria Coordinates 15 N 39 E 15 N 39 E 15 39 Eritrea ˌ ɛr ɪ ˈ t r iː e ˈ t r eɪ 15 16 listen 17 officially the State of Eritrea is a country in the Horn of Africa region of Eastern Africa with its capital and largest city at Asmara It is bordered by Ethiopia in the south Sudan in the west and Djibouti in the southeast The northeastern and eastern parts of Eritrea have an extensive coastline along the Red Sea The nation has a total area of approximately 117 600 km2 45 406 sq mi and includes the Dahlak Archipelago and several of the Hanish Islands State of EritreaFlag EmblemAnthem Ertra Ertra Ertra English Eritrea Eritrea Eritrea source source track track Show globeShow map of AfricaCapitaland largest cityAsmara15 20 N 38 55 E 15 333 N 38 917 E 15 333 38 917Official languagesNone 1 see working languages Recognised national languagesTigrinyaBejaTigreKunamaSahoBilenNaraAfarWorking languagesTigrinyaArabicEnglish 2 Ethnic groups 2021 3 4 50 Tigrinya30 Tigre4 Saho4 Afar4 Kunama3 Bilen2 Beja2 Nara1 RashaidaReligion 2020 a 47 63 Christianity37 52 Islam1 Others NoneDemonym s EritreanGovernmentUnitary one party presidential republic under a totalitarian dictatorship 5 6 7 8 9 Party Chairman and PresidentIsaias AfwerkiLegislatureNational AssemblyIndependence from Ethiopia Eritrean War of Independence1 September 1961 De facto24 May 1991 De jure24 May 1993Area Total117 600 km2 45 400 sq mi 97th Water 14 1 Population 2020 estimate3 6 6 7 million 10 11 b GDP PPP 2011 estimate Total 6 88 billion 13 Per capita 1 910 13 GDP nominal 2011 estimate Total 2 25 billion 13 Per capita 626 13 HDI 2019 0 459 14 low 180thCurrencyNakfa ERN Time zoneUTC 3 EAT Summer DST UTC 3 not observed Driving siderightCalling code 291ISO 3166 codeERInternet TLD er There are no reliable figures on religious affiliation See Religion in Eritrea for more information Eritrea has never conducted an official government census 12 You may need rendering support to display the Ethiopic text in this article correctly Human remains found in Eritrea have been dated to 1 million years old and anthropological research indicates that the area may contain significant records related to the evolution of humans Contemporary Eritrea is a multi ethnic country with nine recognised ethnic groups Nine different languages are spoken by the nine recognised ethnic groups the most widely spoken language being Tigrinya the others being Tigre Saho Kunama Nara Afar Beja Bilen and Arabic 18 Tigrinya Arabic and English serve as the three working languages 2 19 20 21 Most residents speak languages from the Afroasiatic family either of the Ethiopian Semitic languages or Cushitic branches Among these communities the Tigrinyas make up about 55 of the population with the Tigre people constituting around 30 of inhabitants In addition there are several Nilo Saharan speaking Nilotic ethnic groups Most people in the country adhere to Christianity or Islam with a small minority adhering to traditional faiths 22 The Kingdom of Aksum covering much of modern day Eritrea and northern Ethiopia was established during the first or second century AD 23 24 It adopted Christianity around the middle of the fourth century 25 In medieval times much of Eritrea fell under the Medri Bahri kingdom with a smaller region being part of Hamasien The creation of modern day Eritrea is a result of the incorporation of independent distinct kingdoms for example Medri Bahri and the Sultanate of Aussa eventually resulting in the formation of Italian Eritrea After the defeat of the Italian colonial army in 1942 Eritrea was administered by the British Military Administration until 1952 Following the UN General Assembly decision in 1952 Eritrea would govern itself with a local Eritrean parliament but for foreign affairs and defense it would enter into a federal status with Ethiopia for ten years However in 1962 the government of Ethiopia annulled the Eritrean parliament and formally annexed Eritrea The Eritrean secessionist movement organised the Eritrean Liberation Front in 1961 and fought the Eritrean War of Independence until Eritrea gained de facto independence in 1991 Eritrea gained de jure independence in 1993 after an independence referendum Eritrea is a unitary one party presidential republic in which national legislative and presidential elections have never been held 26 7 Isaias Afwerki has served as president since its official independence in 1993 According to Human Rights Watch the Eritrean government s human rights record is among the worst in the world 27 The Eritrean government has dismissed these allegations as politically motivated 28 Freedom of the press in Eritrea is extremely limited the Press Freedom Index consistently ranks it as one of the least free countries As of 2021 Reporters Without Borders considers the country to have the overall worst press freedom in the world even lower than North Korea as all media publications and access are heavily controlled by the government 29 Eritrea is a member of the African Union the United Nations and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development and is an observer state in the Arab League alongside Brazil and Venezuela 30 Contents 1 Name 2 History 2 1 Prehistory 2 2 Antiquity 2 2 1 Kingdom of D mt 2 2 2 Kingdom of Aksum 2 3 Middle Ages 2 3 1 Medri Bahri 2 4 Modern history 2 4 1 Italian Eritrea 2 4 2 British administration 2 4 3 Annexation with Ethiopia 2 4 4 Independence 3 Geography 3 1 Wildlife 3 2 Climate 4 Government and politics 4 1 National regional and local elections 4 2 Military 4 3 Foreign relations 4 3 1 Relations with Ethiopia 4 4 Legal profession 4 5 Human rights 4 5 1 Media freedom 5 Administrative divisions 6 Transportation 7 Economy 8 Demographics 8 1 Ethnic composition 8 2 Languages 8 3 Religion 8 4 Health care 8 5 Education 9 Culture 9 1 Cuisine 10 UNESCO World Heritage Site 10 1 Music 10 2 Sports 11 See also 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links 14 1 Government 14 2 Others 14 3 MagazinesNameThe name Eritrea is derived from the ancient Greek name for the Red Sea Ἐry8rὰ 8alassa Erythra Thalassa based on the adjective ἐry8ros erythros red It was first formally adopted in 1890 with the formation of Italian Eritrea Colonia Eritrea 31 The name persisted over the course of subsequent British and Ethiopian occupation and was reaffirmed by the 1993 independence referendum and 1997 constitution 32 HistoryMain article History of Eritrea Prehistory Deka Rock Art in Deka Arbaa Debub region of Eritrea dated to 100 000 years ago Madam Buya is the name of a fossil found at an archaeological site in Eritrea by Italian anthropologists She has been identified as among the oldest hominid fossils found to date that reveal significant stages in the evolution of humans and to represent a possible link between the earlier Homo erectus and an archaic Homo sapiens Her remains have been dated to 1 million years old She is the oldest skeletal find of her kind and provides a link between earlier hominids and the earliest anatomically modern humans 33 It is believed that the section of the Danakil Depression in Eritrea was a major site in terms of human evolution and may contain other traces of evolution from Homo erectus hominids to anatomically modern humans 34 During the last interglacial period the Red Sea coast of Eritrea was occupied by early anatomically modern humans 35 It is believed that the area was on the route out of Africa that some scholars suggest was used by early humans to colonize the rest of the Old World 35 In 1999 the Eritrean Research Project Team composed of Eritrean Canadian American Dutch and French scientists discovered a Paleolithic site with stone and obsidian tools dated to more than 125 000 years old near the Bay of Zula south of Massawa along the Red Sea littoral The tools are believed to have been used by early humans to harvest marine resources such as clams and oysters 36 37 38 39 Antiquity Main articles Gash Group Land of Punt and Dʿmt Pre Axumite monolithic columns in Qohaito Adulis archeological site Research shows tools found in the Barka Valley dating from 8000 BC appear to offer the first concrete evidence of human settlement in the area 40 Research also shows that many of the ethnic groups of Eritrea were the first to inhabit these areas 41 Excavations in and near Agordat in central Eritrea yielded the remains of an ancient pre Aksumite civilization known as the Gash Group 42 Ceramics were discovered that were dated back to between 2500 and 1500 BC 43 Around 2000 BC parts of Eritrea were most likely part of the Land of Punt first mentioned in the twenty fifth century BC 44 45 46 It was known for producing and exporting gold aromatic resins blackwood ebony ivory and wild animals The region is known from ancient Egyptian records of trade expeditions to it especially a well documented expedition to Punt in approximately 1469 BC during the reestablishment of disrupted trade routes by Hatshepsut shortly after the beginning of her rule as the king of ancient Egypt 47 48 49 50 Excavations at Sembel found evidence of an ancient pre Aksumite civilization in greater Asmara This Ona urban culture is believed to have been among the oldest pastoral and agricultural communities in East Africa Artifacts at the site have been dated to between 800 BC and 400 BC contemporaneous with other pre Aksumite settlements in the Eritrean and Ethiopian highlands during the mid first millennium BC 51 52 53 Kingdom of D mt Main article Dʿmt Bronze oil lamp excavated at Matara dating from the Kingdom of Dʿmt first century BC or earlier Dʿmt was a kingdom that existed from the tenth to fifth centuries BC in what is now Eritrea and northern Ethiopia Given the presence of a massive temple complex at Yeha this area was most likely the kingdom s capital Qohaito often identified as the town of Koloe in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 54 as well as Matara were important ancient Dʿmt kingdom cities in southern Eritrea The realm developed irrigation schemes used