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Sea Peoples

February 15, 2024

For other uses, see Sea People (disambiguation).

The Sea Peoples are a hypothesized seafaring confederation that attacked ancient Egypt and other regions in the East Mediterranean before and during the Late Bronze Age collapse (1200–900 BC).[2][3] Following the creation of the concept in the 19th century, the Sea Peoples' incursions became one of the most famous chapters of Egyptian history, given its connection with, in the words of Wilhelm Max Müller, "the most important questions of ethnography and the primitive history of classic nations".[4][5]

This scene from the north wall of Medinet Habu is often used to illustrate the Egyptian campaign against the Sea Peoples, in what has come to be known as the Battle of the Delta (c. 1175 BC),[1] during the reign of Ramesses III. While accompanying hieroglyphs do not name Egypt's enemies, describing them simply as being from "northern countries", early scholars noted the similarities between the hairstyles and accessories worn by the combatants and other reliefs in which such groups are named.

The origins of the Sea Peoples are undocumented. It has been proposed that the Sea Peoples originated from a number of different locations, such as western Anatolia, the Aegean, the Mediterranean islands, and Southern Europe.[6] Although the archaeological inscriptions do not include reference to a migration,[3] the Sea Peoples are conjectured to have sailed around the eastern Mediterranean and raided Anatolia, Syria, Phoenicia, Canaan, Cyprus, and Egypt toward the end of the Bronze Age.[7]

French Egyptologist Emmanuel de Rougé first used the term peuples de la mer (literally "peoples of the sea") in 1855 in a description of reliefs on the Second Pylon at Medinet Habu, documenting Year 8 of Ramesses III.[8][9] In the late 19th century, Gaston Maspero, de Rougé's successor at the Collège de France, subsequently popularized the term "Sea Peoples" and an associated migration theory.[10] Since the early 1990s, his migration theory has been brought into question by a number of scholars.[2][3][11][12]

The Sea Peoples remain unidentified in the eyes of most modern scholars, and hypotheses regarding the origin of the various groups are the source of much speculation.[13] Existing theories variously propose that they were any of several Aegean tribes, raiders from Central Europe, scattered soldiers who turned to piracy or became refugees, or even migrants linked to natural disasters such as earthquakes or climatic shifts.[3][14]

History of the concept edit

 
 
A partial description of the hieroglyphic text at Medinet Habu on the right tower of Second Pylon (left) and an illustration of the prisoners depicted at the base of the Fortified East Gate (right), were first provided by Jean-François Champollion following his 1828–29 travels to Egypt and published posthumously.[15] Although Champollion did not label them, decades later the hieroglyphs labeled 4 to 8 (left) were translated as Peleset, Tjeker, Shekelesh, Denyen and Weshesh, and the hieroglyphs next to prisoners 3 and 4 (second row, right), translated as Tjeker and Sherden.[16]

The concept of the Sea Peoples was first described by Emmanuel de Rougé in 1855, then curator of the Louvre, in his work Note on Some Hieroglyphic Texts Recently Published by Mr. Greene,[17] describing the battles of Ramesses III described on the Second Pylon at Medinet Habu, and based upon recent photographs of the temple by John Beasley Greene.[18][19][20] De Rougé noted that "in the crests of the conquered peoples the Sherden and the Teresh bear the designation of the peuples de la mer", in a reference to the prisoners depicted at the base of the Fortified East Gate.[9] In 1867, de Rougé published his Excerpts of a dissertation on the attacks directed against Egypt by the peoples of the Mediterranean in the 14th century BC, which focused primarily on the battles of Ramesses II and Merneptah and which proposed translations for many of the geographic names included in the hieroglyphic inscriptions.[21][22] De Rougé later became chair of Egyptology at the Collège de France and was succeeded by Gaston Maspero. Maspero built upon de Rougé's work and published The Struggle of the Nations,[23] in which he described the theory of the seaborne migrations in detail in 1895–96 for a wider audience,[10] at a time when the idea of population migrations would have felt familiar to the general population.[24]

The migration theory was taken up by other scholars such as Eduard Meyer and became the generally accepted theory amongst Egyptologists and Orientalists.[10] Since the early 1990s, however, it has been brought into question by a number of scholars.[2][3][11][12]

The historical narrative stems primarily from seven Ancient Egyptian sources[25] and although in these inscriptions the designation "of the sea" does not appear in relation to all of these peoples,[2][12] the term "Sea Peoples" is commonly used in modern publications to refer to the following nine peoples, in alphabetical order:[26][27]

Egyptian name Original identification Other theories
People Trans-
literation 		Connection to the sea Year Author Theory
Denyen dꜣjnjnjw "in their isles"[28] 1872 Chabas[29] Greeks (Danaans)[30] Israelite tribe of Dan,[30] Daunians,[31] Dorians,[32][33] Land of the Danuna near Ugarit,[34] people of Adana, in Cilicia[35]
Ekwesh jḳꜣwꜣšꜣ "of the countries of the sea"[36] 1867 de Rougé[29] Greeks (Achaeans)[37][30][38]
Lukka rkw 1867 de Rougé[29] Lycians[38][37]
Peleset prwsṯ 1846
1872 		William Osborn Jr. and Edward Hincks[39][40][41][42]
Chabas[43]		 Pelasgians
Philistines 		Parišta/Assuwa in Western Anatolia.[44]
Palistin in Southern Anatolia and Northern Syria.[44]
may included parts of Phrygians and Armenians.[45]
Shekelesh šꜣkršꜣ "of the countries of the sea"[46] (disputed)[36] 1867 de Rougé[29] Sicels[38][37] Cyclades[47][full citation needed]
Sagalassos[48]
Saḫiriya (Sakariya)[44]
Sherden šꜣrdn "of the sea"[49]
"of the countries of the sea"[46] (disputed)[36]		 1867 de Rougé[29] Sardinians (Nuragic)[37][38][50][51] Sardis[48]
Sporades[47]
Teresh twršꜣ "of the sea"[49] 1867 de Rougé[29] Tyrrhenians[37][38][52] Troy (Taruisa),[53] Tribe of Tiras,[54] Tarshish,[55] Taurus Mountains,[55]
Tjeker ṯꜣkꜣr 1867, 1872 Lauth, Chabas[29] Teucrians[56] Zakro, Crete;[57] Eteocretans;[58] Thrace;[59]
Sicals form Southern Phonecia;[60] Sicels[61]
Weshesh wꜣšꜣšꜣ "of the sea"[28] 1872 Chabas[29] Greeks (Achaeans)[37][30][38][29] Assuwa/Waršiya in Western Anatolia,[44] Wassos,[62] Cretan Waksioi,[63]
Predecessor of the Osci,[64] Israelite tribe of Asher.[65][66]

Considered by others to remain unidentified.[43]

Primary documentary records edit

The Medinet Habu inscriptions from which the Sea Peoples concept was first described remain the primary source and "the basis of virtually all significant discussions of them".[67]

Three separate narratives from Egyptian records refer to more than one of the nine peoples, found in a total of six sources. The seventh and most recent source referring to more than one of the nine peoples is a list (Onomasticon) of 610 entities, rather than a narrative.[25] These sources are summarized in the table below.

Date Narrative Source(s) Peoples named Connection to the sea
c. 1210 BC Ramesses II narrative Kadesh Inscriptions Karkisha, Lukka, Sherden none
c. 1200 BC Merneptah narrative Great Karnak Inscription Eqwesh, Lukka, Shekelesh, Sherden, Teresh Eqwesh (of the countries of the sea),[36] possibly also Sherden and Sheklesh[46]
Athribis Stele Eqwesh, Shekelesh, Sherden, Teresh Eqwesh (of the countries of the sea)[36][46]
c. 1150 BC Ramesses III narrative Medinet Habu Denyen, Peleset, Shekelesh, Sherden, Teresh, Tjekker, Weshesh Denyen (in their isles), Teresh (of the sea), Sherden (of the sea)[49]
Papyrus Harris I Denyen, Peleset, Sherden, Tjekker, Weshesh Denyen (in their isles), Weshesh (of the sea)[28]
Rhetorical Stela Peleset, Teresh none
c. 1100 BC List (no narrative) Onomasticon of Amenope Denyen, Lukka, Peleset, Sherden, Tjekker none

Ramesses II narrative edit

 
A carved relief from the Kadesh inscriptions showing Shasu spies being beaten by Egyptians

Possible records of sea peoples generally or in particular date to two campaigns of Ramesses II, a pharaoh of the militant 19th Dynasty: operations in or near the delta in Year 2 of his reign and the major confrontation with the Hittite Empire and allies at the Battle of Kadesh in his Year 5. The years of this long-lived pharaoh's reign are not known exactly, but they must have comprised nearly all of the first half of the 13th century BC.[68]

In his Second Year, an attack of the Sherden, or Shardana, on the Nile Delta was repulsed and defeated by Ramesses, who captured some of the pirates. The event is recorded on Tanis Stele II.[69] An inscription by Ramesses II on the stela from Tanis which recorded the Sherden raiders' raid and subsequent capture speaks of the continuous threat they posed to Egypt's Mediterranean coasts:

the unruly Sherden whom no one had ever known how to combat, they came boldly sailing in their warships from the midst of the sea, none being able to withstand them.[70]

The Sherden prisoners were subsequently incorporated into the Egyptian army for service on the Hittite frontier by Ramesses and fought as Egyptian soldiers in the Battle of Kadesh. Another stele usually cited in conjunction with this one is the "Aswan Stele" (there were other stelae at Aswan), which mentions the king's operations to defeat a number of peoples including those of the "Great Green (the Egyptian name for the Mediterranean)". It is plausible to assume that the Tanis and Aswan Stelae refer to the same event, in which case they reinforce each other.[citation needed]

The Battle of Kadesh was the outcome of a campaign against the Hittites and their allies in the Levant in the pharaoh's Year 5. The imminent collision of the Egyptian and Hittite empires became obvious to both, and they both prepared campaigns against the strategic midpoint of Kadesh for the next year. Ramesses divided his Egyptian forces, which were then ambushed piecemeal by the Hittite army and nearly defeated. Ramesses was separated from his forces and had to fight singlehandedly to get back to his troops. He then mustered several counterattacks while waiting for reinforcements. Once the reinforcements from the South and East arrived, the Egyptians managed to drive the Hittites back to Kadesh. While it was a strategic Egyptian victory, neither side managed to attain their operational objectives.[71]

At home, Ramesses had his scribes formulate an official description, which has been called "the Bulletin" because it was widely published by inscription. Ten copies survive today on the temples at Abydos, Karnak, Luxor and Abu Simbel, with reliefs depicting the battle. The "Poem of Pentaur", describing the battle, also survived.[72]

The poem relates that the previously captured Sherden were not only working for the Pharaoh but were also formulating a plan of battle for him; i.e. it was their idea to divide Egyptian forces into four columns. There is no evidence of any collaboration with the Hittites or malicious intent on their part, and if Ramesses considered it, he never left any record of that consideration.[citation needed]

The poem lists the peoples who went to Kadesh as allies of the Hittites. Amongst them are some of the sea peoples spoken of in the Egyptian inscriptions previously mentioned, and many of the peoples who would later take part in the great migrations of the 12th century BC (see Appendix A to the Battle of Kadesh).[citation needed]

Merneptah narrative edit

 
Athribis stele (showing all 19 lines and 14 lines on each face. The reference to "foreigners of the sea" is on line 13 out of 19)
 
Great Karnak Inscription (lines 1-20 out of 79; line 52 includes the reference to "foreign peoples of the sea" (n3 ḫ3s.wt n<.t> p3 ym):[46]



The major event of the reign of the Pharaoh Merneptah (1213 BC – 1203 BC),[73] 4th king of the 19th Dynasty, was his battle at Perire in the western delta in the 5th and 6th years of his reign, against a confederacy termed "the Nine Bows". Depredations of this confederacy had been so severe that the region was "forsaken as pasturage for cattle, it was left waste from the time of the ancestors".[74]

The pharaoh's action against them is attested in a single narrative found in three sources. The most detailed source describing the battle is the Great Karnak Inscription; two shorter versions of the same narrative are found in the "Athribis Stele" and the "Cairo Column".[75] The "Cairo column" is a section of a granite column now in the Cairo Museum, which was first published by Maspero in 1881 with just two readable sentences – the first confirming the date of Year 5 and the second stating: "The wretched [chief] of Libya has invaded with ——, being men and women, Shekelesh (S'-k-rw-s) ——".[76][77] The "Athribis stela" is a granite stela found in Athribis and inscribed on both sides, which like the Cairo column, was first published by Maspero two years later in 1883.[78] The Merneptah Stele from Thebes describes the reign of peace resulting from the victory but does not include any reference to the Sea Peoples.[79]

The Nine Bows were acting under the leadership of the king of Libya and an associated near-concurrent revolt in Canaan involving Gaza, Ascalon, Yenoam and the Israelites. Exactly which peoples were consistently in the Nine Bows is not clear, but present at the battle were the Libyans, some neighboring Meshwesh, and possibly a separate revolt in the following year involving peoples from the eastern Mediterranean, including the Kheta (or Hittites), or Syrians, and (in the Israel Stele) for the first time in history, the Israelites. In addition to them, the first lines of the Karnak inscription include some sea peoples,[80] which must have arrived in the Western Delta or from Cyrene by ship:

[Beginning of the victory that his majesty achieved in the land of Libya] -i, Ekwesh, Teresh, Lukka, Sherden, Shekelesh, Northerners coming from all lands.

Later in the inscription Merneptah receives news of the attack:

... the third season, saying: "The wretched, fallen chief of Libya, Meryey, son of Ded, has fallen upon the country of Tehenu with his bowmen – Sherden, Shekelesh, Ekwesh, Lukka, Teresh, Taking the best of every warrior and every man of war of his country. He has brought his wife and his children – leaders of the camp, and he has reached the western boundary in the fields of Perire"

"His majesty was enraged at their report, like a lion", assembled his court and gave a rousing speech. Later, he dreamed he saw Ptah handing him a sword and saying, "Take thou (it) and banish thou the fearful heart from thee." When the bowmen went forth, says the inscription, "Amun was with them as a shield." After six hours, the surviving Nine Bows threw down their weapons, abandoned their baggage and dependants, and ran for their lives. Merneptah states that he defeated the invasion, killing 6,000 soldiers and taking 9,000 prisoners. To be sure of the numbers, among other things, he took the penises of all uncircumcised enemy dead and the hands of all the circumcised, from which history learns that the Ekwesh were circumcised, a fact causing some to doubt they were Greek.[81]

Ramesses III narrative edit

Further information: Battle of the Delta, Battle of Djahy, and Late Bronze Age collapse
 
 
Medinet Habu northeast outside wall, showing wide view and a close-up sketch of the right-hand side relief. Behind the king (out of scene) is a chariot, above which the text describes a battle in Year 8 as follows:

"Now the northern countries, which were in their isles, were quivering in their bodies. They penetrated the channels of the Nile's mouths. Their nostrils have ceased (to function, so that) their desire is [to] breathe the breath. His majesty is gone forth like a whirlwind against them, fighting on the battlefield like a runner. The dread of him and the terror of him have entered in their bodies; (they are) capsized and overwhelmed in their places. Their hearts are taken away; their soul is flown away. Their weapons are scattered in the sea. His arrow pierces him whom he has wished among them, while the fugitive becomes one fallen into the water. His majesty is like an enraged lion, attacking his assailant with his pawns; plundering on his right hand and powerful on his left hand, like Set[h] destroying the serpent 'Evil of Character'. It is Amon-Re who has overthrown for him the lands and has crushed for him every land under his feet; King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands: Usermare-Meriamon."[82]

Ramesses III, who reigned for most of the first half of the 12th century BC as the second pharaoh of the 20th Dynasty, confronted a later wave of invasions of the Sea Peoples in his eighth year. The battles were later recorded in two long inscriptions from his Medinet Habu mortuary temple, which are physically separate and somewhat different from one another.[83] The Year 8 campaign is the best-recorded Sea Peoples invasion.

The fact that several civilizations collapsed around 1175 BC has led to the suggestion that the Sea Peoples may have been involved at the end of the Hittite, Mycenaean and Mitanni kingdoms. The American Hittitologist Gary Beckman writes, on page 23 of Akkadica 120 (2000):[84]

A terminus ante quem for the destruction of the Hittite empire has been recognized in an inscription carved at Medinet Habu in Egypt in the eighth year of Ramesses III (1175 BC). This text narrates a contemporary great movement of peoples in the eastern Mediterranean, as a result of which "the lands were removed and scattered to the fray. No land could stand before their arms, from Hatti, Kode, Carchemish, Arzawa, Alashiya on being cut off. [ie: cut down]"

Ramesses' comments about the scale of the Sea Peoples' onslaught in the eastern Mediterranean are confirmed by the destruction of the states of Hatti, Ugarit, Ascalon and Hazor around this time. As the Hittitologist Trevor Bryce observes, "It should be stressed that the invasions were not merely military operations, but involved the movements of large populations, by land and sea, seeking new lands to settle."[85]

This situation is confirmed by the Medinet Habu temple reliefs of Ramesses III which show that "the Peleset and Tjekker warriors who fought in the land battle [against Ramesses III] are accompanied in the reliefs by women and children loaded in ox-carts."[85]

 
 
Medinet Habu Second Pylon, showing wide view and a close-up sketch of the left-hand side relief in which Amon, with Mut behind him, extends a sword to Rameses III who is leading three lines of prisoners. The text before the King includes the following:"Thou puttest great terror of me in the hearts of their chiefs; the fear and dread of me before them; that I may carry off their warriors (phrr), bound in my grasp, to lead them to thy ka, O my august father, – – – – –. Come, to [take] them, being: Peleset (Pw-r'-s'-t), Denyen (D'-y-n-yw-n'), Shekelesh (S'-k-rw-s). Thy strength it was which was before me, overthrowing their seed, – thy might, O lord of gods."[86] On the right hand side of the Pylon is the "Great Inscription on the Second Pylon", which includes the following text:"The foreign countries made a conspiracy in their islands, All at once the lands were removed and scattered in the fray. No land could stand before their arms: from Hatti, Qode, Carchemish, Arzawa and Alashiya on, being cut off [i.e. destroyed] at one time. A camp was set up in Amurru. They desolated its people, and its land was like that which has never come into being. They were coming forward toward Egypt, while the flame was prepared before them. Their confederation was the Peleset, Tjeker, Shekelesh, Denyen and Weshesh, lands united. They laid their hands upon the land as far as the circuit of the earth, their hearts confident and trusting: 'Our plans will succeed!'"[87]

The inscriptions of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu record three victorious campaigns against the Sea Peoples that are considered bona fide, in Years 5, 8 and 12, as well as three considered spurious, against the Nubians and Libyans in Year 5 and the Libyans with Asiatics in Year 11. During Year 8, some Hittites were operating with the Sea Peoples.[88]

The inner west wall of the second court describes the invasion of Year 5. Only the Peleset and Tjeker are mentioned, but the list is lost in a lacuna. The attack was two-pronged, one by sea and one by land. That is, the Sea Peoples divided their forces. Ramesses was waiting in the Nile mouths and trapped the enemy fleet there. The land forces were defeated separately.

The Sea Peoples did not learn any lessons from this defeat, as they repeated their mistake in Year 8 with a similar result. The campaign is recorded more extensively on the inner northwest panel of the first court. It is possible, but not generally believed, that the dates are only those of the inscriptions and both refer to the same campaign.

In Ramesses' Year 8, the Nine Bows appear as a "conspiracy in their isles". This time, they are revealed unquestionably as Sea Peoples: the Peleset, Tjeker, Shekelesh, Denyen and Weshesh, which are classified as "foreign countries" in the inscription. They camped in Amor and sent a fleet to the Nile.

The pharaoh was once more waiting for them. He had built a fleet especially for the occasion, hidden it in the mouths of the Nile, and posted coast watchers. The enemy fleet was ambushed there, their ships overturned, and the men dragged up on shore and executed ad hoc.

The land army was also routed within Egyptian controlled territory. Additional information is given in the relief on the outer side of the east wall. This land battle occurred in the vicinity of Djahy against "the northern countries". When it was over, several chiefs were captive: of Hatti, Amor and Shasu among the "land peoples" and the Tjeker, "Sherden of the sea", "Teresh of the sea" and Peleset or Philistines.

The campaign of Year 12 is attested by the Südstele found on the south side of the temple. It mentions the Tjeker, Peleset, Denyen, Weshesh and Shekelesh.

Papyrus Harris I of the period, found behind the temple, suggests a wider campaign against the Sea Peoples but does not mention the date. In it, the persona of Ramses III says, "I slew the Denyen (D'-yn-yw-n) in their isles" and "burned" the Tjeker and Peleset, implying a maritime raid of his own. He also captured some Sherden and Weshesh "of the sea" and settled them in Egypt. As he is called the "Ruler of Nine Bows" in the relief of the east side, these events probably happened in Year 8; i.e. the Pharaoh would have used the victorious fleet for some punitive expeditions elsewhere in the Mediterranean.

