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Syntax

January 13, 2023

For other uses, see Syntax (disambiguation).
"Sentence structure" redirects here. For sentence structure in traditional grammar, see Sentence clause structure.

In linguistics, syntax (/ˈsɪntæks/)[1][2] is the study of how words and morphemes combine to form larger units such as phrases and sentences. Central concerns of syntax include word order, grammatical relations, hierarchical sentence structure (constituency),[3] agreement, the nature of crosslinguistic variation, and the relationship between form and meaning (semantics). There are numerous approaches to syntax that differ in their central assumptions and goals.

Etymology

The word syntax comes from Ancient Greek roots: σύνταξις "coordination", which consists of σύν syn, "together", and τάξις táxis, "ordering".

Topics

The field of syntax contains a number of various topics that a syntactic theory is often designed to handle. The relation between the topics is treated differently in different theories, and some of them may not be considered to be distinct but instead to be derived from one another (i.e. word order can be seen as the result of movement rules derived from grammatical relations).

Sequencing of subject, verb, and object

One basic description of a language's syntax is the sequence in which the subject (S), verb (V), and object (O) usually appear in sentences. Over 85% of languages usually place the subject first, either in the sequence SVO or the sequence SOV. The other possible sequences are VSO, VOS, OVS, and OSV, the last three of which are rare. In most generative theories of syntax, the surface differences arise from a more complex clausal phrase structure, and each order may be compatible with multiple derivations. However, word order can also reflect the semantics or function of the ordered elements.[4]

Grammatical relations

Another description of a language considers the set of possible grammatical relations in a language or in general and how they behave in relation to one another in the morphosyntactic alignment of the language. The description of grammatical relations can also reflect transitivity, passivization, and head-dependent-marking or other agreement. Languages have different criteria for grammatical relations. For example, subjecthood criteria may have implications for how the subject is referred to from a relative clause or coreferential with an element in an infinite clause.[5]

Constituency

Constituency is the feature of being a constituent and how words can work together to form a constituent (or phrase). Constituents are often moved as units, and the constituent can be the domain of agreement. Some languages allow discontinuous phrases in which words belonging to the same constituent are not immediately adjacent but are broken up by other constituents. Constituents may be recursive, as they may consist of other constituents, potentially of the same type.

Early history

The Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini, from c. 4th century BC in Ancient India, is often cited as an example of a premodern work that approaches the sophistication of a modern syntactic theory since works on grammar had been written long before modern syntax came about.[6] In the West, the school of thought that came to be known as "traditional grammar" began with the work of Dionysius Thrax.

For centuries, a framework known as grammaire générale, first expounded in 1660 by Antoine Arnauld in a book of the same title, dominated work in syntax: as its basic premise the assumption that language is a direct reflection of thought processes and so there is a single most natural way to express a thought.[citation needed]

However, in the 19th century, with the development of historical-comparative linguistics, linguists began to realize the sheer diversity of human language and to question fundamental assumptions about the relationship between language and logic. It became apparent that there was no such thing as the most natural way to express a thought and so logic could no longer be relied upon as a basis for studying the structure of language.[citation needed]

The Port-Royal grammar modeled the study of syntax upon that of logic. (Indeed, large parts of Port-Royal Logic were copied or adapted from the Grammaire générale.[7]) Syntactic categories were identified with logical ones, and all sentences were analyzed in terms of "subject – copula – predicate". Initially, that view was adopted even by the early comparative linguists such as Franz Bopp.

The central role of syntax within theoretical linguistics became clear only in the 20th century, which could reasonably be called the "century of syntactic theory" as far as linguistics is concerned. (For a detailed and critical survey of the history of syntax in the last two centuries, see the monumental work by Giorgio Graffi (2001).[8])

Theories

See also: Theory of language

There are a number of theoretical approaches to the discipline of syntax. One school of thought, founded in the works of Derek Bickerton,[9] sees syntax as a branch of biology, since it conceives of syntax as the study of linguistic knowledge as embodied in the human mind. Other linguists (e.g., Gerald Gazdar) take a more Platonistic view since they regard syntax to be the study of an abstract formal system.[10] Yet others (e.g., Joseph Greenberg) consider syntax a taxonomical device to reach broad generalizations across languages.