plows grew millet and made iron tools and weapons After the fall of Dʿmt in the fifth century BC the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms This lasted until the rise of one of these polities during the first century the Kingdom of Aksum which was able to reunite the area 55 Kingdom of Aksum Main article Kingdom of Aksum The Kingdom of Aksum or Axum was a trading empire centered in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia 56 It existed from approximately 100 940 AD growing from the proto Aksumite Iron Age period around the fourth century BC to achieve prominence by the first century AD According to the medieval Liber Axumae Book of Aksum Aksum s first capital Mazaber was built by Itiyopis son of Cush 57 The capital was later moved to Axum in northern Ethiopia The kingdom used the name Ethiopia as early as the fourth century 23 24 The Aksumites erected a number of large stelae which served a religious purpose in pre Christian times One of these granite columns the Obelisk of Aksum is the largest such structure in the world standing at 90 feet 27 metres 58 Under Ezana fl 320 360 Aksum later adopted Christianity 59 Christianity was the first world religion to be adopted in modern Eritrea and the oldest monastery in the country Debre Sina was built during the fourth century It is one of the oldest monasteries in Africa and the world 60 Debre Libanos the second oldest monastery was said to have been founded in the late fifth or early sixth century Originally located in the village of Ham it was moved to an inaccessible location on the edge of a cliff below the Ham plateau Its church contains the Golden Gospel a metal covered bible dating to the thirteenth century during which Debre Libanos was an important seat of religious power 61 In the seventh century AD early Muslims from Mecca at least companions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad sought refuge from Qurayshi persecution by travelling to the kingdom a journey known in Islamic history as the First Hijrah They reportedly built the first African mosque that is the Mosque of the Companions Massawa 62 The kingdom is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an important market place for ivory which was exported throughout the ancient world At the time Aksum was ruled by Zoskales who also governed the port of Adulis 63 The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own Aksumite currency 64 Middle Ages Medri Bahri Main articles Medri Bahri Habesh Eyalet and Sultanate of Aussa Medri Bahri at its height in the 1520s After the decline of Aksum the Eritrean highlands were under the domain of the Christian Kingdom of Medri Bahri ruled by a Bahri Negus or Bahri Negash meaning sea king The area was at first known as Ma ikele Bahri between the seas rivers i e the land between the Red Sea and the Mereb river 65 The entire coastal domain of Ma ikele Bahri was under the Adal Sultanate during the reign of Sultan Badlay ibn Sa ad ad Din 66 67 The state was later reconquered by the Ethiopian Emperor Zara Yaqob and renamed the Medri Bahri Sea land in Tigrinya although it included some areas such as Shire in Ethiopia on the other side of the Mereb today in Ethiopia 68 With its capital at Debarwa 69 the state s main provinces were Hamasien Serae and Akele Guzai Bahta Hagos was an important leader of the Eritrean resistance to foreign domination specifically against northern Ethiopian and Italian colonialism By 1517 the Ottomans had succeeded in conquering Medri Bahri They occupied all of northeastern present day Eritrea for the next two decades an area which stretched from Massawa to Swakin in Sudan 70 The territory became an Ottoman governorate known as the Habesh Eyalet Massawa served as the new province s first capital When the city became of secondary economical importance the administrative capital was soon moved across the Red Sea to Jeddah 71 The first Westerner to document a visit to Eritrea was the Portuguese explorer Francisco Alvares in 1520 His books have the first description of the local powers of Tigray the kingdom of Axum and Barnagais the lord of the lands by the sea 72 The contemporary coast of Eritrea was the one that guaranteed the connection to the region of Tigray where the Portuguese had a small colony and therefore the connection to the interior Ethiopian allies of the Portuguese Massawa was also the stage for the 1541 landing of troops by Cristovao da Gama in the military campaign that would eventually defeat the Adal Sultanate in the final battle of Wayna Daga in 1543 73 The Turks tried to occupy the highland parts of Medri Bahri in 1559 and withdrew after they encountered resistance They were pushed back by the Bahri Negash and highland forces In 1578 they tried to expand into the highlands with the help of Bahri Negash Yisehaq who had switched alliances due to a power struggle Ethiopian emperor Sarsa Dengel made a punitive expedition against the Turks in 1588 in response to their raids in the northern provinces and apparently by 1589 they were once again compelled to withdraw their forces to the coast The Ottomans were eventually driven out in the last quarter of the sixteenth century However they retained control over the seaboard until the establishment of Italian Eritrea in the late 1800s 70 74 75 In 1734 the Afar leader Kedafu established the Mudaito Dynasty in Ethiopia which later also came to include the southern Denkel lowlands of Eritrea thus incorporating the southern Denkel lowlands to the Sultanate of Aussa The sixteenth century also marked the arrival of the Ottomans who began making inroads in the Red Sea area 70 76 77 78 79 excessive citations Modern history Italian Eritrea Main article Italian Eritrea Eritrean Ascaris colonial troops of the Italian Army in a 1898 wood engraving Postcard of the Carabinieri sent from Italian Eritrea in 1907 Piazza Roma in Italian Asmara The boundaries of the present day Eritrea nation state were established during the Scramble for Africa In 1869 or 1870 80 the ruling local chief sold lands surrounding the Bay of Assab to the Rubattino Shipping Company 81 The area served as a coaling station along the shipping lanes introduced by the recently completed Suez Canal In the vacuum that followed the 1889 death of Emperor Yohannes IV Gen Oreste Baratieri occupied the highlands along the Eritrean coast and Italy proclaimed the establishment of the new colony of Italian Eritrea a colony of the Kingdom of Italy In the Treaty of Wuchale It Uccialli signed the same year King Menelik of Shewa a southern Ethiopian kingdom recognized the Italian occupation of his rivals lands of Bogos Hamasien Akkele Guzay and Serae in exchange for guarantees of financial assistance and continuing access to European arms and ammunition His subsequent victory over his rival kings and enthronement as Emperor Menelek II r 1889 1913 made the treaty formally binding upon the entire territory 82 In 1888 the Italian administration launched its first development projects in the new colony The Eritrean Railway was completed to Saati in 1888 83 and reached Asmara in the highlands in 1911 84 The Asmara Massawa Cableway was the longest line in the world during its time but was later dismantled by the British in World War II Besides major infrastructural projects the colonial authorities invested significantly in the agricultural sector It also oversaw the provision of urban amenities in Asmara and Massawa and employed many Eritreans in public service particularly in the police and public works departments 84 Thousands of Eritreans were concurrently enlisted in the army serving during the Italo Turkish War in Libya as well as the First and Second Italo Abyssinian Wars Additionally the Italian Eritrea administration opened a number of new factories which produced buttons cooking oil pasta construction materials packing meat tobacco hide and other household commodities In 1939 there were approximately 2 198 factories and most of the employees were Eritrean citizens The establishment of industries also made an increase in the number of both Italians and Eritreans residing in the cities The number of Italians residing in the territory increased from 4 600 to 75 000 in five years and with the involvement of Eritreans in the industries trade and fruit plantation was expanded across the nation while some of the plantations were owned by Eritreans 85 In 1922 Benito Mussolini s rise to power in Italy brought profound changes to the colonial government in Italian Eritrea After il Duce declared the birth of the Italian Empire in May 1936 Italian Eritrea enlarged with northern Ethiopia s regions and Italian Somaliland were merged with the just conquered Ethiopia in the new Italian East Africa Africa Orientale Italiana administrative territory This fascist period was characterized by imperial expansion in the name of a new Roman Empire Eritrea was chosen by the Italian government to be the industrial center of Italian East Africa 86 Asmara s architecture was greatly improved after 1935 to become a modernist Art Deco city in 2017 has been declared a UNESCO World City Heritage 87 featuring eclectic and rationalist built forms well defined open spaces and public and private buildings including cinemas shops banks religious structures public and private offices industrial facilities and residences according to UNESCO s publications The Italians designed more than 400 buildings in a construction boom that was only halted by Italy s involvement in WW2 These included art deco masterpieces like the worldwide famous Fiat Tagliero Building and the Cinema Impero 88 British administration Through the 1941 Battle of Keren the British expelled the Italians and took over the administration of the country 89 The British placed Eritrea under British military administration until Allied forces could determine its fate In the absence of agreement amongst the Allies concerning the status of Eritrea British administration continued for the remainder of World War II and