The Rhetorical Stela to Ramesses III, Chapel C, Deir el-Medina records a similar narrative.[89]

Onomasticon of Amenope edit

The Onomasticon of Amenope, or Amenemipit (amen-em-apt), gives slight credence to the idea that the Ramesside kings settled the Sea Peoples in Canaan. Dated to about 1100 BC (at the end of the 22nd dynasty) this document simply lists names. After six place names, four of which were in Philistia, the scribe lists the Sherden (Line 268), the Tjeker (Line 269) and the Peleset (Line 270), who might be presumed to occupy those cities.[90] The Story of Wenamun on a papyrus of the same cache also places the Tjeker in Dor at that time. The fact that the Biblical maritime Tribe of Dan was initially located between the Philistines and the Tjekker, has prompted some to suggest that they may have originally been Denyen. Sherden seem to have been settled around Megiddo and in the Jordan Valley, and Weshwesh (connected by some with the Biblical tribe of Asher) may have been settled further north.[citation needed]

Other documentary records edit

Egyptian single-name sources edit

Other Egyptian sources refer to one of the individual groups without reference to any of the other groups.[25]

The Amarna letters, around the mid-14th century BC, including four relating to the Sea Peoples:

  • EA 151 refers to the Denyen, in a passing reference to the death of their king;
  • EA 38 refers to the Lukka, who are being accused of attacking the Egyptians in conjunction with the Alashiyans (Cypriotes), with the latter having stated that the Lukka were seizing their villages.
  • EA 81, EA 122 and EA 123 refer to the Sherden. The letters at one point refer to a Sherden man as an apparent renegade mercenary,[91] and at another point to three Sherden who are slain by an Egyptian overseer.[92]

Padiiset's Statue refers to the Peleset, the Cairo Column[93] refers to the Shekelesh, the Story of Wenamun refers to the Tjekker, and 13 further Egyptian sources refer to the Sherden.[94]

Byblos edit

 
The Abishemu obelisk, includes the words "Kwkwn ś: Rwqq" translated as "Kukun, son of Lukka"

The earliest ethnic group[95] later considered among the Sea Peoples is believed to be attested in Egyptian hieroglyphs on the Abishemu obelisk found in the Temple of the Obelisks at Byblos by Maurice Dunand.[96][97] The inscription mentions kwkwn son of rwqq- (or kukun son of luqq), transliterated as Kukunnis, son of Lukka, "the Lycian".[98] The date is given variously as 2000 or 1700 BC

Ugarit edit

Destructions at Gibala-Tell Tweini
 
Harbour town Gibala-Tell Tweini (Ugarit kingdom) and the Sea People destruction layer.[99]
 
Gibala-Tell Tweini. Storage jars found in the Early Iron Age destruction layer.[99]

Some Sea Peoples appear in four of the Ugaritic texts, the last three of which seem to foreshadow the destruction of the city around 1180 BC. The letters are therefore dated to the early 12th century. The last king of Ugarit was Ammurapi (c. 1191–1182 BC), who, throughout this correspondence, is quite a young man.

  • RS 34.129, the earliest letter, found on the south side of the city, from "the Great King", presumably Suppiluliuma II of the Hittites, to the prefect of the city. He says that he ordered the king of Ugarit to send him Ibnadushu for questioning, but the king was too immature to respond. He, therefore, wants the prefect to send the man, whom he promises to return. What this language implies about the relationship of the Hittite empire to Ugarit is a matter of interpretation. Ibnadushu had been kidnapped by and had resided among a people of Shikala, probably the Shekelesh, "who lived on ships". The letter is generally interpreted as an interest in military intelligence by the king.[100]
  • RS L 1, RS 20.238 and RS 20.18, are a set from the Rap'anu Archive between a slightly older Ammurapi, now handling his own affairs, and Eshuwara, the grand supervisor of Alasiya. Evidently, Ammurapi had informed Eshuwara, that an enemy fleet of 20 ships had been spotted at sea. Eshuwara wrote back and inquired about the location of Ammurapi's own forces. Eshuwara also noted that he would like to know where the enemy fleet of 20 ships are now located.[101] Unfortunately for both Ugarit and Alasiya, neither kingdom was able to fend off the Sea People's onslaught, and both were ultimately destroyed. A letter by Ammurapi (RS 18.147) to the king of Alasiya—which was in fact a response to an appeal for assistance by the latter—has been found by archaeologists. In it, Ammurapi describes the desperate plight facing Ugarit.[a] Ammurapi, in turn, appealed for aid from the viceroy of Carchemish, which actually survived the Sea People's onslaught; King Kuzi-Teshub I, who was the son of Talmi-Teshub—a direct contemporary of the last ruling Hittite king, Suppiluliuma II—is attested in power there,[103] running a mini-empire which stretched from "Southeast Asia Minor, North Syria ... [to] the west bend of the Euphrates"[104] from c. 1175 BC to 990 BC. Its viceroy could only offer some words of advice for Ammurapi.[b]

Hypotheses about origins edit

A number of hypotheses concerning the origins, identities and motives of the Sea Peoples described in the records have been formulated. They are not necessarily alternative or contradictory hypotheses about the Sea Peoples; any or all might be mainly or partly true.

Regional migration historical context edit

See also: Late Bronze Age collapse
 
Map of the Sea People invasions in the Aegean Sea and Eastern Mediterranean at the end of the Late Bronze Age.[99]

The Late Bronze Age Mycenaean Greek Linear B tablets of Pylos in the Peloponnese along the Ionian Sea demonstrate increased slave raiding and the spread of mercenaries and migratory peoples and their subsequent resettlement. Despite this, the actual identity of the Sea Peoples has remained enigmatic and modern scholars have only the scattered records of ancient civilizations and archaeological analysis to inform them.

Evidence shows that the identities and motives of these peoples were known to the Egyptians. In fact, many had sought employment with the Egyptians or were in a diplomatic relationship for a few centuries before the Late Bronze Age collapse. For example, select groups, or members of groups, of the Sea People, such as the Sherden, were used as mercenaries by pharaohs such as Ramesses II.

Prior to the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt (from the 15th century BC), names of Semitic-speaking, cattle-raising nomadic pastoralists of the Levant appear, replacing previous Egyptian concern with the Hurrianised ʾprw (ʾapiru or Habiru). These were called the šꜣsw "Shasu", meaning "those who move on foot". e.g. the Shasu of Yhw.[106] Nancy Sandars uses the analogous name "land peoples". Contemporary Assyrian records refer to them as Ahlamu "Wanderers".[107] They were not part of the Egyptian list of Sea Peoples, and were later referred to as Arameans.

Some people, such as the Lukka, were included in both categories of land and sea people.

Philistine hypothesis edit

Main article: Philistines
 
Philistine Bichrome pottery, theorized to be of Sea Peoples origin

The archaeological evidence from the southern coastal plain of ancient Canaan, termed Philistia in the Hebrew Bible, indicates a disruption[108] of the Canaanite culture that existed during the Late Bronze Age and its replacement (with some integration) by a culture with a possibly foreign (mainly Aegean) origin. This includes distinct pottery, which at first belongs to the Mycenaean IIIC tradition (albeit of local manufacture) and gradually transforms into uniquely Philistine pottery. Mazar says:[109]

... in Philistia, the producers of Mycenaean IIIC pottery must be identified as the Philistines. The logical conclusion, therefore, is that the Philistines were a group of Mycenaean Greeks who immigrated to the east ... Within several decades ... a new bichrome style, known as the "Philistine", appeared in Philistia ...

Sandars, however, does not take this point of view but says:[110]

... it would be less misleading to call this "Philistine pottery" "Sea Peoples" pottery or "foreign" pottery, without commitment to any particular group.

Artifacts of the Philistine culture are found at numerous sites, in particular in the excavations of the five main cities of the Philistines: the Pentapolis of Ascalon, Isdud, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. Some scholars (e.g. S. Sherratt, Drews, etc.) have challenged the theory that the Philistine culture is an immigrant culture, claiming instead that they are an in situ development of the Canaanite culture, but others argue for the immigrant hypothesis; for example, T. Dothan and Barako.

Trude and Moshe Dothan suggest that the later Philistine settlements in the Levant were unoccupied for nearly 30 years between their destruction and resettlement by the Philistines, whose Helladic IIICb pottery also shows Egyptian influences.[111]

With the advent of archaeogenetics, the Aegean hypothesis regarding the origin of the Philistines has received a major boost. A study by Michal Feldman and colleagues that carried out genomic testing of 10 Bronze Age and Iron Age individuals from Ascalon reported that the early Iron Age population was genetically distinct from both late Bronze Age and late Iron Age tested individuals as a result of transient European-related admixture. The authors concluded that a migration event occurred during the Bronze to Iron Age transition in Ascalon from an Aegean-related source, even though this migration did not leave a long-lasting genetic signature.[112]

Minoan hypothesis edit

Further information: Caphtor

Two of the peoples who settled in the Levant had traditions that may connect them to Crete: the Tjeker and the Peleset. The Tjeker may have left Crete to settle in Anatolia, and left there to settle Dor.[113] According to the Old Testament,[114] the Israelite God brought the Philistines out of Caphtor. The mainstream of Biblical and classical scholarship accepts Caphtor to refer to Crete, but there are alternative minority theories.[115] Crete at the time was populated by peoples speaking many languages, among which were Mycenaean Greek and Eteocretan, the descendant of the language of the Minoans. It is possible, but by no means certain, that these two peoples spoke Eteocretan.

Recent examinations of the eruption of the Santorini volcano estimate its occurrence at between 1660 and 1613 BC, centuries before the first appearances of the Sea Peoples in Egypt. The eruption is thus unlikely to be connected to the Sea Peoples.[116]

Greek migrational hypothesis edit

Main article: Mycenaean Greece

The identifications of Denyen with the Greek Danaans and Ekwesh with the Greek Achaeans are long-standing issues in Bronze Age scholarship, whether Greek, Hittite or Biblical, especially as they lived "in the isles". The Greek identification of the Ekwesh is considered especially problematic as this group was clearly described as circumcised by the Egyptians, and according to Manuel Robbins: "Hardly anyone thinks that the Greeks of the Bronze Age were circumcised..."[81] Michael Wood described the hypothetical role of the Greeks (who have already been proposed as the identity of the Philistines above):[117]

 
Warrior wearing a boar's tusk helmet, from a Mycenaean chamber tomb in the Acropolis of Athens, 14th–13th century BC.

... were the sea peoples ... in part actually composed of Mycenaean Greeks – rootless migrants, warrior bands and condottieri on the move ...? Certainly, there seem to be suggestive parallels between the war gear and helmets of the Greeks ... and those of the Sea Peoples ...

Wood would also include the Sherden and Shekelesh, pointing out that "there were migrations of Greek-speaking peoples to the same place [Sardinia and Sicily] at this time." He is careful to point out that the Greeks would have been only one element among many that comprised the sea peoples. Furthermore, the proportion of Greeks must have been relatively small. His major hypothesis[117] is that the Trojan War was fought against Troy VI and Troy VIIa, the candidate of Carl Blegen, and that Troy was sacked by those now identified as Greek Sea Peoples. He suggests that Odysseus' assumed identity as a wandering Cretan coming home from the Trojan War, who fights in Egypt and serves there after being captured,[118] "remembers" the campaign of Year 8 of Ramses III, described above. He points out also that places destroyed on Cyprus at the time (such as Kition) were rebuilt by a new Greek-speaking population. Several scholars have proposed that the Sea People were certainly Mycenaean Greeks.[119]

Trojan hypothesis edit

Main article: Troy

The possibility that the Teresh were connected on the one hand with the Tyrrhenians,[120] believed to be an Etruscan-related culture, or on the other with Taruisa, a Hittite name possibly referring to Troy, has been speculated.[121] The Roman poet Virgil depicts Aeneas as escaping the fall of Troy by coming to Latium to found a line descending to Romulus, first king of Rome. Considering that Anatolian connections have been identified for other Sea Peoples, such as the Tjeker and the Lukka, Eberhard Zangger puts together an Anatolian hypothesis, but it is not accepted for archaeological, linguistic, anthropological and genetic reasons.[122][123][124][125] Virgil's account refers to the foundation of Rome, not to the Etruscans, and is not believed to contain true events. Furthermore, there is no archaeological or linguistic evidence of a migration in the late Bronze Age from Anatolia to Etruria,[126] and the Etruscan language, as well as all the languages of the Tyrrhenian family, considered Pre-Indo-European and Paleo-European,[127] belongs to a completely different family from the Anatolian one which is Indo-European. Moreover, both recent studies of anthropology and genetics have argued in favor of the indigenous origin of the Etruscans and against the hypothesis of eastern origin.[128][129][130]

Mycenaean warfare hypothesis edit

See also: Achaeans (Homer) and Mycenaean Greece

This theory suggests that the Sea Peoples were populations from the city-states of the Greek Mycenaean civilization, who destroyed each other in a disastrous series of conflicts lasting several decades. There would have been few or no external invaders and just a few excursions outside the Greek-speaking part of the Aegean civilization.

Archaeological evidence indicates that many fortified sites of the Greek domain were destroyed in the late 13th and early 12th century BC, which was understood in the mid-20th century to have been simultaneous or nearly so and was attributed to the Dorian invasion championed by Carl Blegen of the University of Cincinnati. He believed Mycenaean Pylos was burned during an amphibious raid by warriors from the north, the Dorians.

Subsequent critical analysis focused on the fact that the destructions were not simultaneous and that all the evidence of Dorians comes from later times. John Chadwick championed a Sea Peoples hypothesis,[131] which asserted that, since the Pylians had retreated to the northeast, the attack must have come from the southwest, the Sea Peoples being, in his view, the most likely candidates. He suggests that they were based in Anatolia and, although doubting that the Mycenaeans would have called themselves "Achaeans", speculates that "it is very tempting to bring them into connexion." He does not assign a Greek identity to all of the Sea Peoples.

Considering the turbulence between and within the great families of the Mycenaean city-states in Greek mythology, the hypothesis that the Mycenaeans destroyed themselves is long-standing[132] and finds support by the ancient Greek historian Thucydides, who theorized:

For in early times the Hellenes and the barbarians of the coast and islands ... was tempted to turn to piracy, under the conduct of their most powerful men ... [T]hey would fall upon a town unprotected by walls ... and would plunder it ... no disgrace being yet attached to such an achievement, but even some glory.[133]

Although some advocates of the Philistine or Greek migration hypotheses identify all the Mycenaeans or Sea Peoples as ethnically Greek, John Chadwick (founder, with Michael Ventris, of Linear B studies) adopts instead the multiple ethnicity view.

Nuragic and Italian peoples hypotheses edit

See also: Nuragic civilization and Etruscan civilization

Some archeologists believe that the Sherden are identifiable with the Sardinians from the Nuragic era.[51][134][135][136]

Theories of the possible connections between the Sherden to Sardinia, Shekelesh to Sicily, and Teresh to Tyrrhenians, even though long-standing, are based on onomastic similarities.[137] Nuragic pottery of domestic use has been found at Pyla Kokkinokremos, a fortified settlement in Cyprus, during the 2010 and 2017 excavations.[138][139][140][141][142] The site is dated to the period between the 13th and 12th centuries BC, that of the Sea Peoples' invasions. This find has led archaeologist Vassos Karageorghis to identify the Nuragic Sardinians with the Sherden, one of the Sea Peoples. According to him, the Sherden went first to Crete and from there they joined the Cretans in an eastward expedition to Cyprus.[143][144]

 
Bronze model of a nuraghe. 10th century BC

The Nuragic bronze statuettes, a great collection of Nuragic sculptures, includes a great number of horned helmet warriors wearing a similar skirt to the Sherdens' and a round shield; although they had been dated for a long time to the 10th or 9th century BC, recent discoveries suggest that their production started around the 13th century BC. Swords identical to those of the Sherden have been found in Sardinia, dating back to 1650 BC.

The name which the Etruscans used to refer to themselves - Rasna - does not lend itself to the Tyrrhenian derivation, although it has been suggested that this was itself derived from an earlier form T'Rasna. The Etruscan civilization has been studied, and the language partly deciphered. It has variants and representatives in Aegean inscriptions, but these may well be from travelers or colonists of Etruscans during their seafaring period before Rome destroyed their power.[145]

There is no definitive archaeological evidence. About all that can be said for certain is that Mycenaean IIIC pottery was widespread around the Mediterranean in areas associated with Sea Peoples and its introduction at various places is often associated with cultural change, violent or gradual. An old theory is that the Sherden and Shekelesh brought those names with them to Sardinia and Sicily, "perhaps not operating from those great islands but moving toward them",[146] and this is still accepted by Eric Cline[147] and by Trevor Bryce,[148] who explains that some of the Sea Peoples sprang out of the collapsing Hittite empire. Giovanni Ugas believes that the Sherden originated in Sardinia,[134] and his studies have been echoed by Sebastiano Tusa, in his last book,[135] and by Carlos Roberto Zorea, from the Complutense University of Madrid.[136]

Anatolian famine hypothesis edit

A famous passage from Herodotus[149] portrays the wandering and migration of Lydians from Anatolia because of famine:[150]

In the days of Atys, the son of Manes, there was great scarcity through the whole land of Lydia ... So the king determined to divide the nation in half ... the one to stay, the other to leave the land. ... the emigrants should have his son Tyrrhenus for their leader ... they went down to Smyrna, and built themselves ships ... after sailing past many countries they came to Umbria ... and called themselves ... Tyrrhenians.

However, the 1st-century BC historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Greek living in Rome, dismissed many of the ancient theories of other Greek historians and postulated that the Etruscans were indigenous people who had always lived in Etruria and were different from the Lydians.[151] Dionysius noted that the 5th-century historian Xanthus of Lydia, who was originally from Sardis and was regarded as an important source and authority for the history of Lydia, never suggested a Lydian origin of the Etruscans and never named Tyrrhenus as a ruler of the Lydians.[151]

For this reason, therefore, I am persuaded that the Pelasgians are a different people from the Tyrrhenians. And I do not believe, either, that the Tyrrhenians were a colony of the Lydians; for they do not use the same language as the latter, nor can it be alleged that, though they no longer speak a similar tongue, they still retain some other indications of their mother country. For they neither worship the same gods as the Lydians nor make use of similar laws or institutions, but in these very respects they differ more from the Lydians than from the Pelasgians. Indeed, those probably come nearest to the truth who declare that the nation migrated from nowhere else, but was native to the country, since it is found to be a very ancient nation and to agree with no other either in its language or in its manner of living.

Tablet RS 18.38 from Ugarit also mentions grain to the Hittites, suggesting a long period of famine, connected further, in the full theory, to drought.[152] Barry Weiss,[153] using the Palmer Drought Index for 35 Greek, Turkish, and Middle Eastern weather stations, showed that a drought of the kinds that persisted from January 1972 would have affected all of the sites associated with the Late Bronze Age collapse. Drought could have easily precipitated or hastened socio-economic problems and led to wars. More recently, Brian Fagan has shown how mid-winter storms from the Atlantic were diverted to travel north of the Pyrenees and the Alps, bringing wetter conditions to Central Europe, but drought to the Eastern Mediterranean.[154] More recent paleoclimatological research has also shown climatic disruption and increasing aridity in the Eastern Mediterranean, associated with the North Atlantic Oscillation at this time (See Bronze Age Collapse).

Invader hypothesis edit

 
Invasions, population movements and destruction during the collapse of the Bronze Age, c. 1200 BC derived from Atlas of World History (2002)

The term "invasion" is used generally in the literature concerning the period to mean the documented attacks, implying that the aggressors were external to the eastern Mediterranean, though often hypothesized to be from the wider Aegean world. An origin outside the Aegean also has been proposed, as in this example by Michael Grant: "There was a gigantic series of migratory waves, extending all the way from the Danube valley to the plains of China."[155]

Such a comprehensive movement is associated with more than one people or culture; instead, it was a "disturbance", according to Finley:[156]

A large-scale movement of people is indicated ... the original center of disturbance was in the Carpatho-Danubian region of Europe. ... It appears ... to have been ... pushing in different directions at different times.

If different times are allowed on the Danube, they are not in the Aegean: "all this destruction must be dated to the same period about 1200 BC."[156]

The movements of the hypothetical Dorian Invasion, the attacks of the Sea Peoples, the formation of Philistine kingdoms in the Levant and the fall of the Hittite Empire were associated and compressed by Finley into the 1200 BC window.

Robert Drews presents a map showing the destruction sites of 47 fortified major settlements, which he terms "Major Sites Destroyed in the Catastrophe".[157] They are concentrated in the Levant, with some in Greece and Anatolia.

