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Iberian Peninsula

May 02, 2023

"Iberia" redirects here. For other uses, see Iberia (disambiguation).

The Iberian Peninsula (/aɪˈbɪəriən/),[a] also known as Iberia,[b] is a peninsula in south-western Europe, defining the westernmost edge of Eurasia. It is divided between Peninsular Spain and Continental Portugal, comprising most of the region, as well as Andorra, Gibraltar, and a small part of Southern France. With an area of approximately 583,254 square kilometres (225,196 sq mi),[1] and a population of roughly 53 million,[2] it is the second-largest European peninsula by area, after the Scandinavian Peninsula.

Iberian Peninsula
Native names
Satellite image of the Iberian Peninsula
Geography
LocationSouthwestern Europe
Coordinates40°30′N 4°00′W / 40.500°N 4.000°W / 40.500; -4.000Coordinates: 40°30′N 4°00′W / 40.500°N 4.000°W / 40.500; -4.000
Area583,254 km2 (225,196 sq mi)
Highest elevation3,478 m (11411 ft)
Highest pointMulhacén
Administration
Demographics
DemonymIberian
Populationca. 53 million

Name

 
The Iberian Peninsula and Southern France, satellite photo on a cloudless day in March 2014

Greek name

The word Iberia is a noun adapted from the Latin word "Hiberia" originating in the Ancient Greek word Ἰβηρία (Ibēríā), used by Greek geographers under the rule of the Roman Empire to refer to what is known today in English as the Iberian Peninsula.[3] At that time, the name did not describe a single geographical entity or a distinct population; the same name was used for the Kingdom of Iberia, natively known as Kartli in the Caucasus, the core region of what would later become the Kingdom of Georgia.[4] It was Strabo who first reported the delineation of "Iberia" from Gaul (Keltikē) by the Pyrenees[5] and included the entire land mass southwest (he says "west") from there.[6] With the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the consolidation of romanic languages, the word "Iberia" continued the Roman word "Hiberia" and the Greek word "Ἰβηρία".

The ancient Greeks reached the Iberian Peninsula, of which they had heard from the Phoenicians, by voyaging westward on the Mediterranean.[7] Hecataeus of Miletus was the first known to use the term Iberia, which he wrote about circa 500 BCE.[8] Herodotus of Halicarnassus says of the Phocaeans that "it was they who made the Greeks acquainted with […] Iberia."[9] According to Strabo,[10] prior historians used Iberia to mean the country "this side of the Ἶβηρος" (Ibēros, the Ebro) as far north as the Rhône, but in his day they set the Pyrenees as the limit. Polybius respects that limit,[11] but identifies Iberia as the Mediterranean side as far south as Gibraltar, with the Atlantic side having no name. Elsewhere[12] he says that Saguntum is "on the seaward foot of the range of hills connecting Iberia and Celtiberia."

Roman names

Main article: Hispania
See also: Hesperides

According to Charles Ebel, the ancient sources in both Latin and Greek use Hispania and Hiberia (Greek: Iberia) as synonyms. The confusion of the words was because of an overlapping in political and geographic perspectives. The Latin word Hiberia, similar to the Greek Iberia, literally translates to "land of the Hiberians". This word was derived from the river Hiberus (now called Ebro or Ebre). Hiber (Iberian) was thus used as a term for peoples living near the river Ebro.[5][13] The first mention in Roman literature was by the annalist poet Ennius in 200 BCE.[14][15][16] Virgil wrote impacatos (H)iberos ("restless Iberi") in his Georgics.[17] The Roman geographers and other prose writers from the time of the late Roman Republic called the entire peninsula Hispania.

In Greek and Roman antiquity, the name Hesperia was used for both the Italian and Iberian Peninsula; in the latter case Hesperia Ultima (referring to its position in the far west) appears as form of disambiguation from the former among Roman writers.[18] Also since Roman antiquity, Jews gave the name Sepharad to the peninsula.[19]

As they became politically interested in the former Carthaginian territories, the Romans began to use the names Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior for 'near' and 'far' Hispania. At the time Hispania was made up of three Roman provinces: Hispania Baetica, Hispania Tarraconensis, and Hispania Lusitania. Strabo says[10] that the Romans use Hispania and Iberia synonymously, distinguishing between the near northern and the far southern provinces. (The name Iberia was ambiguous, being also the name of the Kingdom of Iberia in the Caucasus.)

Whatever languages may generally have been spoken on the peninsula soon gave way to Latin, except for that of the Vascones, which was preserved as a language isolate by the barrier of the Pyrenees.

Modern name

The modern phrase "Iberian Peninsula" was coined by the French geographer Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent on his 1823 work "Guide du Voyageur en Espagne". Prior to that date, geographers had used the terms 'Spanish Peninsula' or 'Pyrenaean Peninsula'.[20]

Etymology

 
Northeast Iberian script from Huesca

The Iberian Peninsula has always been associated with the River Ebro (Ibēros in ancient Greek and Ibērus or Hibērus in Latin). The association was so well known it was hardly necessary to state; for example, Ibēria was the country "this side of the Ibērus" in Strabo. Pliny goes so far as to assert that the Greeks had called "the whole of Spain" Hiberia because of the Hiberus River.[21] The river appears in the Ebro Treaty of 226 BCE between Rome and Carthage, setting the limit of Carthaginian interest at the Ebro. The fullest description of the treaty, stated in Appian,[22] uses Ibērus. With reference to this border, Polybius[23] states that the "native name" is Ibēr, apparently the original word, stripped of its Greek or Latin -os or -us termination.

The early range of these natives, which geographers and historians place from the present southern Spain to the present southern France along the Mediterranean coast, is marked by instances of a readable script expressing a yet unknown language, dubbed "Iberian". Whether this was the native name or was given to them by the Greeks for their residence near the Ebro remains unknown. Credence in Polybius imposes certain limitations on etymologizing: if the language remains unknown, the meanings of the words, including Iber, must also remain unknown. In modern Basque, the word ibar[24] means "valley" or "watered meadow", while ibai[24] means "river", but there is no proof relating the etymology of the Ebro River with these Basque names.

Prehistory

Main article: Prehistoric Iberia

Palaeolithic

The Iberian Peninsula has been inhabited by members of the Homo genus for at least 1.2 million years as remains found in the sites in the Atapuerca Mountains demonstrate. Among these sites is the cave of Gran Dolina, where six hominin skeletons, dated between 780,000 and one million years ago, were found in 1994. Experts have debated whether these skeletons belong to the species Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis, or a new species called Homo antecessor.

Around 200,000 BP, during the Lower Paleolithic period, Neanderthals first entered the Iberian Peninsula. Around 70,000 BP, during the Middle Paleolithic period, the last glacial event began and the Neanderthal Mousterian culture was established. Around 37,000 BP, during the Upper Paleolithic, the Neanderthal Châtelperronian cultural period began. Emanating from Southern France, this culture extended into the north of the peninsula. It continued to exist until around 30,000 BP, when Neanderthal man faced extinction.

About 40,000 years ago, anatomically modern humans entered the Iberian Peninsula from Southern France.[25] Haplogroup R1b is common in modern Portuguese and Spanish males. On the Iberian Peninsula, modern humans developed a series of different cultures, such as the Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean and Magdalenian cultures, some of them characterized by the complex forms of the art of the Upper Paleolithic.

Neolithic

During the Neolithic expansion, various megalithic cultures developed in the Iberian Peninsula.[26] An open seas navigation culture from the east Mediterranean, called the Cardium culture, also extended its influence to the eastern coasts of the peninsula, possibly as early as the 5th millennium BCE. These people may have had some relation to the subsequent development of the Iberian civilization.

As is the case for most of the rest of Southern Europe, the principal ancestral origin of modern Iberians are Early European Farmers who arrived during the Neolithic. The large predominance of Y-Chromosome Haplogroup R1b, common throughout Western Europe, is testimony to a considerable input from various waves of (predominantly male) Western Steppe Herders from the Pontic–Caspian steppe during the Bronze Age. Iberia experienced a significant genetic turnover, with 100% of the paternal ancestry and 40% of the overall ancestry being replaced by peoples with steppe-related ancestry.[27]

Chalcolithic

 
A model recreating the Chalcolithic settlement of Los Millares

In the Chalcolithic (c. 3000 BCE), a series of complex cultures developed that would give rise to the peninsula's first civilizations and to extensive exchange networks reaching to the Baltic, Middle East and North Africa. Around 2800 – 2700 BCE, the Beaker culture, which produced the Maritime Bell Beaker, probably originated in the vibrant copper-using communities of the Tagus estuary in Portugal and spread from there to many parts of western Europe.[28]

Bronze Age

Bronze Age cultures developed beginning c. 1800 BCE,[29] when the culture of Los Millares was followed by that of El Argar.[30][31] During the Early Bronze Age, southeastern Iberia saw the emergence of important settlements, a development that has compelled some archeologists to propose that these settlements indicate the advent of state-level social structures.[32] From this centre, bronze metalworking technology spread to other cultures like the Bronze of Levante, South-Western Iberian Bronze and Las Cogotas.

In the Late Bronze Age, the urban civilisation of Tartessos developed in Southwestern Iberia, characterized by Phoenician influence and using the Southwest Paleohispanic script for its Tartessian language, not related to the Iberian language.

Early in the first millennium BCE, several waves of Pre-Celts and Celts migrated from Central Europe, thus partially changing the peninsula's ethnic landscape to Indo-European-speaking in its northern and western regions. In Northwestern Iberia (modern Northern Portugal, Asturias and Galicia), a Celtic culture developed, the Castro culture, with a large number of hill forts and some fortified cities.

Proto-history

Main article: Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula
 
Iberia before the Carthaginian conquests circa 300 BCE.
 
An instance of the Southwest Paleohispanic script inscribed in the Abóbada I stele.[33]

By the Iron Age, starting in the 7th century BCE, the Iberian Peninsula consisted of complex agrarian and urban civilizations, either Pre-Celtic or Celtic (such as the Celtiberians, Gallaeci, Astures, Celtici, Lusitanians and others), the cultures of the Iberians in the eastern and southern zones and the cultures of the Aquitanian in the western portion of the Pyrenees.

As early as the 12th century BCE, the Phoenicians, a thalassocratic civilization originally from the Eastern Mediterranean, began to explore the coastline of the peninsula, interacting with the metal-rich communities in the southwest of the peninsula (contemporarily known as the semi-mythical Tartessos).[34] Around 1100 BCE, Phoenician merchants founded the trading colony of Gadir or Gades (modern day Cádiz). Phoenicians established a permanent trading port in the Gadir colony circa 800 BCE in response to the increasing demand of silver from the Assyrian Empire.[35]

The seafaring Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginians successively settled along the Mediterranean coast and founded trading colonies there over a period of several centuries. In the 8th century BCE, the first Greek colonies, such as Emporion (modern Empúries), were founded along the Mediterranean coast on the east, leaving the south coast to the Phoenicians.

Together with the presence of Phoenician and Greek epigraphy, a number of paleohispanic scripts developed in the Iberian Peninsula along the 1st millennium BCE. The development of a primordial paleohispanic script antecessor to the rest of paleohispanic scripts (originally supposed to be a non-redundant semi-syllabary) derived from the Phoenician alphabet and originated in Southwestern Iberia by the 7th century BCE has been tentatively proposed.[36]

In the sixth century BCE, the Carthaginians arrived in the peninsula while struggling with the Greeks for control of the Western Mediterranean. Their most important colony was Carthago Nova (modern-day Cartagena, Spain).

History

Roman rule

See also: Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula
 
Roman conquest: 220 BCE - 19 BCE

In 218 BCE, during the Second Punic War against the Carthaginians, the first Roman troops occupied the Iberian Peninsula, known to them as Hispania. After 197, the territories of the peninsula most accustomed to external contact and with the most urban tradition (the Mediterranean Coast and the Guadalquivir Valley) were divided by Romans into Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior.[37] Local rebellions were quelled, with a 195 Roman campaign under Cato the Elder ravaging hospots of resistance in the northeastern Ebro Valley and beyond.[38] The threat to Roman interests posed by Celtiberians and Lusitanians in uncontrolled territories lingered in.[39] Further wars of indigenous resistance, such as the Celtiberian Wars and the Lusitanian War, were fought in the 2nd century. Urban growth took place, and population progressively moved from hillforts to the plains.[40]

An example of the interaction of slaving and ecocide, the aftermath of the conquest increased mining extractive processes in the southwest of the peninsula (which required a massive number of forced laborers, initially from Hispania and latter also from the Gallic borderlands and other locations of the Mediterranean), bringing in a far-reaching environmental outcome vis-à-vis long-term global pollution records, with levels of atmospheric pollution from mining across the Mediterranean during Classical Antiquity having no match until the Industrial Revolution.[41][42]

In addition to mineral extraction (of which the region was the leading supplier in the early Roman world, with production of the likes of gold, silver, copper, lead, and cinnabar), Hispania also produced manufactured goods (sigillata pottery, colourless glass, linen garments) fish and fish sauce (garum), dry crops (such as wheat and, more importantly, esparto), olive oil, and wine.[43]

The process of Romanization spurred on throughout the first century BC.[44] The peninsula was also the battleground of civil wars between rulers of the Roman republic, such as the Sertorian War or the conflict between Caesar and Pompey later in the century.[45]

During their 600-year occupation of the Iberian Peninsula, the Romans introduced the Latin language that influenced many of the languages that exist today in the Iberian peninsula.

See also: Lusitania, Hispania Tarraconensis, and Hispania Baetica

Pre-modern Iberia

See also: Visigothic Kingdom, Al-Andalus, Spania, and Kingdom of the Suebi
 
Germanic and Byzantine rule c. 560

In the early fifth century, Germanic peoples occupied the peninsula, namely the Suebi, the Vandals (Silingi and Hasdingi) and their allies, the Alans. Only the kingdom of the Suebi (Quadi and Marcomanni) would endure after the arrival of another wave of Germanic invaders, the Visigoths, who occupied all of the Iberian Peninsula and expelled or partially integrated the Vandals and the Alans. The Visigoths eventually occupied the Suebi kingdom and its capital city, Bracara (modern day Braga), in 584–585. They would also occupy the province of the Byzantine Empire (552–624) of Spania in the south of the peninsula. However, Balearic Islands remained in Byzantine hands until Umayyad conquest in 707.[citation needed]

Main articles: Al-Andalus and Reconquista

In 711, a Muslim army conquered the Visigothic Kingdom in Hispania. Under Tariq ibn Ziyad, the Islamic army landed at Gibraltar and, in an eight-year campaign, occupied all except the northern kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula in the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. Al-Andalus (Arabic: الإندلس, tr. al-ʾAndalūs, possibly "Land of the Vandals"),[46][47] is the Arabic name given to Muslim Iberia. The Muslim conquerors were Arabs and Berbers; following the conquest, conversion and arabization of the Hispano-Roman population took place, [48] (muwalladum or Muladí).[49][50] After a long process, spurred on in the 9th and 10th centuries, the majority of the population in Al-Andalus eventually converted to Islam.[51] The Muslims were referred to by the generic name Moors.[52] The Muslim population was divided per ethnicity (Arabs, Berbers, Muladí), and the supremacy of Arabs over the rest of group was a recurrent causal for strife, rivalry and hatred, particularly between Arabs and Berbers.[53] Arab elites could be further divided in the Yemenites (first wave) and the Syrians (second wave).[54] Christians and Jews were allowed to live as part of a stratified society under the dhimmah system,[55] although Jews became very important in certain fields.[56] Some Christians migrated to the Northern Christian kingdoms, while those who stayed in Al-Andalus progressively arabised and became known as musta'arab (mozarabs).[57] The slave population comprised the Ṣaqāliba (literally meaning "slavs", although they were slaves of generic European origin) as well as Sudanese slaves.[58]

The Umayyad rulers faced a major Berber Revolt in the early 740s; the uprising originally broke out in North Africa (Tangier) and later spread across the peninsula.[59] Following the Abbasid takeover from the Umayyads and the shift of the economic centre of the Islamic Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad, the western province of al-Andalus was marginalised and ultimately became politically autonomous as independent emirate in 756, ruled by one of the last surviving Umayyad royals, Abd al-Rahman I.[60]

 
Islamic rule: al-Andalus c. 1000

Al-Andalus became a center of culture and learning, especially during the Caliphate of Córdoba. The Caliphate reached the height of its power under the rule of Abd-ar-Rahman III and his successor al-Hakam II, becoming then, in the view of Jaime Vicens Vives, "the most powerful state in Europe".[61] Abd-ar-Rahman III also managed to expand the clout of Al-Andalus across the Strait of Gibraltar,[61] waging war, as well as his successor, against the Fatimid Empire.[62]

Between the 8th and 12th centuries, Al-Andalus enjoyed a notable urban vitality, both in terms of the growth of the preexisting cities as well as in terms of founding of new ones: Córdoba reached a population of 100,000 by the 10th century, Toledo 30,000 by the 11th century and Seville 80,000 by the 12th century.[63]

During the Middle Ages, the North of the peninsula housed many small Christian polities including the Kingdom of Castile, the Kingdom of Aragon, the Kingdom of Navarre, the Kingdom of León or the Kingdom of Portugal, as well as a number of counties that spawned from the Carolingian Marca Hispanica. Christian and Muslim polities fought and allied among themselves in variable alliances.[c] The Christian kingdoms progressively expanded south taking over Muslim territory in what is historiographically known as the "Reconquista" (the latter concept has been however noted as product of the claim to a pre-existing Spanish Catholic nation and it would not necessarily convey adequately "the complexity of centuries of warring and other more peaceable interactions between Muslim and Christian kingdoms in medieval Iberia between 711 and 1492").[65]

 
Two warriors embrace before the siege of Chincoya Castle (Cantigas de Santa Maria).