until 1950 During the immediate postwar years the British proposed that Eritrea be divided along religious community lines and annexed partly to the British colony of Sudan and partly to Ethiopia citation needed The Soviet Union anticipating a communist victory in the Italian polls initially supported returning Eritrea to Italy under trusteeship or as a colony citation needed Annexation with Ethiopia Main article Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea Eritrean War of Independence against Ethiopia 1961 1991 In the 1950s the Ethiopian feudal administration under Emperor Haile Selassie sought to annex Eritrea and Italian Somaliland He laid claim to both territories in a letter to Franklin D Roosevelt at the Paris Peace Conference and at the First Session of the United Nations 90 In the United Nations the debate over the fate of the former Italian colonies continued The British and Americans preferred to cede all of Eritrea except the Western province to the Ethiopians as a reward for their support during World War II 91 The Independence Bloc of Eritrean parties consistently requested from the United Nations General Assembly that a referendum be held immediately to settle the Eritrean question of sovereignty Following the adoption of U N Resolution 390A V in December 1950 Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia under the prompting of the United States 92 The resolution called for Eritrea and Ethiopia to be linked through a loose federal structure under the sovereignty of the emperor Eritrea was to have its own administrative and judicial structure its own flag and control over its domestic affairs including police local administration and taxation 90 The federal government which for all practical purposes was the existing imperial government was to control foreign affairs including commerce defense finance and transportation The resolution ignored the wishes of Eritreans for independence but guaranteed the population democratic rights and a measure of autonomy citation needed Independence Main articles Eritrean War of Independence Flag of Eritrea and Eritrea under Isaias Afwerki A view over Asmara In 1958 a group of Eritreans founded the Eritrean Liberation Movement ELM The organization mainly consisted of Eritrean students professionals and intellectuals It engaged in clandestine political activities intended to cultivate resistance to the centralizing policies of the imperial Ethiopian state 93 On 1 September 1961 the Eritrean Liberation Front ELF under the leadership of Hamid Idris Awate waged an armed struggle for independence In 1962 Emperor Haile Selassie unilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament and annexed the territory The ensuing Eritrean War of Independence went on for 30 years against successive Ethiopian governments until 1991 when the Eritrean People s Liberation Front EPLF a successor of the ELF defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea and helped a coalition of Ethiopian rebel forces take control of the Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa Following a referendum in Eritrea supervised by the United Nations dubbed UNOVER in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993 94 The EPLF seized power established a one party state along nationalist lines and banned further political activity As of 2020 there have been no elections 95 96 97 98 On 28 May 1993 Eritrea was admitted into the United Nations as the 182nd member state 99 The Eritrean Ethiopian War from 1998 to 2000 involved a major border conflict notably around Badme and Zalambessa eventually resolved in 2018 In 2020 Eritrean troops intervened in Tigray War on the side of Ethiopian central government 100 96 97 98 In April 2021 Eritrea confirmed its troops were fighting in Ethiopia 101 GeographyMain article Geography of Eritrea Map of Eritrea Eritrea is located in East Africa It is bordered to the northeast and east by the Red Sea Sudan to the west Ethiopia to the south and Djibouti to the southeast Eritrea lies between latitudes 12 and 18 N and longitudes 36 and 44 E The country is virtually bisected by a branch of the East African Rift Eritrea at the southern end of the Red Sea is the home of the fork in the rift The Dahlak Archipelago and its fishing grounds are situated off the sandy and arid coastline The Dahlak Archipelago Eritrea may be split into three ecoregions To the east of the highlands are the hot arid coastal plains stretching down to the southeast of the country The cooler more fertile highlands reaching up to 3 000 m have a different habitat Habitats here vary from the sub tropical rainforest at Filfil Solomona to the precipitous cliffs and canyons of the southern highlands 102 The Afar Triangle or Danakil Depression of Eritrea is the probable location of a triple junction where three tectonic plates are pulling away from one another The highest point of the country Emba Soira is located in the center of Eritrea at 3 018 meters 9 902 ft above sea level The main cities of the country are the capital city of Asmara and the port town of Asseb in the southeast as well as the towns of Massawa to the east the northern town of Keren and the central town Mendefera Eritrea is part of a 14 nation constituency within the Global Environment Facility which partners with international institutions civil society organizations and the private sector to address global environmental issues while supporting national sustainable development initiatives 103 Local variability in rainfall patterns and reduced precipitation are known to occur which may precipitate soil erosion floods droughts land degradation and desertification 104 In 2006 Eritrea announced that it would become the first country in the world to turn its entire coast into an environmentally protected zone The 1 347 km 837 mi coastline along with another 1 946 km 1 209 mi of coast around its more than 350 islands will come under governmental protection Highlands between Asmara and Massawa Wildlife Main article Wildlife of Eritrea See also List of mammals in Eritrea and List of birds of Eritrea Pelicans in a pond near Asmara Eritrea has several species of mammals and a rich avifauna of 560 species of birds 105 Eritrea is home to an abundant amount of big game species Enforced regulations have helped in steadily increasing their numbers throughout Eritrea 106 Mammals commonly seen today include the Abyssinian hare African wild cat Black backed jackal African golden wolf Genet Ground squirrel pale fox Soemmerring s gazelle and warthog Dorcas gazelle are common on the coastal plains and in Gash Barka Eritrean landscape near road to Massawa Lions are said to inhabit the mountains of the Gash Barka Region Dik diks may be found in many areas The endangered African wild ass may be seen in Denakalia Region Other local wildlife include bushbuck duikers greater kudu Klipspringer African leopards oryx and crocodiles 107 108 The spotted hyena is widespread and fairly common Historically a small population of African bush elephants were known to roam in some parts of the country Between 1955 and 2001 there were no reported sightings of elephant herds however and they were thought to have fallen victim to the war of independence In December 2001 a herd of approximately 30 including 10 juveniles was observed in the vicinity of the Gash River The elephants seemed to have formed a symbiotic relationship with olive baboons The baboons use the water holes dug by the elephants and the elephants seem to be taking advantage of vocalizations made by baboons from the tree tops as an early warning system It is estimated that there are approximately 100 African bush elephant left in Eritrea the most northerly of the East African elephants 109 The endangered African wild dog Lycaon pictus was previously found in Eritrea but is now deemed extirpated from the entire country 110 In Gash Barka snakes such as saw scaled viper are common Puff adder and red spitting cobra are widespread and may be found even in the highlands In the coastal areas marine species that are common include dolphin dugong whale shark turtles marlin swordfish and manta ray 108 Climate Based on variations in temperature Eritrea can be broadly divided into three major climate zones the temperate zone subtropical climate zone and tropical climate zone 111 The climate of Eritrea is shaped by its diverse topographical features and its location within the tropics The diversity in landscape and topography in the highlands and lowlands of Eritrea result in the diversity of climate across the country The highlands have temperate climate throughout the year The climate of most lowland zones is arid and semiarid The distribution of rainfall and vegetation types varies markedly throughout the country Eritrean climate varies on the basis of seasonal and altitudinal differences An 2022 analysis found that the expected costs for Eritrea to adapting to and avert the environmental consequences of climate change are going to be high 112 Climate data for Eritrea in general based on 14 citiesMonth Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec YearAverage high C F 27 3 81 1 28 3 82 9 29 8 85 6 32 3 90 1 33 3 91 9 33 91 32 90 31 5 88 7 32 3 90 1 31 8 89 2 30 86 28 3 82 9 31 88 Daily mean C F 20 68 20 8 69 4 22 5 72 5 24 3 75 7 25 6 78 1 26 79 25 1 77 2 24 7 76 5 24 4 75 9 23 8 74 8 22 1 71 8 20 5 68 9 23 3 73 9 Average low C F 17 8 64 0 17 3 63 1 18 3 64 9 21 70 23 3 73 9 24 4 75 9 24 4 75 9 24 5 76 1 23 3 73 9 22 3 72 1 20 68 18 3 64 9 20 8 69 4 Average precipitation mm inches 6 7 0 26 6 9 0 27 9 0 4 14 8 0 58 20 3 0 80 26 5 1 04 100 3 9 99 7 3 93 25 4 1 00 8 6 0 34 11 9 0 47 9 4 0 37 347 13 7 Source weatherbase 113 Government and politicsMain article Politics of Eritrea The People s Front for Democracy and Justice PFDJ is the only legal party in Eritrea 114 Other political groups are not allowed to organize although the unimplemented Constitution of 1997 provides for the existence of multi party politics The National