See also edit

References edit

Citations edit

  1. ^ Paine, Lincoln (27 October 2015). The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-101-97035-5.
  2. ^ a b c d Killebrew 2013, p. 2. Quote: "First coined in 1881 by the French Egyptologist G. Maspero (1896), the somewhat misleading term 'Sea Peoples' encompasses the ethnonyms Lukka, Sherden, Shekelesh, Teresh, Eqwesh, Denyen, Sikil / Tjekker, Weshesh, and Peleset (Philistines). [Footnote: The modern term 'Sea Peoples' refers to people that appear in several New Kingdom Egyptian texts as originating from 'islands' (tables 1–2; Adams and Cohen, this volume; see, e.g., Drews 1993, 57 for a summary). The use of quotation marks in association with the term 'Sea Peoples' in our title is intended to draw attention to the problematic nature of this commonly used term. The designation 'of the sea' appears only in relation to the Sherden, Shekelesh and Eqwesh. Subsequently, this term was applied somewhat indiscriminately to several additional ethnonyms, including the Philistines, who are portrayed in their earliest appearance as invaders from the north during the reigns of Merenptah and Ramesses Ill (see, e.g., Sandars 1978; Redford 1992, 243, n. 14; for a recent review of the primary and secondary literature, see Woudhuizen 2006). Henceforth the term Sea Peoples will appear without quotation marks.]"
  3. ^ a b c d e Drews 1995, pp. 48–61: "The thesis that a great 'migration of the Sea Peoples' occurred ca. 1200 B.C. is supposedly based on Egyptian inscriptions, one from the reign of Merneptah and another from the reign of Ramesses III. Yet in the inscriptions themselves, such a migration nowhere appears. After reviewing what the Egyptian texts have to say about 'the sea peoples', one Egyptologist (Wolfgang Helck) recently remarked that although some things are unclear, 'eins ist aber sicher: Nach den ägyptischen Texten haben wir es nicht mit einer "Völkerwanderung" zu tun' ['One thing is however certain: according to the Egyptian texts we are not dealing with a "migration"'] Thus the migration hypothesis is based not on the inscriptions themselves but on their interpretation".
  4. ^ Müller 1888, p. 147: "In Egyptian history, there is hardly any incident of so great an interest as the invasion of Egypt by the Mediterranean peoples, the facts of which are connected with the most important questions of ethnography and the primitive history of classic nations."
  5. ^ Hall 1922.
  6. ^ "Syria: Early history". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 September 2012.
  7. ^ "Sea People". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 September 2012.
  8. ^ Silberman 1998, p. 269.
  9. ^ a b de Rougé 1855, p. 14: [Translation from the French]: "For a long time Kefa has been identified, with verisimilitude, with Caphthorim of the Bible, to whom Gesenius, along with most interpreters, assigns as a residence the islands of Crete or Cyprus. The people of Cyprus had certainly to take sides in this war; perhaps they were then the allies of Egypt. In any case, our entry does not detail the names of these people, from the islands of the Mediterranean. Champollion noted that T'akkari [which he names Fekkaros; see appendix at the following entry] and Schartana, were recognizable, in enemy ships, with unique hairstyles. In addition, in the crests of the conquered peoples, the Schartana and the Touirasch bear the designation of the peoples of the sea. It is therefore likely that they belong to these nations from islands or coasts of the archipelago. The Rabou are still recognizable among the prisoners."
  10. ^ a b c Drews 1992

    In fact, this migration of the Sea Peoples is not to be found in Egyptian inscriptions, but was launched by Gaston Maspero in 1873 [footnote: In the Revue Critique d'Histoire et de Littérature 1873, pp. 85–86]. Although Maspero's proposal initially seemed unlikely, it gained credibility with the publication of the Lemnos stele. In 1895, in his popular Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'orient classique [footnote; Vol. II (Paris:1895), translated into English as The Struggle of the Nations (ed. A. H. Sayce, tr. M. L. McClure, New York: 1896)], Maspero fully elaborated his scenario of "the migration of the Sea Peoples". Adopted by Eduard Meyer for the second edition of his Geschichted es Altertums, the theory won general acceptance among Egyptologists and orientalists.
  11. ^ a b Silberman 1998, p. 272:

    As E. S. Sherratt has pointed out in an enlightening study of the interplay of ideology and literary strata in the formation of the Homeric epics (1990), phases of active narrative or descriptive invention closely correspond to periods of rapid social and political change. Sherratt notes that one of the characteristic manifestations of this process – in which emerging elites seek to legitimate their power – is 'the transformation of an existing oral epic tradition in order to dress it in more recognizably modern garb' (1990: 821). Can we not see in the history of the archaeology of the Sea Peoples a similar process of literary reformulation, in which old components are reinterpreted and reassembled to tell a new tale? Narrative presupposes that both storyteller and audience share a single perspective, and therein may lie the connection between the intellectual and ideological dimensions of archaeology. To generalize beyond specific, highly localized data, archaeologists must utilize familiar conceptual frameworks and it is from the political and social ideologies of every generation that larger speculations about the historical role of the Sea Peoples have always been drawn. As many papers in this conference have suggested, traditional interpretive structures are in the process of reconsideration and renovation. That is why I believe it essential that we reflect on our current Sea Peoples stories – and see if we cannot detect the subtle yet lingering impact upon them of some timeworn Victorian narratives.
  12. ^ a b c Vandersleyen 1985, p. 53:

    However, of the nine peoples concerned by these wars, only four were actually defined as coming 'from wꜣd-wr' or 'from pꜣ ym'. Furthermore, these expressions seem to be linked more often to vegetation and sweet water than to seawater, and it seems clear that the term "Sea Peoples" has to be abandoned. Some will object to this, basing themselves on the expression iww hryw-ib w3d-wr, usually translated by 'islands situated in the middle of the sea', where some of the Sea Peoples are said to have come from. Indeed. it is this expression that supported the persistent idea that the 'Sea Peoples' came from the Aegean islands or at least from an East Mediterranean island. Now, these terms are misleading, not only because w3d-wr and p3 ym, quite likely, do not designate 'the sea' here, but also because the term in itself does not always mean 'island'; it can also be used to indicate other kinds of territories not necessarily maritime ones. The argument based on these alleged 'sea islands' is thus groundless ... To conclude, the Philistines came neither from Crete nor from the Aegean islands or coasts, but probably from the southern coast of Asia Minor or from Syria.
  13. ^ Cline, Eric. . asorblog.org. American Schools of Oriental Research. Archived from the original on 29 March 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2018. The simple answer is that there is no simple answer. It remains an archaeological mystery that is the subject of much debate even today, more than 150 years after the discussions first began.
  14. ^ "Who Were the Sea People?", Eberhard Zangger, pp. 20–31 of the May/June 1995 print edition of Saudi Aramco World: "very few—if any—archeologists would consider the Sea People to have been identified."
  15. ^ See also the sketches provided later in Champollion, Monuments: from the left side of the Second Pylon: Plate CCVIII, and from the base of the right-hand side of the Fortified East Gate Plate CCIII.
  16. ^ Compare with the hieroglyphs provided by Woudhuizen 2006, p. 36.
  17. ^ de Rougé 1855.
  18. ^ de Rougé 1855, p. 1.
  19. ^ Greene 1855, p. 4:

    [Translation from the French]: The notices and the 17th letter of Champollion provide a complete and faithful summary of the campaigns of Ramses III (his Ramses Ammon), especially that represented on the north wall, containing the famous bas-relief of a naval battle where the enemy ships are driven to shore by the Egyptian fleet, and simultaneously crushed by the army, which the press on the other side.

    Champollion recognized that among the enemies of Ramesses, there were a new people, belonging to the white race, and designated as the Tamhou. He copied the first line of the large inscription of the pylon, with a date he specified in the ninth year of the reign, and he noted the importance of this text, which contains several names of people. ...

    After receiving this just tribute of praise, the King finally begins his speech to the thirteenth line. It recommends to all his subjects to pay attention to his words, and shows their feelings that must lead them in life; then he boasts of his exploits, he brings glory to his father, the god Ammon, who gave him all the conquests. After a column header which unfortunately suffered a lot, is one of the most important parts of our text, in which the king lists the enemies he has overcome, beginning with the Cheta, the Ati, the Karkamasch the Aratou, the Arasa; then, after a short break: at their camp in the country of Amaour, I destroyed the people and their country as if they had never existed

    We see that these different peoples, common enemies of Egypt in their Asian campaigns before those of Ramses III, are gathered in one group. In the next column, we find a second group formed of people considered by Champollion to have played an important role in the campaign with the naval combat ships; it is the Poursata, the Takkara, the Shakarsha, the Taamou, and Ouaschascha. We see that the only missing Sharetana to this list.
  20. ^ Greene's documentary photographs are held at the Musee d'Orsay, for example: Médinet-Habou, Temple funéraire de Ramsès III, muraille du nord (5); inventory number: PHO 1986 131 40.
  21. ^ de Rougé 1867.
  22. ^ Vandersleyen 1985, p. 41 n.10.
  23. ^ Maspero 1896, p. 461–470.
  24. ^ Silberman 1998, p. 270: "The English translation of Maspero's résumé of ethnic movement entitled The Struggle of the Nations (Maspero 1896) must surely have evoked meaningful associations at a time when competition for territory and economic advantage among European Powers was at a fever pitch (Hobsbawm 1987)."
  25. ^ a b c Killebrew 2013, pp. 2–5.
  26. ^ Killebrew 2013, p. 2a.
  27. ^ A convenient table of Sea Peoples in hieroglyphics, transliteration and English is given in Woudhuizen 2006, who developed it from works of Kitchen cited there
  28. ^ a b c Breasted (1906), Vol IV, §403 / p.201: "in their isles" and "of the sea"
  29. ^ a b c d e f g h i Woudhuizen 2006, p. 35
  30. ^ a b c d Kelder 2010, p. 126.
  31. ^ Heike Sternberg-el Hotabi (2012). "Flüchtlinge aus Nord, West oder Ost? Die Seevölker und ihre Heimat". Der Kampf der Seevölker gegen Pharao Ramses III (2 ed.). Rahden: Marie Leidorf. p. 37. ISBN 978-3-86757-532-4.
  32. ^ Siemer, Eckhard (2019). "Der Friedensvertrag von 1258 v. Chr. und die Ehe der Naptera". Der hethitisch- mykenische Zinnhandel in Europa und der Untergang ihrer Reiche (1430 - 1130 BC) sowie : Vincent von Beauvais De plumbo. p. 228. ISBN 978-3-98 13693-3-5.
  33. ^ Livingstone, David (2002). "The Dorian Invasion". The Dying God: The Hidden History of Western Civilization. iUniverse. p. 72. ISBN 9780595231997.
  34. ^ Les nuits attiques. Aulus Gellius, René Marache. Les Belles lettres, 1991. p. 39
  35. ^ Halpern, Baruch. Winkler (ed.). THE SEA-PEOPLES AND IDENTITY. p. 1.
  36. ^ a b c d e Breasted (1906), Vol III, §588 / p.248 and §601 / p.255: "of the countries of the sea". Breasted wrote in a footnote regarding this designation "It is noticeable that this designation, both here and in the Athribis Stela (1. 13), is inserted only after the Ekwesh. In the Athribis Stela Ekwesh is cut off by a numeral from the preceding, showing that the designation there belongs only to them."
  37. ^ a b c d e f Drews 1995, p. 54: "Already in the 1840s Egyptologists had debated the identity of the 'northerners, coming from all lands', who assisted the Libyan King Meryre in his attack upon Merneptah. Some scholars believed that Meryre's auxiliaries were merely his neighbors on the Libyan coast, while others identified them as Indo-Europeans from north of the Caucasus. It was one of Maspero's most illustrious predecessors, Emmanuel de Rougé, who proposed that the names reflected the lands of the northern Mediterranean: the Lukka, Ekwesh, Tursha, Shekelesh, and Shardana were men from Lydia, Achaea, Tyrsenia (western Italy), Sicily, and Sardinia." De Rougé and others regarded "Meryre's auxiliaries-these 'peoples de la mer Méditerranée' – as mercenary bands, since the Sardinians, at least, were known to have served as mercenaries already in the early years of Ramesses the Great. Thus the only 'migration' that the Karnak Inscription seemed to suggest was an attempted encroachment by Libyans upon neighboring territory."
  38. ^ a b c d e f Drews 1995, p. 49.
  39. ^ Hincks, Edward (1846). "An Attempt to Ascertain the Number, Names, and Powers, of the Letters of the Hieroglyphic, or Ancient Egyptian Alphabet; Grounded on the Establishment of a New Principle in the Use of Phonetic Characters". The Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy. 21 (21): 176. JSTOR 30079013.
  40. ^ Osburn, William (1846). Ancient Egypt, Her Testimony to the Truth of the Bible. Samuel Bagster and sons. p. 107.
  41. ^ Vandersleyen 1985, pp. 40–41 n.9

    [Original French]: "À ma connaissance, les plus anciens savants qui ont proposé explicitement l' identification des Pourousta avec les Philistins sont William Osburn Jr., Ancient Egypt, Her Testimony to the Truth of the Bible..., Londres 1846. p. 99. 107. 137. et Edward Hincks, An Attempt to Ascertain the Number, Names, and Powers, of the Letters of the Hieroglyphic or Ancient Egyptian Alphabet, Dublin, 1847, p.47


    [Translation]: "To my knowledge, the earliest scholars who explicitly proposed the identification of Pourousta with the Philistines are William Osburn Jr., Ancient Egypt, Her Testimony to the Truth of the Bible ..., London, 1846. p.99. 107. 137. and Edward Hincks, An Attempt to Ascertain the Number, Names, and Powers, of the Letters of the Alphabet Egyptian Hieroglyphic gold Ancient , Dublin, 1847, p.47
  42. ^ Vandersleyen 1985, pp. 39–41

    [original French]: "Quand Champollion visita Médinet Habou en juin 1829, il vit ces scénes, lut le nom des Pourosato, sans y reconnaître les Philistins; plus tard, dans son Dictionnaire égyptien et dans sa Grammaire égyptienne, il transcrivit le même nom Polosté ou Pholosté, mais contrairement à ce qu'affirmait Brugsch en 1858 et tous les auteurs postérieurs, Champollion n'a nulle part écrit que ces Pholosté étaient les Philistins de la Bible.


    [Translation]: "When Champollion visited Medinet Habu in June 1829, he experienced these scenes, reading the name of Pourosato, without recognizing the Philistines; Later, in his Dictionnaire égyptien and its Grammaire égyptienne, he transcribed the same name Polosté or Pholosté, but contrary to the assertion by Brugsch in 1858 and subsequent authors, Champollion has nowhere written that these Pholosté were the Philistines of the Bible.


    Dothan and Dothan wrote of the initial identification (Dothan 1992, pp. 22–23):

    It was not, however, until the spring of 1829, almost a year after they had arrived in Egypt, that Champollion and his entourage were finally ready to tackle the antiquities of Thebes ... The chaotic tangle of ships and sailors, which Denon assumed was a panicked flight into the Indus, was actually a detailed portrayal of a battle at the mouth of the Nile. Because the events of the reign of Ramesses III were unknown from others, the context of this particular war remained a mystery. On his return to Paris, Champollion puzzled over the identity of the various enemies shown in the scene. Since each of them had been carefully labeled with a hieroglyphic inscription, he hoped to match the names with those of ancient tribes and peoples mentioned in Greek and Hebrew texts. Unfortunately, Champollion died in 1832 before he could complete the work, but he did have success with one of the names. ... proved to be none other than the biblical Philistines.

    Dothan and Dothan's description was incorrect in stating that the naval battle scene (Champollion, Monuments, Plate CCXXII) "carefully labeled with a hieroglyphic inscription" each of the combatants, and Champollion's posthumously published manuscript notes contained only one short paragraph on the naval scene with only the "Fekkaro" and "Schaïratana" identified (Champollion, Monuments, page 368). Dothan and Dothan's following paragraph "Dr. Greene's Unexpected Discovery" incorrectly confused John Beasley Greene with John Baker Stafford Greene [ca]. Champollion did not make a connection to the Philistines in his published work, and Greene did not refer to such a connection in his 1855 work which commented on Champollion (Greene 1855, p. 4).
  43. ^ a b O'Connor & Cline 2003, p. 116.
  44. ^ a b c d Bryce, Trevor (15 March 2012). The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. OUP Oxford. p. 128. ISBN 9780199218721. OUP Oxford, 2012
  45. ^ Wilhelm Brandenstein (1954). Einleitung, Lautsystem, Etymologie. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 23. ISBN 9783111375243. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
  46. ^ a b c d e Gardiner 1947, p. 196 (Vol. 1), in his commentary on the Onomasticon of Amenope, No. 268, "Srdn", wrote:
    "The records of Meneptah are much more explicit: the great Karnak inscription described how the Ekwesh, Tursha, Lukki, Sherden and Sheklesh (L.1) had been incited against Egypt by the prince of the Libu (Libyans); in L.52 the Sherden, Sheklesh and Ekwesh are collectively described as
    (var.


    )


    'the foreign lands (var. 'foreigners') of the sea'"