Syntacticians have attempted to explain the causes of word-order variation within individual languages and cross-linguistically. Much of such work has been done within the framework of generative grammar, which holds that syntax depends on a genetic endowment common to the human species. In that framework and in others, linguistic typology and universals have been primary explicanda.[11]

Alternative explanations, such as those by functional linguists, have been sought in language processing. It is suggested that the brain finds it easier to parse syntactic patterns that are either right- or left-branching but not mixed. The most-widely held approach is the performance–grammar correspondence hypothesis by John A. Hawkins, who suggests that language is a non-innate adaptation to innate cognitive mechanisms. Cross-linguistic tendencies are considered as being based on language users' preference for grammars that are organized efficiently and on their avoidance of word orderings that cause processing difficulty. Some languages, however, exhibit regular inefficient patterning such as the VO languages Chinese, with the adpositional phrase before the verb, and Finnish, which has postpositions, but there are few other profoundly exceptional languages.[12] More recently, it is suggested that the left- versus right-branching patterns are cross-linguistically related only to the place of role-marking connectives (adpositions and subordinators), which links the phenomena with the semantic mapping of sentences.[13]

Theoretical syntactic models

Dependency grammar

Main article: Dependency grammar

Dependency grammar is an approach to sentence structure in which syntactic units are arranged according to the dependency relation, as opposed to the constituency relation of phrase structure grammars. Dependencies are directed links between words. The (finite) verb is seen as the root of all clause structure and all the other words in the clause are either directly or indirectly dependent on the root. Some prominent dependency-based theories of syntax are the following:

Lucien Tesnière (1893–1954) is widely seen as the father of modern dependency-based theories of syntax and grammar. He argued vehemently against the binary division of the clause into subject and predicate that is associated with the grammars of his day (S → NP VP) and remains at the core of most phrase structure grammars. In the place of that division, he positioned the verb as the root of all clause structure.[14]

Categorial grammar

Main article: Categorial grammar

Categorial grammar is an approach in which constituents combine as function and argument, according to combinatory possibilities specified in their syntactic categories. For example, other approaches might posit a rule that combines a noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP), but CG would posit a syntactic category NP and another NP\S, read as "a category that searches to the left (indicated by \) for an NP (the element on the left) and outputs a sentence (the element on the right)." Thus, the syntactic category for an intransitive verb is a complex formula representing the fact that the verb acts as a function word requiring an NP as an input and produces a sentence level structure as an output. The complex category is notated as (NP\S) instead of V. The category of transitive verb is defined as an element that requires two NPs (its subject and its direct object) to form a sentence. That is notated as (NP/(NP\S)), which means, "A category that searches to the right (indicated by /) for an NP (the object) and generates a function (equivalent to the VP) which is (NP\S), which in turn represents a function that searches to the left for an NP and produces a sentence."

Tree-adjoining grammar is a categorial grammar that adds in partial tree structures to the categories.

Stochastic/probabilistic grammars/network theories

Theoretical approaches to syntax that are based upon probability theory are known as stochastic grammars. One common implementation of such an approach makes use of a neural network or connectionism.

Functional grammars

Main article: Functional theories of grammar

Functionalist models of grammar study the form–function interaction by performing a structural and a functional analysis.

Generative syntax

Generative syntax is the study of syntax within the overarching framework of generative grammar. Generative theories of syntax typically propose analyses of grammatical patterns using formal tools such as phrase structure grammars augmented with additional operations such as syntactic movement. Their goal in analyzing a particular language is to specify rules which generate all and only the expressions which are well-formed in that language. In doing so, they seek to identify innate domain-specific principles of linguistic cognition, in line with the wider goals of the generative enterprise. Generative syntax is among the approaches that adopt the principle of the autonomy of syntax by assuming that meaning and communicative intent is determined by the syntax, rather than the other way around.