The Caliphate of Córdoba was subsumed in a period of upheaval and civil war (the Fitna of al-Andalus) and collapsed in the early 11th century, spawning a series of ephemeral statelets, the taifas. Until the mid 11th century, most of the territorial expansion southwards of the Kingdom of Asturias/León was carried out through a policy of agricultural colonization rather than through military operations; then, profiting from the feebleness of the taifa principalities, Ferdinand I of León seized Lamego and Viseu (1057–1058) and Coimbra (1064) away from the Taifa of Badajoz (at times at war with the Taifa of Seville);[66][67] Meanwhile, in the same year Coimbra was conquered, in the Northeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula, the Kingdom of Aragon took Barbastro from the Hudid Taifa of Lérida as part of an international expedition sanctioned by Pope Alexander II. Most critically, Alfonso VI of León-Castile conquered Toledo and its wider taifa in 1085, in what it was seen as a critical event at the time, entailing also a huge territorial expansion, advancing from the Sistema Central to La Mancha.[68] In 1086, following the siege of Zaragoza by Alfonso VI of León-Castile, the Almoravids, religious zealots originally from the deserts of the Maghreb, landed in the Iberian Peninsula, and, having inflicted a serious defeat to Alfonso VI at the battle of Zalaca, began to seize control of the remaining taifas.[69]

The Almoravids in the Iberian peninsula progressively relaxed strict observance of their faith, and treated both Jews and Mozarabs harshly, facing uprisings across the peninsula, initially in the Western part.[70] The Almohads, another North-African Muslim sect of Masmuda Berber origin who had previously undermined the Almoravid rule south of the Strait of Gibraltar,[71] first entered the peninsula in 1146.[72]

Somewhat straying from the trend taking place in other locations of the Latin West since the 10th century, the period comprising the 11th and 13th centuries was not one of weakening monarchical power in the Christian kingdoms.[73] The relatively novel concept of "frontier" (Sp: frontera), already reported in Aragon by the second half of the 11th century become widespread in the Christian Iberian kingdoms by the beginning of the 13th century, in relation to the more or less conflictual border with Muslim lands.[74]

By the beginning of the 13th century, a power reorientation took place in the Iberian Peninsula (parallel to the Christian expansion in Southern Iberia and the increasing commercial impetus of Christian powers across the Mediterranean) and to a large extent, trade-wise, the Iberian Peninsula reorientated towards the North away from the Muslim World.[75]

During the Middle Ages, the monarchs of Castile and León, from Alfonso V and Alfonso VI (crowned Hispaniae Imperator) to Alfonso X and Alfonso XI tended to embrace an imperial ideal based on a dual Christian and Jewish ideology.[76]

Merchants from Genoa and Pisa were conducting an intense trading activity in Catalonia already by the 12th century, and later in Portugal.[77] Since the 13th century, the Crown of Aragon expanded overseas; led by Catalans, it attained an overseas empire in the Western Mediterranean, with a presence in Mediterranean islands such as the Balearics, Sicily and Sardinia, and even conquering Naples in the mid-15th century.[78] Genoese merchants invested heavily in the Iberian commercial enterprise with Lisbon becoming, according to Virgínia Rau, the "great centre of Genoese trade" in the early 14th century.[79] The Portuguese would later detach their trade to some extent from Genoese influence.[77] The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada, neighbouring the Strait of Gibraltar and founded upon a vassalage relationship with the Crown of Castile,[80] also insinuated itself into the European mercantile network, with its ports fostering intense trading relations with the Genoese as well, but also with the Catalans, and to a lesser extent, with the Venetians, the Florentines, and the Portuguese.[81]

Between 1275 and 1340, Granada became involved in the "crisis of the Strait", and was caught in a complex geopolitical struggle ("a kaleidoscope of alliances") with multiple powers vying for dominance of the Western Mediterranean, complicated by the unstable relations of Muslim Granada with the Marinid Sultanate.[82] The conflict reached a climax in the 1340 Battle of Río Salado, when, this time in alliance with Granada, the Marinid Sultan (and Caliph pretender) Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Othman made the last Marinid attempt to set up a power base in the Iberian Peninsula. The lasting consequences of the resounding Muslim defeat to an alliance of Castile and Portugal with naval support from Aragon and Genoa ensured Christian supremacy over the Iberian Peninsula and the preeminence of Christian fleets in the Western Mediterranean.[83]

 
Map of the Iberian Peninsula and Northern Africa (inverted) by Fra Mauro (ca. 1450)

The 1348–1350 bubonic plague devastated large parts of the Iberian Peninsula, leading to a sudden economic cessation.[84] Many settlements in northern Castile and Catalonia were left forsaken.[84] The plague marked the start of the hostility and downright violence towards religious minorities (particularly the Jews) as an additional consequence in the Iberian realms.[85]

The 14th century was a period of great upheaval in the Iberian realms. After the death of Peter the Cruel of Castile (reigned 1350–69), the House of Trastámara succeeded to the throne in the person of Peter's half brother, Henry II (reigned 1369–79). In the kingdom of Aragón, following the death without heirs of John I (reigned 1387–96) and Martin I (reigned 1396–1410), a prince of the House of Trastámara, Ferdinand I (reigned 1412–16), succeeded to the Aragonese throne.[86] The Hundred Years' War also spilled over into the Iberian peninsula, with Castile particularly taking a role in the conflict by providing key naval support to France that helped lead to that nation's eventual victory.[87] After the accession of Henry III to the throne of Castile, the populace, exasperated by the preponderance of Jewish influence, perpetrated a massacre of Jews at Toledo. In 1391, mobs went from town to town throughout Castile and Aragon, killing an estimated 50,000 Jews,[88][89][90][91][92] or even as many as 100,000, according to Jane Gerber.[93] Women and children were sold as slaves to Muslims, and many synagogues were converted into churches. According to Hasdai Crescas, about 70 Jewish communities were destroyed.[94]

During the 15th century, Portugal, which had ended its southwards territorial expansion across the Iberian Peninsula in 1249 with the conquest of the Algarve, initiated an overseas expansion in parallel to the rise of the House of Aviz, conquering Ceuta (1415) arriving at Porto Santo (1418), Madeira and the Azores, as well as establishing additional outposts along the North-African Atlantic coast.[95] In addition, already in the Early Modern Period, between the completion of the Granada War in 1492 and the death of Ferdinand of Aragon in 1516, the Hispanic Monarchy would make strides in the imperial expansion along the Mediterranean coast of the Maghreb.[96] During the Late Middle Ages, the Jews acquired considerable power and influence in Castile and Aragon.[97]

Throughout the late Middle Ages, the Crown of Aragon took part in the mediterranean slave trade, with Barcelona (already in the 14th century), Valencia (particularly in the 15th century) and, to a lesser extent, Palma de Mallorca (since the 13th century), becoming dynamic centres in this regard, involving chiefly eastern and Muslim peoples.[98] Castile engaged later in this economic activity, rather by adhering to the incipient atlantic slave trade involving sub-saharan people thrusted by Portugal (Lisbon being the largest slave centre in Western Europe) since the mid 15th century, with Seville becoming another key hub for the slave trade.[98] Following the advance in the conquest of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada, the seizure of Málaga entailed the addition of another notable slave centre for the Crown of Castile.[99]

By the end of the 15th century (1490) the Iberian kingdoms (including here the Balearic Islands) had an estimated population of 6.525 million (Crown of Castile, 4.3 million; Portugal, 1.0 million; Principality of Catalonia, 0.3 million; Kingdom of Valencia, 0.255 million; Kingdom of Granada, 0.25 million; Kingdom of Aragon, 0.25 million; Kingdom of Navarre, 0.12 million and the Kingdom of Mallorca, 0.05 million).[100]

For three decades in the 15th century, the Hermandad de las Marismas, the trading association formed by the ports of Castile along the Cantabrian coast, resembling in some ways the Hanseatic League, fought against the latter,[101] an ally of England, a rival of Castile in political and economic terms.[102] Castile sought to claim the Gulf of Biscay as its own.[103] In 1419, the powerful Castilian navy thoroughly defeated a Hanseatic fleet in La Rochelle.[87][103]

In the late 15th century, the imperial ambition of the Iberian powers was pushed to new heights by the Catholic Monarchs in Castile and Aragon, and by Manuel I in Portugal.[76]

See also: Massacre of 1391
 
Iberian Kingdoms in 1400

The last Muslim stronghold, Granada, was conquered by a combined Castilian and Aragonese force in 1492. As many as 100,000 Moors died or were enslaved in the military campaign, while 200,000 fled to North Africa.[104] Muslims and Jews throughout the period were variously tolerated or shown intolerance in different Christian kingdoms. After the fall of Granada, all Muslims and Jews were ordered to convert to Christianity or face expulsion—as many as 200,000 Jews were expelled from Spain.[105][106][107][108] Historian Henry Kamen estimates that some 25,000 Jews died en route from Spain.[109] The Jews were also expelled from Sicily and Sardinia, which were under Aragonese rule, and an estimated 37,000 to 100,000 Jews left.[110]

In 1497, King Manuel I of Portugal forced all Jews in his kingdom to convert or leave. That same year he expelled all Muslims that were not slaves,[111] and in 1502 the Catholic Monarchs followed suit, imposing the choice of conversion to Christianity or exile and loss of property. Many Jews and Muslims fled to North Africa and the Ottoman Empire, while others publicly converted to Christianity and became known respectively as Marranos and Moriscos (after the old term Moors).[112] However, many of these continued to practice their religion in secret. The Moriscos revolted several times and were ultimately forcibly expelled from Spain in the early 17th century. From 1609 to 1614, over 300,000 Moriscos were sent on ships to North Africa and other locations, and, of this figure, around 50,000 died resisting the expulsion, and 60,000 died on the journey.[113][114]

The change of relative supremacy from Portugal to the Hispanic Monarchy in the late 15th century has been described as one of the few cases of avoidance of the Thucydides Trap.[115]

Modern Iberia

 
Expelling of the moriscos in the Port of Denia

Challenging the conventions about the advent of modernity, Immanuel Wallerstein pushed back the origins of the capitalist modernity to the Iberian expansion of the 15th century.[116] During the 16th century Spain created a vast empire in the Americas, with a state monopoly in Seville becoming the center of the ensuing transatlantic trade, based on bullion.[117] Iberian imperialism, starting by the Portuguese establishment of routes to Asia and the posterior transatlantic trade with the New World by Spaniards and Portuguese (along Dutch, English and French), precipitated the economic decline of the Italian Peninsula.[118] The 16th century was one of population growth with increased pressure over resources;[119] in the case of the Iberian Peninsula a part of the population moved to the Americas meanwhile Jews and Moriscos were banished, relocating to other places in the Mediterranean Basin.[120] Most of the Moriscos remained in Spain after the Morisco revolt in Las Alpujarras during the mid-16th century, but roughly 300,000 of them were expelled from the country in 1609–1614, and emigrated en masse to North Africa.[121]

 
An anonymous picture depicting Lisbon, the centre of the slave trade, by the late 16th century.[122]

In 1580, after the political crisis that followed the 1578 death of King Sebastian, Portugal became a dynastic composite entity of the Hapsburg Monarchy; thus, the whole peninsula was united politically during the period known as the Iberian Union (1580–1640). During the reign of Philip II of Spain (I of Portugal), the Councils of Portugal, Italy, Flanders and Burgundy were added to the group of counselling institutions of the Hispanic Monarchy, to which the Councils of Castile, Aragon, Indies, Chamber of Castile, Inquisition, Orders, and Crusade already belonged, defining the organization of the Royal court that underpinned the polysinodial system [es] through which the empire operated.[123] During the Iberian union, the "first great wave" of the transatlantic slave trade happened, according to Enriqueta Vila Villar, as new markets opened because of the unification gave thrust to the slave trade.[124]

By 1600, the percentage of urban population for Spain was roughly 11.4%, while for Portugal the urban population was estimated as 14.1%, which were both above the 7.6% European average of the time (edged only by the Low Countries and the Italian Peninsula).[125] Some striking differences appeared among the different Iberian realms. Castile, extending across a 60% of the territory of the peninsula and having 80% of the population was a rather urbanised country, yet with a widespread distribution of cities.[126] Meanwhile, the urban population in the Crown of Aragon was highly concentrated in a handful of cities: Zaragoza (Kingdom of Aragon), Barcelona (Principality of Catalonia), and, to a lesser extent in the Kingdom of Valencia, in Valencia, Alicante and Orihuela.[126] The case of Portugal presented an hypertrophied capital, Lisbon (which greatly increased its population during the 16th century, from 56,000 to 60,000 inhabitants by 1527, to roughly 120,000 by the third quarter of the century) with its demographic dynamism stimulated by the Asian trade,[127] followed at great distance by Porto and Évora (both roughly accounting for 12,500 inhabitants).[128] Throughout most of the 16th century, both Lisbon and Seville were among the Western Europe's largest and most dynamic cities.[129]

The 17th century has been largely considered as a very negative period for the Iberian economies, seen as a time of recession, crisis or even decline,[130] the urban dynamism chiefly moving to Northern Europe.[130] A dismantling of the inner city network in the Castilian plateau took place during this period (with a parallel accumulation of economic activity in the capital, Madrid), with only New Castile resisting recession in the interior.[131] Regarding the Atlantic façade of Castile, aside from the severing of trade with Northern Europe, inter-regional trade with other regions in the Iberian Peninsula also suffered to some extent.[132] In Aragon, suffering from similar problems than Castile, the expelling of the Moriscos in 1609 in the Kingdom of Valencia aggravated the recession. Silk turned from a domestic industry into a raw commodity to be exported.[133] However, the crisis was uneven (affecting longer the centre of the peninsula), as both Portugal and the Mediterranean coastline recovered in the later part of the century by fuelling a sustained growth.[134]

The aftermath of the intermittent 1640–1668 Portuguese Restoration War brought the House of Braganza as the new ruling dynasty in the Portuguese territories across the world (bar Ceuta), putting an end to the Iberian Union.