    Note: Gardiner's reference to the alternative ("var.") writing 'foreigners' referred to Gustave Lefebvre's "Stèle de l'an V de Méneptah 6 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine", ASAE 27, 1927, p.23, line 13, describing the Athribis Stele.
  47. ^ a b "Chronology and Terminology", in "The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Aegean 1 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine" accessed May 23, 2006
  48. ^ a b Heike Sternberg-el Hotabi (2012). "Flüchtlinge aus Nord, West oder Ost? Die Seevölker und ihre Heimat". Der Kampf der Seevölker gegen Pharao Ramses III (2 ed.). Rahden: Marie Leidorf. p. 38. ISBN 978-3-86757-532-4.
  49. ^ a b c Breasted (1906), Vol IV, §129 / p.75: "of the sea"
  50. ^ O'Connor & Cline 2003, p. 112-113.
  51. ^ a b S. Bar; D. Kahn; J.J. Shirley (9 June 2011). Egypt, Canaan and Israel: History, Imperialism, Ideology and Literature: Proceedings of a Conference at the University of Haifa, 3–7 May 2009. Brill. pp. 350 ff. ISBN 978-90-04-19493-9.
  52. ^ O'Connor & Cline 2003, p. 113.
  53. ^ Korfmann, Manfred O. (2007). Winkler, Martin M (ed.). Troy: From Homer's Iliad to Hollywood Epic. Oxford, England: Blackwell Publishing Limited. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-4051-3183-4. Troy or Ilios (or Wilios) is most probably identical with Wilusa or Truwisa ... mentioned in the Hittite sources
  54. ^ Geoffrey W. Bromiley (1988). Lemma "Tiras", in The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Vol. 4. William B. Eerdmands Publishing Comoany. p. 859. ISBN 0-8028-3784-0. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
  55. ^ a b Halpern, Baruch. Winkler (ed.). THE SEA-PEOPLES AND IDENTITY. p. 25.
  56. ^ O'Connor & Cline 2003, p. 114.
  57. ^ James Baikie mentioned it on pp. 166, 187 of his book The Sea-Kings of Crete, 2nd edition (Adam and Charles Black, London, 1913)
  58. ^ Rainer Hannig (2006). Die Sprache der Pharaonen - Großes Handwörterbuch Ägyptisch-Deutsch: (2800 - 950 v. Chr.). Philipp von Zabern. p. 1039. ISBN 3-8053-1771-9.
  59. ^ Heike Sternberg-el Hotabi (2012). "Flüchtlinge aus Nord, West oder Ost? Die Seevölker und ihre Heimat". Der Kampf der Seevölker gegen Pharao Ramses III (2 ed.). Rahden: Marie Leidorf. p. 49. ISBN 978-3-86757-532-4.
  60. ^ Lipiński, Edward (2006). On the Skirts of Canaan in the Iron Age: Historical and Topographical Researches. Peeters Publishers. p. 96. ISBN 978-90-429-1798-9. Retrieved 6 April 2022.
  61. ^ Manfred Weippert (2010). Historisches Textbuch zum Alten Testament. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 202–209. ISBN 9783525516935. Retrieved 6 April 2022.
  62. ^ Herda, Alexander (2009). Die Karer und die Anderen. Frank Rumscheid. p. 57. ISBN 9783774936324.
  63. ^ Heike Sternberg-el Hotabi (2012). "Flüchtlinge aus Nord, West oder Ost? Die Seevölker und ihre Heimat". Der Kampf der Seevölker gegen Pharao Ramses III (2 ed.). Rahden: Marie Leidorf. pp. 38, 41. ISBN 978-3-86757-532-4.
  64. ^ Strobel, August (2015). Der spätbronzezeitliche Seevölkersturm: Ein Forschungsüberblick mit Folgerungen zur biblischen Exodusthematik. Walter de Gruyter. p. 208. ISBN 9783110855036. Der Name Wešeš gilt allgemein als dunkel. (...) R. A. Macalister äußerte die Vermutung, es könnte sich um die Vorgänger der indogermanischen Osker handeln, (...)
  65. ^ Yigael Yadin And Dan, Why Did He Remain in Ships
  66. ^ N. K. Sandars, The Sea Peoples. Warriors of the ancient Mediterranean, 1250–1150 BC. Thames & Hudson, 1978
  67. ^ Oren 2000, p. 85: "Thus far, rather meager documentation is available. What I shall do for the remainder of this essay is to focus on what is in fact our primary source on the Sea Peoples, the basis of virtually all significant discussions of them, including many efforts to identify the Sea Peoples with archaeologically known cultures or groups in the Mediterranean and beyond. This source is the corpus of scenes and texts relevant to the Sea Peoples displayed on the walls of the mortuary temple of Ramesses III at western Thebes. Although it has been much discussed, this corpus has often led scholars to different and contradictory conclusions, and will always probably be subject to debate because of certain ambiguities inherent in the material."
  68. ^ Uncertainty of the dates is not a case of no evidence but of selecting among several possible dates. The articles in Wikipedia on related topics use one set of dates by convention but these and all dates based on them are not the only possible. A summary of the date question is given in Hasel, Ch. 2, p. 151, which is available as a summary at Google Books.
  69. ^ Find this and other documents quoted in the Shardana Archived 13 March 2008 at archive.today article by Megaera Lorenz at the Penn State site. This is an earlier version of her article, which gives a quote from Kitchen not found in the External Links site below. Breasted Volume III, Article 491, p.210, which can be found on Google books, gives quite a different translation of the passage. Unfortunately, large parts of the text are missing and must be restored, but both versions agree on the Sherden and the warships.
  70. ^ Kenneth Kitchen, Pharaoh Triumphant: The Life and Times of Ramesses II, King of Egypt, Aris & Phillips, 1982. pp.40–41
  71. ^ Grimal, pp. 250–253
  72. ^ The poem appears in inscriptional form but the scribe, pntAwr.t, was not the author, who remains unknown. The scribe copied the poem onto Papyrus in the time of Merneptah and copies of that found their way into Papyrus Sallier III currently located in the British Museum. The details are stated in . Archived from the original on 2 October 2015. Retrieved 30 March 2007.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) on the site of the American Research Center in Egypt of Northern California. Both the inscription and the poem are published in . Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 3 May 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) on the Pharaonic Egypt site.
  73. ^ J. von Beckerath, p.190. Like those of Ramses II, these dates are not certain. Von Beckerath's dates, adopted by Wikipedia, are relatively late; for example, Sanders, Ch. 5, p. 105, sets the Battle of Perire at April 15, 1220.
  74. ^ The Great Karnak Inscription.
  75. ^ All three inscriptions are stated in Breasted, Vol. 3, "Reign of Meneptah", pp. 238 ff., Articles 569 ff.
  76. ^ Breasted, volume 3, §595, page 252
  77. ^ Maspero 1881, p. 118.
  78. ^ Breasted, volume 3, page 253.
  79. ^ Breasted, Vol. 3, pg. 256–264.
  80. ^ J. H. Breasted, p. 243, citing Lines 13–15 of the inscription
  81. ^ a b Robbins, Manuel (2001). Collapse of the Bronze Age : the story of Greece, Troy, Israel, Egypt, and the peoples of the sea. San Jose Calif: Authors Choice Press. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-595-13664-3.
  82. ^ Translation by Egerton and Wilson, 1936, plates 37–39, lines 8–23. Also found in Breasted, 1906, volume 4, p. 44, §75
  83. ^ Oren 2000, p. 86: "One consists of a string of large scale scenes, complemented with relatively brief texts, extending in a narrative sequence along part of the north facade of the temple, which it shares with part of a similar narrative treatment of Ramesses III's Year 5 campaign against the Libyans. This latter sequence originates however on the west or rear wall of the temple. The other, physically quite separate composition relating to the Sea Peoples is displayed across the external (eastern) face of the great pylon which separates the first court of the temple from the second. On the pylon's southern wing is a large-scale scene – occupying most of the facade – showing Ramesses III leading three lines of captive Sea Peoples to Amun-Re, lord of Thebes (and of the empire), and his consort Mut. Displayed on the equivalent space of the north wing is a long text, without pictorial embellishment, which is a verbal statement by Ramesses III describing at length his victory over the Sea Peoples, and the extraordinary beneficence of Amun-Re thus displayed, to 'the entire land gathered together'. In fact, this apparent simplicity – two separate and somewhat different compositions relevant to the Sea Peoples-belies the actual complexity of the compositional relationship between the two Sea Peoples compositions on the one hand, and their joint relationship to the entire compositional scheme or 'program' of the entire temple on the other. Any effort to understand the historical significance of the Sea Peoples' records at Medinet Habu must take this compositional dimension into account, as well as the conceptual dimensional, the relationship of the general composition scheme or program to the functions and meanings of the temple, as understood by the Egyptians."
  84. ^ Beckman cites the first few lines of the inscription located on the NW panel of the 1st court of the temple. This extensive inscription is stated in full in English in the Woudhuizen 2006, pp. 43–56, which also contains a diagram of the locations of the many inscriptions pertaining to the reign of Ramses III on the walls of the temple at Medinet Habu.
  85. ^ a b Bryce, p.371
  86. ^ Breasted, 1906, volume 4, p.48, §81
  87. ^ Translation by John A. Wilson in Pritchard, J.B. (ed.) Ancient Near Eastern Texts relating to the Old Testament, 3rd edition, Princeton 1969, p. 262. Also found in Breasted, 1906, volume 4, p. 37, §64
  88. ^ Woudhuizen 2006, pp. 43–56 quotes the inscriptions in English.
  89. ^ Bernard Bruyère, Mert Seger à Deir el Médineh, 1929, pages 32–37
  90. ^ Redford, P. 292. A number of copies or partial copies exist, the best being the Golenischeff Papyrus, or Papyrus Moscow 169, located in the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow (refer to Onomasticon of Amenemipet at the Archaeowiki site). In it the author is stated to be Amenemope, son of Amenemope.
  91. ^ Letter EA 81
  92. ^ Lorenz, Megaera. . Penn State site. Archived from the original on 6 June 2007. Retrieved 9 May 2018.
  93. ^ Breasted (1906), Vol III, §593 / p.252: "in their isles" and "of the sea"
  94. ^ Per Killebrew 2013, pp 2–5, these are: Stele of Padjesef, Tanis Stele, Papyrus Anastasi I, Papyrus Anastasi II, Stele of Setemhebu, Papyrus Amiens, Papyrus Wilbour, Adoption Papyrus, Papyrus Moscow 169, Papyrus BM 10326, Papyrus Turin 2026, Papyrus BM 10375, Donation Stele
  95. ^ See also Woudhuizen 2006, particularly his Concluding Remarks on pages 117–121, for a fuller consideration of the meaning of ethnicity.
  96. ^ Maurice Dunand, Foilles de Byblos, volume 2, p. 878, no. 16980
  97. ^ William F. Albright, "Dunand's New Byblos Volume: A Lycian at the Byblian Court," BASOR 155, 1959, pp. 31-34
  98. ^ Bryce, T. R. (1974). "The Lukka Problem – And a Possible Solution". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 33 (4): 395–404. doi:10.1086/372378. JSTOR 544776. S2CID 161428632. The inscription is mentioned as well in Woudhuizen 2006, p. 31.
  99. ^ a b c Bretschneider, Joachim; Otto, Thierry (8 June 2011). "The Sea Peoples, from Cuneiform Tablets to Carbon Dating". PLOS ONE. 6 (6): e20232. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...620232K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020232. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3110627. PMID 21687714.
  100. ^ The texts of the letters are transliterated and translated in Woudhuizen 2006, pp. 43–56 and also are mentioned and hypotheses are given about them in Sandars, p. 142 following.
  101. ^ The sequence, only recently completed, appears in Woudhuizen 2006, pp. 43–56, along with the news that the famous oven, still reported at many sites and in many books, in which the second letter was hypothetically being baked at the destruction of the city, was not an oven, the city was not destroyed at that time, and a third letter existed.
  102. ^ Jean Nougaryol et al. (1968) Ugaritica V: 87–90 no. 24
  103. ^ Kitchen, pp. 99 & 140
  104. ^ Kitchen, pp.99–100
  105. ^ RSL I = Nougayril et al., (1968) 86–86, no.23
  106. ^ Rainey, Anson (November 2008). "Shasu or Habiru. Who Were the Early Israelites?". Biblical Archaeology Review. 34 (6 (November/December)).
  107. ^ Page 53
  108. ^ Reford p. 292
  109. ^ Ch. 8, a subsection entitled "The Initial Settlement of the Sea Peoples".
  110. ^ Ch. 7
  111. ^ Dothan 1992.
  112. ^ Feldman, Michal; Master, Daniel M.; Bianco, Raffaela A.; Burri, Marta; Stockhammer, Philipp W.; Mittnik, Alissa; Aja, Adam J.; Jeong, Choongwon; Krause, Johannes (2019). "Ancient DNA sheds light on the genetic origins of early Iron Age Philistines". Science Advances. 5 (7): eaax0061. Bibcode:2019SciA....5...61F. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aax0061. PMC 6609216. PMID 31281897.
  113. ^ See under Tjeker.
  114. ^ Amos 9,7; argument reviewed by Sandars in Ch. 7.
  115. ^ One is cited under Caphtor.
  116. ^ "New Evidence Suggests The Need To Rewrite Bronze Age History". Sciencedaily.com. 29 April 2006. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
  117. ^ a b Ch. 7, "The Peoples of the Sea."
  118. ^ Odyssey XIV 191–298.
  119. ^ John Noble Wilford (29 September 1992). "Philistines Were Cultured After All, Say Archeologists". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 May 2021. I am willing to state flatly that the Sea Peoples, including the Philistines, were Mycenaean Greeks
  120. ^ Sandars Ch. 5.
  121. ^ Wood Ch. 6.
  122. ^ Barker, Graeme; Rasmussen, Tom (2000). The Etruscans. The Peoples of Europe. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-631-22038-1.
  123. ^ Turfa, Jean MacIntosh (2017). "The Etruscans". In Farney, Gary D.; Bradley, Gary (eds.). The Peoples of Ancient Italy. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. 637–672. doi:10.1515/9781614513001. ISBN 978-1-61451-520-3.
  124. ^ De Grummond, Nancy T. (2014). "Ethnicity and the Etruscans". In McInerney, Jeremy (ed.). A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 405–422. doi:10.1002/9781118834312. ISBN 9781444337341.
  125. ^ Shipley, Lucy (2017). "Where is home?". The Etruscans: Lost Civilizations. London: Reaktion Books. pp. 28–46. ISBN 9781780238623.
  126. ^ Wallace, Rex E. (2010). "Italy, Languages of". In Gagarin, Michael (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 97–102. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001. ISBN 9780195170726. Etruscan origins lie in the distant past. Despite the claim by Herodotus, who wrote that Etruscans migrated to Italy from Lydia in the eastern Mediterranean, there is no material or linguistic evidence to support this. Etruscan material culture developed in an unbroken chain from Bronze Age antecedents. As for linguistic relationships, Lydian is an Indo-European language. Lemnian, which is attested by a few inscriptions discovered near Kamania on the island of Lemnos, was a dialect of Etruscan introduced to the island by commercial adventurers. Linguistic similarities connecting Etruscan with Raetic, a language spoken in the sub-Alpine regions of northeastern Italy, further militate against the idea of eastern origins.
  127. ^ Haarmann, Harald (2014). "Ethnicity and Language in the Ancient Mediterranean". In McInerney, Jeremy (ed.). A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 17–33. doi:10.1002/9781118834312.ch2. ISBN 9781444337341.
  128. ^ Ghirotto, Silvia; Tassi, Francesca; Fumagalli, Erica; Colonna, Vincenza; Sandionigi, Anna; Lari, Martina; Vai, Stefania; Petiti, Emmanuele; Corti, Giorgio; Rizzi, Ermanno; De Bellis, Gianluca; Caramelli, David; Barbujani, Guido (6 February 2013). "Origins and evolution of the Etruscans' mtDNA". PLOS ONE. 8 (2): e55519. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...855519G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055519. PMC 3566088. PMID 23405165.
  129. ^ Tassi, Francesca; Ghirotto, Silvia; Caramelli, David; Barbujani, Guido; et al. (2013). "Genetic evidence does not support an Etruscan origin in Anatolia". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 152 (1): 11–18. doi:10.1002/ajpa.22319. PMID 23900768.
  130. ^ Claassen, Horst; Wree, Andreas (2004). "The Etruscan skulls of the Rostock anatomical collection – How do they compare with the skeletal findings of the first thousand years B.C.?". Annals of Anatomy. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 186 (2): 157–163. doi:10.1016/S0940-9602(04)80032-3. PMID 15125046. Seven Etruscan skulls were found in Corneto Tarquinia in the years 1881 and 1882 and were given as present to Rostock's anatomical collection in 1882. The origin of the Etruscans who were contemporary with the Celts is not yet clear; according to Herodotus they had emigrated from Lydia in Asia Minor to Italy. To fit the Etruscan skulls into an ethnological grid they were compared with skeletal remains of the first thousand years B.C.E. All skulls were found to be male; their age ranged from 20 to 60 years, with an average age of about thirty. A comparison of the median sagittal outlines of the Etruscan skulls and the contemporary Hallstatt-Celtic skulls from North Bavaria showed that the former were shorter and lower. Maximum skull length, minimum frontal breadth, ear bregma height, bizygomatical breadth and orbital breadth of the Etruscan skulls were statistically significantly less developed compared to Hallstatt-Celtics from North Bavaria. In comparison to other contemporary skeletal remains the Etruscan skulls had no similarities in common with Hallstatt-Celtic skulls from North Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg but rather with Hallstatt-Celtic skulls from Hallstatt in Austria. Compared to chronologically adjacent skeletal remains the Etruscan skulls did not show similarities with Early Bronze Age skulls from Moravia but with Latène-Celtic skulls from Manching in South Bavaria. Due to the similarities of the Etruscan skulls with some Celtic skulls from South Bavaria and Austria, it seems more likely that the Etruscans were original inhabitants of Etruria than immigrants.
  131. ^ Chadwick, p. 178.
  132. ^ See "Mycenaean Society and Its Collapse", a module of Exploring the European Past by Jack Martin Balcer and John Matthew Stockhausen at custom.thomsonlearning.com. They quote passages from the books of several experts to give a spectrum of views.
  133. ^ The History of the Peloponnesian War, Chapter I, Section 5.
  134. ^ a b Ugas, Giovanni (2016). Shardana e Sardegna : i popoli del mare, gli alleati del Nordafrica e la fine dei Grandi Regni (XV-XII secolo a.C.) (in Italian). Cagliari: Edizioni della Torre. ISBN 9788873434719. OCLC 976013893.
  135. ^ a b Tusa, Sebastiano (2018). I popoli del Grande Verde : il Mediterraneo al tempo dei faraoni (in Italian). Ragusa: Edizioni Storia e Studi Sociali. ISBN 9788899168308. OCLC 1038750254.
  136. ^ a b Zorea, Carlos Roberto (2021). Sea peoples in Canaan, Cyprus and Iberia (12th to 10th centuries BC) (PDF). Madrid: Complutense University of Madrid.
  137. ^ Vagnetti, 2000, p.319: "Furthermore, if we examine the main (or only) connection of the Sherden (Srdn), Shekelesh (Sirs), and Tursha (Trs) with the Central Mediterranean, namely the similarity of those names with Sardinia, Sicily and Tyrrhenian area, we find further difficulties. First, that Greek sources are agreed that the original name of the island was Ichnussa (RE, IA.2: 2482–2484 [1920] s.v. Sardinia; Nicosia 1981:423–426). From other sources we learn that the 'Sikeloi' were not the original inhabitants of Sicily, but migrated there from peninsular Italy (RE, IIA.2:2482-91 [1920] s.v. Sikelia), while the Etruscans called themselves 'Rasenna' (RE, IA.1:253-54 [1914], s.v. Rasennas). Thus the combination of the archaeological evidence with the traditions of the place-name makes it difficult to conclude that Sherden, Shekelesh and Tursha, were of western origin."
  138. ^ "Revisiting Late Bronze Age oxhide ingots: Meanings, questions and perspectives". Serena Sabatini, University of Gothenburg. 2016.
  139. ^ Minoja, Marco; Usai, Alessandro (2014). Le sculture di Mont'e Prama - Contesto, scavi e materiali [Mont'e Prama's sculptures - Context, excavations & materials] (in Italian). Roma: Gangemi Editore. p. 80. ISBN 978-88-492-9958-8. OCLC 907638763. Retrieved 19 July 2019. Si aggiunge ora la individuazione di un vaso a collo con anse a gomito rovescio, nuragico della Sardegna occidentale o nord occidentale, frammetario, restaurato ab antiquo con una duplice placca di piombo dell'iglesiente, presso Pyla-Kokkinokremos, un centro fortificato cipriota nell'entroterra del golfo di Larnaka (Kition), vissuto mezzo secolo fra il 1200 e il 1150 a.C. (Now the identification of a neck vase with inverted elbow handles is added, Nuragic from western or north-western Sardinia, fragmentary, restored from the outside with a double-lead plaque of the Iglesiente, near Pyla-Kokkinokremos, a fortified Cypriot center inland of the Gulf of Larnaka (Kition), lived half a century between 1200 and 1150 BC.)
  140. ^ Bretschneider, Joachim; Jans, Greta; Claeys, Thérèse; Jusseret, Simon; Kanta, Athanasia; Driessen, Jan; Boschloos, Vanessa. "PYLA-KOKKINOKREMOS: Short report of the 2017 campaign" – via www.academia.edu. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  141. ^ Bretschneider, Joachim; Driessen, Jan; Jusseret, Simon; Claeys, Thérèse; Jans, Greta. "Pyla-Kokkinokremos: Short report of the 2016 campaign" – via www.academia.edu. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  142. ^ V. Karageorghis, J. Karageorghis, "L'Isola di Afrodite", Archeologia Viva, 2013, No. 159 pp. 40–53
  143. ^ INTERCONNESSIONI FRA MEDITERRANEO E ATLANTICO NELL'ETÀ DEL BRONZO: IL PUNTO DI VISTA DELLA SARDEGNA Fulvia Lo Schiavo, ISMA-CNR.
  144. ^ Karageorghis, Vassos (2011). "Handmade Burnished Ware in Cyprus and elsewhere in the Mediterranean". On cooking pots, drinking cups, loomweights and ethnicity in bronze age Cyprus and neighbouring regions: an international archaeological symposium held in Nicosia, November 6th-7th, 2010. A.G. Leventis Foundation. p. 90. ISBN 978-9963-560-93-6. OCLC 769643982.
  145. ^ Drews, 1995, p. 59
  146. ^ Vermeule, 1972, p. 271.
  147. ^ Cline, 2014, p 183.
  148. ^ Bryce, 2005, p 348.
  149. ^ 1.94
  150. ^ Drews 1992.
  151. ^ a b Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Roman Antiquities. Book I, Chapters 30 1.
  152. ^ Wood p. 221 summarizes that a general climatological crisis in the Black Sea and Danubian regions as known through pollen analysis and dendrochronology existed about 1200 BCE and could have caused migration from the north.
  153. ^ Weiss, Barry (1982). "The decline of Late Bronze Age civilization as a possible response to climatic change". Climatic Change. 4 (2): 173–198. Bibcode:1982ClCh....4..173W. doi:10.1007/bf00140587. ISSN 0165-0009. S2CID 154059624.
  154. ^ Fagan, Brian M. (2003), The Long Summer: How Climate Changed Civilization (Basic Books)
  155. ^ Grant, The Ancient Mediterranean, page 79.
  156. ^ a b Finley, page 58.
  157. ^ Drews 1995, p. 8–9.

Notes edit

  1. ^ Quote: "My father, behold, the enemy's ships came (here); my cities(?) were burned, and they did evil things in my country. Does not my father know that all my troops and chariots(?) are in the Land of Hatti, and all my ships are in the Land of Lukka? ... Thus, the country is abandoned to itself. May my father know it: the seven ships of the enemy that came here inflicted much damage upon us."[102]
  2. ^ Quote: "As for what you [Ammurapi] have written to me: "Ships of the enemy have been seen at sea!" Well, you must remain firm. Indeed for your part, where are your troops, your chariots stationed? Are they not stationed near you? No? Behind the enemy, who press upon you? Surround your towns with ramparts. Have your troops and chariots enter there, and await the enemy with great resolution!"[105]

Sources edit

Primary sources: Early publications of the theory edit

  • Greene, J. B. (1855). Fouilles exécutées à Thèbes dans l'année 1855: textes hiéroglyphiques et documents inédits [Excavations at Thebes in the year 1855: hieroglyphic texts and unpublished documents] (in French). Librairie de Firmin Didot Frères.
  • de Rougé, Emmanuel (1855), Notice de Quelques Textes Hiéroglyphiques Récemment Publiés par M. Greene [Note on Some Hieroglyphic Texts Recently Published by Mr. Greene] (in French), E. Thunot
  • Brugsch, Heinrich Karl (1858). Geographische Inschriften altägyptischer Denkmäler [Geographical inscriptions of ancient Egyptian monuments] (in German). Leipzig: Volume 1, Volume 2, Volume 3 {{cite book}}: External link in |postscript= (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  • de Rougé, Emmanuel (1867). "Extraits d'un mémoire sur les attaques dirigées contre l'Egypte par les peuples de la Méditerranée vers le quatorzième siècle avant notre ère" [Excerpts of a mémoire on the attacks directed against Egypt by the peoples of the Mediterranean in the 14th century BCE]. Revue Archéologique (in French). 16: 81–103. JSTOR 41734557Alternative version at Google books {{cite journal}}: External link in |postscript= (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  • Chabas, François Joseph (1872). Étude sur l'antiquité historique d'après les sources égyptiennes et les monuments réputés préhistoriques [Study of ancient history according to Egyptian sources and prehistoric monuments] (in French). Maisonneuve. pp. 299–.
  • Maspero, Gaston (1881). "Notes sur quelques points de Grammaire et d′Histoire". Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde. 19 (1–4): 116–131. doi:10.1524/zaes.1881.19.14.116. ISSN 2196-713X. S2CID 192820648.
  • Müller, Wilhelm Max (1888). "Notes on the "peoples of the sea" of Merenptah". Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archæology. x: 147–154 and 287–289.
  • Maspero, Gaston (1896), Sayce, Archibald (ed.), Struggle of the Nations: Egypt, Syria and Assyria (English ed.), Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, pp. 461–470