Assembly has 150 seats National elections have been periodically scheduled and cancelled as of 2022 none has ever been held in the country 22 President Isaias Afwerki has been in office since independence in 1993 In 1993 75 representatives were elected to the National Assembly the rest are appointed As the report by the United Nations Human Rights Council explained No national elections have taken place since that time and no presidential elections have ever taken place Local or regional elections have not been held since 2003 2004 The National Assembly elected independent Eritrea s first president Isaias Afwerki in 1993 Following his election Afwerki consolidated his control of the Eritrean government President Isaias Afwerki has regularly expressed his disdain for what he refers to as western style democracy In a 2008 interview with Al Jazeera for example the president stated that Eritrea will wait three or four decades maybe more before it holds elections Who knows 115 National regional and local elections Main article Elections in Eritrea Given that the full implementation of the Joint Declaration of Peace and Friendship between Eritrea and Ethiopia is still incomplete the Eritrean authorities still do not consider that the peace agreement is formally implemented However local elections have continued in Eritrea The most recent round of local government elections were held in 2010 and 2011 Military The Eritrean Defence Forces are now the official armed forces of the State of Eritrea Eritrea s military is one of the largest in Africa Compulsory military service was instituted in 1995 Officially conscripts male and female must serve for 18 months minimum which includes six months of military training and 12 months during the regular school year to complete their last year of high school Thus around 5 of Eritreans live in barracks in the desert doing projects such as road building as part of their service President Isaias Afewerki with U S Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld December 2002 The National Service Proclamation of 1995 does not recognize the right to conscientious objection to military service According to the 1957 Ethiopian penal code adopted by Eritrea during independence failure to enlist in the military or refusal to perform military service are punishable with imprisonment terms of six months to five years and up to ten years respectively 116 National service enlistment times may be extended during times of national crisis since 1998 everyone under the age of 50 is enlisted in national service for an indefinite period until released which may depend on the arbitrary decision of a commander In a study of 200 escaped conscripts the average service was 6 5 years and some had served more than 12 years 117 Foreign relations Main article Foreign relations of Eritrea The 23d ISCOE East Africa Conference in Asmara in 2019 Eritrea is a member of the United Nations and the African Union It is an observing member of the Arab League alongside Brazil Venezuela and Turkey 30 The nation holds a seat on the United Nations Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions ACABQ Eritrea also holds memberships in the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development International Finance Corporation International Criminal Police Organization INTERPOL Non Aligned Movement Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons Permanent Court of Arbitration Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa and the World Customs Organization The Eritrean government previously withdrew its representative to the African Union to protest the AU s alleged lack of leadership in facilitating the implementation of a binding border decision demarcating the border between Eritrea and Ethiopia Since January 2011 the Eritrean government has appointed an envoy Tesfa Alem Tekle to the AU 118 Eritrea maintains diplomatic ties with a number of other countries it has more than 31 embassies and consulates abroad and more than 22 consulates and embassies represented in the country 119 including China Denmark Ethiopia Djibouti Israel the United States and Yemen Its relations with Djibouti and Yemen are tense due to territorial disputes over the Doumeira Islands and Hanish Islands respectively On 28 May 2019 the United States removed Eritrea from the Counterterror Non Cooperation List which also includes Iran North Korea Syria and Venezuela 120 Moreover Eritrea was visited two months earlier by a U S congressional delegation for the first time in 14 years 121 Relations with Ethiopia See also Eritrea Ethiopia relations and Eritrean Ethiopian War Further information Eritrean War of Independence and Eritrean independence referendum 1993 Independence Day is one of the most important public holidays in Eritrea The undemarcated border with Ethiopia is the primary external issue currently facing Eritrea Eritrea s relations with Ethiopia turned from that of cautious mutual tolerance following the 30 year war for Eritrean independence to a deadly rivalry that led to the outbreak of hostilities from May 1998 to June 2000 that claimed approximately 70 000 lives from both sides 122 The border conflict cost hundreds of millions of dollars 123 Disagreements following the war have resulted in stalemate punctuated by periods of elevated tension and renewed threats of war 124 125 126 The stalemate led the president of Eritrea to urge the UN to take action on Ethiopia with the Eleven Letters penned by the president to the United Nations Security Council The situation has been further escalated by the continued efforts of the Eritrean and Ethiopian leaders in supporting opposition in one another s countries 127 128 In 2011 Ethiopia accused Eritrea of planting bombs at an African Union summit in Addis Ababa which was later supported by a UN report Eritrea denied the claims 129 A peace treaty between both nations was signed on 8 July 2018 130 The next day they signed a joint declaration that formally ended the Eritrean Ethiopian border conflict 131 132 Legal profession According to the NYU School of Law the Legal Committee of the Ministry of Justice oversees the admission and requirements to practice law in Eritrea Although the establishment of an independent bar association is not proscribed under Proclamation 88 96 among other domestic laws there is no bar association The community electorate in the local jurisdiction of the Community Court chooses the court judges The Community Court s standing on women in the legal profession is unclear but elected women judges have reserved seat 133 Human rights Main article Human rights in Eritrea Building of regional administration in Asmara Eritrea is a one party state in which national legislative elections have been repeatedly postponed 26 According to Human Rights Watch the government s human rights record is considered among the worst in the world 27 Most countries have accused the Eritrean authorities of arbitrary arrest and detentions and of detaining an unknown number of people without charge for their political activism Both male and female same sex sexual activity is illegal in Eritrea 134 A prominent group of fifteen Eritreans called the G 15 including three cabinet members were arrested in September 2001 after publishing an open letter to the government and President Isaias Afewerki calling for democratic dialogue This group and thousands of others who were alleged to be affiliated with them are imprisoned without legal charges hearing trial or judgment 135 136 Since Eritrea s conflict with Ethiopia in 1998 2001 the nation s human rights record has been criticized at the United Nations 137 Human rights violations are allegedly often committed by the government or on behalf of the government Freedom of speech press assembly and association are limited Those who practice unregistered religions try to flee the nation or escape military duty are arrested and put into prison 137 By 2009 the number of political prisoners was in the range of 10 000 30 000 there was widespread and systematic torture and extrajudicial killings with anyone for any or no reason including children eight years old people more than 80 years old and ill people being liable to be arrested and Eritrea was one of the world s most totalitarian and human rights abusing regimes 138 During the Eritrean independence struggle and 1998 Eritrean Ethiopian War many atrocities were committed by the Ethiopian authorities against unarmed Eritrean civilians 139 140 Asmara Eritrea in 2015 Traditional Eritrean agudo tukul huts in a village near Barentu In June 2016 a 500 page United Nations Human Rights Council report accused the Eritrean government of extrajudicial executions torture indefinitely prolonged national service 6 5 years on average and forced labour and it indicated that among state officials sexual harassment rape and sexual servitude practices are widespread 5 141 Barbara Lochbihler of the European Parliament Subcommittee on Human Rights said the report detailed very serious human rights violations and asserted that EU funding for development would not continue as at present without change in Eritrea 142 The Eritrean Foreign Ministry responded by describing the commission s report as being wild allegations that were totally unfounded and devoid of all merit 143 Representatives of the United States and China disputed the report s language and accuracy 144 All Eritreans aged between 18 and 40 years must complete a mandatory national service which includes military service This requirement was implemented after Eritrea gained independence from Ethiopia as a means to protect Eritrea s sovereignty to instill national pride and to create a disciplined populace 117 Eritrea s national service requires long indefinite conscription 6 5 years on average which some Eritreans leave the country in order to avoid 117 145 146 In an attempt at reform Eritrean government officials and NGO representatives in 2006 participated in many public meetings and