See also: History of Andorra, History of Gibraltar, History of Portugal, History of Spain, and History of France

Despite both Portugal and Spain starting their path towards modernization with the liberal revolutions of the first half of the 19th century, this process was, concerning structural changes in the geographical distribution of the population, relatively tame compared to what took place after World War II in the Iberian Peninsula, when strong urban development ran in parallel to substantial rural flight patterns.[135]

Geography and geology

Main articles: Geography of Spain, Geography of Portugal, and Geography of Andorra
 
Physical map of the Iberian Peninsula

The Iberian Peninsula is the westernmost of the three major southern European peninsulas—the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan.[136] It is bordered on the southeast and east by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the north, west, and southwest by the Atlantic Ocean. The Pyrenees mountains are situated along the northeast edge of the peninsula, where it adjoins the rest of Europe. Its southern tip, located in Tarifa is the southernmost point of the European continent and is very close to the northwest coast of Africa, separated from it by the Strait of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean Sea.

The Iberian Peninsula encompasses 583,254 km2 and has very contrasting and uneven relief.[1] The mountain ranges of the Iberian Peninsula are mainly distributed from west to east, and in some cases reach altitudes of approximately 3000 mamsl, resulting in the region having the second highest mean altitude (637 mamsl) in Western Europe.[1]

The Iberian Peninsula extends from the southernmost extremity at Punta de Tarifa to the northernmost extremity at Punta de Estaca de Bares over a distance between lines of latitude of about 865 km (537 mi) based on a degree length of 111 km (69 mi) per degree, and from the westernmost extremity at Cabo da Roca to the easternmost extremity at Cap de Creus over a distance between lines of longitude at 40° N latitude of about 1,155 km (718 mi) based on an estimated degree length of about 90 km (56 mi) for that latitude. The irregular, roughly octagonal shape of the peninsula contained within this spherical quadrangle was compared to an ox-hide by the geographer Strabo.[137]

About three quarters of that rough octagon is the Meseta Central, a vast plateau ranging from 610 to 760 m in altitude.[138] It is located approximately in the centre, staggered slightly to the east and tilted slightly toward the west (the conventional centre of the Iberian Peninsula has long been considered Getafe just south of Madrid). It is ringed by mountains and contains the sources of most of the rivers, which find their way through gaps in the mountain barriers on all sides.

Coastline

The coastline of the Iberian Peninsula is 3,313 km (2,059 mi), 1,660 km (1,030 mi) on the Mediterranean side and 1,653 km (1,027 mi) on the Atlantic side.[139] The coast has been inundated over time, with sea levels having risen from a minimum of 115–120 m (377–394 ft) lower than today at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) to its current level at 4,000 years BP.[140] The coastal shelf created by sedimentation during that time remains below the surface; however, it was never very extensive on the Atlantic side, as the continental shelf drops rather steeply into the depths. An estimated 700 km (430 mi) length of Atlantic shelf is only 10–65 km (6.2–40.4 mi) wide. At the 500 m (1,600 ft) isobath, on the edge, the shelf drops off to 1,000 m (3,300 ft).[141]

The submarine topography of the coastal waters of the Iberian Peninsula has been studied extensively in the process of drilling for oil. Ultimately, the shelf drops into the Bay of Biscay on the north (an abyss), the Iberian abyssal plain at 4,800 m (15,700 ft) on the west, and Tagus abyssal plain to the south. In the north, between the continental shelf and the abyss, is an extension called the Galicia Bank, a plateau that also contains the Porto, Vigo, and Vasco da Gama seamounts, which form the Galicia interior basin. The southern border of these features is marked by Nazaré Canyon, which splits the continental shelf and leads directly into the abyss.

Rivers

Main articles: List of rivers of Spain and List of rivers of Portugal
 
Discharge of the Douro into the Atlantic Ocean near Porto

The major rivers flow through the wide valleys between the mountain systems. These are the Ebro, Douro, Tagus, Guadiana and Guadalquivir.[142][143] All rivers in the Iberian Peninsula are subject to seasonal variations in flow.

The Tagus is the longest river on the peninsula and, like the Douro, flows westwards with its lower course in Portugal. The Guadiana river bends southwards and forms the border between Spain and Portugal in the last stretch of its course.

Mountains

The terrain of the Iberian Peninsula is largely mountainous.[144] The major mountain systems are:

  • The Pyrenees and their foothills, the Pre-Pyrenees, crossing the isthmus of the peninsula so completely as to allow no passage except by mountain road, trail, coastal road or tunnel. Aneto in the Maladeta massif, at 3,404 m, is the highest point
 
The Mulhacén, the highest peak in the Iberian Peninsula

Geology

Main article: Geology of the Iberian Peninsula
 
Major Geologic Units of the Iberian Peninsula

The Iberian Peninsula contains rocks of every geological period from the Ediacaran to the Recent, and almost every kind of rock is represented. World-class mineral deposits can also be found there. The core of the Iberian Peninsula consists of a Hercynian cratonic block known as the Iberian Massif. On the northeast, this is bounded by the Pyrenean fold belt, and on the southeast it is bounded by the Baetic System. These twofold chains are part of the Alpine belt. To the west, the peninsula is delimited by the continental boundary formed by the magma-poor opening of the Atlantic Ocean. The Hercynian Foldbelt is mostly buried by Mesozoic and Tertiary cover rocks to the east, but nevertheless outcrops through the Sistema Ibérico and the Catalan Mediterranean System.

The Iberian Peninsula features one of the largest Lithium deposits belts in Europe (an otherwise relatively scarce resource in the continent), scattered along the Iberian Massif's Central Iberian Zone [es] and Galicia Tras-Os-Montes Zone [es].[148] Also in the Iberian Massif, and similarly to other Hercynian blocks in Europe, the peninsula hosts some uranium deposits, largely located in the Central Iberian Zone unit.[149]

The Iberian Pyrite Belt, located in the SW quadrant of the Peninsula, ranks among the most important volcanogenic massive sulphide districts on Earth, and it has been exploited for millennia.[150]

Climate

Main articles: Climate of Spain and Climate of Portugal
 
Köppen climate types of Iberia

The Iberian Peninsula's location and topography, as well as the effects of large atmospheric circulation patterns induce a NW to SE gradient of yearly precipitation (roughly from 2,000 mm to 300 mm).[151]

The Iberian peninsula has three dominant climate types. One of these is the oceanic climate seen in the northeast in which precipitation has barely any difference between winter and summer. However, most of Portugal and Spain have a Mediterranean climate; the Warm-summer Mediterranean climate and the Hot-summer Mediterranean climate, with various differences in precipitation and temperature depending on latitude and position versus the sea, this applies greatly to the Portuguese and Galician Atlantic coasts where, due to upwelling/downwelling phenomena average temperatures in summer can vary through as much as 10 °C (50 °F) in only a few kilometers (e.g. Peniche vs Santarém) There are also more localized semi-arid climates in central Spain, with temperatures resembling a more continental Mediterranean climate. In other extreme cases highland alpine climates such as in Sierra Nevada and areas with extremely low precipitation and desert climates or semi-arid climates such as the Almería area, Murcia area and southern Alicante area.[152] In the southwestern interior of the Iberian Peninsula the hottest temperatures in Europe are found, with Córdoba averaging around 37 °C (99 °F) in July.[153] The Spanish Mediterranean coast usually averages around 30 °C (86 °F) in summer. In sharp contrast A Coruña at the northern tip of Galicia has a summer daytime high average at just below 23 °C (73 °F).[154] This cool and wet summer climate is replicated throughout most of the northern coastline. Winters in the Peninsula are for the most part, mild, although frosts are common in higher altitude areas of central Spain. The warmest winter nights are usually found in downwelling favourable areas of the west coast, such as on capes. Precipitation varies greatly between regions on the Peninsula, in December for example the northern west coast averages above 200 mm (7.9 in) whereas the southeast can average below 30 mm (1.2 in). Insolation can vary from just 1,600 hours in the Bilbao area, to above 3,000 hours in the Algarve and Gulf of Cádiz.

Major modern countries

 
Satellite image of Iberia at night

The current political configuration of the Iberian Peninsula comprises the bulk of Portugal and Spain, the whole microstate of Andorra, a small part of the French department of Pyrénées-Orientales (French Cerdagne), and the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar.

French Cerdagne is on the south side of the Pyrenees mountain range, which runs along the border between Spain and France.[155][156][157] For example, the Segre river, which runs west and then south to meet the Ebro, has its source on the French side. The Pyrenees range is often considered the northeastern boundary of Iberian Peninsula, although the French coastline curves away from the rest of Europe north of the range, which is the reason why Perpignan, which is also known as the capital of Northern Catalonia, is often considered as the entrance to the Iberian Peninsula.

Regarding Portugal and Spain, this chiefly excludes the Macaronesian archipelagos (the Azores and Madeira of Portugal, and the Canary Islands of Spain), the Balearic Islands (Spain), and the Spanish overseas territories in North Africa (most conspicuously the cities of Ceuta and Melilla, as well as unpopulated islets and rocks).

Political divisions of the Iberian Peninsula:

Arms Flag Country / Territory Capital Area Population
(mainland)
[158][159]		 % of area
    Andorra Andorra la Vella 468 km2
(181 sq mi) 		84,082 0.1
    France
(French Cerdagne) 		Paris 539 km2
(208 sq mi) 		12,035 0.1
    Gibraltar
(British Overseas Territory) 		Westside 7 km2
(2.7 sq mi) 		33,691 0.0
    Portugal
(mainland) 		Lisbon 89,015 km2
(34,369 sq mi) 		ca. 10,047,083 15.3
    Spain
(mainland) 		Madrid 493,515 km2
(190,547 sq mi) 		ca. 43,731,572 84.5
Total 583,544 km2
(225,308 sq mi) 		ca. 53,908,463 100

Cities

 
Madrid
 
Barcelona
 
Lisbon

The Iberian city network is dominated by three international metropolises (Barcelona, Lisbon, and Madrid) and four regional metropolises (Bilbao, Porto, Seville, and Valencia).[160] The relatively weak integration of the network favours a competitive approach vis-à-vis the inter-relation between the different centres.[160] Among these metropolises, Madrid stands out within the global urban hierarchy in terms of its status as a major service centre and enjoys the greatest degree of connectivity.[161]

Major metropolitan regions

According to Eurostat (2019),[162] the metropolitan regions with a population over one million are listed as follows:

Metropolitan region State Population (2019)
Madrid Spain 6,641,649
Barcelona Spain 5,575,204
Lisbon Portugal 3,035,332
Valencia Spain 2,540,588
Seville Spain 1,949,640
Alicante-Elche-Elda Spain 1,862,780
Porto Portugal 1,722,374
Málaga-Marbella Spain 1,660,985
Murcia-Cartagena Spain 1,487,663
Cádiz Spain 1,249,739
Bilbao Spain 1,137,191
Oviedo-Gijón Spain 1,022,205
See also: Cities of Spain and Cities of Portugal

Ecology

Forests

Main article: Forests of the Iberian Peninsula
 
An Iberian lynx

The woodlands of the Iberian Peninsula are distinct ecosystems. Although the various regions are each characterized by distinct vegetation, there are some similarities across the peninsula.

While the borders between these regions are not clearly defined, there is a mutual influence that makes it very hard to establish boundaries and some species find their optimal habitat in the intermediate areas.

The endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) is a symbol of the Iberian mediterranean forest and of the fauna of the Iberian Peninsula altogether.[163]

A new Podarcis lizard species, Podarcis virescens, was accepted as a species by the Taxonomic Committee of the Societas Europaea Herpetologica in 2020. This lizard is native to the Iberian Peninsula and found near rivers in the region.

East Atlantic flyway

The Iberian Peninsula is an important stopover on the East Atlantic flyway for birds migrating from northern Europe to Africa. For example, curlew sandpipers rest in the region of the Bay of Cádiz.[164]

In addition to the birds migrating through, some seven million wading birds from the north spend the winter in the estuaries and wetlands of the Iberian Peninsula, mainly at locations on the Atlantic coast. In Galicia are Ría de Arousa (a home of grey plover), Ria de Ortigueira, Ria de Corme and Ria de Laxe. In Portugal, the Aveiro Lagoon hosts Recurvirostra avosetta, the common ringed plover, grey plover and little stint. Ribatejo Province on the Tagus supports Recurvirostra arosetta, grey plover, dunlin, bar-tailed godwit and common redshank. In the Sado Estuary are dunlin, Eurasian curlew, grey plover and common redshank. The Algarve hosts red knot, common greenshank and turnstone. The Guadalquivir Marshes region of Andalusia and the Salinas de Cádiz are especially rich in wintering wading birds: Kentish plover, common ringed plover, sanderling, and black-tailed godwit in addition to the others. And finally, the Ebro delta is home to all the species mentioned above.[165]

Languages

Main article: Languages of Iberia
Further information: Languages of Andorra, Languages of Gibraltar, Languages of France, Languages of Spain, and Languages of Portugal

With the sole exception of Basque, which is of unknown origin,[166] all modern Iberian languages descend from Vulgar Latin and belong to the Western Romance languages.[167] Throughout history (and pre-history), many different languages have been spoken in the Iberian Peninsula, contributing to the formation and differentiation of the contemporaneous languages of Iberia; however, most of them have become extinct or fallen into disuse. Basque is the only non-Indo-European surviving language in Iberia and Western Europe.[168]

In modern times, Spanish (the official language of Spain, spoken by the entire 45 million population in the country, the native language of about 36 million in Europe),[169] Portuguese (the official language of Portugal, with a population over 10 million), Catalan (over 7 million speakers in Europe, 3.4 million with Catalan as first language),[170] Galician (understood by the 93% of the 2.8 million Galician population)[170] and Basque (cf. around 1 million speakers)[171] are the most widely spoken languages in the Iberian Peninsula. Spanish and Portuguese have expanded beyond Iberia to the rest of world, becoming global languages.