Secondary sources edit

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  • Kelder, Jorrit M. (2010). "The Egyptian Interest in Mycenaean Greece". 42. Jaarbericht "Ex Oriente Lux" (JEOL): 125–140. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  • Kitchen, K.A. (2003). On the Reliability of the Old Testament. William B. Eerdsman Publishing Co.
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  • Silberman, Neil A. (1998), Gitin, Seymour; Mazar, Amichai; Stern, Ephraim (eds.), "The Sea Peoples, the Victorians, and Us", Mediterranean Peoples in Transition: Essays in Honor of Trude Dothan, Israel Exploration Society, pp. 268–275
  • Vandersleyen, Claude (1985). "Le dossier egyptien des Philistins". In Lipiński, Edward (ed.). The Land of Israel: Cross-roads of Civilizations : Proceedings of the Conference Held in Brussels from the 3rd to the 5th of December 1984 to Mark the Twenty-fifth Anniversary of the Institute of Archaeology Queen Elisabeth of Belgium at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem : in Memory of Prof. Y. Yadin and Prof. Ch. Perelman. Peeters Publishers. pp. 39–54. ISBN 978-90-6831-031-3.
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  • Woudhuizen, Frederik Christiaan (1992). The Language of the Sea Peoples. Amsterdam: Najade Press. ISBN 978-90-73835-02-3.
  • Woudhuizen, Frederik Christiaan (2006). The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples (Ph.D.). Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam, Faculteit der Wijsbegeerte. hdl:1765/7686.
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External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sea Peoples.
  • Cline, Eric. 1177 BC: The Year Civilization Collapsed [video], recorded lecture, 2016, 1h10'17.
  • : a course at Penn State
  • , paper by Itamar Singer at the UCLA Near Eastern Languages & Culture site
  • "Who Were the Sea People?", article by Eberhard Zangger in Saudi Aramco World, Volume 46, Number 3, May/June 1995
  • PlosOne dating the Sea People destruction of the Levant to 1192–90 BCE
  • "The Battle of the Nile – Circa 1190 B.C.", article by I Cornelius in Military History Journal, Vol. 7., No. 4 of the South African Military History Society
  • "The Greek Age of Bronze", Archaeological web site related to Greek Bronze Age and Sea Peoples weaponry and warfare