dialogues In these sessions they answered questions as fundamental as What are human rights Who determines what are human rights and What should take precedence human or communal rights 147 In 2007 the Eritrean government banned female genital mutilation 148 In Regional Assemblies and religious circles Eritreans themselves speak out continuously against the use of female circumcision They cite health concerns and individual freedom as being of primary concern when they say this Furthermore they implore rural peoples to cast away this ancient cultural practice 149 150 In 2009 a movement called Citizens for Democratic Rights in Eritrea formed to create dialogue between the government and political opposition The group consists of ordinary citizens and some people close to the government 151 Since the movement s creation no significant effort has been made by the Eritrean government to improve its record on human rights In July 2019 UN ambassadors of 37 countries including Eritrea signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China s treatment of Uyghurs and other Muslim minority groups in the Xinjiang region 152 Media freedom Main article Freedom of press in Eritrea See also Mass media in Eritrea In its 2017 Press Freedom Index Reporters Without Borders ranked the media environment in Eritrea at the bottom of a list of 180 countries 153 According to the BBC Eritrea is the only African country to have no privately owned news media 154 and Reporters Without Borders said of the public media They do nothing but relay the regime s belligerent and ultra nationalist discourse Not a single foreign correspondent now lives in Asmara 155 The state owned news agency censors news about external events 156 Independent media have been banned since 2001 156 The Eritrean authorities had reportedly imprisoned the fourth highest number of journalists after Turkey China and Egypt 157 Administrative divisionsMain articles Regions of Eritrea and Districts of Eritrea Eritrea is divided into six administrative regions These areas are further divided into 58 districts A map of Eritrea regions 1 Northern Red Sea 2 Anseba 3 Gash Barka 4 Central to right 5 Southern 6 Southern Red Sea Regions of Eritrea Region Area km2 CapitalCentral 1 300 AsmaraAnseba 23 200 KerenGash Barka 33 200 BarentuSouthern 8 000 MendeferaNorthern Red Sea 27 800 MassawaSouthern Red Sea 27 600 AssabThe regions of Eritrea are the primary geographical divisions through which the country is administered Six in total they include the Maekel Central Anseba Gash Barka Debub Southern Northern Red Sea and Southern Red Sea regions At the time of independence in 1993 Eritrea was arranged into ten provinces These provinces were similar to the nine provinces operating during the colonial period In 1996 these were consolidated into six regions zobas The boundaries of these new regions are based on water catchment basins TransportationMain article Transport in Eritrea Eritrean mountain road Transport in Eritrea includes highways airports railway and seaports in addition to various forms of public and private vehicular maritime and aerial transportation The Eritrean highway system is named according to the road classification The three levels of classification are primary P secondary S and tertiary T The lowest level road is tertiary and serves local interests Typically the tertiary ones are improved earth roads that occasionally are paved During the wet seasons these roads typically become impassable The next higher level road is a secondary road and typically is a single layered asphalt road that connects district capitals together and those to the regional capitals Roads that are considered primary roads are those that are fully constructed of asphalt throughout their entire length and in general they carry traffic between all the major cities and towns in Eritrea Steam train outside Asmara on the Eritrean Railway As of 1999 there is a total of 317 kilometres of 950 mm 3 ft 1 3 8 in narrow gauge rail line in Eritrea The Eritrean Railway was built between 1887 and 1932 158 159 Badly damaged during WWII and in later fighting it was closed section by section with the final closure coming in 1978 160 After independence a rebuilding effort commenced and the first rebuilt section was reopened in 2003 As of 2009 the section from Massawa to Asmara was fully rebuilt and available for service Rehabilitation of the remainder and of the rolling stock has occurred in recent years Current service is very limited due to the extreme age of most of the railway equipment and its limited availability Further rebuilding is planned The railway linking Agordat and Asmara with the port of Massawa had been inoperative since 1978 except for an approximately 5 kilometre stretch that was reopened in Massawa in 1994 A railway formerly ran from Massawa to Bishia via Asmara and is under re construction Even during the war Eritrea developed its transportation infrastructure by asphalting new roads improving its ports and repairing war damaged roads and bridges as a part of the Wefri Warsay Yika alo program The most significant of these projects was the construction of a coastal highway of more than 500 km connecting Massawa with Asseb as well as the rehabilitation of the Eritrean Railway The rail line has been restored between the port of Massawa and the capital Asmara although services are sporadic Steam locomotives are sometimes used for groups of enthusiasts EconomyMain article Economy of Eritrea Eritrea s main exports 2013 The IMF estimates Eritrea s GDP at 2 1 billion in 2020 or 6 4 billion on a PPP basis 161 The economy grew at a 3 9 annual rate from 2010 to 2020 an improvement from the 1 3 annual rate from 2000 to 2010 The pickup in growth has been attributed to the commencement of full operations in the gold and silver Bisha mine the production of cement from the cement factory in Massawa 162 and investment in Eritrea s copper zinc and Colluli potash mining operations by Australian 163 and Chinese 164 mining companies Worker remittances from abroad are estimated to account for 32 of gross domestic product 16 70 of the Eritrean workforce is employed in agriculture 165 accounting for roughly one third of the economy 166 Eritrea s main agricultural products include sorghum millet barley wheat legumes vegetables fruits sesame linseed cattle sheep goats and camels 167 Tourism in Eritrea makes up less than 1 of the GDP DemographicsMain article Demographics of Eritrea Sources disagree as to the current population of Eritrea with some proposing numbers as low as 3 6 million 10 and others as high as 6 7 million 11 Eritrea has never conducted an official government census 12 Largest cities or towns in Eritrea GeonamesRank Name Region Pop Asmara Keren 1 Asmara Maekel 963 000 Dekemhare Massawa2 Keren Anseba 120 0003 Dekemhare Debub 120 0004 Massawa Northern Red Sea 54 0905 Mendefera Debub 53 0006 Assab Southern Red Sea 28 0007 Barentu Gash Barka 15 8918 Adi Keyh Debub 13 0619 Edd Southern Red Sea 11 25910 Ak ordat Gash Barka 8 857 Ethnic composition A woman and a man in Barentu wearing traditional clothes There are nine recognized ethnic groups according to the government of Eritrea 22 168 An independent census has yet to be conducted but the Tigrinya people make up approximately 55 and Tigre people make up approximately 30 of the population A majority of the remaining ethnic groups belong to Afroasiatic speaking communities of the Cushitic branch such as the Saho Hedareb Afar and Bilen There are also a number of Nilotic ethnic groups who are represented in Eritrea by the Kunama and Nara Each ethnicity speaks a different native tongue but typically many of the minorities speak more than one language The Arabic Rashaida people represent approximately 2 of Eritrea s population 3 They reside in the northern coastal lowlands of Eritrea as well as the eastern coasts of Sudan The Rashaida first came to Eritrea in the nineteenth century from the Hejaz region 169 In addition there exist Italian Eritrean concentrated in Asmara and Ethiopian Tigrayan communities Neither is generally given citizenship unless through marriage or more rarely by having it conferred upon them by the state In 1941 Eritrea had approximately 760 000 inhabitants including 70 000 Italians 170 Most Italians left after Eritrea became independent from Italy It is estimated that as many as 100 000 Eritreans are of Italian descent 171 172 Languages Main article Languages of Eritrea Population pyramid of Eritrea 2016 Eritrea is a multilingual country The nation has no official language as the Constitution establishes the equality of all Eritrean languages 1 Eritrea has nine national languages which are Tigrinya Tigre Afar Beja Bilen Kunama Nara and Saho Tigrinya Arabic and English serve as de facto working languages with English used in university education and many technical fields While Italian the former colonial language holds no government recognized status in Eritrea it is spoken by a few monolinguals and Asmara had the Scuola Italiana di Asmara an Italian government operated school that was shut down in 2020 173 Also native Eritreans assimilated the language of the Italian Eritreans and spoke a version of Italian mixed with many Tigrinya words Eritrean Italian 174 Most of the languages spoken in Eritrea belong to the Ethiopian Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic family 175 Other Afroasiatic languages belonging to the Cushitic branch are also widely spoken in the country 175 The latter include Afar Beja Blin and Saho In addition Nilo Saharan languages Kunama and Nara are spoken as a native language by the Nilotic Kunama and Nara ethnic groups that live in the western and northwestern part of the country 175 Smaller groups speak other Afroasiatic languages such as the newly recognized Dahlik and Arabic the Hejazi and Hadhrami dialects spoken by the Rashaida and Hadhrami respectively Religion Main article Religion in Eritrea Eritrea religious groups U S Department of State 