Other minority romance languages with some degree of recognition include the several varieties of Astur-leonese, collectively amounting to about 0.6 million speakers,[172] and the Aragonese (barely spoken by the 8% of the 130,000 people inhabiting the Alto Aragón).[173]

English is the official language of Gibraltar. Llanito is a unique language in the territory, an amalgamation of mostly English and Spanish.[174] In Spain, only 54.3% could speak a foreign language, below that of the EU-28 average. Portugal meanwhile achieved 69%, above the EU average, but still below the EU median. Spain ranks 25th out of 33 European countries in the English Proficiency Index.[175]

Transportation

Both Spain and Portugal have traditionally used a non-standard rail gauge (the 1,668 mm Iberian gauge) since the construction of the first railroads in the 19th century. Spain has progressively introduced the 1,435 mm standard gauge in its new high-speed rail network (one of the most extensive in the world),[176] inaugurated in 1992 with the Madrid–Seville line, followed to name a few by the Madrid–Barcelona (2008), Madrid–Valencia (2010), an Alicante branch of the latter (2013) and the connection to France of the Barcelona line.[177] Portugal however suspended all the high-speed rail projects in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis, putting an end for the time being to the possibility of a high-speed rail connection between Lisbon, Porto and Madrid.[178]

Handicapped by a mountainous range (the Pyrenees) hindering the connection to the rest of Europe, Spain (and subsidiarily Portugal) only has two meaningful rail connections to France able for freight transport, located at both ends of the mountain range.[179] An international rail line across the Central Pyrenees linking Zaragoza and the French city of Pau through a tunnel existed in the past; however, an accident in the French part destroyed a stretch of the railroad in 1970 and the Canfranc Station has been a cul-de-sac since then.[180]

There are four points connecting the Portuguese and Spanish rail networks: Valença do Minho–Tui, Vilar Formoso–Fuentes de Oñoro, Marvão-Beirã–Valencia de Alcántara and Elvas–Badajoz.[181]

The prospect of the development (as part of a European-wide effort) of the Central, Mediterranean and Atlantic rail corridors is expected to be a way to improve the competitiveness of the ports of Tarragona, Valencia, Sagunto, Bilbao, Santander, Sines and Algeciras vis-à-vis the rest of Europe and the World.[182]

In 1980, Morocco and Spain started a joint study on the feasibility of a fixed link (tunnel or bridge) across the Strait of Gibraltar, possibly through a connection of Punta Paloma [es] with Cape Malabata.[183] Years of studies have, however, made no real progress thus far.[184]

A transit point for many submarine cables, the Fibre-optic Link Around the Globe, Europe India Gateway, and the SEA-ME-WE 3 feature landing stations in the Iberian Peninsula.[185] The West Africa Cable System, Main One, SAT-3/WASC, Africa Coast to Europe also land in Portugal.[185] MAREA, a high capacity communication transatlantic cable, connects the north of the Iberian Peninsula (Bilbao) to North America (Virginia), whereas Grace Hopper is an upcoming cable connecting the Iberian Peninsula (Bilbao) to the UK and the US intended to be operative by 2022[186] and EllaLink is an upcoming high-capacity communication cable expected to connect the Peninsula (Sines) to South America and the mammoth 2Africa project intends to connect the peninsula to the United Kingdom, Europe and Africa (via Portugal and Barcelona) by 2023–24.[187][188]

Two gas pipelines: the Pedro Duran Farell pipeline and (more recently) the Medgaz (from, respectively, Morocco and Algeria) link the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula, providing Spain with Algerian natural gas.[189][190] However the contract for the first pipeline expires on 31 October 2021 and—amidst a tense climate of Algerian–Moroccan relations—there are no plans to renew it.[191]

Economy

The official currency across Iberia is the Euro, with the exception of Gibraltar, which uses the Gibraltar Pound (at parity with Sterling).[192]

Major industries include mining, tourism, small farms, and fishing. Because the coast is so long, fishing is popular, especially sardines, tuna and anchovies. Most of the mining occurs in the Pyrenees mountains. Commodities mined include: iron, gold, coal, lead, silver, zinc, and salt.

Regarding their role in the global economy, both the microstate of Andorra and the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar have been described as tax havens.[193]

The Galician region of Spain, in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula, became one of the biggest entry points of cocaine in Europe, on a par with the Dutch ports.[194] Hashish is smuggled from Morocco via the Strait of Gibraltar.[194]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ In the local languages:
  2. ^ In the local languages:
  3. ^ Christian forces were usually better armoured than their Muslim counterparts, with noble and non-noble milites and cavallers wearing mail hauberks, separate mail coifs and metal helmets, and armed with maces, cavalry axes, sword and lances.[64]

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  • Silveira, Luís Espinha da; Alves, Daniel; Painho, Marco; Costa, Ana Cristina; Alcântara, Ana (2013). "The Evolution of Population Distribution on the Iberian Peninsula: A Transnational Approach (1877–2001)". Historical Methods: A Journal of Quantitative and Interdisciplinary History. 46 (3): 157–174. doi:10.1080/01615440.2013.804787. hdl:10362/11027. S2CID 53334755.
  • Vernet Pons, Mariona (2014). "The Origin of the Name Sepharad: A New Interpretation". Journal of Semitic Studies. 59 (2): 297–313. doi:10.1093/jss/fgu002. hdl:2445/164860.
  • Vicens Vives, Jaime (1970) [1967]. Approaches to the History of Spain. University of California Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-520-01422-0.
  • Wallerstein, Immanuel (2011) [1974]. The Modern World-System I: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century. University of California Press.
  • Yun Casalilla, Bartolomé (2019). Iberian World Empires and the Globalization of Europe 1415–1668. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-9811308338.
  • Zembri, Pierre; Libourel, Eloïse (2017). "Towards oversized high-speed rail systems? Some lessons from France and Spain". Transportation Research Procedia. 25 (25): 368–385. doi:10.1016/j.trpro.2017.05.414. ISSN 2352-1465.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Iberian Peninsula.
 
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Iberian Peninsula.
  • Arioso, Pāolā; Diego Meozzi. "Iberian Peninsula•Links". Stone Pages. Retrieved 5 December 2008.
  • Flores, Carlos; Maca-Meyer, Nicole; González, Ana M.; Oefner, Peter J.; Shen, Peidong; Pérez, Jose A.; Rojas, Antonio; Larruga, Jose M.; Underhill, Peter A. (2004). "Reduced genetic structure of the Iberian Peninsula revealed by Y-chromosome analysis: implications for population demography". European Journal of Human Genetics. 12 (10): 855–863. doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201225. PMID 15280900. S2CID 16765118.
  • Loyd, Nick (2007). "IberiaNature: A guide to the environment, climate, wildlife, geography and nature of Spain". Retrieved 4 December 2008.
  • de Silva, Luís Fraga. (in English, Portuguese, and Latin). Associação Campo Arqueológico de Tavira, Tavira, Portugal. Archived from the original on 6 October 2008. Retrieved 4 December 2008.