Generative syntax was proposed in the late 1950s by Noam Chomsky, building on earlier work by Zellig Harris, Louis Hjelmslev, and others. Since then, numerous theories have been proposed under its umbrella:

Other theories that find their origin in the generative paradigm are:

Cognitive and usage-based grammars

Main article: Cognitive Linguistics

The Cognitive Linguistics framework stems from generative grammar but adheres to evolutionary, rather than Chomskyan, linguistics. Cognitive models often recognise the generative assumption that the object belongs to the verb phrase. Cognitive frameworks include the following:

See also

Syntactic terms

References

Citations

  1. ^ . Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 2020-03-22.
  2. ^ "syntax". Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
  3. ^ Luuk, Erkki (2015). "Syntax–Semantics Interface". In Wright, James D. (ed.). International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 900–905. doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4. ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.
  4. ^ Rijkhoff, Jan (2015). "Word Order" (PDF). In Wright, James D. (ed.). International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 644–656. doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.53031-1. ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.
  5. ^ Shibatani, Masayoshi (2021). "Syntactic Typology". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.154. ISBN 978-0-19-938465-5.
  6. ^ Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Blackwell. p. 186. ISBN 978-1-4051-8896-8. [The Aṣṭādhyāyī] is a highly precise and thorough description of the structure of Sanskrit somewhat resembling modern generative grammar...[it] remained the most advanced linguistic analysis of any kind until the twentieth century.
  7. ^ Arnauld, Antoine (1683). La logique (5th ed.). Paris: G. Desprez. p. 137. Nous avons emprunté...ce que nous avons dit...d'un petit Livre...sous le titre de Grammaire générale.
  8. ^ Graffi (2001).
  9. ^ See Bickerton, Derek (1990). Language & Species. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-04610-9. and, for more recent advances, Bickerton, Derek; Szathmáry, Eörs, eds. (2009). Biological Foundations and Origin of Syntax. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01356-7.
  10. ^ Gazdar, Gerald (2 May 2001). (Interview). Interviewed by Ted Briscoe. Archived from the original on 2005-11-22. Retrieved 2008-06-04.
  11. ^ Moravcsik, Edith (2010). "Explaining Language Universals". The Oxford Handbook of Linguistic Typology. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199281251.013.0005. Retrieved 2022-03-13.
  12. ^ Song, Jae Jung (2012). Word Order. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-03393-0.
  13. ^ Austin, Patrik (2021). "A semantic and pragmatic explanation of harmony". Acta Linguistica Hafniensia. 54 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1080/03740463.2021.1987685. S2CID 244941417. Retrieved 2022-05-19.
  14. ^ Concerning Tesnière's rejection of the binary division of the clause into subject and predicate and in favor of the verb as the root of all structure, see Tesnière (1969:103–105).
  15. ^ Chomsky, Noam (1957). Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton. p. 15.
  16. ^ Chomsky, Noam (1993). Lectures on Government and Binding: The Pisa Lectures (7th ed.). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-014131-0.
  17. ^ Chomsky, Noam (1995). The Minimalist Program. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.

Sources

  • Brown, Keith; Miller, Jim, eds. (1996). Concise Encyclopedia of Syntactic Theories. New York: Elsevier Science. ISBN 0-08-042711-1.
  • Carnie, Andrew (2006). Syntax: A Generative Introduction (2nd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-3384-8.
  • Freidin, Robert; Lasnik, Howard, eds. (2006). Syntax. Critical Concepts in Linguistics. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24672-5.
  • Graffi, Giorgio (2001). 200 Years of Syntax: A Critical Survey. Studies in the History of the Language Sciences 98. Amsterdam: Benjamins. ISBN 90-272-4587-8.
  • Talasiewicz, Mieszko (2009). Philosophy of Syntax – Foundational Topics. Dordrecht: Springer. ISBN 978-90-481-3287-4. An interdisciplinary essay on the interplay between logic and linguistics on syntactic theories.
  • Tesnière, Lucien (1969). Eléments de syntaxe structurale (in French) (2nd ed.). Paris: Klincksieck. ISBN 2-252-01861-5.