2019 176 Pew Research Center 2010 177 Religion PercentChristianity 49 Islam 49 Others 2 Religion PercentChristianity 63 Islam 36 Others 1 The two main religion followed in Eritrea are Christianity and Islam However the number of adherents of each faith is subject to debate According to the Pew Research Center as of 2010 update 62 9 of the population of Eritrea adhered to Christianity 36 6 followed Islam and 0 4 practiced traditional African religions The remainder observed Judaism Hinduism Buddhism other faiths lt 0 1 each or were religiously unaffiliated 0 1 177 The U S Department of State estimated that as of 2011 update 50 of the population of Eritrea adhered to Christianity 48 followed Islam and 2 observed other religions including traditional faiths and animism 176 Christianity is the oldest world religion practiced in the country and the first Christian monastery Debre Sina monastery was built during the fourth century 178 Since May 2002 the government of Eritrea has officially recognized the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church Oriental Orthodox Sunni Islam the Eritrean Catholic Church a Metropolitanate sui juris and the Evangelical Lutheran church All other faiths and denominations are required to undergo a registration process 179 Among other things the government registration system requires religious groups to submit personal information on their membership to be allowed to worship 179 The 15th century Sheikh Hanafi Mosque in Massawa Church of Our Lady of the Rosary in the capital Asmara The Eritrean government is against what it deems as reformed or radical versions of its established religions Therefore alleged radical forms of Islam and Christianity Jehovah s Witnesses and numerous other non Protestant Evangelical denominations are not registered and cannot worship freely Three named Jehovah s Witnesses are known to have been imprisoned since 1994 along with 51 others 180 181 182 The government treats Jehovah s Witnesses especially harshly denying them ration cards and work permits 183 Jehovah s Witnesses were stripped of their citizenship and basic civil rights by presidential decree in October 1994 184 In its 2017 religious freedom report the U S State Department named Eritrea a Country of Particular Concern CPC 185 Health care Main article Health in Eritrea Eritrea has achieved significant improvements in health care and is one of the few countries to be on target to meet its Millennium Development Goals MDG for health in particular child health 186 Life expectancy at birth increased from 39 1 years in 1960 to 66 44 years in 2020 187 maternal and child mortality rates dropped dramatically and the health infrastructure expanded 186 The World Health Organisation WHO in 2008 found average life expectancy to be slightly less than 63 years a number that has increased to 66 44 in 2020 187 Immunisation and child nutrition have been tackled by working closely with schools in a multi sectoral approach the number of children vaccinated against measles almost doubled in seven years from 40 7 to 78 5 and the prevalence of underweight children decreased by 12 from 1995 to 2002 severe underweight prevalence by 28 186 The National Malaria Protection Unit of the Ministry of Health registered reductions in malarial mortality by as much as 85 and in the number of cases by 92 between 1998 and 2006 186 The Eritrean government has banned female genital mutilation FGM saying the practice was painful and put women at risk of life threatening health problems 188 However Eritrea still faces many challenges Although the number of physicians increased from only 0 2 in 1993 to 0 5 in 2004 per 1000 people this is still very low 186 Malaria and tuberculosis are common 189 HIV prevalence for ages 15 to 49 years exceeds 2 189 The fertility rate is about 4 1 births per woman 189 Maternal mortality dropped by more than half from 1995 to 2002 but is still high 186 Similarly the number of births attended by skilled health personnel doubled from 1995 to 2002 but still is only 28 3 186 A major cause of death in newborns is severe infection 189 Per capita expenditure on health is low 189 Education Main article Education in Eritrea The Eritrea Institute of Technology Eritrean pupils in uniform There are five levels of education in Eritrea pre primary primary middle secondary and post secondary There are nearly 1 270 000 students in the primary middle and secondary levels of education 190 There are approximately 824 schools 191 two universities the University of Asmara and the Eritrea Institute of Technology and several smaller colleges and technical schools Education in Eritrea is officially compulsory for children aged 6 to 13 years 190 Education system in Eritrea 192 Basic Education 7 yearsMiddle Junior High School Years included in basic Secondary Secondary School 4 yearsPost secondary Advanced Diploma 3 yearsHigher Education Bachelor 4 5 yearsHigher Education Master 2 yearsStatistics vary at the elementary level suggesting that 70 to 90 of school aged children attend primary school Approximately 61 attend secondary school Student teacher ratios are high 45 1 at the elementary level and 54 1 at the secondary level Class sizes average 63 and 97 students per classroom at the elementary and secondary school levels respectively Learning hours at school are often fewer than six hours per day Barriers to education in Eritrea include traditional taboos school fees for registration and materials and the opportunity costs of low income households 193 The Eritrea Institute of Technology EIT is a technological institute located near the town Himbrti Mai Nefhi outside Asmara The institute has three colleges Science Engineering and Technology and Education The institute began with approximately 5 500 students during the 2003 2004 academic year Literacy rate Eritrea 2018 source World bank UNESCO 194 192 Literacy rate Percent All Adults 76 6Age 15 24 93 3The EIT was opened after the University of Asmara was reorganized According to the Ministry of Education the institution was established as one of many efforts to achieve equal distribution of higher learning in areas outside the capital city Asmara Accordingly several similar colleges are also established in different other parts of the country The Eritrea Institute of Technology is the main local institute of higher studies in science engineering and education The University of Asmara is the oldest university in the country and was opened in 1958 195 It is currently not in operation The overall adult literacy rate in Eritrea is 76 6 84 4 for men and 68 9 for women For youth 15 24 the overall literacy rate is 93 3 93 8 for men and 92 7 for women 196 CultureMain article Culture of Eritrea One of the most recognizable parts of Eritrean culture is the coffee ceremony 197 Coffee Ge ez ቡን bun is offered when visiting friends during festivities or as a daily staple of life During the coffee ceremony there are traditions that are upheld The coffee is served in three rounds the first brew or round is called awel in Tigrinya meaning first the second round is called kalaay meaning second and the third round is called bereka meaning to be blessed Traditional Eritrean attire is quite varied among the ethnic groups of Eritrea In the larger cities most people dress in Western casual dress such as jeans and shirts In offices both men and women often dress in suits A common traditional clothing for Christian Tigrinya highlanders consists of bright white gowns called zurias for the women and a white shirt accompanied by white pants for the men In Muslim communities in the Eritrean lowland the women traditionally dress in brightly colored clothes Besides convergent culinary tastes Eritreans share an appreciation for similar music and lyrics jewelry and fragrances and tapestry and fabrics as many other populations in the region 198 Cuisine See also Eritrean cuisine Eritrean injera with various stews A typical traditional Eritrean dish consists of injera accompanied by a spicy stew which frequently includes beef chicken lamb or fish 199 Overall Eritrean cuisine strongly resembles that of neighboring Ethiopia 199 200 though Eritrean cooking tends to feature more seafood than Ethiopian cuisine on account of their coastal location 199 Eritrean dishes are also frequently lighter in texture than Ethiopian meals They likewise tend to employ less seasoned butter and spices and more tomatoes as in the tsebhi dorho delicacy Additionally owing to its colonial history cuisine in Eritrea features more Italian influences than are present in Ethiopian cooking including more pasta and greater use of curry powders and cumin The Italian Eritrean cuisine started to be practiced during the colonial times of the Kingdom of Italy when a large number of Italians moved to Eritrea They brought the use of pasta to Italian Eritrea and it is one of the main foods eaten in present day Asmara An Italian Eritrean cuisine emerged and common dishes are pasta al sugo e berbere pasta with tomato sauce and berbere spice lasagna and cotoletta alla Milanese veal Milanese 201 In addition to coffee local alcoholic beverages are enjoyed These include sowa a bitter drink made from fermented barley and mies a fermented honey wine 202 UNESCO World Heritage SiteOn 8 July 2017 the entire capital city of Asmara was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site with the inscription taking place during the 41st World Heritage Committee Session The city has thousands of Art Deco futurist modernist and rationalist buildings constructed during the period of Italian Eritrea 203 204 205 206 207 208 Asmara a small town in the nineteenth century started to grow quickly during 1889 209 The city also became a place to experiment with radical new designs mainly futuristic and art deco inspired 210 Even though city planners architects and engineers were largely European members of the indigenous population were largely used as construction workers Asmarinos still identify with their city