May 02, 2023
iberian, peninsula, iberia, redirects, here, other, uses, iberia, disambiguation, ɪər, also, known, iberia, peninsula, south, western, europe, defining, westernmost, edge, eurasia, divided, between, peninsular, spain, continental, portugal, comprising, most, r. Iberia redirects here For other uses see Iberia disambiguation The Iberian Peninsula aɪ ˈ b ɪer i e n a also known as Iberia b is a peninsula in south western Europe defining the westernmost edge of Eurasia It is divided between Peninsular Spain and Continental Portugal comprising most of the region as well as Andorra Gibraltar and a small part of Southern France With an area of approximately 583 254 square kilometres 225 196 sq mi 1 and a population of roughly 53 million 2 it is the second largest European peninsula by area after the Scandinavian Peninsula Iberian PeninsulaNative names Peninsula Iberica Spanish Peninsula Iberica Portuguese Peninsula Iberica Aragonese Peninsula Iberica Asturian Iberiar Penintsula Basque Peninsula Iberica Catalan Iberian Peninsula English Peninsula Iberica Extremaduran Peninsule Iberique French Peninsula Iberica Galician Peninsula Iberica Occitan Peninsula Eiberica Mirandese Satellite image of the Iberian PeninsulaGeographyLocationSouthwestern EuropeCoordinates40 30 N 4 00 W 40 500 N 4 000 W 40 500 4 000 Coordinates 40 30 N 4 00 W 40 500 N 4 000 W 40 500 4 000Area583 254 km2 225 196 sq mi Highest elevation3 478 m 11411 ft Highest pointMulhacenAdministrationSee belowDemographicsDemonymIberianPopulationca 53 million Contents 1 Name 1 1 Greek name 1 2 Roman names 1 3 Modern name 2 Etymology 3 Prehistory 3 1 Palaeolithic 3 2 Neolithic 3 3 Chalcolithic 3 4 Bronze Age 4 Proto history 5 History 5 1 Roman rule 5 2 Pre modern Iberia 5 3 Modern Iberia 6 Geography and geology 6 1 Coastline 6 2 Rivers 6 3 Mountains 6 4 Geology 6 5 Climate 7 Major modern countries 8 Cities 8 1 Major metropolitan regions 9 Ecology 9 1 Forests 9 2 East Atlantic flyway 10 Languages 11 Transportation 12 Economy 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 15 1 Citations 15 2 Bibliography 16 External linksName Edit The Iberian Peninsula and Southern France satellite photo on a cloudless day in March 2014 Greek name Edit The word Iberia is a noun adapted from the Latin word Hiberia originating in the Ancient Greek word Ἰbhria Iberia used by Greek geographers under the rule of the Roman Empire to refer to what is known today in English as the Iberian Peninsula 3 At that time the name did not describe a single geographical entity or a distinct population the same name was used for the Kingdom of Iberia natively known as Kartli in the Caucasus the core region of what would later become the Kingdom of Georgia 4 It was Strabo who first reported the delineation of Iberia from Gaul Keltike by the Pyrenees 5 and included the entire land mass southwest he says west from there 6 With the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the consolidation of romanic languages the word Iberia continued the Roman word Hiberia and the Greek word Ἰbhria The ancient Greeks reached the Iberian Peninsula of which they had heard from the Phoenicians by voyaging westward on the Mediterranean 7 Hecataeus of Miletus was the first known to use the term Iberia which he wrote about circa 500 BCE 8 Herodotus of Halicarnassus says of the Phocaeans that it was they who made the Greeks acquainted with Iberia 9 According to Strabo 10 prior historians used Iberia to mean the country this side of the Ἶbhros Iberos the Ebro as far north as the Rhone but in his day they set the Pyrenees as the limit Polybius respects that limit 11 but identifies Iberia as the Mediterranean side as far south as Gibraltar with the Atlantic side having no name Elsewhere 12 he says that Saguntum is on the seaward foot of the range of hills connecting Iberia and Celtiberia Roman names Edit Main article Hispania See also Hesperides According to Charles Ebel the ancient sources in both Latin and Greek use Hispania and Hiberia Greek Iberia as synonyms The confusion of the words was because of an overlapping in political and geographic perspectives The Latin word Hiberia similar to the Greek Iberia literally translates to land of the Hiberians This word was derived from the river Hiberus now called Ebro or Ebre Hiber Iberian was thus used as a term for peoples living near the river Ebro 5 13 The first mention in Roman literature was by the annalist poet Ennius in 200 BCE 14 15 16 Virgil wrote impacatos H iberos restless Iberi in his Georgics 17 The Roman geographers and other prose writers from the time of the late Roman Republic called the entire peninsula Hispania In Greek and Roman antiquity the name Hesperia was used for both the Italian and Iberian Peninsula in the latter case Hesperia Ultima referring to its position in the far west appears as form of disambiguation from the former among Roman writers 18 Also since Roman antiquity Jews gave the name Sepharad to the peninsula 19 As they became politically interested in the former Carthaginian territories the Romans began to use the names Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior for near and far Hispania At the time Hispania was made up of three Roman provinces Hispania Baetica Hispania Tarraconensis and Hispania Lusitania Strabo says 10 that the Romans use Hispania and Iberia synonymously distinguishing between the near northern and the far southern provinces The name Iberia was ambiguous being also the name of the Kingdom of Iberia in the Caucasus Whatever languages may generally have been spoken on the peninsula soon gave way to Latin except for that of the Vascones which was preserved as a language isolate by the barrier of the Pyrenees Modern name Edit The modern phrase Iberian Peninsula was coined by the French geographer Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint Vincent on his 1823 work Guide du Voyageur en Espagne Prior to that date geographers had used the terms Spanish Peninsula or Pyrenaean Peninsula 20 Etymology Edit Northeast Iberian script from Huesca The Iberian Peninsula has always been associated with the River Ebro Iberos in ancient Greek and Iberus or Hiberus in Latin The association was so well known it was hardly necessary to state for example Iberia was the country this side of the Iberus in Strabo Pliny goes so far as to assert that the Greeks had called the whole of Spain Hiberia because of the Hiberus River 21 The river appears in the Ebro Treaty of 226 BCE between Rome and Carthage setting the limit of Carthaginian interest at the Ebro The fullest description of the treaty stated in Appian 22 uses Iberus With reference to this border Polybius 23 states that the native name is Iber apparently the original word stripped of its Greek or Latin os or us termination The early range of these natives which geographers and historians place from the present southern Spain to the present southern France along the Mediterranean coast is marked by instances of a readable script expressing a yet unknown language dubbed Iberian Whether this was the native name or was given to them by the Greeks for their residence near the Ebro remains unknown Credence in Polybius imposes certain limitations on etymologizing if the language remains unknown the meanings of the words including Iber must also remain unknown In modern Basque the word ibar 24 means valley or watered meadow while ibai 24 means river but there is no proof relating the etymology of the Ebro River with these Basque names Prehistory EditMain article Prehistoric Iberia Palaeolithic Edit The Iberian Peninsula has been inhabited by members of the Homo genus for at least 1 2 million years as remains found in the sites in the Atapuerca Mountains demonstrate Among these sites is the cave of Gran Dolina where six hominin skeletons dated between 780 000 and one million years ago were found in 1994 Experts have debated whether these skeletons belong to the species Homo erectus Homo heidelbergensis or a new species called Homo antecessor Around 200 000 BP during the Lower Paleolithic period Neanderthals first entered the Iberian Peninsula Around 70 000 BP during the Middle Paleolithic period the last glacial event began and the Neanderthal Mousterian culture was established Around 37 000 BP during the Upper Paleolithic the Neanderthal Chatelperronian cultural period began Emanating from Southern France this culture extended into the north of the peninsula It continued to exist until around 30 000 BP when Neanderthal man faced extinction About 40 000 years ago anatomically modern humans entered the Iberian Peninsula from Southern France 25 Haplogroup R1b is common in modern Portuguese and Spanish males On the Iberian Peninsula modern humans developed a series of different cultures such as the Aurignacian Gravettian Solutrean and Magdalenian cultures some of them characterized by the complex forms of the art of the Upper Paleolithic Neolithic Edit During the Neolithic expansion various megalithic cultures developed in the Iberian Peninsula 26 An open seas navigation culture from the east Mediterranean called the Cardium culture also extended its influence to the eastern coasts of the peninsula possibly as early as the 5th millennium BCE These people may have had some relation to the subsequent development of the Iberian civilization As is the case for most of the rest of Southern Europe the principal ancestral origin of modern Iberians are Early European Farmers who arrived during the Neolithic The large predominance of Y Chromosome Haplogroup R1b common throughout Western Europe is testimony to a considerable input from various waves of predominantly male Western Steppe Herders from the Pontic Caspian steppe during the Bronze Age Iberia experienced a significant genetic turnover with 100 of the paternal ancestry and 40 of the overall ancestry being replaced by peoples with steppe related ancestry 27 Chalcolithic Edit A model recreating the Chalcolithic settlement of Los Millares In the Chalcolithic c 3000 BCE a series of complex cultures developed that would give rise to the peninsula s first civilizations and to extensive exchange networks reaching to the Baltic Middle East and North Africa Around 2800 2700 BCE the Beaker culture which produced the Maritime Bell Beaker probably originated in the vibrant copper using communities of the Tagus estuary in Portugal and spread from there to many parts of western Europe 28 Bronze Age Edit Bronze Age cultures developed beginning c 1800 BCE 29 when the culture of Los Millares was followed by that of El Argar 30 31 During the Early Bronze Age southeastern Iberia saw the emergence of important settlements a development that has compelled some archeologists to propose that these settlements indicate the advent of state level social structures 32 From this centre bronze metalworking technology spread to other cultures like the Bronze of Levante South Western Iberian Bronze and Las Cogotas In the Late Bronze Age the urban civilisation of Tartessos developed in Southwestern Iberia characterized by Phoenician influence and using the Southwest Paleohispanic script for its Tartessian language not related to the Iberian language Early in the first millennium BCE several waves of Pre Celts and Celts migrated from Central Europe thus partially changing the peninsula s ethnic landscape to Indo European speaking in its northern and western regions In Northwestern Iberia modern Northern Portugal Asturias and Galicia a Celtic culture developed the Castro culture with a large number of hill forts and some fortified cities Proto history EditMain article Pre Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula Iberia before the Carthaginian conquests circa 300 BCE An instance of the Southwest Paleohispanic script inscribed in the Abobada I stele 33 By the Iron Age starting in the 7th century BCE the Iberian Peninsula consisted of complex agrarian and urban civilizations either Pre Celtic or Celtic such as the Celtiberians Gallaeci Astures Celtici Lusitanians and others the cultures of the Iberians in the eastern and southern zones and the cultures of the Aquitanian in the western portion of the Pyrenees As early as the 12th century BCE the Phoenicians a thalassocratic civilization originally from the Eastern Mediterranean began to explore the coastline of the peninsula interacting with the metal rich communities in the southwest of the peninsula contemporarily known as the semi mythical Tartessos 34 Around 1100 BCE Phoenician merchants founded the trading colony of Gadir or Gades modern day Cadiz Phoenicians established a permanent trading port in the Gadir colony circa 800 BCE in response to the increasing demand of silver from the Assyrian Empire 35 The seafaring Phoenicians Greeks and Carthaginians successively settled along the Mediterranean coast and founded trading colonies there over a period of several centuries In the 8th century BCE the first Greek colonies such as Emporion modern Empuries were founded along the Mediterranean coast on the east leaving the south coast to the Phoenicians Together with the presence of Phoenician and Greek epigraphy a number of paleohispanic scripts developed in the Iberian Peninsula along the 1st millennium BCE The development of a primordial paleohispanic script antecessor to the rest of paleohispanic scripts originally supposed to be a non redundant semi syllabary derived from the Phoenician alphabet and originated in Southwestern Iberia by the 7th century BCE has been tentatively proposed 36 In the sixth century BCE the Carthaginians arrived in the peninsula while struggling with the Greeks for control of the Western Mediterranean Their most important colony was Carthago Nova modern day Cartagena Spain History EditRoman rule Edit This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed December 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message See also Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula Roman conquest 220 BCE 19 BCE In 218 BCE during the Second Punic War against the Carthaginians the first Roman troops occupied the Iberian Peninsula known to them as Hispania After 197 the territories of the peninsula most accustomed to external contact and with the most urban tradition the Mediterranean Coast and the Guadalquivir Valley were divided by Romans into Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior 37 Local rebellions were quelled with a 195 Roman campaign under Cato the Elder ravaging hospots of resistance in the northeastern Ebro Valley and beyond 38 The threat to Roman interests posed by Celtiberians and Lusitanians in uncontrolled territories lingered in 39 Further wars of indigenous resistance such as the Celtiberian Wars and the Lusitanian War were fought in the 2nd century Urban growth took place and population progressively moved from hillforts to the plains 40 An example of the interaction of slaving and ecocide the aftermath of the conquest increased mining extractive processes in the southwest of the peninsula which required a massive number of forced laborers initially from Hispania and latter also from the Gallic borderlands and other locations of the Mediterranean bringing in a far reaching environmental outcome vis a vis long term global pollution records with levels of atmospheric pollution from mining across the Mediterranean during Classical Antiquity having no match until the Industrial Revolution 41 42 In addition to mineral extraction of which the region was the leading supplier in the early Roman world with production of the likes of gold silver copper lead and cinnabar Hispania also produced manufactured goods sigillata pottery colourless glass linen garments fish and fish sauce garum dry crops such as wheat and more importantly esparto olive oil and wine 43 The process of Romanization spurred on throughout the first century BC 44 The peninsula was also the battleground of civil wars between rulers of the Roman republic such as the Sertorian War or the conflict between Caesar and Pompey later in the century 45 During their 600 year occupation of the Iberian Peninsula the Romans introduced the Latin language that influenced many of the languages that exist today in the Iberian peninsula See also Lusitania Hispania Tarraconensis and Hispania Baetica Pre modern Iberia Edit See also Visigothic Kingdom Al Andalus Spania and Kingdom of the Suebi Germanic and Byzantine rule c 560 In the early fifth century Germanic peoples occupied the peninsula namely the Suebi the Vandals Silingi and Hasdingi and their allies the Alans Only the kingdom of the Suebi Quadi and Marcomanni would endure after the arrival of another wave of Germanic invaders the Visigoths who occupied all of the Iberian Peninsula and expelled or partially integrated the Vandals and the Alans The Visigoths eventually occupied the Suebi kingdom and its capital city Bracara modern day Braga in 584 585 They would also occupy the province of the Byzantine Empire 552 624 of Spania in the south of the peninsula However Balearic Islands remained in Byzantine hands until Umayyad conquest in 707 citation needed Main articles Al Andalus and Reconquista In 711 a Muslim army conquered the Visigothic Kingdom in Hispania Under Tariq ibn Ziyad the Islamic army landed at Gibraltar and in an eight year campaign occupied all except the northern kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula in the Umayyad conquest of Hispania Al Andalus Arabic الإندلس tr al ʾAndalus possibly Land of the Vandals 46 47 is the Arabic name given to Muslim Iberia The Muslim conquerors were Arabs and Berbers following the conquest conversion and arabization of the Hispano Roman population took place 48 muwalladum or Muladi 49 50 After a long process spurred on in the 9th and 10th centuries the majority of the population in Al Andalus eventually converted to Islam 51 The Muslims were referred to by the generic name Moors 52 The Muslim population was divided per ethnicity Arabs Berbers Muladi and the supremacy of Arabs over the rest of group was a recurrent causal for strife rivalry and hatred particularly between Arabs and Berbers 53 Arab elites could be further divided in the Yemenites first wave and the Syrians second wave 54 Christians and Jews were allowed to live as part of a stratified society under the dhimmah system 55 although Jews became very important in certain fields 56 Some Christians migrated to the Northern Christian kingdoms while those who stayed in Al Andalus progressively arabised and became known as musta arab mozarabs 57 The slave population comprised the Ṣaqaliba literally meaning slavs although they were slaves of generic European origin as well as Sudanese slaves 58 The Umayyad rulers faced a major Berber Revolt in the early 740s the uprising originally broke out in North Africa Tangier and later spread across the peninsula 59 Following the Abbasid takeover from the Umayyads and the shift of the economic centre of the Islamic Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad the western province of al Andalus was marginalised and ultimately became politically autonomous as independent emirate in 756 ruled by one of the last surviving Umayyad royals Abd al Rahman I 60 Islamic rule al Andalus c 1000 Al Andalus became a center of culture and learning especially during the Caliphate of Cordoba The Caliphate reached the height of its power under the rule of Abd ar Rahman III and his successor al Hakam II becoming then in the view of