February 15, 2024
peoples, other, uses, people, disambiguation, hypothesized, seafaring, confederation, that, attacked, ancient, egypt, other, regions, east, mediterranean, before, during, late, bronze, collapse, 1200, following, creation, concept, 19th, century, incursions, be. For other uses see Sea People disambiguation The Sea Peoples are a hypothesized seafaring confederation that attacked ancient Egypt and other regions in the East Mediterranean before and during the Late Bronze Age collapse 1200 900 BC 2 3 Following the creation of the concept in the 19th century the Sea Peoples incursions became one of the most famous chapters of Egyptian history given its connection with in the words of Wilhelm Max Muller the most important questions of ethnography and the primitive history of classic nations 4 5 This scene from the north wall of Medinet Habu is often used to illustrate the Egyptian campaign against the Sea Peoples in what has come to be known as the Battle of the Delta c 1175 BC 1 during the reign of Ramesses III While accompanying hieroglyphs do not name Egypt s enemies describing them simply as being from northern countries early scholars noted the similarities between the hairstyles and accessories worn by the combatants and other reliefs in which such groups are named The origins of the Sea Peoples are undocumented It has been proposed that the Sea Peoples originated from a number of different locations such as western Anatolia the Aegean the Mediterranean islands and Southern Europe 6 Although the archaeological inscriptions do not include reference to a migration 3 the Sea Peoples are conjectured to have sailed around the eastern Mediterranean and raided Anatolia Syria Phoenicia Canaan Cyprus and Egypt toward the end of the Bronze Age 7 French Egyptologist Emmanuel de Rouge first used the term peuples de la mer literally peoples of the sea in 1855 in a description of reliefs on the Second Pylon at Medinet Habu documenting Year 8 of Ramesses III 8 9 In the late 19th century Gaston Maspero de Rouge s successor at the College de France subsequently popularized the term Sea Peoples and an associated migration theory 10 Since the early 1990s his migration theory has been brought into question by a number of scholars 2 3 11 12 The Sea Peoples remain unidentified in the eyes of most modern scholars and hypotheses regarding the origin of the various groups are the source of much speculation 13 Existing theories variously propose that they were any of several Aegean tribes raiders from Central Europe scattered soldiers who turned to piracy or became refugees or even migrants linked to natural disasters such as earthquakes or climatic shifts 3 14 Contents 1 History of the concept 2 Primary documentary records 2 1 Ramesses II narrative 2 2 Merneptah narrative 2 3 Ramesses III narrative 2 4 Onomasticon of Amenope 3 Other documentary records 3 1 Egyptian single name sources 3 2 Byblos 3 3 Ugarit 4 Hypotheses about origins 4 1 Regional migration historical context 4 2 Philistine hypothesis 4 3 Minoan hypothesis 4 4 Greek migrational hypothesis 4 5 Trojan hypothesis 4 6 Mycenaean warfare hypothesis 4 7 Nuragic and Italian peoples hypotheses 4 8 Anatolian famine hypothesis 4 9 Invader hypothesis 5 See also 6 References 6 1 Citations 6 2 Notes 6 3 Sources 6 3 1 Primary sources Early publications of the theory 6 3 2 Secondary sources 7 External linksHistory of the concept edit nbsp nbsp A partial description of the hieroglyphic text at Medinet Habu on the right tower of Second Pylon left and an illustration of the prisoners depicted at the base of the Fortified East Gate right were first provided by Jean Francois Champollion following his 1828 29 travels to Egypt and published posthumously 15 Although Champollion did not label them decades later the hieroglyphs labeled 4 to 8 left were translated as Peleset Tjeker Shekelesh Denyen and Weshesh and the hieroglyphs next to prisoners 3 and 4 second row right translated as Tjeker and Sherden 16 The concept of the Sea Peoples was first described by Emmanuel de Rouge in 1855 then curator of the Louvre in his work Note on Some Hieroglyphic Texts Recently Published by Mr Greene 17 describing the battles of Ramesses III described on the Second Pylon at Medinet Habu and based upon recent photographs of the temple by John Beasley Greene 18 19 20 De Rouge noted that in the crests of the conquered peoples the Sherden and the Teresh bear the designation of the peuples de la mer in a reference to the prisoners depicted at the base of the Fortified East Gate 9 In 1867 de Rouge published his Excerpts of a dissertation on the attacks directed against Egypt by the peoples of the Mediterranean in the 14th century BC which focused primarily on the battles of Ramesses II and Merneptah and which proposed translations for many of the geographic names included in the hieroglyphic inscriptions 21 22 De Rouge later became chair of Egyptology at the College de France and was succeeded by Gaston Maspero Maspero built upon de Rouge s work and published The Struggle of the Nations 23 in which he described the theory of the seaborne migrations in detail in 1895 96 for a wider audience 10 at a time when the idea of population migrations would have felt familiar to the general population 24 The migration theory was taken up by other scholars such as Eduard Meyer and became the generally accepted theory amongst Egyptologists and Orientalists 10 Since the early 1990s however it has been brought into question by a number of scholars 2 3 11 12 The historical narrative stems primarily from seven Ancient Egyptian sources 25 and although in these inscriptions the designation of the sea does not appear in relation to all of these peoples 2 12 the term Sea Peoples is commonly used in modern publications to refer to the following nine peoples in alphabetical order 26 27 Egyptian name Original identification Other theoriesPeople Trans literation Connection to the sea Year Author TheoryDenyen dꜣjnjnjw in their isles 28 1872 Chabas 29 Greeks Danaans 30 Israelite tribe of Dan 30 Daunians 31 Dorians 32 33 Land of the Danuna near Ugarit 34 people of Adana in Cilicia 35 Ekwesh jḳꜣwꜣsꜣ of the countries of the sea 36 1867 de Rouge 29 Greeks Achaeans 37 30 38 Lukka rkw 1867 de Rouge 29 Lycians 38 37 Peleset prwsṯ 18461872 William Osborn Jr and Edward Hincks 39 40 41 42 Chabas 43 PelasgiansPhilistines Parista Assuwa in Western Anatolia 44 Palistin in Southern Anatolia and Northern Syria 44 may included parts of Phrygians and Armenians 45 Shekelesh sꜣkrsꜣ of the countries of the sea 46 disputed 36 1867 de Rouge 29 Sicels 38 37 Cyclades 47 full citation needed Sagalassos 48 Saḫiriya Sakariya 44 Sherden sꜣrdn of the sea 49 of the countries of the sea 46 disputed 36 1867 de Rouge 29 Sardinians Nuragic 37 38 50 51 Sardis 48 Sporades 47 Teresh twrsꜣ of the sea 49 1867 de Rouge 29 Tyrrhenians 37 38 52 Troy Taruisa 53 Tribe of Tiras 54 Tarshish 55 Taurus Mountains 55 Tjeker ṯꜣkꜣr 1867 1872 Lauth Chabas 29 Teucrians 56 Zakro Crete 57 Eteocretans 58 Thrace 59 Sicals form Southern Phonecia 60 Sicels 61 Weshesh wꜣsꜣsꜣ of the sea 28 1872 Chabas 29 Greeks Achaeans 37 30 38 29 Assuwa Warsiya in Western Anatolia 44 Wassos 62 Cretan Waksioi 63 Predecessor of the Osci 64 Israelite tribe of Asher 65 66 Considered by others to remain unidentified 43 Primary documentary records editThe Medinet Habu inscriptions from which the Sea Peoples concept was first described remain the primary source and the basis of virtually all significant discussions of them 67 Three separate narratives from Egyptian records refer to more than one of the nine peoples found in a total of six sources The seventh and most recent source referring to more than one of the nine peoples is a list Onomasticon of 610 entities rather than a narrative 25 These sources are summarized in the table below Date Narrative Source s Peoples named Connection to the seac 1210 BC Ramesses II narrative Kadesh Inscriptions Karkisha Lukka Sherden nonec 1200 BC Merneptah narrative Great Karnak Inscription Eqwesh Lukka Shekelesh Sherden Teresh Eqwesh of the countries of the sea 36 possibly also Sherden and Sheklesh 46 Athribis Stele Eqwesh Shekelesh Sherden Teresh Eqwesh of the countries of the sea 36 46 c 1150 BC Ramesses III narrative Medinet Habu Denyen Peleset Shekelesh Sherden Teresh Tjekker Weshesh Denyen in their isles Teresh of the sea Sherden of the sea 49 Papyrus Harris I Denyen Peleset Sherden Tjekker Weshesh Denyen in their isles Weshesh of the sea 28 Rhetorical Stela Peleset Teresh nonec 1100 BC List no narrative Onomasticon of Amenope Denyen Lukka Peleset Sherden Tjekker noneRamesses II narrative edit nbsp A carved relief from the Kadesh inscriptions showing Shasu spies being beaten by EgyptiansPossible records of sea peoples generally or in particular date to two campaigns of Ramesses II a pharaoh of the militant 19th Dynasty operations in or near the delta in Year 2 of his reign and the major confrontation with the Hittite Empire and allies at the Battle of Kadesh in his Year 5 The years of this long lived pharaoh s reign are not known exactly but they must have comprised nearly all of the first half of the 13th century BC 68 In his Second Year an attack of the Sherden or Shardana on the Nile Delta was repulsed and defeated by Ramesses who captured some of the pirates The event is recorded on Tanis Stele II 69 An inscription by Ramesses II on the stela from Tanis which recorded the Sherden raiders raid and subsequent capture speaks of the continuous threat they posed to Egypt s Mediterranean coasts the unruly Sherden whom no one had ever known how to combat they came boldly sailing in their warships from the midst of the sea none being able to withstand them 70 The Sherden prisoners were subsequently incorporated into the Egyptian army for service on the Hittite frontier by Ramesses and fought as Egyptian soldiers in the Battle of Kadesh Another stele usually cited in conjunction with this one is the Aswan Stele there were other stelae at Aswan which mentions the king s operations to defeat a number of peoples including those of the Great Green the Egyptian name for the Mediterranean It is plausible to assume that the Tanis and Aswan Stelae refer to the same event in which case they reinforce each other citation needed The Battle of Kadesh was the outcome of a campaign against the Hittites and their allies in the Levant in the pharaoh s Year 5 The imminent collision of the Egyptian and Hittite empires became obvious to both and they both prepared campaigns against the strategic midpoint of Kadesh for the next year Ramesses divided his Egyptian forces which were then ambushed piecemeal by the Hittite army and nearly defeated Ramesses was separated from his forces and had to fight singlehandedly to get back to his troops He then mustered several counterattacks while waiting for reinforcements Once the reinforcements from the South and East arrived the Egyptians managed to drive the Hittites back to Kadesh While it was a strategic Egyptian victory neither side managed to attain their operational objectives 71 At home Ramesses had his scribes formulate an official description which has been called the Bulletin because it was widely published by inscription Ten copies survive today on the temples at Abydos Karnak Luxor and Abu Simbel with reliefs depicting the battle The Poem of Pentaur describing the battle also survived 72 The poem relates that the previously captured Sherden were not only working for the Pharaoh but were also formulating a plan of battle for him i e it was their idea to divide Egyptian forces into four columns There is no evidence of any collaboration with the Hittites or malicious intent on their part and if Ramesses considered it he never left any record of that consideration citation needed The poem lists the peoples who went to Kadesh as allies of the Hittites Amongst them are some of the sea peoples spoken of in the Egyptian inscriptions previously mentioned and many of the peoples who would later take part in the great migrations of the 12th century BC see Appendix A to the Battle of Kadesh citation needed Merneptah narrative edit nbsp Athribis stele showing all 19 lines and 14 lines on each face The reference to foreigners of the sea is on line 13 out of 19 nbsp Great Karnak Inscription lines 1 20 out of 79 line 52 includes the reference to foreign peoples of the sea n3 ḫ3s wt n lt t gt p3 ym 46 The major event of the reign of the Pharaoh Merneptah 1213 BC 1203 BC 73 4th king of the 19th Dynasty was his battle at Perire in the western delta in the 5th and 6th years of his reign against a confederacy termed the Nine Bows Depredations of this confederacy had been so severe that the region was forsaken as pasturage for cattle it was left waste from the time of the ancestors 74 The pharaoh s action against them is attested in a single narrative found in three sources The most detailed source describing the battle is the Great Karnak Inscription two shorter versions of the same narrative are found in the Athribis Stele and the Cairo Column 75 The Cairo column is a section of a granite column now in the Cairo Museum which was first published by Maspero in 1881 with just two readable sentences the first confirming the date of Year 5 and the second stating The wretched chief of Libya has invaded with being men and women Shekelesh S k rw s 76 77 The Athribis stela is a granite stela found in Athribis and inscribed on both sides which like the Cairo column was first published by Maspero two years later in 1883 78 The Merneptah Stele from Thebes describes the reign of peace resulting from the victory but does not include any reference to the Sea Peoples 79 The Nine Bows were acting under the leadership of the king of Libya and an associated near concurrent revolt in Canaan involving Gaza Ascalon Yenoam and the Israelites Exactly which peoples were consistently in the Nine Bows is not clear but present at the battle were the Libyans some neighboring Meshwesh and possibly a separate revolt in the following year involving peoples from the eastern Mediterranean including the Kheta or Hittites or Syrians and in the Israel Stele for the first time in history the Israelites In addition to them the first lines of the Karnak inscription include some sea peoples 80 which must have arrived in the Western Delta or from Cyrene by ship Beginning of the victory that his majesty achieved in the land of Libya i Ekwesh Teresh Lukka Sherden Shekelesh Northerners coming from all lands Later in the inscription Merneptah receives news of the attack the third season saying The wretched fallen chief of Libya Meryey son of Ded has fallen upon the country of Tehenu with his bowmen Sherden Shekelesh Ekwesh Lukka Teresh Taking the best of every warrior and every man of war of his country He has brought his wife and his children leaders of the camp and he has reached the western boundary in the fields of Perire His majesty was enraged at their report like a lion assembled his court and gave a rousing speech Later he dreamed he saw Ptah handing him a sword and saying Take thou it and banish thou the fearful heart from thee When the bowmen went forth says the inscription Amun was with them as a shield After six hours the surviving Nine Bows threw down their weapons abandoned their baggage and dependants and ran for their lives Merneptah states that he defeated the invasion killing 6 000 soldiers and taking 9 000 prisoners To be sure of the numbers among other things he took the penises of all uncircumcised enemy dead and the hands of all the circumcised from which history learns that the Ekwesh were circumcised a fact causing some to doubt they were Greek 81 Ramesses III narrative edit Further information Battle of the Delta Battle of Djahy and Late Bronze Age collapse nbsp nbsp Medinet Habu northeast outside wall showing wide view and a close up sketch of the right hand side relief Behind the king out of scene is a chariot above which the text describes a battle in Year 8 as follows Now the northern countries which were in their isles were quivering in their bodies They penetrated the channels of the Nile s mouths Their nostrils have ceased to function so that their desire is to breathe the breath His majesty is gone forth like a whirlwind against them fighting on the battlefield like a runner The dread of him and the terror of him have entered in their bodies they are capsized and overwhelmed in their places Their hearts are taken away their soul is flown away Their weapons are scattered in the sea His arrow pierces him whom he has wished among them while the fugitive becomes one fallen into the water His majesty is like an enraged lion attacking his assailant with his pawns plundering on his right hand and powerful on his left hand like Set h destroying the serpent Evil of Character It is Amon Re who has overthrown for him the lands and has crushed for him every land under his feet King of Upper and Lower Egypt Lord of the Two Lands Usermare Meriamon 82 Ramesses III who reigned for most of the first half of the 12th century BC as the second pharaoh of the 20th Dynasty confronted a later wave of invasions of the Sea Peoples in his eighth year The battles were later recorded in two long inscriptions from his Medinet Habu mortuary temple which are physically separate and somewhat different from one another 83 The Year 8 campaign is the best recorded Sea Peoples invasion The fact that several civilizations collapsed around 1175 BC has led to the suggestion that the Sea Peoples may have been involved at the end of the Hittite Mycenaean and Mitanni kingdoms The American Hittitologist Gary Beckman writes on page 23 of Akkadica 120 2000 84 A terminus ante quem for the destruction of the Hittite empire has been recognized in an inscription carved at Medinet Habu in Egypt in the eighth year of Ramesses III 1175 BC This text narrates a contemporary great movement of peoples in the eastern Mediterranean as a result of which the lands were removed and scattered to the fray No land could stand before their arms from Hatti Kode Carchemish Arzawa Alashiya on being cut off ie cut down Ramesses comments about the scale of the Sea Peoples onslaught in the eastern Mediterranean are confirmed by the destruction of the states of Hatti Ugarit Ascalon and Hazor around this time As the Hittitologist Trevor Bryce observes It should be stressed that the invasions were not merely military operations but involved the movements of large populations by land and sea seeking new lands to settle 85 This situation is confirmed by the Medinet Habu temple reliefs of Ramesses III which show that the Peleset and Tjekker warriors who fought in the land battle against Ramesses III are accompanied in the reliefs by women and children loaded in ox carts 85 nbsp nbsp Medinet Habu Second Pylon showing wide view and a close up sketch of the left hand side relief in which Amon with Mut behind him extends a sword to Rameses III who is leading three lines of prisoners The text before the King includes the following Thou puttest great terror of me in the hearts of their chiefs the fear and dread of me before them that I may carry off their warriors phrr bound in my grasp to lead them to thy ka O my august father Come to take them being Peleset Pw r s t Denyen D y n yw n Shekelesh S k rw s Thy strength it was which was before me overthrowing their seed thy might O lord of gods 86 On the right hand side of the Pylon is the Great Inscription on the Second Pylon which includes the following text The foreign countries made a conspiracy in their islands All at once the lands were removed and scattered in the fray No land could stand before their arms from Hatti Qode Carchemish Arzawa and Alashiya on being cut off i e destroyed at one time A camp was set up in Amurru They desolated its people and its land was like that which has never come into being They were coming forward toward Egypt while the flame was prepared before them Their confederation was the Peleset Tjeker Shekelesh Denyen and Weshesh lands united They laid their hands upon the land as far as the circuit of the earth their hearts confident and trusting Our plans will succeed 87 The inscriptions of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu record three victorious campaigns against the Sea Peoples that are considered bona fide in Years 5 8 and 12 as well as three considered spurious against the Nubians and Libyans in Year 5 and the Libyans with Asiatics in Year 11 During Year 8 some Hittites were operating with the Sea Peoples 88 The inner west wall of the second court describes the invasion of Year 5 Only the Peleset and Tjeker are mentioned but the list is lost in a lacuna The attack was two pronged one by sea and one by land That is the Sea Peoples divided their forces Ramesses was waiting in the Nile mouths and trapped the enemy fleet there The land forces were defeated separately The Sea Peoples did not learn any lessons from this defeat as they repeated their mistake in Year 8 with a similar result The campaign is recorded more extensively on the inner northwest panel of the first court It is possible but not generally believed that the dates are only those of the inscriptions and both refer to the same campaign In Ramesses Year 8 the Nine Bows appear as a conspiracy in their isles This time they are revealed unquestionably as Sea Peoples the Peleset Tjeker Shekelesh Denyen and Weshesh which are classified as foreign countries in the inscription They camped in Amor and sent a fleet to the Nile The pharaoh was once more waiting for them He had built a fleet especially for the occasion hidden it in the mouths of the Nile and posted coast watchers The enemy fleet was ambushed there their ships overturned and the men dragged up on shore and executed ad hoc The land army was also routed within Egyptian controlled territory Additional information is given in the relief on the outer side of the east wall This land battle occurred in the vicinity of Djahy against the northern countries When it was over several chiefs were captive of Hatti Amor and Shasu among the land peoples and the Tjeker Sherden of the sea Teresh of the sea and Peleset or Philistines The campaign of Year 12 is attested by the Sudstele found on the south side of the temple It mentions the Tjeker Peleset Denyen Weshesh and Shekelesh Papyrus Harris I of the period found behind the temple suggests a wider campaign against the Sea Peoples but does not mention the date In it the persona of Ramses III says I slew the Denyen D yn yw n in their isles and burned the Tjeker and Peleset implying a maritime raid of his own He also captured some Sherden and Weshesh of the sea and settled them in Egypt As he is called the Ruler of Nine Bows in the relief of the east side these events probably happened in Year 8 i e the Pharaoh would have used the victorious fleet for some punitive expeditions elsewhere in the Mediterranean The Rhetorical Stela to Ramesses III Chapel C Deir el Medina records a similar narrative 89 Onomasticon of Amenope edit The Onomasticon of Amenope or Amenemipit amen em apt gives slight credence to the idea that the Ramesside kings settled the Sea Peoples in Canaan Dated to about 1100 BC at the end of the 22nd dynasty this document simply lists names After six place names four of which were in Philistia the scribe lists the Sherden Line 268 the Tjeker Line 269 and the Peleset Line 270 who might be presumed to occupy those cities 90 The Story of Wenamun on a papyrus of the same cache also places the Tjeker in Dor at that time The fact that the Biblical maritime Tribe of Dan was initially located between the Philistines and the Tjekker has prompted some to suggest that they may have originally been Denyen Sherden seem to have been settled around Megiddo and in the Jordan Valley and Weshwesh connected by some with the Biblical tribe of Asher may have been settled further north citation needed Other documentary records editEgyptian single name sources edit Other Egyptian sources refer to one of the individual groups without reference to any of the other groups 25 The Amarna letters around the mid 14th century BC including four relating to the Sea Peoples EA 151 refers to the Denyen in a passing reference to the death of their king EA 38 refers to the Lukka who are being accused of attacking the Egyptians in conjunction with the Alashiyans Cypriotes with the latter having stated that the Lukka were seizing their villages EA 81 EA 122 and EA 123 refer to the Sherden The letters at one point refer to a Sherden man as an apparent renegade mercenary 91 and at another point to three Sherden who are slain by an Egyptian overseer 92 Padiiset s Statue refers to the Peleset the Cairo Column 93 refers to the Shekelesh the Story of Wenamun refers to the Tjekker and 13 further Egyptian sources refer to the Sherden 94 Byblos edit nbsp The Abishemu obelisk includes the words Kwkwn s Rwqq translated as Kukun son of Lukka The earliest ethnic group 95 later considered among the Sea Peoples is believed to be attested in Egyptian hieroglyphs on the Abishemu obelisk found in the Temple of the Obelisks at Byblos by Maurice Dunand 96 97 The inscription mentions kwkwn son of rwqq or kukun son of luqq transliterated as Kukunnis son of Lukka the Lycian 98 The date is given variously as 2000 or 1700 BC Ugarit edit Destructions at Gibala Tell Tweini nbsp Harbour town Gibala Tell Tweini Ugarit kingdom and the Sea People destruction layer 99 nbsp Gibala Tell Tweini Storage jars found in the Early Iron Age destruction layer 99 Some Sea Peoples appear in four of the Ugaritic texts the last three of which seem to foreshadow the destruction of the city around 1180 BC The letters are therefore dated to the early 12th century The last king of Ugarit was Ammurapi c 1191 1182 BC who throughout this correspondence is quite a young man RS 34 129 the earliest letter found on the south side of the city from the Great King presumably Suppiluliuma II of the Hittites to the prefect of the city He says that he ordered the king of Ugarit to send him Ibnadushu for questioning but the king was too immature to respond He therefore wants the prefect to send the man whom he promises to return What this language implies about the relationship of the Hittite empire to Ugarit is a matter of interpretation Ibnadushu had been kidnapped by and had resided among a people of Shikala probably the Shekelesh who lived on ships The letter is generally interpreted as an interest in military intelligence by the king 100 RS L 1 RS 20 238 and RS 20 18 are a set from the Rap anu Archive between a slightly older Ammurapi now handling his own affairs and Eshuwara the grand supervisor of Alasiya Evidently Ammurapi had informed Eshuwara that an enemy fleet of 20 ships had been spotted at sea Eshuwara wrote back and inquired about the location of Ammurapi s own forces Eshuwara also noted that he would like to know where the enemy fleet of 20 ships are now located 101 Unfortunately for both Ugarit and Alasiya neither kingdom was able to fend off the Sea People s onslaught and both were ultimately destroyed A letter by Ammurapi RS 18 147 to the king of Alasiya which was in fact a response to an appeal for assistance by the latter has been found by archaeologists In it Ammurapi describes the desperate plight facing Ugarit a Ammurapi in turn appealed for aid from the viceroy of Carchemish which actually survived the Sea People s onslaught King Kuzi Teshub I who was the son of Talmi Teshub a direct contemporary of the last ruling Hittite king Suppiluliuma II is attested in power there 103 running a mini empire which stretched from Southeast Asia Minor North Syria to the west bend of the Euphrates 104 from c 1175 BC to 990 BC Its viceroy could only offer some words of advice for Ammurapi b Hypotheses about origins editA number of hypotheses concerning the origins identities and motives of the Sea Peoples described in the records have been formulated They are not necessarily alternative or contradictory hypotheses about the Sea Peoples any or all might be mainly or partly true Regional migration historical context edit See also Late Bronze Age collapse nbsp Map of the Sea People invasions in the Aegean Sea and Eastern Mediterranean at the end of the Late Bronze Age 99 The Late Bronze Age Mycenaean Greek Linear B tablets of Pylos in the Peloponnese along the Ionian Sea demonstrate increased slave raiding and the spread of mercenaries and migratory peoples and their subsequent resettlement Despite this the actual identity of the Sea Peoples has remained enigmatic and modern scholars have only the scattered records of ancient civilizations and archaeological analysis to inform them Evidence shows that the identities and motives of these peoples were known to the Egyptians In fact many had sought employment with the Egyptians or were in a diplomatic relationship for a few centuries before the Late Bronze Age collapse For example select groups or members of groups of the Sea People such as the Sherden were used as mercenaries by pharaohs such as Ramesses II Prior to the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt from the 15th century BC names of Semitic speaking cattle raising nomadic pastoralists of the Levant appear replacing previous Egyptian concern with the Hurrianised ʾprw ʾapiru or Habiru These were called the sꜣsw Shasu meaning those who move on foot e g the Shasu of Yhw 106 Nancy Sandars uses the analogous name land peoples Contemporary Assyrian records refer to them as Ahlamu Wanderers 107 They were not part of the Egyptian list of Sea Peoples and were later referred to as Arameans Some people such as the Lukka were included in both categories of land and sea people Philistine hypothesis edit Main article Philistines nbsp Philistine Bichrome pottery theorized to be of Sea Peoples originThe archaeological evidence from the southern coastal plain of ancient Canaan termed Philistia in the Hebrew Bible indicates a disruption 108 of the Canaanite culture that existed during the Late Bronze Age and its replacement with some integration by a culture with a possibly foreign mainly Aegean origin This includes distinct pottery which at first belongs to the Mycenaean IIIC tradition albeit of local manufacture and gradually transforms into uniquely Philistine pottery Mazar says 109 in Philistia the producers of Mycenaean IIIC pottery must be identified as the Philistines The logical conclusion therefore is that the Philistines were a group of Mycenaean Greeks who immigrated to the east Within several decades a new bichrome style known as the Philistine appeared in Philistia Sandars however does not take this point of view but says 110 it would be less misleading to call this Philistine pottery Sea Peoples pottery or foreign pottery without commitment to any particular group Artifacts of the Philistine culture are found at numerous sites in particular in the excavations of the five main cities of the Philistines the Pentapolis of Ascalon Isdud Ekron Gath and Gaza Some scholars e g S Sherratt Drews etc have challenged the theory that the Philistine