s legacy 211 Eritrean national museum in Asmara The Fiat Tagliero Building The city shows off most early twentieth century architectural styles Some buildings are neo Romanesque such as the Church of Our Lady of the Rosary Art Deco influences are found throughout the city Essences of Cubism may be found on the Africa Pension Building and on a small collection of buildings The Fiat Tagliero Building shows almost the height of futurism just as it was becoming fashionable in Italy In recent times some buildings have been functionally built which sometimes can spoil the atmosphere of some cities but they fit into Asmara as it is such a modern city Many buildings such as opera houses hotels and cinemas were built during this period Some notable buildings include the Art Deco Cinema Impero opened in 1937 and considered by the experts one of the world s finest examples of Art Deco style building 212 Cubist Africa Pension eclectic Eritrean Orthodox Enda Mariam Cathedral and Asmara Opera the futurist Fiat Tagliero Building the neoclassical Asmara city hall A statement from UNESCO read It is an exceptional example of early modernist urbanism at the beginning of the 20th century and its application in an African context UNESCO 203 Music Main article Music of Eritrea Eritrean artist Helen Meles Eritrea s ethnic groups each have their own styles of music and accompanying dances Amongst the Tigrinya the best known traditional musical genre is the guaila Traditional instruments of Eritrean folk music include the stringed krar kebero begena masenqo and the wata a distant rudimentary cousin of the violin A popular Eritrean artist is the Tigrinya singer Helen Meles who is noted for her powerful voice and wide singing range 213 Other prominent local musicians include the Kunama singer Dehab Faytinga Ruth Abraha Bereket Mengisteab the late Yemane Ghebremichael and the late Abraham Afewerki Sports See also Sport in Eritrea Tour of Eritrea cycling competition in Asmara Eritrea Football and cycling are the most popular sports in Eritrea Cycling has a long tradition in Eritrea and was first introduced during the colonial period 214 215 The Tour of Eritrea a multi stage cycling event has been held annually since 1946 throughout the country The national cycling teams of both men and women are ranked first on the African continent and Eritrea is ranked among the best cycling nations in the world 216 The Eritrea national cycling team has experienced a lot of success winning the African continental cycling championship several years in a row In 2013 the women s team won the gold medal in the African Continental Cycling Championships for the first time and for the second time in 2015 and third time in 2019 The men s team have won gold 7 times in the last 9 years in the African continental cycling championships between 2010 and 2019 217 218 219 220 More than six Eritrean riders have signed professional contracts to international cycling teams including Natnael Berhane and Daniel Teklehaimanot Berhane was named African Sportsman of the Year in 2013 while Teklehaimanot became the first Eritrean to ride the Vuelta a Espana in 2012 221 In 2015 Teklehaimanot won the King of the Mountains classification in the Criterium du Dauphine Teklehaimanot and fellow Eritrean Merhawi Kudus became the first black cyclists from Africa to compete in the Tour de France when they were selected by the MTN Qhubeka team for the 2015 edition of the race 222 In July of the year Teklehaimanot also became the first rider from an African team to wear the polka dot jersey at the Tour de France 223 Eritrean athletes have also seen increasing success in the international arena in other sports Zersenay Tadese an Eritrean athlete formerly held the world record in the half marathon 224 Ghirmay Ghebreslassie became the first Eritrean to win a gold medal at a World Championships in Athletics for his country when he took the marathon at the 2015 World Championships 225 Eritrea made its Winter Olympic debut 25 February 2018 when they competed at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang South Korea 2018 Eritrea s team was represented by their flagbearer Shannon Ogbnai Abeda who competed as alpine skier 226 In 2022 Biniam Girmay was the first black African rider to win both the Gent Wevelgem and a stage in one of the Grand Tours However he was forced to abandon the race the next day as he accidentally fired the cork of a Prosecco bottle into his own eye 227 228 See also Eritrea portal Africa portalIndex of Eritrea related articles Outline of EritreaReferences a b Constitution of the State of Eritrea Shaebia org Archived from the original on 3 May 2011 Retrieved 2 May 2010 a b Eritrea at a Glance Eritrea Ministry of Information 1 October 2009 Retrieved 9 September 2020 a b Eritrea PDF The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency Archived from the original PDF on 27 February 2020 Retrieved 10 June 2020 Eritrea The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency 23 September 2022 retrieved 3 October 2022 a b Report of the commission of inquiry on human rights in Eritrea UNHRC website 8 June 2015 Retrieved 9 June 2015 Eritrea Events of 2016 World Report 2017 Rights Trends in Eritrea Human Rights Watch 12 January 2017 a b Saad Asma 21 February 2018 Eritrea s Silent Totalitarianism Keane Fergal 10 July 2018 Making peace with Africa s North Korea BBC News Taylor Adam 12 June 2015 The brutal dictatorship the world keeps ignoring The Washington Post Retrieved 20 May 2019 a b World Population Prospects 2019 UN DESA 2019 Archived from the original on 27 February 2021 Retrieved 28 February 2021 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39 amp 91 Google Books Jonathan Miran Red Sea Citizens Cosmopolitan Society and Cultural Change in Massawa Indiana University Press 2009 pp 38 39 amp 91 Abir Mordechai 1968 The era of the princes the challenge of Islam and the re unification of the Christian empire 1769 1855 London Longmans pp 23 26 Pankhurst Richard 1997 The Ethiopian Borderlands Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century Red Sea Press ISBN 978 0932415196 In defence of the Eritrean revolution against Ethiopian social chauvinists AESNA 1978 p 38 Later in their history the Denkel lowlands of Eritrea were part of the Sultanate of Aussa which came into being towards the end of the sixteenth century Abir Mordechai 1968 The era of the princes the challenge of Islam and the re unification of the Christian empire 1769 1855 London Longmans p 23 n 1 Ullendorff Edward The Ethiopians An Introduction to Country and People 2nd ed p 90 Oxford University Press London 1965 ISBN 0 19 285061 X Chisholm 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Removing Eritrea from Counterterror Non Cooperation List VOA News 28 May 2019 1st US Congressional Delegation in 14 Years Visits Eritrea VOA News 4 March 2019 Ethiopian raid on Eritrean bases raises fears of renewed conflict The Guardian 16 March 2012 Will arms ban slow war BBC 18 May 2000 Horn tensions trigger UN warning BBC 4 February 2004 Retrieved 7 June 2006 Army build up near Horn frontier BBC 2 November 2005 Retrieved 7 June 2006 Horn border tense before deadline BBC 23 December 2005 Retrieved 7 June 2006 Ethiopian Prime Minster tries to undermine the arrest of 20 journalists in the country The Low Ethiopian Reports Why are Ethiopian leaders calling Eritrea s president Hitler TRT News Rice Xan 28 July 2011 Eritrea planned massive bomb attack on African Union summit UN says The Guardian Retrieved 28 July 2011 Leaders of Ethiopia and Eritrea hug and make up CBC News CBC 8 July 2018 Retrieved 9 July 2018 Ethiopia s Abiy and Eritrea s Afewerki declare end of war BBC News 9 July 2018 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The Diplomat 15 July 2019 Press Freedom Index 2017 Reporters Without Borders Reports Without Borders Country profile Eritrea BBC News 30 November 2010 World Report Eritrea Reporters Without Borders Reports Without Borders Archived from the original on 11 August 2011 Retrieved 17 July 2011 a b Keita Mohamed 18 February 2011 Sub Saharan Africa censors Mideast protests Committee to Protect Journalists Number of Jailed Journalists Hits Record High Advocacy Group Says The New York Times 13 December 2017 Publications Europa Europa 31 October 2002 Africa South of the Sahara 2003 Psychology Press ISBN 9781857431315 via Google Books Eritrean Railway Revival www internationalsteam co uk Italian Eritrean Railway and Tramway www trainweb org The State of Eritrea and the IMF IMF Retrieved 26 May 2021 Eritrea Economic Outlook African Development Bank Afdb org Retrieved 30 December 2013 Lempriere Molly Molly 22 May 2019 Mining in Eritrea could a new potash project spur sustainable growth Mining Technology Mining News and Views Updated Daily Retrieved 30 May 2020 Chinese Miner to Start Copper Output in Eritrea by Next Year Bloomberg com 23 August 2018 Retrieved 30 May 2020 Jordan Ray 18 March 2016 Eritrea Farming in a fragile land Huffington Post Eritrea Overview World Bank 18 September 2019 Retrieved 30 May 2020 FAO country profile Eritrea Archived 8 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2006 Eritrean Culture Embassy of The State of Eritrea Eritrean embassy se Archived from the original on 13 November 2013 Retrieved 30 December 2013 Alders Anne the Rashaida Archived from the original on 9 July 2006 Retrieved 7 June 2006 Tesfagiorgis Gebre Hiwet 1993 Emergent Eritrea challenges of economic development The Red Sea Press p 111 ISBN 978 0 932415 91 2 The Italian Ambassador stated at the 2008 Film Festival in Asmara 1 Archived 18 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine that nearly 100 000 Eritreans in 2008 have Italian blood because they have at least one grandfather or great grandfather from Italy Stampato C 5634 www camera it in Italian Retrieved 20 May 2019 Eritrea Languages Ethnologue Retrieved 13 October 2016 Italiano e dialetti fuori d Italia Italian and dialects out of Italy www viv it org