Jaime Vicens Vives the most powerful state in Europe 61 Abd ar Rahman III also managed to expand the clout of Al Andalus across the Strait of Gibraltar 61 waging war as well as his successor against the Fatimid Empire 62 Between the 8th and 12th centuries Al Andalus enjoyed a notable urban vitality both in terms of the growth of the preexisting cities as well as in terms of founding of new ones Cordoba reached a population of 100 000 by the 10th century Toledo 30 000 by the 11th century and Seville 80 000 by the 12th century 63 During the Middle Ages the North of the peninsula housed many small Christian polities including the Kingdom of Castile the Kingdom of Aragon the Kingdom of Navarre the Kingdom of Leon or the Kingdom of Portugal as well as a number of counties that spawned from the Carolingian Marca Hispanica Christian and Muslim polities fought and allied among themselves in variable alliances c The Christian kingdoms progressively expanded south taking over Muslim territory in what is historiographically known as the Reconquista the latter concept has been however noted as product of the claim to a pre existing Spanish Catholic nation and it would not necessarily convey adequately the complexity of centuries of warring and other more peaceable interactions between Muslim and Christian kingdoms in medieval Iberia between 711 and 1492 65 Two warriors embrace before the siege of Chincoya Castle Cantigas de Santa Maria The Caliphate of Cordoba was subsumed in a period of upheaval and civil war the Fitna of al Andalus and collapsed in the early 11th century spawning a series of ephemeral statelets the taifas Until the mid 11th century most of the territorial expansion southwards of the Kingdom of Asturias Leon was carried out through a policy of agricultural colonization rather than through military operations then profiting from the feebleness of the taifa principalities Ferdinand I of Leon seized Lamego and Viseu 1057 1058 and Coimbra 1064 away from the Taifa of Badajoz at times at war with the Taifa of Seville 66 67 Meanwhile in the same year Coimbra was conquered in the Northeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula the Kingdom of Aragon took Barbastro from the Hudid Taifa of Lerida as part of an international expedition sanctioned by Pope Alexander II Most critically Alfonso VI of Leon Castile conquered Toledo and its wider taifa in 1085 in what it was seen as a critical event at the time entailing also a huge territorial expansion advancing from the Sistema Central to La Mancha 68 In 1086 following the siege of Zaragoza by Alfonso VI of Leon Castile the Almoravids religious zealots originally from the deserts of the Maghreb landed in the Iberian Peninsula and having inflicted a serious defeat to Alfonso VI at the battle of Zalaca began to seize control of the remaining taifas 69 The Almoravids in the Iberian peninsula progressively relaxed strict observance of their faith and treated both Jews and Mozarabs harshly facing uprisings across the peninsula initially in the Western part 70 The Almohads another North African Muslim sect of Masmuda Berber origin who had previously undermined the Almoravid rule south of the Strait of Gibraltar 71 first entered the peninsula in 1146 72 Somewhat straying from the trend taking place in other locations of the Latin West since the 10th century the period comprising the 11th and 13th centuries was not one of weakening monarchical power in the Christian kingdoms 73 The relatively novel concept of frontier Sp frontera already reported in Aragon by the second half of the 11th century become widespread in the Christian Iberian kingdoms by the beginning of the 13th century in relation to the more or less conflictual border with Muslim lands 74 By the beginning of the 13th century a power reorientation took place in the Iberian Peninsula parallel to the Christian expansion in Southern Iberia and the increasing commercial impetus of Christian powers across the Mediterranean and to a large extent trade wise the Iberian Peninsula reorientated towards the North away from the Muslim World 75 During the Middle Ages the monarchs of Castile and Leon from Alfonso V and Alfonso VI crowned Hispaniae Imperator to Alfonso X and Alfonso XI tended to embrace an imperial ideal based on a dual Christian and Jewish ideology 76 Merchants from Genoa and Pisa were conducting an intense trading activity in Catalonia already by the 12th century and later in Portugal 77 Since the 13th century the Crown of Aragon expanded overseas led by Catalans it attained an overseas empire in the Western Mediterranean with a presence in Mediterranean islands such as the Balearics Sicily and Sardinia and even conquering Naples in the mid 15th century 78 Genoese merchants invested heavily in the Iberian commercial enterprise with Lisbon becoming according to Virginia Rau the great centre of Genoese trade in the early 14th century 79 The Portuguese would later detach their trade to some extent from Genoese influence 77 The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada neighbouring the Strait of Gibraltar and founded upon a vassalage relationship with the Crown of Castile 80 also insinuated itself into the European mercantile network with its ports fostering intense trading relations with the Genoese as well but also with the Catalans and to a lesser extent with the Venetians the Florentines and the Portuguese 81 Between 1275 and 1340 Granada became involved in the crisis of the Strait and was caught in a complex geopolitical struggle a kaleidoscope of alliances with multiple powers vying for dominance of the Western Mediterranean complicated by the unstable relations of Muslim Granada with the Marinid Sultanate 82 The conflict reached a climax in the 1340 Battle of Rio Salado when this time in alliance with Granada the Marinid Sultan and Caliph pretender Abu al Hasan Ali ibn Othman made the last Marinid attempt to set up a power base in the Iberian Peninsula The lasting consequences of the resounding Muslim defeat to an alliance of Castile and Portugal with naval support from Aragon and Genoa ensured Christian supremacy over the Iberian Peninsula and the preeminence of Christian fleets in the Western Mediterranean 83 Map of the Iberian Peninsula and Northern Africa inverted by Fra Mauro ca 1450 The 1348 1350 bubonic plague devastated large parts of the Iberian Peninsula leading to a sudden economic cessation 84 Many settlements in northern Castile and Catalonia were left forsaken 84 The plague marked the start of the hostility and downright violence towards religious minorities particularly the Jews as an additional consequence in the Iberian realms 85 The 14th century was a period of great upheaval in the Iberian realms After the death of Peter the Cruel of Castile reigned 1350 69 the House of Trastamara succeeded to the throne in the person of Peter s half brother Henry II reigned 1369 79 In the kingdom of Aragon following the death without heirs of John I reigned 1387 96 and Martin I reigned 1396 1410 a prince of the House of Trastamara Ferdinand I reigned 1412 16 succeeded to the Aragonese throne 86 The Hundred Years War also spilled over into the Iberian peninsula with Castile particularly taking a role in the conflict by providing key naval support to France that helped lead to that nation s eventual victory 87 After the accession of Henry III to the throne of Castile the populace exasperated by the preponderance of Jewish influence perpetrated a massacre of Jews at Toledo In 1391 mobs went from town to town throughout Castile and Aragon killing an estimated 50 000 Jews 88 89 90 91 92 or even as many as 100 000 according to Jane Gerber 93 Women and children were sold as slaves to Muslims and many synagogues were converted into churches According to Hasdai Crescas about 70 Jewish communities were destroyed 94 During the 15th century Portugal which had ended its southwards territorial expansion across the Iberian Peninsula in 1249 with the conquest of the Algarve initiated an overseas expansion in parallel to the rise of the House of Aviz conquering Ceuta 1415 arriving at Porto Santo 1418 Madeira and the Azores as well as establishing additional outposts along the North African Atlantic coast 95 In addition already in the Early Modern Period between the completion of the Granada War in 1492 and the death of Ferdinand of Aragon in 1516 the Hispanic Monarchy would make strides in the imperial expansion along the Mediterranean coast of the Maghreb 96 During the Late Middle Ages the Jews acquired considerable power and influence in Castile and Aragon 97 Throughout the late Middle Ages the Crown of Aragon took part in the mediterranean slave trade with Barcelona already in the 14th century Valencia particularly in the 15th century and to a lesser extent Palma de Mallorca since the 13th century becoming dynamic centres in this regard involving chiefly eastern and Muslim peoples 98 Castile engaged later in this economic activity rather by adhering to the incipient atlantic slave trade involving sub saharan people thrusted by Portugal Lisbon being the largest slave centre in Western Europe since the mid 15th century with Seville becoming another key hub for the slave trade 98 Following the advance in the conquest of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada the seizure of Malaga entailed the addition of another notable slave centre for the Crown of Castile 99 By the end of the 15th century 1490 the Iberian kingdoms including here the Balearic Islands had an estimated population of 6 525 million Crown of Castile 4 3 million Portugal 1 0 million Principality of Catalonia 0 3 million Kingdom of Valencia 0 255 million Kingdom of Granada 0 25 million Kingdom of Aragon 0 25 million Kingdom of Navarre 0 12 million and the Kingdom of Mallorca 0 05 million 100 For three decades in the 15th century the Hermandad de las Marismas the trading association formed by the ports of Castile along the Cantabrian coast resembling in some ways the Hanseatic League fought against the latter 101 an ally of England a rival of Castile in political and economic terms 102 Castile sought to claim the Gulf of Biscay as its own 103 In 1419 the powerful Castilian navy thoroughly defeated a Hanseatic fleet in La Rochelle 87 103 In the late 15th century the imperial ambition of the Iberian powers was pushed to new heights by the Catholic Monarchs in Castile and Aragon and by Manuel I in Portugal 76 See also Massacre of 1391 Iberian Kingdoms in 1400 The last Muslim stronghold Granada was conquered by a combined Castilian and Aragonese force in 1492 As many as 100 000 Moors died or were enslaved in the military campaign while 200 000 fled to North Africa 104 Muslims and Jews throughout the period were variously tolerated or shown intolerance in different Christian kingdoms After the fall of Granada all Muslims and Jews were ordered to convert to Christianity or face expulsion as many as 200 000 Jews were expelled from Spain 105 106 107 108 Historian Henry Kamen estimates that some 25 000 Jews died en route from Spain 109 The Jews were also expelled from Sicily and Sardinia which were under Aragonese rule and an estimated 37 000 to 100 000 Jews left 110 In 1497 King Manuel I of Portugal forced all Jews in his kingdom to convert or leave That same year he expelled all Muslims that were not slaves 111 and in 1502 the Catholic Monarchs followed suit imposing the choice of conversion to Christianity or exile and loss of property Many Jews and Muslims fled to North Africa and the Ottoman Empire while others publicly converted to Christianity and became known respectively as Marranos and Moriscos after the old term Moors 112 However many of these continued to practice their religion in secret The Moriscos revolted several times and were ultimately forcibly expelled from Spain in the early 17th century From 1609 to 1614 over 300 000 Moriscos were sent on ships to North Africa and other locations and of this figure around 50 000 died resisting the expulsion and 60 000 died on the journey 113 114 The change of relative supremacy from Portugal to the Hispanic Monarchy in the late 15th century has been described as one of the few cases of avoidance of the Thucydides Trap 115 Modern Iberia Edit Expelling of the moriscos in the Port of Denia Challenging the conventions about the advent of modernity Immanuel Wallerstein pushed back the origins of the capitalist modernity to the Iberian expansion of the 15th century 116 During the 16th century Spain created a vast empire in the Americas with a state monopoly in Seville becoming the center of the ensuing transatlantic trade based on bullion 117 Iberian imperialism starting by the Portuguese establishment of routes to Asia and the posterior transatlantic trade with the New World by Spaniards and Portuguese along Dutch English and French precipitated the economic decline of the Italian Peninsula 118 The 16th century was one of population growth with increased pressure over resources 119 in the case of the Iberian Peninsula a part of the population moved to the Americas meanwhile Jews and Moriscos were banished relocating to other places in the Mediterranean Basin 120 Most of the Moriscos remained in Spain after the Morisco revolt in Las Alpujarras during the mid 16th century but roughly 300 000 of them were expelled from the country in 1609 1614 and emigrated en masse to North Africa 121 An anonymous picture depicting Lisbon the centre of the slave trade by the late 16th century 122 In 1580 after the political crisis that followed the 1578 death of King Sebastian Portugal became a dynastic composite entity of the Hapsburg Monarchy thus the whole peninsula was united politically during the period known as the Iberian Union 1580 1640 During the reign of Philip II of Spain I of Portugal the Councils of Portugal Italy Flanders and Burgundy were added to the group of counselling institutions of the Hispanic Monarchy to which the Councils of Castile Aragon Indies Chamber of Castile Inquisition Orders and Crusade already belonged defining the organization of the Royal court that underpinned the polysinodial system es through which the empire operated 123 During the Iberian union the first great wave of the transatlantic slave trade happened according to Enriqueta Vila Villar as new markets opened because of the unification gave thrust to the slave trade 124 By 1600 the percentage of urban population for Spain was roughly 11 4 while for Portugal the urban population was estimated as 14 1 which were both above the 7 6 European average of the time edged only by the Low Countries and the Italian Peninsula 125 Some striking differences appeared among the different Iberian realms Castile extending across a 60 of the territory of the peninsula and having 80 of the population was a rather urbanised country yet with a widespread distribution of cities 126 Meanwhile the urban population in the Crown of Aragon was highly concentrated in a handful of cities Zaragoza Kingdom of Aragon Barcelona Principality of Catalonia and to a lesser extent in the Kingdom of Valencia in Valencia Alicante and Orihuela 126 The case of Portugal presented an hypertrophied capital Lisbon which greatly increased its population during the 16th century from 56 000 to 60 000 inhabitants by 1527 to roughly 120 000 by the third quarter of the century with its demographic dynamism stimulated by the Asian trade 127 followed at great distance by Porto and Evora both roughly accounting for 12 500 inhabitants 128 Throughout most of the 16th century both Lisbon and Seville were among the Western Europe s largest and most dynamic cities 129 The 17th century has been largely considered as a very negative period for the Iberian economies seen as a time of recession crisis or even decline 130 the urban dynamism chiefly moving to Northern Europe 130 A dismantling of the inner city network in the Castilian plateau took place during this period with a parallel accumulation of economic activity in the capital Madrid with only New Castile resisting recession in the interior 131 Regarding the Atlantic facade of Castile aside from the severing of trade with Northern Europe inter regional trade with other regions in the Iberian Peninsula also suffered to some extent 132 In Aragon suffering from similar problems than Castile the expelling of the Moriscos in 1609 in the Kingdom of Valencia aggravated the recession Silk turned from a domestic industry into a raw commodity to be exported 133 However the crisis was uneven affecting longer the centre of the peninsula as both Portugal and the Mediterranean coastline recovered in the later part of the century by fuelling a sustained growth 134 The aftermath of the intermittent 1640 1668 Portuguese Restoration War brought the House of Braganza as the new ruling dynasty in the Portuguese territories across the world bar Ceuta putting an end to the Iberian Union See also History of Andorra History of Gibraltar History of Portugal History of Spain and History of France Despite both Portugal and Spain starting their path towards modernization with the liberal revolutions of the first half of the 19th century this process was concerning structural changes in the geographical distribution of the population relatively tame compared to what took place after World War II in the Iberian Peninsula when strong urban development ran in parallel to substantial rural flight patterns 135 Geography and geology EditMain articles Geography of Spain Geography of Portugal and Geography of Andorra Physical map of the Iberian Peninsula The Iberian Peninsula is the westernmost of the three major southern European peninsulas the Iberian Italian and Balkan 136 It is bordered on the southeast and east by the Mediterranean Sea and on the north west and southwest by the Atlantic Ocean The Pyrenees mountains are situated along the northeast edge of the peninsula where it adjoins the rest of Europe Its southern tip located in Tarifa is the southernmost point of the European continent and is very close to the northwest coast of Africa separated from it by the Strait of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean Sea The Iberian Peninsula encompasses 583 254 km2 and has very contrasting and uneven relief 1 The mountain ranges of the Iberian Peninsula are mainly distributed from west to east and in some cases reach altitudes of approximately 3000 mamsl resulting in the region having the second highest mean altitude 637 mamsl in Western Europe 1 The Iberian Peninsula extends from the southernmost extremity at Punta de Tarifa to the northernmost extremity at Punta de Estaca de Bares over a distance between lines of latitude of about 865 km 537 mi based on a degree length of 111 km 69 mi per degree and from the westernmost extremity at Cabo da Roca to the easternmost extremity at Cap de Creus over a distance between lines of longitude at 40 N latitude of about 1 155 km 718 mi based on an estimated degree length of about 90 km 56 mi for that latitude The irregular roughly octagonal shape of the peninsula contained within this spherical quadrangle was compared to an ox hide by the geographer Strabo 137 Punta de Estaca de Bares 43 47 38 N 7 41 17 W 43 79389 N 7 68806 W 43 79389 7 68806 Cabo da Roca 38 46 51 N 9 29 54 W 38 78083 N 9 49833 W 38 78083 9 49833 Cap de Creus 42 19 09 N 3 19 19 E 42 31917 N 3 32194 E 42 31917 3 32194 Punta de Tarifa 36 00 15 N 5 36 37 W 36 00417 N 5 61028 W 36 