culture is an immigrant culture claiming instead that they are an in situ development of the Canaanite culture but others argue for the immigrant hypothesis for example T Dothan and Barako Trude and Moshe Dothan suggest that the later Philistine settlements in the Levant were unoccupied for nearly 30 years between their destruction and resettlement by the Philistines whose Helladic IIICb pottery also shows Egyptian influences 111 With the advent of archaeogenetics the Aegean hypothesis regarding the origin of the Philistines has received a major boost A study by Michal Feldman and colleagues that carried out genomic testing of 10 Bronze Age and Iron Age individuals from Ascalon reported that the early Iron Age population was genetically distinct from both late Bronze Age and late Iron Age tested individuals as a result of transient European related admixture The authors concluded that a migration event occurred during the Bronze to Iron Age transition in Ascalon from an Aegean related source even though this migration did not leave a long lasting genetic signature 112 Minoan hypothesis edit Further information Caphtor Two of the peoples who settled in the Levant had traditions that may connect them to Crete the Tjeker and the Peleset The Tjeker may have left Crete to settle in Anatolia and left there to settle Dor 113 According to the Old Testament 114 the Israelite God brought the Philistines out of Caphtor The mainstream of Biblical and classical scholarship accepts Caphtor to refer to Crete but there are alternative minority theories 115 Crete at the time was populated by peoples speaking many languages among which were Mycenaean Greek and Eteocretan the descendant of the language of the Minoans It is possible but by no means certain that these two peoples spoke Eteocretan Recent examinations of the eruption of the Santorini volcano estimate its occurrence at between 1660 and 1613 BC centuries before the first appearances of the Sea Peoples in Egypt The eruption is thus unlikely to be connected to the Sea Peoples 116 Greek migrational hypothesis edit Main article Mycenaean Greece The identifications of Denyen with the Greek Danaans and Ekwesh with the Greek Achaeans are long standing issues in Bronze Age scholarship whether Greek Hittite or Biblical especially as they lived in the isles The Greek identification of the Ekwesh is considered especially problematic as this group was clearly described as circumcised by the Egyptians and according to Manuel Robbins Hardly anyone thinks that the Greeks of the Bronze Age were circumcised 81 Michael Wood described the hypothetical role of the Greeks who have already been proposed as the identity of the Philistines above 117 nbsp Warrior wearing a boar s tusk helmet from a Mycenaean chamber tomb in the Acropolis of Athens 14th 13th century BC were the sea peoples in part actually composed of Mycenaean Greeks rootless migrants warrior bands and condottieri on the move Certainly there seem to be suggestive parallels between the war gear and helmets of the Greeks and those of the Sea Peoples Wood would also include the Sherden and Shekelesh pointing out that there were migrations of Greek speaking peoples to the same place Sardinia and Sicily at this time He is careful to point out that the Greeks would have been only one element among many that comprised the sea peoples Furthermore the proportion of Greeks must have been relatively small His major hypothesis 117 is that the Trojan War was fought against Troy VI and Troy VIIa the candidate of Carl Blegen and that Troy was sacked by those now identified as Greek Sea Peoples He suggests that Odysseus assumed identity as a wandering Cretan coming home from the Trojan War who fights in Egypt and serves there after being captured 118 remembers the campaign of Year 8 of Ramses III described above He points out also that places destroyed on Cyprus at the time such as Kition were rebuilt by a new Greek speaking population Several scholars have proposed that the Sea People were certainly Mycenaean Greeks 119 Trojan hypothesis edit Main article Troy The possibility that the Teresh were connected on the one hand with the Tyrrhenians 120 believed to be an Etruscan related culture or on the other with Taruisa a Hittite name possibly referring to Troy has been speculated 121 The Roman poet Virgil depicts Aeneas as escaping the fall of Troy by coming to Latium to found a line descending to Romulus first king of Rome Considering that Anatolian connections have been identified for other Sea Peoples such as the Tjeker and the Lukka Eberhard Zangger puts together an Anatolian hypothesis but it is not accepted for archaeological linguistic anthropological and genetic reasons 122 123 124 125 Virgil s account refers to the foundation of Rome not to the Etruscans and is not believed to contain true events Furthermore there is no archaeological or linguistic evidence of a migration in the late Bronze Age from Anatolia to Etruria 126 and the Etruscan language as well as all the languages of the Tyrrhenian family considered Pre Indo European and Paleo European 127 belongs to a completely different family from the Anatolian one which is Indo European Moreover both recent studies of anthropology and genetics have argued in favor of the indigenous origin of the Etruscans and against the hypothesis of eastern origin 128 129 130 Mycenaean warfare hypothesis edit See also Achaeans Homer and Mycenaean Greece This theory suggests that the Sea Peoples were populations from the city states of the Greek Mycenaean civilization who destroyed each other in a disastrous series of conflicts lasting several decades There would have been few or no external invaders and just a few excursions outside the Greek speaking part of the Aegean civilization Archaeological evidence indicates that many fortified sites of the Greek domain were destroyed in the late 13th and early 12th century BC which was understood in the mid 20th century to have been simultaneous or nearly so and was attributed to the Dorian invasion championed by Carl Blegen of the University of Cincinnati He believed Mycenaean Pylos was burned during an amphibious raid by warriors from the north the Dorians Subsequent critical analysis focused on the fact that the destructions were not simultaneous and that all the evidence of Dorians comes from later times John Chadwick championed a Sea Peoples hypothesis 131 which asserted that since the Pylians had retreated to the northeast the attack must have come from the southwest the Sea Peoples being in his view the most likely candidates He suggests that they were based in Anatolia and although doubting that the Mycenaeans would have called themselves Achaeans speculates that it is very tempting to bring them into connexion He does not assign a Greek identity to all of the Sea Peoples Considering the turbulence between and within the great families of the Mycenaean city states in Greek mythology the hypothesis that the Mycenaeans destroyed themselves is long standing 132 and finds support by the ancient Greek historian Thucydides who theorized For in early times the Hellenes and the barbarians of the coast and islands was tempted to turn to piracy under the conduct of their most powerful men T hey would fall upon a town unprotected by walls and would plunder it no disgrace being yet attached to such an achievement but even some glory 133 Although some advocates of the Philistine or Greek migration hypotheses identify all the Mycenaeans or Sea Peoples as ethnically Greek John Chadwick founder with Michael Ventris of Linear B studies adopts instead the multiple ethnicity view Nuragic and Italian peoples hypotheses edit See also Nuragic civilization and Etruscan civilization Some archeologists believe that the Sherden are identifiable with the Sardinians from the Nuragic era 51 134 135 136 Theories of the possible connections between the Sherden to Sardinia Shekelesh to Sicily and Teresh to Tyrrhenians even though long standing are based on onomastic similarities 137 Nuragic pottery of domestic use has been found at Pyla Kokkinokremos a fortified settlement in Cyprus during the 2010 and 2017 excavations 138 139 140 141 142 The site is dated to the period between the 13th and 12th centuries BC that of the Sea Peoples invasions This find has led archaeologist Vassos Karageorghis to identify the Nuragic Sardinians with the Sherden one of the Sea Peoples According to him the Sherden went first to Crete and from there they joined the Cretans in an eastward expedition to Cyprus 143 144 nbsp Bronze model of a nuraghe 10th century BCThe Nuragic bronze statuettes a great collection of Nuragic sculptures includes a great number of horned helmet warriors wearing a similar skirt to the Sherdens and a round shield although they had been dated for a long time to the 10th or 9th century BC recent discoveries suggest that their production started around the 13th century BC Swords identical to those of the Sherden have been found in Sardinia dating back to 1650 BC The name which the Etruscans used to refer to themselves Rasna does not lend itself to the Tyrrhenian derivation although it has been suggested that this was itself derived from an earlier form T Rasna The Etruscan civilization has been studied and the language partly deciphered It has variants and representatives in Aegean inscriptions but these may well be from travelers or colonists of Etruscans during their seafaring period before Rome destroyed their power 145 There is no definitive archaeological evidence About all that can be said for certain is that Mycenaean IIIC pottery was widespread around the Mediterranean in areas associated with Sea Peoples and its introduction at various places is often associated with cultural change violent or gradual An old theory is that the Sherden and Shekelesh brought those names with them to Sardinia and Sicily perhaps not operating from those great islands but moving toward them 146 and this is still accepted by Eric Cline 147 and by Trevor Bryce 148 who explains that some of the Sea Peoples sprang out of the collapsing Hittite empire Giovanni Ugas believes that the Sherden originated in Sardinia 134 and his studies have been echoed by Sebastiano Tusa in his last book 135 and by Carlos Roberto Zorea from the Complutense University of Madrid 136 Anatolian famine hypothesis edit A famous passage from Herodotus 149 portrays the wandering and migration of Lydians from Anatolia because of famine 150 In the days of Atys the son of Manes there was great scarcity through the whole land of Lydia So the king determined to divide the nation in half the one to stay the other to leave the land the emigrants should have his son Tyrrhenus for their leader they went down to Smyrna and built themselves ships after sailing past many countries they came to Umbria and called themselves Tyrrhenians However the 1st century BC historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus a Greek living in Rome dismissed many of the ancient theories of other Greek historians and postulated that the Etruscans were indigenous people who had always lived in Etruria and were different from the Lydians 151 Dionysius noted that the 5th century historian Xanthus of Lydia who was originally from Sardis and was regarded as an important source and authority for the history of Lydia never suggested a Lydian origin of the Etruscans and never named Tyrrhenus as a ruler of the Lydians 151 For this reason therefore I am persuaded that the Pelasgians are a different people from the Tyrrhenians And I do not believe either that the Tyrrhenians were a colony of the Lydians for they do not use the same language as the latter nor can it be alleged that though they no longer speak a similar tongue they still retain some other indications of their mother country For they neither worship the same gods as the Lydians nor make use of similar laws or institutions but in these very respects they differ more from the Lydians than from the Pelasgians Indeed those probably come nearest to the truth who declare that the nation migrated from nowhere else but was native to the country since it is found to be a very ancient nation and to agree with no other either in its language or in its manner of living Tablet RS 18 38 from Ugarit also mentions grain to the Hittites suggesting a long period of famine connected further in the full theory to drought 152 Barry Weiss 153 using the Palmer Drought Index for 35 Greek Turkish and Middle Eastern weather stations showed that a drought of the kinds that persisted from January 1972 would have affected all of the sites associated with the Late Bronze Age collapse Drought could have easily precipitated or hastened socio economic problems and led to wars More recently Brian Fagan has shown how mid winter storms from the Atlantic were diverted to travel north of the Pyrenees and the Alps bringing wetter conditions to Central Europe but drought to the Eastern Mediterranean 154 More recent paleoclimatological research has also shown climatic disruption and increasing aridity in the Eastern Mediterranean associated with the North Atlantic Oscillation at this time See Bronze Age Collapse Invader hypothesis edit nbsp Invasions population movements and destruction during the collapse of the Bronze Age c 1200 BC derived from Atlas of World History 2002 The term invasion is used generally in the literature concerning the period to mean the documented attacks implying that the aggressors were external to the eastern Mediterranean though often hypothesized to be from the wider Aegean world An origin outside the Aegean also has been proposed as in this example by Michael Grant There was a gigantic series of migratory waves extending all the way from the Danube valley to the plains of China 155 Such a comprehensive movement is associated with more than one people or culture instead it was a disturbance according to Finley 156 A large scale movement of people is indicated the original center of disturbance was in the Carpatho Danubian region of Europe It appears to have been pushing in different directions at different times If different times are allowed on the Danube they are not in the Aegean all this destruction must be dated to the same period about 1200 BC 156 The movements of the hypothetical Dorian Invasion the attacks of the Sea Peoples the formation of Philistine kingdoms in the Levant and the fall of the Hittite Empire were associated and compressed by Finley into the 1200 BC window Robert Drews presents a map showing the destruction sites of 47 fortified major settlements which he terms Major Sites Destroyed in the Catastrophe 157 They are concentrated in the Levant with some in Greece and Anatolia See also editBeder ancient ruler Hyksos Meryey ThalassocracyReferences editCitations edit Paine Lincoln 27 October 2015 The Sea and Civilization A Maritime History of the World Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group p 76 ISBN 978 1 101 97035 5 a b c d Killebrew 2013 p 2 Quote First coined in 1881 by the French Egyptologist G Maspero 1896 the somewhat misleading term Sea Peoples encompasses the ethnonyms Lukka Sherden Shekelesh Teresh Eqwesh Denyen Sikil Tjekker Weshesh and Peleset Philistines Footnote The modern term Sea Peoples refers to people that appear in several New Kingdom Egyptian texts as originating from islands tables 1 2 Adams and Cohen this volume see e g Drews 1993 57 for a summary The use of quotation marks in association with the term Sea Peoples in our title is intended to draw attention to the problematic nature of this commonly used term The designation of the sea appears only in relation to the Sherden Shekelesh and Eqwesh Subsequently this term was applied somewhat indiscriminately to several additional ethnonyms including the Philistines who are portrayed in their earliest appearance as invaders from the north during the reigns of Merenptah and Ramesses Ill see e g Sandars 1978 Redford 1992 243 n 14 for a recent review of the primary and secondary literature see Woudhuizen 2006 Henceforth the term Sea Peoples will appear without quotation marks a b c d e Drews 1995 pp 48 61 The thesis that a great migration of the Sea Peoples occurred ca 1200 B C is supposedly based on Egyptian inscriptions one from the reign of Merneptah and another from the reign of Ramesses III Yet in the inscriptions themselves such a migration nowhere appears After reviewing what the Egyptian texts have to say about the sea peoples one Egyptologist Wolfgang Helck recently remarked that although some things are unclear eins ist aber sicher Nach den agyptischen Texten haben wir es nicht mit einer Volkerwanderung zu tun One thing is however certain according to the Egyptian texts we are not dealing with a migration Thus the migration hypothesis is based not on the inscriptions themselves but on their interpretation Muller 1888 p 147 In Egyptian history there is hardly any incident of so great an interest as the invasion of Egypt by the Mediterranean peoples the facts of which are connected with the most important questions of ethnography and the primitive history of classic nations Hall 1922 Syria Early history Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 8 September 2012 Sea People Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 8 September 2012 Silberman 1998 p 269 a b de Rouge 1855 p 14 Translation from the French For a long time Kefa has been identified with verisimilitude with Caphthorim of the Bible to whom Gesenius along with most interpreters assigns as a residence the islands of Crete or Cyprus The people of Cyprus had certainly to take sides in this war perhaps they were then the allies of Egypt In any case our entry does not detail the names of these people from the islands of the Mediterranean Champollion noted that T akkari which he names Fekkaros see appendix at the following entry and Schartana were recognizable in enemy ships with unique hairstyles In addition in the crests of the conquered peoples the Schartana and the Touirasch bear the designation of the peoples of the sea It is therefore likely that they belong to these nations from islands or coasts of the archipelago The Rabou are still recognizable among the prisoners a b c Drews 1992In fact this migration of the Sea Peoples is not to be found in Egyptian inscriptions but was launched by Gaston Maspero in 1873 footnote In the Revue Critique d Histoire et de Litterature 1873 pp 85 86 Although Maspero s proposal initially seemed unlikely it gained credibility with the publication of the Lemnos stele In 1895 in his popular Histoire ancienne des peuples de l orient classique footnote Vol II Paris 1895 translated into English as The Struggle of the Nations ed A H Sayce tr M L McClure New York 1896 Maspero fully elaborated his scenario of the migration of the Sea Peoples Adopted by Eduard Meyer for the second edition of his Geschichted es Altertums the theory won general acceptance among Egyptologists and orientalists a b Silberman 1998 p 272 As E S Sherratt has pointed out in an enlightening study of the interplay of ideology and literary strata in the formation of the Homeric epics 1990 phases of active narrative or descriptive invention closely correspond to periods of rapid social and political change Sherratt notes that one of the characteristic manifestations of this process in which emerging elites seek to legitimate their power is the transformation of an existing oral epic tradition in order to dress it in more recognizably modern garb 1990 821 Can we not see in the history of the archaeology of the Sea Peoples a similar process of literary reformulation in which old components are reinterpreted and reassembled to tell a new tale Narrative presupposes that both storyteller and audience share a single perspective and therein may lie the connection between the intellectual and ideological dimensions of archaeology To generalize beyond specific highly localized data archaeologists must utilize familiar conceptual frameworks and it is from the political and social ideologies of every generation that larger speculations about the historical role of the Sea Peoples have always been drawn As many papers in this conference have suggested traditional interpretive structures are in the process of reconsideration and renovation That is why I believe it essential that we reflect on our current Sea Peoples stories and see if we cannot detect the subtle yet lingering impact upon them of some timeworn Victorian narratives a b c Vandersleyen 1985 p 53 However of the nine peoples concerned by these wars only four were actually defined as coming from wꜣd wr or from pꜣ ym Furthermore these expressions seem to be linked more often to vegetation and sweet water than to seawater and it seems clear that the term Sea Peoples has to be abandoned Some will object to this basing themselves on the expression iww hryw ib w3d wr usually translated by islands situated in the middle of the sea where some of the Sea Peoples are said to have come from Indeed it is this expression that supported the persistent idea that the Sea Peoples came from the Aegean islands or at least from an East Mediterranean island Now these terms are misleading not only because w3d wr and p3 ym quite likely do not designate the sea here but also because the term in itself does not always mean island it can also be used to indicate other kinds of territories not necessarily maritime ones The argument based on these alleged sea islands is thus groundless To conclude the Philistines came neither from Crete nor from the Aegean islands or coasts but probably from the southern coast of Asia Minor or from Syria Cline Eric Ask a Near East Professional Who are the Sea Peoples and what role did they play in the devastation of civilizations asorblog org American Schools of Oriental Research Archived from the original on 29 March 2021 Retrieved 25 February 2018 The simple answer is that there is no simple answer It remains an archaeological mystery that is the subject of much debate even today more than 150 years after the discussions first began Who Were the Sea People Eberhard Zangger pp 20 31 of the May June 1995 print edition of Saudi Aramco World very few if any archeologists would consider the Sea People to have been identified See also the sketches provided later in Champollion Monuments from the left side of the Second Pylon Plate CCVIII and from the base of the right hand side of the Fortified East Gate Plate CCIII Compare with the hieroglyphs provided by Woudhuizen 2006 p 36 de Rouge 1855 de Rouge 1855 p 1 Greene 1855 p 4 Translation from the French The notices and the 17th letter of Champollion provide a complete and faithful summary of the campaigns of Ramses III his Ramses Ammon especially that represented on the north wall containing the famous bas relief of a naval battle where the enemy ships are driven to shore by the Egyptian fleet and simultaneously crushed by the army which the press on the other side Champollion recognized that among the enemies of Ramesses there were a new people belonging to the white race and designated as the Tamhou He copied the first line of the large inscription of the pylon with a date he specified in the ninth year of the reign and he noted the importance of this text which contains several names of people After receiving this just tribute of praise the King finally begins his speech to the thirteenth line It recommends to all his subjects to pay attention to his words and shows their feelings that must lead them in life then he boasts of his exploits he brings glory to his father the god Ammon who gave him all the conquests After a column header which unfortunately suffered a lot is one of the most important parts of our text in which the king lists the enemies he has overcome beginning with the Cheta the Ati the Karkamasch the Aratou the Arasa then after a short break at their camp in the country of Amaour I destroyed the people and their country as if they had never existedWe see that these different peoples common enemies of Egypt in their Asian campaigns before those of Ramses III are gathered in one group In the next column we find a second group formed of people considered by Champollion to have played an important role in the campaign with the naval combat ships it is the Poursata the Takkara the Shakarsha the Taamou and Ouaschascha We see that the only missing Sharetana to this list Greene s documentary photographs are held at the Musee d Orsay for example Medinet Habou Temple funeraire de Ramses III muraille du nord 5 inventory number PHO 1986 131 40 de Rouge 1867 Vandersleyen 1985 p 41 n 10 Maspero 1896 p 461 470 Silberman 1998 p 270 The English translation of Maspero s resume of ethnic movement entitled The Struggle of the Nations Maspero 1896 must surely have evoked meaningful associations at a time when competition for territory and economic advantage among European Powers was at a fever pitch Hobsbawm 1987 a b c Killebrew 2013 pp 2 5 Killebrew 2013 p 2a A convenient table of Sea Peoples in hieroglyphics transliteration and English is given in Woudhuizen 2006 who developed it from works of Kitchen cited there a b c Breasted 1906 Vol IV 403 p 201 in their isles and of the sea a b c d e f g h i Woudhuizen 2006 p 35 a b c d Kelder 2010 p 126 Heike Sternberg el Hotabi 2012 Fluchtlinge aus Nord West oder Ost Die Seevolker und ihre Heimat Der Kampf der Seevolker gegen Pharao Ramses III 2 ed Rahden Marie Leidorf p 37 ISBN 978 3 86757 532 4 Siemer Eckhard 2019 Der Friedensvertrag von 1258 v Chr und die Ehe der Naptera Der hethitisch mykenische Zinnhandel in Europa und der Untergang ihrer Reiche 1430 1130 BC sowie Vincent von Beauvais De plumbo p 228 ISBN 978 3 98 13693 3 5 Livingstone David 2002 The Dorian Invasion The Dying God The Hidden History of Western Civilization iUniverse p 72 ISBN 9780595231997 Les nuits attiques Aulus Gellius Rene Marache Les Belles lettres 1991 p 39 Halpern Baruch Winkler ed THE SEA PEOPLES AND IDENTITY p 1 a b c d e Breasted 1906 Vol III 588 p 248 and 601 p 255 of the countries of the sea Breasted wrote in a footnote regarding this designation It is noticeable that this designation both here and in the Athribis Stela 1 13 is inserted only after the Ekwesh In the Athribis Stela Ekwesh is cut off by a numeral from the preceding showing that the designation there belongs only to them a b c d e f Drews 1995 p 54 Already in the 1840s Egyptologists had debated the identity of the northerners coming from all lands who assisted the Libyan King Meryre in his attack upon Merneptah Some scholars believed that Meryre s auxiliaries were merely his neighbors on the Libyan coast while others identified them as Indo Europeans from north of the Caucasus It was one of Maspero s most illustrious predecessors Emmanuel de Rouge who proposed that the names reflected the lands of the northern Mediterranean the Lukka Ekwesh Tursha Shekelesh and Shardana were men from Lydia Achaea Tyrsenia western Italy Sicily and Sardinia De Rouge and others regarded Meryre s auxiliaries these peoples de la mer Mediterranee as mercenary bands since the Sardinians at least were known to have served as mercenaries already in the early years of Ramesses the Great Thus the only migration that the Karnak Inscription seemed to suggest was an attempted encroachment by Libyans upon neighboring territory a b c d e f Drews 1995 p 49 Hincks Edward 1846 An Attempt to Ascertain the Number Names and Powers of the Letters of the Hieroglyphic or Ancient Egyptian Alphabet Grounded on the Establishment of a New Principle in the Use of Phonetic Characters The Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy 21 21 176 JSTOR 30079013 Osburn William 1846 Ancient Egypt Her Testimony to the Truth of the Bible Samuel Bagster and sons p 107 Vandersleyen 1985 pp 40 41 n 9 Original French A ma connaissance les plus anciens savants qui ont propose explicitement l identification des Pourousta avec les Philistins sont William Osburn Jr Ancient Egypt Her Testimony to the Truth of the Bible Londres 1846 p 99 107 137 et Edward Hincks An Attempt to Ascertain the Number Names and Powers of the Letters of the Hieroglyphic or Ancient Egyptian Alphabet Dublin 1847 p 47 Translation To my knowledge the earliest scholars who explicitly proposed the identification of Pourousta with the Philistines are William Osburn Jr Ancient Egypt Her Testimony to the Truth of the Bible London 1846 p 99 107 137 and Edward Hincks An Attempt to Ascertain the Number Names and Powers of the Letters of the Alphabet Egyptian Hieroglyphic gold Ancient Dublin 1847 p 47 Vandersleyen 1985 pp 39 41 original French Quand Champollion visita Medinet Habou en juin 1829 il vit ces scenes lut le nom des Pourosato sans y reconnaitre les Philistins plus tard dans son Dictionnaire egyptien et dans sa Grammaire egyptienne il transcrivit le meme nom Poloste ou Pholoste mais contrairement a ce qu affirmait Brugsch en 1858 et tous les auteurs posterieurs Champollion n a nulle part ecrit que ces Pholoste etaient les Philistins de la Bible Translation When Champollion visited Medinet Habu in June 1829 he experienced these scenes reading the name of Pourosato without recognizing the Philistines Later in his Dictionnaire egyptien and its Grammaire egyptienne he transcribed the same name Poloste or Pholoste but contrary to the assertion by Brugsch in 1858 and subsequent authors Champollion has nowhere written that these Pholoste were the Philistines of the Bible Dothan and Dothan wrote of the initial identification Dothan 1992 pp 22 23 It was not however until the spring of 1829 almost a year after they had arrived in Egypt that Champollion and his entourage were finally ready to tackle the antiquities of Thebes The chaotic tangle of ships and sailors which Denon assumed was a panicked flight into the Indus was actually a detailed portrayal of a battle at the mouth of the Nile Because the events of the reign of Ramesses III were unknown from others the context of this particular war remained a mystery On his return to Paris Champollion puzzled over the identity of the various enemies shown in the scene Since each of them had been carefully labeled with a hieroglyphic inscription he hoped to match the names with those of ancient tribes and peoples mentioned in Greek and Hebrew texts Unfortunately Champollion died in 1832 before he could complete the work but he did have success with one of the names proved to be none other than the biblical Philistines Dothan and Dothan s description was incorrect in stating that the naval battle scene Champollion Monuments Plate CCXXII carefully labeled with a hieroglyphic inscription each of the combatants and Champollion s posthumously published manuscript notes contained only one short paragraph on the naval scene with only the Fekkaro and Schairatana identified Champollion Monuments page 368 Dothan and Dothan s following paragraph Dr Greene s Unexpected Discovery incorrectly confused John Beasley Greene with John Baker Stafford Greene ca Champollion did not make a connection to the Philistines in his published work and Greene did not refer to such a