in Italian Retrieved 17 May 2019 a b c Minahan James 1998 Miniature empires a historical dictionary of the newly independent states Greenwood Publishing Group p 76 ISBN 978 0 313 30610 5 The majority of the Eritreans speak Ethiopian Semitic languages mainly Tigrinya and Tigre other languages belongs to Cushitic languages of the Afroasiatic language group The Kunama and other groups in the west and northwest speak Nilotic languages a b Eritrea U S State Department a b Religious Composition by Country 2010 2050 Pew Research Center 2 April 2015 Archived from the original on 26 October 2017 Retrieved 26 October 2017 Edward Denison Edward Paice 2007 Eritrea The Bradt Travel Guide p 187 ISBN 978 1841621715 a href 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June 2021 World Development Indicators DataBank databank worldbank org Retrieved 26 May 2021 It s coffee time Archived 4 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine Network Africa Online April 2008 interview Tekle Amare 1994 Eritrea and Ethiopia From Conflict to Cooperation The Red Sea Press p 197 ISBN 978 0932415974 a b c Goyan Kittler Pamela Sucher Kathryn P Nahikian Nelms Marcia 2011 Food and Culture 6th ed Cengage Learning p 202 ISBN 978 0538734974 Tekle Amare 1994 Eritrea and Ethiopia From Conflict to Cooperation The Red Sea Press p 142 ISBN 978 0932415974 Carman Tim 9 January 2009 Mild Frontier the differences between Eritrean and Ethiopian cuisines come down to more than spice Washington City Paper Retrieved 12 March 2013 Eritrea Travel Trade Manual Ministry of Tourism of Eritrea 2000 p 4 a b Centre UNESCO World Heritage Asmara A Modernist African City UNESCO World Heritage Centre Commentary Tom Gardner 11 July 2017 Eritrea s picturesque capital is now a World Heritage site and could help bring it in from the cold Quartz Africa Eritrea capital Asmara makes UNESCO World Heritage list Africanews 11 July 2017 Archived from the original on 4 March 2020 Retrieved 18 December 2019 Eritrea s capital added to UNESCO World Heritage site list DW 08 07 2017 DW COM The modernist marvels of Eritrea Apollo Magazine 19 November 2019 Exploring Eritrea s UNESCO certified Art Deco wonderland The Independent 9 November 2017 Britannica Asmara britannica com USA accessed on 8 September 2019 Asmara useful for experimenting with radical designs for Europeans The Washington Times 15 September 2007 Retrieved 8 December 2010 Jan Korting amp Neysan Zolzer 2012 Heritage and Daily Life in the Historic Urban Core of Asmara Original Erbe und Alltag im historischen Stadtkern Asmaras Dissertation Technische Universitat Berlin Gianluca Rossi Renzo Martinelli inviato deLa Nazione 2009 Blum Bruno 2007 De l art de savoir chanter danser et jouer la bamboula comme un eminent musicien africain le guide des musiques africaines Scali p 198 ISBN 978 2350121970 Cycling is isolated Eritrea s window to the world Cycling 28 July 2017 Eritrea and cycling An unlikely relationship The Best of Africa CQ Ranking cqranking com Eritrean Cycling Team Wins the 2015 African Continental Cycling Championships TTT Archived 9 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine Raimoq com 10 February 2015 Retrieved on 5 June 2016 Next wave of riders is even better Eritrean cycling preparing to peak The Guardian 17 August 2015 Retrieved on 5 June 2016 Eritrean national teams rank first at the African Cycling Championship time race Archived 9 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine Raimoq com 1 December 2013 Retrieved on 5 June 2016 African Continental Championships TTT 2019 Results www procyclingstats com Berhane could become the first Eritrean to ride the Tour de France Cycling News 2 March 2014 Retrieved 16 October 2014 Heroes welcome for Daniel Teklehaimanot and Merhawi Kudus in Eritrea Caperi 1 August 2015 Archived from the original on 8 May 2016 Retrieved 25 June 2016 Eritrea s Daniel Teklehaimanot 1st African to wear the King of the Mountains jersey at the Tour de France Caperi 9 July 2015 Archived from the original on 12 October 2016 Retrieved 25 June 2016 World records ratified Iaaf org 8 May 2010 Retrieved 20 September 2013 World Athletics Championships 2015 Eritrean teen Ghirmay Ghebreslassie wins men s marathon title smh com au 22 August 2015 Retrieved 22 August 2015 Rieger Sarah 28 December 2017 Calgary skier headed to Winter Olympics but not with Team Canada CBC News Calgary Alberta Canada Retrieved 31 December 2017 Sport Telegraph 17 May 2022 Watch History making cyclist out of Giro d Italia after firing Prosecco cork into his own eye The Telegraph ISSN 0307 1235 Retrieved 20 May 2022 MacLeary John 17 May 2022 Biniam Girmay becomes first black African to win grand tour stage with historic Giro d Italia victory The Telegraph ISSN 0307 1235 Retrieved 20 May 2022 Christine Owen Navigating difference between Tigrigna and Tigrinya Navigating Differences Tigrigna vs Tigrinya December 16 2010Further readingBeretekeab R 2000 Eritrea The Making of a Nation 1890 1991 Thesis Uppsala University Uppsala ISBN 9789150613872 OCLC 632423867 Cliffe Lionel Connell Dan Davidson Basil 2005 Taking on the Superpowers Collected Articles on the Eritrean Revolution 1976 1982 Red Sea Press ISBN 1 56902 188 0 Cliffe Lionel amp Davidson Basil 1988 The Long Struggle of Eritrea for Independence and Constructive Peace Spokesman Press ISBN 0 85124 463 7 Connell Dan 1997 Against All Odds A Chronicle of the Eritrean Revolution With a New Afterword on the Postwar Transition Red Sea Press ISBN 1 56902 046 9 Connell Dan 2001 Rethinking Revolution New Strategies for Democracy amp Social Justice The Experiences of Eritrea South Africa Palestine amp Nicaragua Red Sea Press ISBN 1 56902 145 7 Connell Dan 2004 Conversations with Eritrean Political Prisoners Red Sea Press ISBN 1 56902 235 6 Connell Dan 2005 Building a New Nation Collected Articles on the Eritrean Revolution 1983 2002 Red Sea Press ISBN 1 56902 198 8 Firebrace James amp Holand Stuart 1985 Never Kneel Down Drought Development and Liberation in Eritrea Red Sea Press ISBN 0 932415 00 8 Drudi Emilio 2021 Una storia eritrea Beyan Adam Amr Calamaro Edizioni ISBN 9788894463927 Gebre Medhin Jordan 1989 Peasants and Nationalism in Eritrea Red Sea Press ISBN 0 932415 38 5 Hatem Elliesie Decentralisation of Higher Education in Eritrea Afrika Spectrum Vol 43 2008 No 1 p 115 120 Hill Justin 2002 Ciao Asmara A classic account of contemporary Africa Little Brown ISBN 978 0 349 11526 9 Iyob Ruth 1997 The Eritrean Struggle for Independence Domination Resistance Nationalism 1941 1993 Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 59591 6 Jacquin Berdal Dominique Plaut Martin 2004 Unfinished Business Ethiopia and Eritrea at War Red Sea Press ISBN 1 56902 217 8 Johns Michael 1992 Does Democracy Have a Chance Congressional Record 6 May 1992 Archived 23 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine Keneally Thomas 1990 To Asmara ISBN 0 446 39171 9 Kendie Daniel 2005 The Five Dimensions of the Eritrean Conflict 1941 2004 Deciphering the Geo Political Puzzle Signature Book Printing ISBN 1 932433 47 3 Killion Tom 1998 Historical Dictionary of Eritrea Scarecrow Press ISBN 0 8108 3437 5 Mauri Arnaldo 2004 Eritrea s Early Stages in Monetary and Banking Development International Review of Economics Vol LI n 4 Mauri Arnaldo 1998 The First Monetary and Banking Experiences in Eritrea African Review of Money Finance and Banking n 1 2 Miran Jonathan 2009 Red Sea Citizens Cosmopolitan Society and Cultural Change in Massawa Indiana University Press ISBN 978 0 253 22079 0 Muller Tanja R Bare life and the developmental State the Militarization of Higher Education in Eritrea Journal of Modern African Studies Vol 46 2008 No 1 p 1 21 Negash T 1987 Italian Colonisation in Eritrea Policies Praxis and Impact Uppsala Univwersity Uppsala Ogbaselassie G 10 January 2006 Response to remarks by Mr David Triesman Britain s parliamentary under secretary of state with responsibility for Africa Archived from the original on 16 November 2006 Retrieved 7 June 2006 Pateman Roy 1998 Eritrea Even the Stones Are Burning Red Sea Press ISBN 1 56902 057 4 Phillipson David W 1998 Ancient Ethiopia Reid Richard 2011 Frontiers of Violence in North East Africa Genealogies of Conflict Since c 1800 Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0199211883 Wrong Michela 2005 I Didn t Do It For You How the World Betrayed a Small African Nation Harper Collins ISBN 0 06 078092 4External linksEritrea at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel information from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Scholia has a topic profile for Eritrea Government Ministry of Information of Eritrea Archived 22 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine official government website EriTV News Music Movie and Comedy from Eritrea Television Eritrea The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency Eritrea web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries Eritrea at Curlie Eritrea profile from BBC News Wikimedia Atlas of EritreaOthers Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in Eritrea United Nations Human Rights Council Report 8 June 2015 HRCE Human Rights Concern Eritrea Documentary on Women s liberation in Eritrea Tigrinya online learning with numbers alphabet and history Eritrea and north Ethiopia Tigray Province Ferrovia Eritrea Eritrean Railway in Italian Atlas of Eritrea About Eritrea in Italian Key Development Forecasts for Eritrea from International Futures Magazines Special section about Eritrea from Espresso online magazine in Italian History of Eritrea First recordings Munzinger exploitation by colonialism and fight against colonialism Italy England Ethiopia Soviet Union USA Israel independence Archived 12 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine Category Totalitarian states Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Eritrea amp oldid 1134863348, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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