00417 5 61028 About three quarters of that rough octagon is the Meseta Central a vast plateau ranging from 610 to 760 m in altitude 138 It is located approximately in the centre staggered slightly to the east and tilted slightly toward the west the conventional centre of the Iberian Peninsula has long been considered Getafe just south of Madrid It is ringed by mountains and contains the sources of most of the rivers which find their way through gaps in the mountain barriers on all sides Coastline Edit The coastline of the Iberian Peninsula is 3 313 km 2 059 mi 1 660 km 1 030 mi on the Mediterranean side and 1 653 km 1 027 mi on the Atlantic side 139 The coast has been inundated over time with sea levels having risen from a minimum of 115 120 m 377 394 ft lower than today at the Last Glacial Maximum LGM to its current level at 4 000 years BP 140 The coastal shelf created by sedimentation during that time remains below the surface however it was never very extensive on the Atlantic side as the continental shelf drops rather steeply into the depths An estimated 700 km 430 mi length of Atlantic shelf is only 10 65 km 6 2 40 4 mi wide At the 500 m 1 600 ft isobath on the edge the shelf drops off to 1 000 m 3 300 ft 141 The submarine topography of the coastal waters of the Iberian Peninsula has been studied extensively in the process of drilling for oil Ultimately the shelf drops into the Bay of Biscay on the north an abyss the Iberian abyssal plain at 4 800 m 15 700 ft on the west and Tagus abyssal plain to the south In the north between the continental shelf and the abyss is an extension called the Galicia Bank a plateau that also contains the Porto Vigo and Vasco da Gama seamounts which form the Galicia interior basin The southern border of these features is marked by Nazare Canyon which splits the continental shelf and leads directly into the abyss Rivers Edit Main articles List of rivers of Spain and List of rivers of Portugal Discharge of the Douro into the Atlantic Ocean near Porto The major rivers flow through the wide valleys between the mountain systems These are the Ebro Douro Tagus Guadiana and Guadalquivir 142 143 All rivers in the Iberian Peninsula are subject to seasonal variations in flow The Tagus is the longest river on the peninsula and like the Douro flows westwards with its lower course in Portugal The Guadiana river bends southwards and forms the border between Spain and Portugal in the last stretch of its course Mountains Edit The terrain of the Iberian Peninsula is largely mountainous 144 The major mountain systems are The Pyrenees and their foothills the Pre Pyrenees crossing the isthmus of the peninsula so completely as to allow no passage except by mountain road trail coastal road or tunnel Aneto in the Maladeta massif at 3 404 m is the highest point The Mulhacen the highest peak in the Iberian Peninsula The Cantabrian Mountains along the northern coast with the massive Picos de Europa Torre de Cerredo at 2 648 m is the highest point The Galicia Tras os Montes Massif in the Northwest is made up of very old heavily eroded rocks 145 Pena Trevinca at 2 127 m is the highest point The Sistema Iberico a complex system at the heart of the peninsula in its central eastern region It contains a great number of ranges and divides the watershed of the Tagus Douro and Ebro rivers Moncayo at 2 313 m is the highest point The Sistema Central dividing the Iberian Plateau into a northern and a southern half and stretching into Portugal where the highest point of Continental Portugal 1 993 m is located in the Serra da Estrela Pico Almanzor in the Sierra de Gredos is the highest point at 2 592 m The Montes de Toledo which also stretches into Portugal from the La Mancha natural region at the eastern end Its highest point at 1 603 m is La Villuerca in the Sierra de Villuercas Extremadura The Sierra Morena which divides the watershed of the Guadiana and Guadalquivir rivers At 1 332 m Banuela is the highest point The Baetic System which stretches between Cadiz and Gibraltar and northeast towards Alicante Province It is divided into three subsystems Prebaetic System which begins west of the Sierra Sur de Jaen reaching the Mediterranean Sea shores in Alicante Province La Sagra is the highest point at 2 382 m Subbaetic System which is in a central position within the Baetic Systems stretching from Cape Trafalgar in Cadiz Province across Andalusia to the Region of Murcia 146 The highest point at 2 027 m 6 650 ft is Pena de la Cruz in Sierra Arana Penibaetic System located in the far southeastern area stretching between Gibraltar across the Mediterranean coastal Andalusian provinces It includes the highest point in the peninsula the 3 478 m high Mulhacen in the Sierra Nevada 147 Geology Edit Main article Geology of the Iberian Peninsula Major Geologic Units of the Iberian Peninsula The Iberian Peninsula contains rocks of every geological period from the Ediacaran to the Recent and almost every kind of rock is represented World class mineral deposits can also be found there The core of the Iberian Peninsula consists of a Hercynian cratonic block known as the Iberian Massif On the northeast this is bounded by the Pyrenean fold belt and on the southeast it is bounded by the Baetic System These twofold chains are part of the Alpine belt To the west the peninsula is delimited by the continental boundary formed by the magma poor opening of the Atlantic Ocean The Hercynian Foldbelt is mostly buried by Mesozoic and Tertiary cover rocks to the east but nevertheless outcrops through the Sistema Iberico and the Catalan Mediterranean System The Iberian Peninsula features one of the largest Lithium deposits belts in Europe an otherwise relatively scarce resource in the continent scattered along the Iberian Massif s Central Iberian Zone es and Galicia Tras Os Montes Zone es 148 Also in the Iberian Massif and similarly to other Hercynian blocks in Europe the peninsula hosts some uranium deposits largely located in the Central Iberian Zone unit 149 The Iberian Pyrite Belt located in the SW quadrant of the Peninsula ranks among the most important volcanogenic massive sulphide districts on Earth and it has been exploited for millennia 150 Climate Edit Main articles Climate of Spain and Climate of Portugal Koppen climate types of Iberia The Iberian Peninsula s location and topography as well as the effects of large atmospheric circulation patterns induce a NW to SE gradient of yearly precipitation roughly from 2 000 mm to 300 mm 151 The Iberian peninsula has three dominant climate types One of these is the oceanic climate seen in the northeast in which precipitation has barely any difference between winter and summer However most of Portugal and Spain have a Mediterranean climate the Warm summer Mediterranean climate and the Hot summer Mediterranean climate with various differences in precipitation and temperature depending on latitude and position versus the sea this applies greatly to the Portuguese and Galician Atlantic coasts where due to upwelling downwelling phenomena average temperatures in summer can vary through as much as 10 C 50 F in only a few kilometers e g Peniche vs Santarem There are also more localized semi arid climates in central Spain with temperatures resembling a more continental Mediterranean climate In other extreme cases highland alpine climates such as in Sierra Nevada and areas with extremely low precipitation and desert climates or semi arid climates such as the Almeria area Murcia area and southern Alicante area 152 In the southwestern interior of the Iberian Peninsula the hottest temperatures in Europe are found with Cordoba averaging around 37 C 99 F in July 153 The Spanish Mediterranean coast usually averages around 30 C 86 F in summer In sharp contrast A Coruna at the northern tip of Galicia has a summer daytime high average at just below 23 C 73 F 154 This cool and wet summer climate is replicated throughout most of the northern coastline Winters in the Peninsula are for the most part mild although frosts are common in higher altitude areas of central Spain The warmest winter nights are usually found in downwelling favourable areas of the west coast such as on capes Precipitation varies greatly between regions on the Peninsula in December for example the northern west coast averages above 200 mm 7 9 in whereas the southeast can average below 30 mm 1 2 in Insolation can vary from just 1 600 hours in the Bilbao area to above 3 000 hours in the Algarve and Gulf of Cadiz Major modern countries Edit Satellite image of Iberia at night The current political configuration of the Iberian Peninsula comprises the bulk of Portugal and Spain the whole microstate of Andorra a small part of the French department of Pyrenees Orientales French Cerdagne and the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar French Cerdagne is on the south side of the Pyrenees mountain range which runs along the border between Spain and France 155 156 157 For example the Segre river which runs west and then south to meet the Ebro has its source on the French side The Pyrenees range is often considered the northeastern boundary of Iberian Peninsula although the French coastline curves away from the rest of Europe north of the range which is the reason why Perpignan which is also known as the capital of Northern Catalonia is often considered as the entrance to the Iberian Peninsula Regarding Portugal and Spain this chiefly excludes the Macaronesian archipelagos the Azores and Madeira of Portugal and the Canary Islands of Spain the Balearic Islands Spain and the Spanish overseas territories in North Africa most conspicuously the cities of Ceuta and Melilla as well as unpopulated islets and rocks Political divisions of the Iberian Peninsula Arms Flag Country Territory Capital Area Population mainland 158 159 of area Andorra Andorra la Vella 468 km2 181 sq mi 84 082 0 1 France French Cerdagne Paris 539 km2 208 sq mi 12 035 0 1 Gibraltar British Overseas Territory Westside 7 km2 2 7 sq mi 33 691 0 0 Portugal mainland Lisbon 89 015 km2 34 369 sq mi ca 10 047 083 15 3 Spain mainland Madrid 493 515 km2 190 547 sq mi ca 43 731 572 84 5Total 583 544 km2 225 308 sq mi ca 53 908 463 100Cities Edit Madrid Barcelona Lisbon The Iberian city network is dominated by three international metropolises Barcelona Lisbon and Madrid and four regional metropolises Bilbao Porto Seville and Valencia 160 The relatively weak integration of the network favours a competitive approach vis a vis the inter relation between the different centres 160 Among these metropolises Madrid stands out within the global urban hierarchy in terms of its status as a major service centre and enjoys the greatest degree of connectivity 161 Major metropolitan regions Edit According to Eurostat 2019 162 the metropolitan regions with a population over one million are listed as follows Metropolitan region State Population 2019 Madrid Spain 6 641 649Barcelona Spain 5 575 204Lisbon Portugal 3 035 332Valencia Spain 2 540 588Seville Spain 1 949 640Alicante Elche Elda Spain 1 862 780Porto Portugal 1 722 374Malaga Marbella Spain 1 660 985Murcia Cartagena Spain 1 487 663Cadiz Spain 1 249 739Bilbao Spain 1 137 191Oviedo Gijon Spain 1 022 205See also Cities of Spain and Cities of PortugalEcology EditForests Edit Main article Forests of the Iberian Peninsula An Iberian lynx The woodlands of the Iberian Peninsula are distinct ecosystems Although the various regions are each characterized by distinct vegetation there are some similarities across the peninsula While the borders between these regions are not clearly defined there is a mutual influence that makes it very hard to establish boundaries and some species find their optimal habitat in the intermediate areas The endangered Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus is a symbol of the Iberian mediterranean forest and of the fauna of the Iberian Peninsula altogether 163 A new Podarcis lizard species Podarcis virescens was accepted as a species by the Taxonomic Committee of the Societas Europaea Herpetologica in 2020 This lizard is native to the Iberian Peninsula and found near rivers in the region East Atlantic flyway Edit The Iberian Peninsula is an important stopover on the East Atlantic flyway for birds migrating from northern Europe to Africa For example curlew sandpipers rest in the region of the Bay of Cadiz 164 In addition to the birds migrating through some seven million wading birds from the north spend the winter in the estuaries and wetlands of the Iberian Peninsula mainly at locations on the Atlantic coast In Galicia are Ria de Arousa a home of grey plover Ria de Ortigueira Ria de Corme and Ria de Laxe In Portugal the Aveiro Lagoon hosts Recurvirostra avosetta the common ringed plover grey plover and little stint Ribatejo Province on the Tagus supports Recurvirostra arosetta grey plover dunlin bar tailed godwit and common redshank In the Sado Estuary are dunlin Eurasian curlew grey plover and common redshank The Algarve hosts red knot common greenshank and turnstone The Guadalquivir Marshes region of Andalusia and the Salinas de Cadiz are especially rich in wintering wading birds Kentish plover common ringed plover sanderling and black tailed godwit in addition to the others And finally the Ebro delta is home to all the species mentioned above 165 Languages EditMain article Languages of Iberia Further information Languages of Andorra Languages of Gibraltar Languages of France Languages of Spain and Languages of Portugal With the sole exception of Basque which is of unknown origin 166 all modern Iberian languages descend from Vulgar Latin and belong to the Western Romance languages 167 Throughout history and pre history many different languages have been spoken in the Iberian Peninsula contributing to the formation and differentiation of the contemporaneous languages of Iberia however most of them have become extinct or fallen into disuse Basque is the only non Indo European surviving language in Iberia and Western Europe 168 In modern times Spanish the official language of Spain spoken by the entire 45 million population in the country the native language of about 36 million in Europe 169 Portuguese the official language of Portugal with a population over 10 million Catalan over 7 million speakers in Europe 3 4 million with Catalan as first language 170 Galician understood by the 93 of the 2 8 million Galician population 170 and Basque cf around 1 million speakers 171 are the most widely spoken languages in the Iberian Peninsula Spanish and Portuguese have expanded beyond Iberia to the rest of world becoming global languages Other minority romance languages with some degree of recognition include the several varieties of Astur leonese collectively amounting to about 0 6 million speakers 172 and the Aragonese barely spoken by the 8 of the 130 000 people inhabiting the Alto Aragon 173 English is the official language of Gibraltar Llanito is a unique language in the territory an amalgamation of mostly English and Spanish 174 In Spain only 54 3 could speak a foreign language below that of the EU 28 average Portugal meanwhile achieved 69 above the EU average but still below the EU median Spain ranks 25th out of 33 European countries in the English Proficiency Index 175 Transportation EditBoth Spain and Portugal have traditionally used a non standard rail gauge the 1 668 mm Iberian gauge since the construction of the first railroads in the 19th century Spain has progressively introduced the 1 435 mm standard gauge in its new high speed rail network one of the most extensive in the world 176 inaugurated in 1992 with the Madrid Seville line followed to name a few by the Madrid Barcelona 2008 Madrid Valencia 2010 an Alicante branch of the latter 2013 and the connection to France of the Barcelona line 177 Portugal however suspended all the high speed rail projects in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis putting an end for the time being to the possibility of a high speed rail connection between Lisbon Porto and Madrid 178 Handicapped by a mountainous range the Pyrenees hindering the connection to the rest of Europe Spain and subsidiarily Portugal only has two meaningful rail connections to France able for freight transport located at both ends of the mountain range 179 An international rail line across the Central Pyrenees linking Zaragoza and the French city of Pau through a tunnel existed in the past however an accident in the French part destroyed a stretch of the railroad in 1970 and the Canfranc Station has been a cul de sac since then 180 There are four points connecting the Portuguese and Spanish rail networks Valenca do Minho Tui Vilar Formoso Fuentes de Onoro Marvao Beira Valencia de Alcantara and Elvas Badajoz 181 The prospect of the development as part of a European wide effort of the Central Mediterranean and Atlantic rail corridors is expected to be a way to improve the competitiveness of the ports of Tarragona Valencia Sagunto Bilbao Santander Sines and Algeciras vis a vis the rest of Europe and the World 182 In 1980 Morocco and Spain started a joint study on the feasibility of a fixed link tunnel or bridge across the Strait of Gibraltar possibly through a connection of Punta Paloma es with Cape Malabata 183 Years of studies have however made no real progress thus far 184 A transit point for many submarine cables the Fibre optic Link Around the Globe Europe India Gateway and the SEA ME WE 3 feature landing stations in the Iberian Peninsula 185 The West Africa Cable System Main One SAT 3 WASC Africa Coast to Europe also land in Portugal 185 MAREA a high capacity communication transatlantic cable connects the north of the Iberian Peninsula Bilbao to North America Virginia whereas Grace Hopper is an upcoming cable connecting the Iberian Peninsula Bilbao to the UK and the US intended to be operative by 2022 186 and EllaLink is an upcoming high capacity communication cable expected to connect the Peninsula Sines to South America and the mammoth 2Africa project intends to connect the peninsula to the United Kingdom Europe and Africa via Portugal and Barcelona by 2023 24 187 188 Two gas pipelines the Pedro Duran Farell pipeline and more recently the Medgaz from respectively Morocco and Algeria link the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula providing Spain with Algerian natural gas 189 190 However the contract for the first pipeline expires on 31 October 2021 and amidst a tense climate of Algerian Moroccan relations there are no plans to renew it 191 Economy EditThe official currency across Iberia is the Euro with the exception of Gibraltar which uses the Gibraltar Pound at parity with Sterling 192 Major industries include mining tourism small farms and fishing Because the coast is so long fishing is popular especially sardines tuna and anchovies Most of the mining occurs in the Pyrenees mountains Commodities mined include iron gold coal lead silver zinc and salt Regarding their role in the global economy both the microstate of Andorra and the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar have been described as tax havens 193 The Galician region of Spain in the north west of the Iberian Peninsula became one of the biggest entry points of cocaine in Europe on a par with the Dutch ports 194 Hashish is smuggled from Morocco via the Strait of Gibraltar 194 See also EditIberian Federalism MacaronesiaNotes Edit In the local languages Spanish