connection in his 1855 work which commented on Champollion Greene 1855 p 4 a b O Connor amp Cline 2003 p 116 a b c d Bryce Trevor 15 March 2012 The World of The Neo Hittite Kingdoms A Political and Military History OUP Oxford p 128 ISBN 9780199218721 OUP Oxford 2012 Wilhelm Brandenstein 1954 Einleitung Lautsystem Etymologie Walter de Gruyter GmbH amp Co KG p 23 ISBN 9783111375243 Retrieved 3 January 2022 a b c d e Gardiner 1947 p 196 Vol 1 in his commentary on the Onomasticon of Amenope No 268 Srdn wrote The records of Meneptah are much more explicit the great Karnak inscription described how the Ekwesh Tursha Lukki Sherden and Sheklesh L 1 had been incited against Egypt by the prince of the Libu Libyans in L 52 the Sherden Sheklesh and Ekwesh are collectively described as var the foreign lands var foreigners of the sea Note Gardiner s reference to the alternative var writing foreigners referred to Gustave Lefebvre s Stele de l an V de Meneptah Archived 6 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine ASAE 27 1927 p 23 line 13 describing the Athribis Stele a b Chronology and Terminology in The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Aegean Archived 1 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine accessed May 23 2006 a b Heike Sternberg el Hotabi 2012 Fluchtlinge aus Nord West oder Ost Die Seevolker und ihre Heimat Der Kampf der Seevolker gegen Pharao Ramses III 2 ed Rahden Marie Leidorf p 38 ISBN 978 3 86757 532 4 a b c Breasted 1906 Vol IV 129 p 75 of the sea O Connor amp Cline 2003 p 112 113 a b S Bar D Kahn J J Shirley 9 June 2011 Egypt Canaan and Israel History Imperialism Ideology and Literature Proceedings of a Conference at the University of Haifa 3 7 May 2009 Brill pp 350 ff ISBN 978 90 04 19493 9 O Connor amp Cline 2003 p 113 Korfmann Manfred O 2007 Winkler Martin M ed Troy From Homer s Iliad to Hollywood Epic Oxford England Blackwell Publishing Limited p 25 ISBN 978 1 4051 3183 4 Troy or Ilios or Wilios is most probably identical with Wilusa or Truwisa mentioned in the Hittite sources Geoffrey W Bromiley 1988 Lemma Tiras in The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia Vol 4 William B Eerdmands Publishing Comoany p 859 ISBN 0 8028 3784 0 Retrieved 26 August 2018 a b Halpern Baruch Winkler ed THE SEA PEOPLES AND IDENTITY p 25 O Connor amp Cline 2003 p 114 James Baikie mentioned it on pp 166 187 of his book The Sea Kings of Crete 2nd edition Adam and Charles Black London 1913 Rainer Hannig 2006 Die Sprache der Pharaonen Grosses Handworterbuch Agyptisch Deutsch 2800 950 v Chr Philipp von Zabern p 1039 ISBN 3 8053 1771 9 Heike Sternberg el Hotabi 2012 Fluchtlinge aus Nord West oder Ost Die Seevolker und ihre Heimat Der Kampf der Seevolker gegen Pharao Ramses III 2 ed Rahden Marie Leidorf p 49 ISBN 978 3 86757 532 4 Lipinski Edward 2006 On the Skirts of Canaan in the Iron Age Historical and Topographical Researches Peeters Publishers p 96 ISBN 978 90 429 1798 9 Retrieved 6 April 2022 Manfred Weippert 2010 Historisches Textbuch zum Alten Testament Vandenhoeck amp Ruprecht pp 202 209 ISBN 9783525516935 Retrieved 6 April 2022 Herda Alexander 2009 Die Karer und die Anderen Frank Rumscheid p 57 ISBN 9783774936324 Heike Sternberg el Hotabi 2012 Fluchtlinge aus Nord West oder Ost Die Seevolker und ihre Heimat Der Kampf der Seevolker gegen Pharao Ramses III 2 ed Rahden Marie Leidorf pp 38 41 ISBN 978 3 86757 532 4 Strobel August 2015 Der spatbronzezeitliche Seevolkersturm Ein Forschungsuberblick mit Folgerungen zur biblischen Exodusthematik Walter de Gruyter p 208 ISBN 9783110855036 Der Name Weses gilt allgemein als dunkel R A Macalister ausserte die Vermutung es konnte sich um die Vorganger der indogermanischen Osker handeln Yigael Yadin And Dan Why Did He Remain in Ships N K Sandars The Sea Peoples Warriors of the ancient Mediterranean 1250 1150 BC Thames amp Hudson 1978 Oren 2000 p 85 Thus far rather meager documentation is available What I shall do for the remainder of this essay is to focus on what is in fact our primary source on the Sea Peoples the basis of virtually all significant discussions of them including many efforts to identify the Sea Peoples with archaeologically known cultures or groups in the Mediterranean and beyond This source is the corpus of scenes and texts relevant to the Sea Peoples displayed on the walls of the mortuary temple of Ramesses III at western Thebes Although it has been much discussed this corpus has often led scholars to different and contradictory conclusions and will always probably be subject to debate because of certain ambiguities inherent in the material Uncertainty of the dates is not a case of no evidence but of selecting among several possible dates The articles in Wikipedia on related topics use one set of dates by convention but these and all dates based on them are not the only possible A summary of the date question is given in Hasel Ch 2 p 151 which is available as a summary at Google Books Find this and other documents quoted in the Shardana Archived 13 March 2008 at archive today article by Megaera Lorenz at the Penn State site This is an earlier version of her article which gives a quote from Kitchen not found in the External Links site below Breasted Volume III Article 491 p 210 which can be found on Google books gives quite a different translation of the passage Unfortunately large parts of the text are missing and must be restored but both versions agree on the Sherden and the warships Kenneth Kitchen Pharaoh Triumphant The Life and Times of Ramesses II King of Egypt Aris amp Phillips 1982 pp 40 41 Grimal pp 250 253 The poem appears in inscriptional form but the scribe pntAwr t was not the author who remains unknown The scribe copied the poem onto Papyrus in the time of Merneptah and copies of that found their way into Papyrus Sallier III currently located in the British Museum The details are stated in The Battle of Kadesh Archived from the original on 2 October 2015 Retrieved 30 March 2007 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link on the site of the American Research Center in Egypt of Northern California Both the inscription and the poem are published in Egyptian Accounts of the Battle of Kadesh Archived from the original on 31 March 2019 Retrieved 3 May 2008 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link on the Pharaonic Egypt site J von Beckerath p 190 Like those of Ramses II these dates are not certain Von Beckerath s dates adopted by Wikipedia are relatively late for example Sanders Ch 5 p 105 sets the Battle of Perire at April 15 1220 The Great Karnak Inscription All three inscriptions are stated in Breasted Vol 3 Reign of Meneptah pp 238 ff Articles 569 ff Breasted volume 3 595 page 252 Maspero 1881 p 118 Breasted volume 3 page 253 Breasted Vol 3 pg 256 264 J H Breasted p 243 citing Lines 13 15 of the inscription a b Robbins Manuel 2001 Collapse of the Bronze Age the story of Greece Troy Israel Egypt and the peoples of the sea San Jose Calif Authors Choice Press p 158 ISBN 978 0 595 13664 3 Translation by Egerton and Wilson 1936 plates 37 39 lines 8 23 Also found in Breasted 1906 volume 4 p 44 75 Oren 2000 p 86 One consists of a string of large scale scenes complemented with relatively brief texts extending in a narrative sequence along part of the north facade of the temple which it shares with part of a similar narrative treatment of Ramesses III s Year 5 campaign against the Libyans This latter sequence originates however on the west or rear wall of the temple The other physically quite separate composition relating to the Sea Peoples is displayed across the external eastern face of the great pylon which separates the first court of the temple from the second On the pylon s southern wing is a large scale scene occupying most of the facade showing Ramesses III leading three lines of captive Sea Peoples to Amun Re lord of Thebes and of the empire and his consort Mut Displayed on the equivalent space of the north wing is a long text without pictorial embellishment which is a verbal statement by Ramesses III describing at length his victory over the Sea Peoples and the extraordinary beneficence of Amun Re thus displayed to the entire land gathered together In fact this apparent simplicity two separate and somewhat different compositions relevant to the Sea Peoples belies the actual complexity of the compositional relationship between the two Sea Peoples compositions on the one hand and their joint relationship to the entire compositional scheme or program of the entire temple on the other Any effort to understand the historical significance of the Sea Peoples records at Medinet Habu must take this compositional dimension into account as well as the conceptual dimensional the relationship of the general composition scheme or program to the functions and meanings of the temple as understood by the Egyptians Beckman cites the first few lines of the inscription located on the NW panel of the 1st court of the temple This extensive inscription is stated in full in English in the Woudhuizen 2006 pp 43 56 which also contains a diagram of the locations of the many inscriptions pertaining to the reign of Ramses III on the walls of the temple at Medinet Habu a b Bryce p 371 Breasted 1906 volume 4 p 48 81 Translation by John A Wilson in Pritchard J B ed Ancient Near Eastern Texts relating to the Old Testament 3rd edition Princeton 1969 p 262 Also found in Breasted 1906 volume 4 p 37 64 Woudhuizen 2006 pp 43 56 quotes the inscriptions in English Bernard Bruyere Mert Seger a Deir el Medineh 1929 pages 32 37 Redford P 292 A number of copies or partial copies exist the best being the Golenischeff Papyrus or Papyrus Moscow 169 located in the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow refer to Onomasticon of Amenemipet at the Archaeowiki site In it the author is stated to be Amenemope son of Amenemope Letter EA 81 Lorenz Megaera The Amarna Letters Penn State site Archived from the original on 6 June 2007 Retrieved 9 May 2018 Breasted 1906 Vol III 593 p 252 in their isles and of the sea Per Killebrew 2013 pp 2 5 these are Stele of Padjesef Tanis Stele Papyrus Anastasi I Papyrus Anastasi II Stele of Setemhebu Papyrus Amiens Papyrus Wilbour Adoption Papyrus Papyrus Moscow 169 Papyrus BM 10326 Papyrus Turin 2026 Papyrus BM 10375 Donation Stele See also Woudhuizen 2006 particularly his Concluding Remarks on pages 117 121 for a fuller consideration of the meaning of ethnicity Maurice Dunand Foilles de Byblos volume 2 p 878 no 16980 William F Albright Dunand s New Byblos Volume A Lycian at the Byblian Court BASOR 155 1959 pp 31 34 Bryce T R 1974 The Lukka Problem And a Possible Solution Journal of Near Eastern Studies 33 4 395 404 doi 10 1086 372378 JSTOR 544776 S2CID 161428632 The inscription is mentioned as well in Woudhuizen 2006 p 31 a b c Bretschneider Joachim Otto Thierry 8 June 2011 The Sea Peoples from Cuneiform Tablets to Carbon Dating PLOS ONE 6 6 e20232 Bibcode 2011PLoSO 620232K doi 10 1371 journal pone 0020232 ISSN 1932 6203 PMC 3110627 PMID 21687714 The texts of the letters are transliterated and translated in Woudhuizen 2006 pp 43 56 and also are mentioned and hypotheses are given about them in Sandars p 142 following The sequence only recently completed appears in Woudhuizen 2006 pp 43 56 along with the news that the famous oven still reported at many sites and in many books in which the second letter was hypothetically being baked at the destruction of the city was not an oven the city was not destroyed at that time and a third letter existed Jean Nougaryol et al 1968 Ugaritica V 87 90 no 24 Kitchen pp 99 amp 140 Kitchen pp 99 100 RSL I Nougayril et al 1968 86 86 no 23 Rainey Anson November 2008 Shasu or Habiru Who Were the Early Israelites Biblical Archaeology Review 34 6 November December Page 53 Reford p 292 Ch 8 a subsection entitled The Initial Settlement of the Sea Peoples Ch 7 Dothan 1992 Feldman Michal Master Daniel M Bianco Raffaela A Burri Marta Stockhammer Philipp W Mittnik Alissa Aja Adam J Jeong Choongwon Krause Johannes 2019 Ancient DNA sheds light on the genetic origins of early Iron Age Philistines Science Advances 5 7 eaax0061 Bibcode 2019SciA 5 61F doi 10 1126 sciadv aax0061 PMC 6609216 PMID 31281897 See under Tjeker Amos 9 7 argument reviewed by Sandars in Ch 7 One is cited under Caphtor New Evidence Suggests The Need To Rewrite Bronze Age History Sciencedaily com 29 April 2006 Retrieved 7 November 2012 a b Ch 7 The Peoples of the Sea Odyssey XIV 191 298 John Noble Wilford 29 September 1992 Philistines Were Cultured After All Say Archeologists The New York Times Retrieved 20 May 2021 I am willing to state flatly that the Sea Peoples including the Philistines were Mycenaean Greeks Sandars Ch 5 Wood Ch 6 Barker Graeme Rasmussen Tom 2000 The Etruscans The Peoples of Europe Oxford Blackwell Publishing p 44 ISBN 978 0 631 22038 1 Turfa Jean MacIntosh 2017 The Etruscans In Farney Gary D Bradley Gary eds The Peoples of Ancient Italy Berlin De Gruyter pp 637 672 doi 10 1515 9781614513001 ISBN 978 1 61451 520 3 De Grummond Nancy T 2014 Ethnicity and the Etruscans In McInerney Jeremy ed A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean Chichester UK John Wiley amp Sons Inc pp 405 422 doi 10 1002 9781118834312 ISBN 9781444337341 Shipley Lucy 2017 Where is home The Etruscans Lost Civilizations London Reaktion Books pp 28 46 ISBN 9781780238623 Wallace Rex E 2010 Italy Languages of In Gagarin Michael ed The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome Oxford UK Oxford University Press pp 97 102 doi 10 1093 acref 9780195170726 001 0001 ISBN 9780195170726 Etruscan origins lie in the distant past Despite the claim by Herodotus who wrote that Etruscans migrated to Italy from Lydia in the eastern Mediterranean there is no material or linguistic evidence to support this Etruscan material culture developed in an unbroken chain from Bronze Age antecedents As for linguistic relationships Lydian is an Indo European language Lemnian which is attested by a few inscriptions discovered near Kamania on the island of Lemnos was a dialect of Etruscan introduced to the island by commercial adventurers Linguistic similarities connecting Etruscan with Raetic a language spoken in the sub Alpine regions of northeastern Italy further militate against the idea of eastern origins Haarmann Harald 2014 Ethnicity and Language in the Ancient Mediterranean In McInerney Jeremy ed A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean Chichester UK John Wiley amp Sons Inc pp 17 33 doi 10 1002 9781118834312 ch2 ISBN 9781444337341 Ghirotto Silvia Tassi Francesca Fumagalli Erica Colonna Vincenza Sandionigi Anna Lari Martina Vai Stefania Petiti Emmanuele Corti Giorgio Rizzi Ermanno De Bellis Gianluca Caramelli David Barbujani Guido 6 February 2013 Origins and evolution of the Etruscans mtDNA PLOS ONE 8 2 e55519 Bibcode 2013PLoSO 855519G doi 10 1371 journal pone 0055519 PMC 3566088 PMID 23405165 Tassi Francesca Ghirotto Silvia Caramelli David Barbujani Guido et al 2013 Genetic evidence does not support an Etruscan origin in Anatolia American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152 1 11 18 doi 10 1002 ajpa 22319 PMID 23900768 Claassen Horst Wree Andreas 2004 The Etruscan skulls of the Rostock anatomical collection How do they compare with the skeletal findings of the first thousand years B C Annals of Anatomy Amsterdam Elsevier 186 2 157 163 doi 10 1016 S0940 9602 04 80032 3 PMID 15125046 Seven Etruscan skulls were found in Corneto Tarquinia in the years 1881 and 1882 and were given as present to Rostock s anatomical collection in 1882 The origin of the Etruscans who were contemporary with the Celts is not yet clear according to Herodotus they had emigrated from Lydia in Asia Minor to Italy To fit the Etruscan skulls into an ethnological grid they were compared with skeletal remains of the first thousand years B C E All skulls were found to be male their age ranged from 20 to 60 years with an average age of about thirty A comparison of the median sagittal outlines of the Etruscan skulls and the contemporary Hallstatt Celtic skulls from North Bavaria showed that the former were shorter and lower Maximum skull length minimum frontal breadth ear bregma height bizygomatical breadth and orbital breadth of the Etruscan skulls were statistically significantly less developed compared to Hallstatt Celtics from North Bavaria In comparison to other contemporary skeletal remains the Etruscan skulls had no similarities in common with Hallstatt Celtic skulls from North Bavaria and Baden Wurttemberg but rather with Hallstatt Celtic skulls from Hallstatt in Austria Compared to chronologically adjacent skeletal remains the Etruscan skulls did not show similarities with Early Bronze Age skulls from Moravia but with Latene Celtic skulls from Manching in South Bavaria Due to the similarities of the Etruscan skulls with some Celtic skulls from South Bavaria and Austria it seems more likely that the Etruscans were original inhabitants of Etruria than immigrants Chadwick p 178 See Mycenaean Society and Its Collapse a module of Exploring the European Past by Jack Martin Balcer and John Matthew Stockhausen at custom thomsonlearning com They quote passages from the books of several experts to give a spectrum of views The History of the Peloponnesian War Chapter I Section 5 a b Ugas Giovanni 2016 Shardana e Sardegna i popoli del mare gli alleati del Nordafrica e la fine dei Grandi Regni XV XII secolo a C in Italian Cagliari Edizioni della Torre ISBN 9788873434719 OCLC 976013893 a b Tusa Sebastiano 2018 I popoli del Grande Verde il Mediterraneo al tempo dei faraoni in Italian Ragusa Edizioni Storia e Studi Sociali ISBN 9788899168308 OCLC 1038750254 a b Zorea Carlos Roberto 2021 Sea peoples in Canaan Cyprus and Iberia 12th to 10th centuries BC PDF Madrid Complutense University of Madrid Vagnetti 2000 p 319 Furthermore if we examine the main or only connection of the Sherden Srdn Shekelesh Sirs and Tursha Trs with the Central Mediterranean namely the similarity of those names with Sardinia Sicily and Tyrrhenian area we find further difficulties First that Greek sources are agreed that the original name of the island was Ichnussa RE IA 2 2482 2484 1920 s v Sardinia Nicosia 1981 423 426 From other sources we learn that the Sikeloi were not the original inhabitants of Sicily but migrated there from peninsular Italy RE IIA 2 2482 91 1920 s v Sikelia while the Etruscans called themselves Rasenna RE IA 1 253 54 1914 s v Rasennas Thus the combination of the archaeological evidence with the traditions of the place name makes it difficult to conclude that Sherden Shekelesh and Tursha were of western origin Revisiting Late Bronze Age oxhide ingots Meanings questions and perspectives Serena Sabatini University of Gothenburg 2016 Minoja Marco Usai Alessandro 2014 Le sculture di Mont e Prama Contesto scavi e materiali Mont e Prama s sculptures Context excavations amp materials in Italian Roma Gangemi Editore p 80 ISBN 978 88 492 9958 8 OCLC 907638763 Retrieved 19 July 2019 Si aggiunge ora la individuazione di un vaso a collo con anse a gomito rovescio nuragico della Sardegna occidentale o nord occidentale frammetario restaurato ab antiquo con una duplice placca di piombo dell iglesiente presso Pyla Kokkinokremos un centro fortificato cipriota nell entroterra del golfo di Larnaka Kition vissuto mezzo secolo fra il 1200 e il 1150 a C Now the identification of a neck vase with inverted elbow handles is added Nuragic from western or north western Sardinia fragmentary restored from the outside with a double lead plaque of the Iglesiente near Pyla Kokkinokremos a fortified Cypriot center inland of the Gulf of Larnaka Kition lived half a century between 1200 and 1150 BC Bretschneider Joachim Jans Greta Claeys Therese Jusseret Simon Kanta Athanasia Driessen Jan Boschloos Vanessa PYLA KOKKINOKREMOS Short report of the 2017 campaign via www academia edu a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Bretschneider Joachim Driessen Jan Jusseret Simon Claeys Therese Jans Greta Pyla Kokkinokremos Short report of the 2016 campaign via www academia edu a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help V Karageorghis J Karageorghis L Isola di Afrodite Archeologia Viva 2013 No 159 pp 40 53 INTERCONNESSIONI FRA MEDITERRANEO E ATLANTICO NELL ETA DEL BRONZO IL PUNTO DI VISTA DELLA SARDEGNA Fulvia Lo Schiavo ISMA CNR Karageorghis Vassos 2011 Handmade Burnished Ware in Cyprus and elsewhere in the Mediterranean On cooking pots drinking cups loomweights and ethnicity in bronze age Cyprus and neighbouring regions an international archaeological symposium held in Nicosia November 6th 7th 2010 A G Leventis Foundation p 90 ISBN 978 9963 560 93 6 OCLC 769643982 Drews 1995 p 59 Vermeule 1972 p 271 Cline 2014 p 183 Bryce 2005 p 348 1 94 Drews 1992 a b Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities Book I Chapters 30 1 Wood p 221 summarizes that a general climatological crisis in the Black Sea and Danubian regions as known through pollen analysis and dendrochronology existed about 1200 BCE and could have caused migration from the north Weiss Barry 1982 The decline of Late Bronze Age civilization as a possible response to climatic change Climatic Change 4 2 173 198 Bibcode 1982ClCh 4 173W doi 10 1007 bf00140587 ISSN 0165 0009 S2CID 154059624 Fagan Brian M 2003 The Long Summer How Climate Changed Civilization Basic Books Grant The Ancient Mediterranean page 79 a b Finley page 58 Drews 1995 p 8 9 Notes edit Quote My father behold the enemy s ships came here my cities were burned and they did evil things in my country Does not my father know that all my troops and chariots are in the Land of Hatti and all my ships are in the Land of Lukka Thus the country is abandoned to itself May my father know it the seven ships of the enemy that came here inflicted much damage upon us 102 Quote As for what you Ammurapi have written to me Ships of the enemy have been seen at sea Well you must remain firm Indeed for your part where are your troops your chariots stationed Are they not stationed near you No Behind the enemy who press upon you Surround your towns with ramparts Have your troops and chariots enter there and await the enemy with great resolution 105 Sources edit Primary sources Early publications of the theory edit Greene J B 1855 Fouilles executees a Thebes dans l annee 1855 textes hieroglyphiques et documents inedits Excavations at Thebes in the year 1855 hieroglyphic texts and unpublished documents in French Librairie de Firmin Didot Freres de Rouge Emmanuel 1855 Notice de Quelques Textes Hieroglyphiques Recemment Publies par M Greene Note on Some Hieroglyphic Texts Recently Published by Mr Greene in French E Thunot Brugsch Heinrich Karl 1858 Geographische Inschriften altagyptischer Denkmaler Geographical inscriptions of ancient Egyptian monuments in German Leipzig Volume 1 Volume 2 Volume 3 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a External link in code class cs1 code postscript code help CS1 maint postscript link de Rouge Emmanuel 1867 Extraits d un memoire sur les attaques dirigees contre l Egypte par les peuples de la Mediterranee vers le quatorzieme siecle avant notre ere Excerpts of a memoire on the attacks directed against Egypt by the peoples of the Mediterranean in the 14th century BCE Revue Archeologique in French 16 81 103 JSTOR 41734557Alternative version at Google books a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a External link in code class cs1 code postscript code help CS1 maint postscript link Chabas Francois Joseph 1872 Etude sur l antiquite historique d apres les sources egyptiennes et les monuments reputes prehistoriques Study of ancient history according to Egyptian sources and prehistoric monuments in French Maisonneuve pp 299 Maspero Gaston 1881 Notes sur quelques points de Grammaire et d Histoire Zeitschrift fur Agyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 19 1 4 116 131 doi 10 1524 zaes 1881 19 14 116 ISSN 2196 713X S2CID 192820648 Muller Wilhelm Max 1888 Notes on the peoples of the sea of Merenptah Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology x 147 154 and 287 289 Maspero Gaston 1896 Sayce Archibald ed Struggle of the Nations Egypt Syria and Assyria English ed Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge pp 461 470 Secondary sources edit Beckerath Jurgen von 1997 Chronologie des Pharaonischen Agypten Mainz a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Mainz Beckman Gary Hittite Chronology Akkadica 119 120 2000 Breasted J H 1906 Ancient Records of Egypt historical documents from the earliest times to the Persian conquest Chicago The University of Chicago Press Volume II on the 19th Dynasty is available for download from Google Books Bryce Trevor 2005 The Kingdom of the Hittites Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 927908 1 Chadwick John 1976 The Mycenaean World Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 21077 5 Cline Erich H 2014 1177 B C The Year Civilization Collapsed Princeton NJ Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 14089 6 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link D Amato R Salimbeti A 2015 The Sea Peoples of the Mediterranean Bronze Age 1450 1100 BC London Osprey Dothan Trude amp Moshe 1992 People of the Sea The search for the Philistines New York Scribner Dothan Trude K 1982 The Philistines and Their Material Culture Jerusalem Israel Exploration Society Drews Robert 1995 The End of the Bronze Age Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe of ca 1200 B C Princeton New Jersey Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 04811 6 Drews Robert 1992 Herodotus 1 94 the Drought ca 1200 B C and the Origin of the Etruscans Zeitschrift fur Alte Geschichte 41 1 14 39 JSTOR 4436222 Finley M I 1981 Early Greece The Bronze and Archaic Ages New and Revised Edition New York London W W Norton amp Co ISBN 978 0 393 01569 0 Gardiner Alan H 1947 Ancient Egyptian Onomastica London Oxford University Press 3 vols Grant Michael 1969 The Ancient Mediterranean New York Charles Scribner s Sons Grimal Nicolas 1992 A History of Ancient Egypt Oxford Blackwell Hasel Michael G 1998 Domination and Resistance Egyptian Military Activity in the Southern Levant ca 1300 1185 B C Brill Academic Publishers ISBN 978 90 04 10041 1 Hall Henry R 1922 The Peoples of the Sea A chapter of the history of Egyptology Recueil d Etudes egyptologiques Dediees a la Memoire de Jean Francois Champollion 297 329 Killebrew Ann E 2013 The Philistines and Other Sea Peoples in Text and Archaeology Society of Biblical Literature Archaeology and biblical studies Society of Biblical Lit vol 15 ISBN 978 1 58983 721 8 Kelder Jorrit M 2010 The Egyptian Interest in Mycenaean Greece 42 Jaarbericht Ex Oriente Lux JEOL 125 140 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Kitchen K A 2003 On the Reliability of the Old Testament William B Eerdsman Publishing Co Manassa Colleen 2003 The Great Karnak Inscription of Merneptah Grand Strategy in the Thirteenth Century BC New Haven Yale Egyptological Seminar ISBN 978 0 9740025 0 7 Mazar Amihai 1992 Archaeology of the Land of the Bible 10 000 586 B C E Doubleday ISBN 978 0 385 42590 2 Nibbi Alessandra 1972 The Sea Peoples A Re examination of the Egyptian Sources Church Army Press and Supplies Niesiolowski Spano Lukasz 2016 Goliath s Legacy Philistines and Hebrews in Biblical Times Harrassowitz Verlag O Connor David B Cline Eric H 2003 The Mystery of the Sea Peoples In David B O Connor and Stephen Quirke ed Mysterious Lands Routledge pp 107 138 ISBN 978 1 84472 004 0 Oren Eliezer D 2000 The Sea Peoples and Their World A Reassessment University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 978 1 934536 43 8 Chapter 16 Vagnetti Lucia 2000 Western Mediterranean overview Peninsular Italy Sicily and Sardinia at the time of the Sea peoples Redford Donald B 1992 Egypt Canaan and Israel in Ancient Times Princeton New Jersey Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 03606 9 Sandars N K 1987 The Sea Peoples Warriors of the ancient Mediterranean Revised Edition London Thames and Hudson ISBN 978 0 500 27387 6 Sherratt Susan 1998 Gitin Seymour Mazar Amichai Stern Ephraim eds Sea Peoples and the economic structure of the late second millennium in the eastern Mediterranean Mediterranean Peoples in Transition Essays in Honor of Trude Dothan Israel Exploration Society pp 292 313 Silberman Neil A 1998 Gitin Seymour Mazar Amichai Stern Ephraim eds The Sea Peoples the Victorians and Us Mediterranean Peoples in Transition Essays in Honor of Trude Dothan Israel Exploration Society pp 268 275 Vandersleyen Claude 1985 Le dossier egyptien des Philistins In Lipinski Edward ed The Land of Israel Cross roads of Civilizations Proceedings of the Conference Held in Brussels from the 3rd to the 5th of December 1984 to Mark the Twenty fifth Anniversary of the Institute of Archaeology Queen Elisabeth of Belgium at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in Memory of Prof Y Yadin and Prof Ch Perelman Peeters Publishers pp 39 54 ISBN 978 90 6831 031 3 Vermeule Emily 1964 Greece in the Bronze Age Chicago and London The University of Chicago Press Wood Michael 1987 In Search of the Trojan War New American Library ISBN 978 0 452 25960 7 Woudhuizen Frederik Christiaan 1992 The Language of the Sea Peoples Amsterdam Najade Press ISBN 978 90 73835 02 3 Woudhuizen Frederik Christiaan 2006 The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples Ph D Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam Faculteit der Wijsbegeerte hdl 1765 7686 Zangger Eberhard 2001 The Future of the Past Archaeology in the 21st Century London Weidenfeld amp Nicolson ISBN 978 0 297 64389 0 Ugas Giovanni 2016 Shardana e Sardegna i popoli del mare gli alleati del Nordafrica e la fine dei Grandi Regni XV XII secolo a C in Italian Cagliari Edizioni della Torre ISBN 9788873434719 Tusa Sebastiano 2018 I popoli del Grande Verde il Mediterraneo al tempo dei faraoni in Italian Ragusa Edizioni Storia e Studi Sociali ISBN 9788899168308 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sea Peoples Cline Eric 1177 BC The Year Civilization Collapsed video recorded lecture 2016 1h10 17 Philistine Kin Found in Early Israel Adam Zertal BAR 28 03 May Jun 2002 The Sea Peoples and the Philistines a course at Penn State Egyptians Canaanites and Philistines in the Period of the Emergence of Early Israel paper by Itamar Singer at the UCLA Near Eastern Languages amp Culture site Who Were the Sea People article by Eberhard Zangger in Saudi Aramco World Volume 46 Number 3 May June 1995 PlosOne dating the Sea People destruction of the Levant to 1192 90 BCE The Battle of the Nile Circa 1190 B C article by I Cornelius in Military History Journal Vol 7 No 4 of the South African Military History Society The Greek Age of Bronze Archaeological web site related to Greek Bronze Age and Sea Peoples weaponry and warfare Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Sea Peoples amp oldid 1195835039, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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