Portuguese Galician Asturian and Extremaduran Peninsula Iberica mostly rendered in lowercase in Spanish peninsula iberica Spanish peˈninsula iˈbeɾika the same in Asturian and Extremaduran Portuguese pɨˈnĩsulɐ iˈbɛɾikɐ Galician peˈninsʊlɐ iˈbɛɾikɐ Catalan Peninsula Iberica Eastern Catalan peˈninsule iˈbɛɾike Aragonese and Occitan Peninsula Iberica Aragonese peninˈsula ibeˈɾika Occitan peninˈsylɔ ibeˈɾikɔ beˈʀi French Peninsule Iberique penɛ syl ibeʁik Mirandese Peninsula Eiberica pɨˈnĩsulɐ ejˈbɛɾikɐ Basque Iberiar penintsula ibeɾiar penints ula In the local languages Spanish Aragonese Asturian Extremaduran and Galician Iberia Spanish iˈbeɾja the same in Aragonese Asturian and Extremaduran Galician iˈbɛɾjɐ Portuguese and Mirandese Iberia Portuguese iˈbɛɾiɐ Mirandese iˈbɛɾiɐ Catalan and Occitan Iberia Eastern Catalan iˈbɛɾie Occitan iˈbɛɾiɔ ˈbɛʀi French Iberie ibeʁi Basque Iberia ibeɾia Christian forces were usually better armoured than their Muslim counterparts with noble and non noble milites and cavallers wearing mail hauberks separate mail coifs and metal helmets and armed with maces cavalry axes sword and lances 64 References EditCitations Edit a b c Lorenzo Lacruz et al 2011 p 2582 Trivino Maria Kujala Heini Araujo Miguel B Cabeza Mar 2018 Planning for the future identifying conservation priority areas for Iberian birds under climate change Landscape Ecology 33 4 659 673 doi 10 1007 s10980 018 0626 z hdl 10138 309558 ISSN 0921 2973 S2CID 3699212 Claire L Lyons John K Papadopoulos 2002 The Archaeology of Colonialism Getty Publications pp 68 69 ISBN 978 0 89236 635 4 Strabo Book III Chapter 1 Section 6 Geographica And also the other Iberians use an alphabet though not letters of one and the same character for their speech is not one and the same a b Charles Ebel 1976 Transalpine Gaul The Emergence of a Roman Province Brill Archive pp 48 49 ISBN 90 04 04384 5 Ricardo Padron 1 February 2004 The Spacious Word Cartography Literature and Empire in Early Modern Spain University of Chicago Press p 252 ISBN 978 0 226 64433 2 Carl Waldman Catherine Mason 2006 Encyclopedia of European Peoples Infobase Publishing p 404 ISBN 978 1 4381 2918 1 Strabo 1988 The Geography in Ancient Greek and English Vol II Horace Leonard Jones trans Cambridge Bill Thayer p 118 Note 1 on 3 4 19 Herodotus 1827 The nine books of the History of Herodotus tr from the text of T Gaisford with notes and a summary by P E Laurent p 75 a b Geography III 4 19 III 37 III 17 Felix Gaffiot 1934 Dictionnaire illustre latin francais Hachette p 764 Greg Woolf 8 June 2012 Rome An Empire s Story Oxford University Press p 18 ISBN 978 0 19 997217 3 Berkshire Review Williams College 1965 p 7 Carlos B Vega 2 October 2003 Conquistadoras Mujeres Heroicas de la Conquista de America McFarland p 15 ISBN 978 0 7864 8208 5 Virgil 1846 The Eclogues and Georgics of Virgil Harper amp Brothers p 377 ISBN 9789644236174 Vernet Pons 2014 p 307 Vernet Pons 2014 p 297 La contribucion de Bory de Saint Vincent 1778 1846 al conocimiento geografico de la Peninsula Iberica PDF Archived from the original PDF on 25 September 2020 Retrieved 5 April 2020 III 3 21 White Horace Jona Lendering Appian s History of Rome The Spanish Wars 6 10 livius org pp Chapter 7 Retrieved 1 December 2008 Polybius The Histories III 6 2 Bill Thayer a b Morris Student Plus Basque English dictionary Adams 2010 p 208 Marti Oliver Bernat 2012 Redes y expansion del Neolitico en la Peninsula Iberica PDF Rubricatum Revista del Museu de Gava in Spanish Revistes Catalanes amb Acces Obert 5 549 553 ISSN 1135 3791 Retrieved 1 September 2018 Olalde Inigo et al 15 March 2019 The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years Science American Association for the Advancement of Science 363 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Prados de la Escosura 1998 p 37 38 Wallerstein 2011 p 116 117 Wallerstein 2011 p 117 Liang et al 2013 p 23 Halikowski Smith Stefan 2018 Lisbon in the sixteenth century decoding the Chafariz d el Rei Race amp Class 60 2 1 19 doi 10 1177 0306396818794355 S2CID 220080922 Barrios 2015 p 52 Nemser 2018 p 117 Gelabert 1994 p 183 a b Gelabert 1994 p 183 184 Miranda 2017 p 75 76 Miranda 2017 p 76 O Flanagan 2008 p 18 a b Yun Casalilla 2019 p 418 Yun Casalilla 2019 pp 421 423 Yun Casalilla 2019 p 424 Yun Casalilla 2019 p 425 426 Yun Casalilla 2019 p 428 429 Silveira et al 2013 p 172 Sanchez Blanco 1988 pp 21 32 III 1 3 Fischer T 1920 The Iberian Peninsula Spain In Mill Hugh Robert ed The International Geography New York and London D Appleton and Company pp 368 377 These figures sum the figures given in the Wikipedia articles on the geography of Spain and Portugal Most figures from Internet sources on Spain and Portugal include the coastlines of the islands owned by each country and thus are not a reliable guide to the coastline of the peninsula Moreover the length of a coastline may vary significantly depending on where and how it is measured Edmunds WM K Hinsby C Marlin MT Condesso de Melo M Manyano R Vaikmae Y Travi 2001 Evolution of groundwater systems at the European coastline In Edmunds W M Milne C J eds Palaeowaters in Coastal Europe Evolution of Groundwater Since the Late Pleistocene London Geological Society p 305 ISBN 1 86239 086 X Iberian Peninsula Atlantic Coast An Atlas of Oceanic Internal Solitary Waves PDF Global Ocean Associates February 2004 Retrieved 9 December 2008 Los 10 rios mas largos de Espana 20 Minutos in Spanish 30 May 2013 Retrieved 1 September 2018 2 El territorio y la hidrografia espanola rios cuencas y vertientes Junta de Andalucia Retrieved 1 September 2018 Manzano Cara Jose Antonio TEMA 8 EL RELIEVE DE ESPANA PDF CEIP Madre de la Luz in Spanish Junta de Andalucia Retrieved 1 September 2018 Manuel Picarra Jose C Gutierrez Marco J A Sa Artur Carlos Meireles E Gonzalez Clavijo 1 June 2006 Silurian graptolite biostratigraphy of the Galicia Tras os Montes Zone Spain and Portugal GFF hdl 10261 30737 ISSN 1103 5897 Edited by W Gibbons amp T Moreno Geology of Spain 2002 ISBN 978 1 86239 110 9 Jones Peter Introduction to the Birds of Spain Spanishnature com Rodrigues Pedro M S M Antao Ana Maria M C Rodrigues Ricardo 2019 Evaluation of the impact of lithium exploitation at the C57 mine Goncalo Portugal on water soil and air quality Environmental Earth Sciences 78 1 doi 10 1007 s12665 019 8541 4 Dahlkamp 1991 pp 232 233 Tornos F Lopez Pamo E Sanchez Espana F J 2008 The Iberian Pyrite Belt PDF Contextos geologicos espanoles una aproximacion al patrimonio geologico de relevancia internacional Instituto Geologico y Minero de Espana p 57 Lorenzo Lacruz et al 2011 pp 2582 2583 IBERIAN CLIMATE ATLAS PDF Aemet es Retrieved 28 February 2021 Standard climate values for Cordoba Aemet es Retrieved 7 March 2015 Standard climate values for A 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PAIS English Edition Retrieved 4 November 2022 Zembri amp Libourel 2017 p 368 Zembri amp Libourel 2017 p 371 Zembri amp Libourel 2017 p 382 Fernandez de Alarcon 2015 p 45 Barrenechea Eduardo 10 January 1983 El Canfranc un ferrocarril en via muerta El Pais Palmeiro Pineiro amp Pazos Oton 2008 p 227 Fernandez de Alarcon 2015 p 50 Garcia Alvarez 1996 p 7 11 Leadbeater Chris 31 May 2018 Will a Tunnel from Spain to Africa Ever Be Built And Who Would Use It The Telegraph archived from the original on 19 December 2000 a b Madrid s Position in the Global Telecommunications Landscape PDF DE CIX p 2 Grace Hopper el gran cable submarino de Google llega a Espana Expansion 9 September 2021 Castillo Carlos del 19 December 2019 El callejon del silicio el plan para que la nube del sur de Europa se instale en Espana Eldiario es Lopez Jose Maria 13 June 2020 Los cables submarinos que conectan Espana con el mundo a traves de internet Hipertextual Ghiles 2008 pp 96 97 Montano Baltasar 30 May 2014 Saltan las alarmas la dependencia energetica con Argelia roza el 60 en pleno conflicto en Ucrania Voz Populi Juliana Enric 29 September 2021 Fatidico triangulo Argelia Marruecos Espana La Vanguardia Gibraltar Fact Sheets Government of Gibraltar Retrieved 4 November 2022 Cooley 2005 p 167 a b Labrousse Alain Laniel Laurent eds 2001 Europe The World Geopolitics of Drugs 1998 1999 pp 117 123 doi 10 1007 978 94 017 3505 6 ISBN 978 94 017 3505 6 Bibliography Edit Adams Jonathan 26 February 2010 Species Richness Patterns in the Diversity of Life Springer p 208 ISBN 978 3 540 74278 4 Andreose Alvise Renzi Lorenzo 2013 Geography and distribution of the Romance languages in Europe In Maiden Martin Smith John Charles Ledgeway Adam eds The Cambridge History of the Romance Languages Vol II Cambridge University Press p 283 ISBN 978 0 521 80073 0 Albarran Javier 2018 Granada War in the Iberian Peninsula 700 1600 Routledge pp 36 53 ISBN 978 1 138 70745 0 Barrios Feliciano 2015 La gobernacion de la Monarquia de Espana Consejos Juntas y Secretarios de la Administracion de Corte 1556 1700 Madrid Centro de Estudios Politicos y Constitucionales Agencia Estatal Boletin Oficial del Estado Fundacion Rafael del Pino ISBN 978 84 340 2266 9 Buresi Pascal 2011 The Appearance of the Frontier Concept in the Iberian Peninsula at the Crossroads of Local National and Pontifical Strategies 11 th 13 th Centuries Quaestiones Medii Aevi Novae Warsaw Instytut historyczny 16 81 99 Cavanaugh Stephanie Maria 2016 The Morisco problem and the politics of belonging in sixteenth century Valladolid PDF University of Toronto Constable Olivia Remie 1994 Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain The Commercial Realignment of the Iberian Peninsula 900 1500 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 56503 5 Cooley Alexander 2005 Logics of Hierarchy The Organization of Empires States and Military Occupation Ithaca amp London Cornell University Press ISBN 978 0 8014 6249 8 Cunliffe Barry 1995 Diversity in the Landscape The Geographical Background to Urbanism in Iberia PDF In Cunliffe Barry Keay Simon eds Social Complexity and the Development of Towns in Iberia From the Copper Age to the Second Century AD pp 5 28 S2CID 54654511 Archived PDF from the original on 9 February 2020 Retrieved 30 April 2021 Dahlkamp Franz J 1991 Uranium Ore Deposits doi 10 1007 978 3 662 02892 6 ISBN 978 3 662 02892 6 el Ojeili Chamsy 2015 Reflections on Wallerstein The Modern World System Four Decades on Critical Sociology 41 4 5 679 700 doi 10 1177 0896920513497377 ISSN 0896 9205 S2CID 13860079 Escribano Paez Jose Miguel 2016 Negotiating with the Infidel Imperial Expansion and Cross Confessional Diplomacy in the Early Modern Maghreb 1492 1516 Itinerario 40 2 189 214 doi 10 1017 s0165115316000310 S2CID 232251871 Fabregas Garcia Adela 2006 La integracion del reino nazari de Granada en el espacio comercial europeo siglos XIII XV Investigaciones de Historia Economica in Spanish 2 6 11 39 doi 10 1016 S1698 6989 06 70266 1 Fernandez de Alarcon Rafael 2015 Decisiones fundamentales para el transporte de mercancias en Espana y con Europa PDF Revista de Obras Publicas 3563 43 50 ISSN 0034 8619 Archived from the original PDF on 26 February 2021 Retrieved 12 February 2020 Flood Timothy M 2019 Rulers and Realms in Medieval Iberia 711 1492 Jefferson McFarland amp Company ISBN 978 1 4766 7471 1 Garcia Alvarez Vicente 1996 El proyecto de enlace fijo a traves del estrecho de Gibraltar Situacion actual de los estudios PDF Revista de Obras Publicas 3360 ISSN 0034 8619 Archived from the original PDF on 11 April 2021 Retrieved 12 February 2020 Garcia Fitz Francisco Ayala Martinez Carlos de Alvira Cabrer Martin 2018 Castile Leon I Early and High Middle Ages 8th to 13th centuries War in the Iberian Peninsula 700 1600 Routledge pp 54 93 ISBN 978 1 138 70745 0 Gelabert Juan E 1994 Urbanisation and deurbanisation in Castile 1500 1800 In Thompson I A A Yun Casalilla Bartolome eds The Castilian Crisis of the Seventeenth Century New Perspectives on the Economic and Social History of Seventeenth Century Spain Cambridge University Press pp 182 205 ISBN 978 0 521 41624 5 Gerber Jane S 1994 Jews of Spain A History of the Sephardic Experience Simon and Schuster ISBN 9780029115749 Ghiles Francis 2008 A Unified North Africa on the World State Overview of Maghreb Sector Studies In Hufbauer Gary Clyde Brunel Claire eds Maghreb Regional and Global Integration A Dream to be Fulfilled PDF Washington DC Peterson Institute for International Economics pp 93 100 Gilbert Martin 2003 1969 The Routledge Atlas of Jewish History Routledge ISBN 9780415281508 Gillespie Richard 2000 Spain s Illusive Mediterranean Empire Spain and the Mediterranean Developing a European Policy towards the South London Palgrave Macmillan pp 1 21 doi 10 1057 9780230595675 1 ISBN 978 1 349 40575 6 Gloel Matthias 2017 Los cambios dinasticos en Portugal de 1383 85 y 1580 una reflexion comparativa Revista Chilena de Estudios Medievales 11 44 67 ISSN 0719 689X Gonzalez Arevalo 2019 La esclavitud en la Espana Medieval siglos XIV XV Generalidades y rasgos diferenciales Millars Espai i Historia Castellon de la Plana Universitat Jaime I 47 11 37 doi 10 6035 Millars 2019 47 2 ISSN 1132 9823 Gonzalez Sanchez Santiago 2013 Las relaciones exteriores de Castilla a comienzos del siglo XV la minoria de Juan II 1407 1420 Comite Espanol de Ciencias Historicas ISBN 978 84 15069 56 0 Ladero Quesada Miguel Angel 2013 Poblacion de las ciudades en la Baja Edad Media Castilla Aragon Navarra PDF I Congresso Historico Internacional As cidades na historia Populacao Camara Municipal de Guimaraes pp 167 201 ISBN 978 989 8474 11 7 Liang Yuen Gen Balbale Abigail Krasner Devereux Andrew Gomez Rivas Camillo 2013 Unity and Disunity across the Strait of Gibraltar In Liang Yuen Gen Balbale Abigail Krasner Devereux Andrew Gomez Rivas Camillo eds Spanning the Strait Studies in Unity in the Western Mediterranean Leiden amp Boston BRILL pp 1 40 ISBN 978 90 04 25663 7 Llorente Juan Antonio 1843 The History of the Inquisition of Spain From the Time of Its Establishment to the Reign of Ferdinand VII Composed from the Original Documents of the Archives of the Supreme Council and from Those of Subordinate Tribunals of the Holy Office James M Campbell amp Company Lorenzo Lacruz J Vicente Serrano S M Lopez Moreno J I Gonzalez Hidalgo J C Moran Tejeda E 2011 The response of Iberian rivers to the North Atlantic Oscillation PDF Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 15 8 2581 2597 Bibcode 2011HESS 15 2581L doi 10 5194 hess 15 2581 2011 Marin Guzman Roberto 1991 Ethnic groups and social classes in Muslim Spain Islamic Studies 30 1 2 37 66 ISSN 0578 8072 JSTOR 20840024 Miranda Susana Munch 2017 Coping with Europe and the Empire 1500 1620 In Freire Dulce Lains Pedro eds An Agrarian History of Portugal 1000 2000 Economic Development on the European Frontier Leiden amp Boston Brill ISBN 978 90 04 31152 7 Munoz Bolanos Roberto 2012 El Salado El fin del problema del estrecho Revista Universitaria de Historia Militar 1 2 153 184 ISSN 2254 6111 Nemser Daniel 2018 The Iberian Slave Trade and the Racialization of Freedom History of the Present 8 2 117 139 doi 10 5406 historypresent 8 2 0117 ISSN 2159 9785 JSTOR 10 5406 historypresent 8 2 0117 O Brien Patrick Karl Prados de la Escosura Leandro 1998 The Costs and Benefits for Europeans from their Empires Overseas Revista de Historia Economica 16 29 89 doi 10 1017 S0212610900007059 S2CID 154976233 O Callaghan Joseph F 1983 1975 A History of Medieval Spain Ithaca amp London Cornell University Press ISBN 978 0 8014 9264 8 O Flanagan Patrick 2008 Port Cities of Atlantic Iberia c 1500 1900 Ashgate ISBN 978 0 7546 6109 2 Palmeiro Pineiro Jose Luis Pazos Oton Miguel 2008 La Eurorregion Galicia norte de Portugal una aproximacion a la movilidad en el contexto iberico Estudios Geograficos in Spanish Madrid Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas 69 264 215 245 doi 10 3989 egeogr 2008 i264 86 ISSN 1988 8546 Phillips William D 1996 The Spanish Kingdoms and the Wider World in the Later Middle Ages In Chevedden P E Jr Kagay D J Padilla P G eds Iberia and the Mediterranean World of the Middle Ages Vol II Brill pp 407 430 ISBN 90 04 10573 5 Rodrigues Jose Damiao 2011 The Flight of the Eagle an Island Tribute to the Universal Iberian Monarchy at the End of the Sixteenth Century PDF e Journal of Portuguese History 9 2 1 34 ISSN 1645 6432 Ruiz Teofilo F 2017 Spanish Society 1348 1700 Routledge ISBN 978 1 351 72091 5 Safran Janina M 2000 The Second Umayyad Caliphate The Articulation of Caliphal Legitimacy in Al Andalus Harvard University Press ISBN 0 932885 24 1 Sahlins Peter 1989 Boundaries The Making of France and Spain in the Pyrenees University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 91121 5 Sanchez Blanco Victor 1988 Las redes de Transporte entre la Peninsula Iberica y el resto de Europa Cuadernos de Estrategia in Spanish 7 21 32 ISSN 1697 6924 via Dialnet Sanchez Moral Simon 2011 Iberian Cities In Taylor Peter J Ni Pengfei Derudder Ben Hoyer Michael Huang Jing Witlox Frank eds Global Urban Analysis A Survey of Cities in Globalization London amp Washington DC Earthscan pp 312 317 ISBN 978 1 84971 213 2 Schaff Philip 2013 The Christian Church from the 1st to the 20th Century Delmarva Publications Silveira Luis Espinha da Alves Daniel Painho Marco Costa Ana Cristina Alcantara Ana 2013 The Evolution of Population Distribution on the Iberian Peninsula A Transnational Approach 1877 2001 Historical Methods A Journal of Quantitative and Interdisciplinary History 46 3 157 174 doi 10 1080 01615440 2013 804787 hdl 10362 11027 S2CID 53334755 Vernet Pons Mariona 2014 The Origin of the Name Sepharad A New Interpretation Journal of Semitic Studies 59 2 297 313 doi 10 1093 jss fgu002 hdl 2445 164860 Vicens Vives Jaime 1970 1967 Approaches to the History of Spain University of California Press p 37 ISBN 978 0 520 01422 0 Wallerstein Immanuel 2011 1974 The Modern World System I Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World Economy in the Sixteenth Century University of California Press Yun Casalilla Bartolome 2019 Iberian World Empires and the Globalization of Europe 1415 1668 Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 9811308338 Zembri Pierre Libourel Eloise 2017 Towards oversized high speed rail systems Some lessons from France and Spain Transportation Research Procedia 25 25 368 385 doi 10 1016 j trpro 2017 05 414 ISSN 2352 1465 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Iberian Peninsula Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Iberian Peninsula Arioso Paola Diego Meozzi Iberian Peninsula Links Stone Pages Retrieved 5 December 2008 Flores Carlos Maca Meyer Nicole Gonzalez Ana M Oefner Peter J Shen Peidong Perez Jose A Rojas Antonio Larruga Jose M Underhill Peter A 2004 Reduced genetic structure of the Iberian Peninsula revealed by Y chromosome analysis implications for population demography European Journal of Human Genetics 12 10 855 863 doi 10 1038 sj ejhg 5201225 PMID 15280900 S2CID 16765118 Loyd Nick 2007 IberiaNature A guide to the environment climate wildlife geography and nature of Spain Retrieved 4 December 2008 de Silva Luis Fraga Ethnologic Map of Pre Roman Iberia circa 200 B C NEW VERSION 10 in English Portuguese and Latin Associacao Campo Arqueologico de Tavira Tavira Portugal Archived from the original on 6 October 2008 Retrieved 4 December 2008 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Iberian Peninsula amp oldid 1150677351, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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