Further reading

  • Everaert, Martin; Van Riemsdijk, Henk; Goedemans, Rob; Hollebrandse, Bart, eds. (2006). The Blackwell Companion to Syntax. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-1485-1. 5 Volumes; 77 case studies of syntactic phenomena.
  • Isac, Daniela; Reiss, Charles (2013). I-Language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-966017-9.
  • Moravcsik, Edith A. (2006). An Introduction to Syntax: Fundamentals of Syntactic Analysis. London: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-8946-3. Attempts to be a theory-neutral introduction. The companion Moravcsik, Edith A. (2006). An Introduction to Syntactic Theory. London: Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-8943-5. surveys the major theories. Jointly reviewed in Hewson, John (2009). "An Introduction to Syntax: Fundamentals of Syntactic Analysis, And: An Introduction to Syntactic Theory (Review)". The Canadian Journal of Linguistics / La revue canadienne de linguistique. 54 (1): 172–175. doi:10.1353/cjl.0.0036. S2CID 144032671.
  • Müller, Stefan (2020). Grammatical Theory: From Transformational Grammar to Constraint-Based Approaches (4th revised and extended ed.). Berlin: Language Science Press. ISBN 978-3-96110-273-0.
  • Roark, Brian; Sproat, Richard William (2007). Computational Approaches to Morphology and Syntax. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927477-2. part II: Computational approaches to syntax.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Syntax.
  • The syntax of natural language: An online introduction using the Trees program – Beatrice Santorini & Anthony Kroch, University of Pennsylvania, 2007

January 13, 2023
syntax, other, uses, disambiguation, sentence, structure, redirects, here, sentence, structure, traditional, grammar, sentence, clause, structure, linguistics, syntax, study, words, morphemes, combine, form, larger, units, such, phrases, sentences, central, co. For other uses see Syntax disambiguation Sentence structure redirects here For sentence structure in traditional grammar see Sentence clause structure In linguistics syntax ˈ s ɪ n t ae k s 1 2 is the study of how words and morphemes combine to form larger units such as phrases and sentences Central concerns of syntax include word order grammatical relations hierarchical sentence structure constituency 3 agreement the nature of crosslinguistic variation and the relationship between form and meaning semantics There are numerous approaches to syntax that differ in their central assumptions and goals Contents 1 Etymology 2 Topics 2 1 Sequencing of subject verb and object 2 2 Grammatical relations 2 3 Constituency 3 Early history 4 Theories 5 Theoretical syntactic models 5 1 Dependency grammar 5 2 Categorial grammar 5 3 Stochastic probabilistic grammars network theories 5 4 Functional grammars 5 5 Generative syntax 5 6 Cognitive and usage based grammars 6 See also 6 1 Syntactic terms 7 References 7 1 Citations 7 2 Sources 8 Further reading 9 External linksEtymology EditThe word syntax comes from Ancient Greek roots synta3is coordination which consists of syn syn together and ta3is taxis ordering Topics EditThe field of syntax contains a number of various topics that a syntactic theory is often designed to handle The relation between the topics is treated differently in different theories and some of them may not be considered to be distinct but instead to be derived from one another i e word order can be seen as the result of movement rules derived from grammatical relations Sequencing of subject verb and object Edit One basic description of a language s syntax is the sequence in which the subject S verb V and object O usually appear in sentences Over 85 of languages usually place the subject first either in the sequence SVO or the sequence SOV The other possible sequences are VSO VOS OVS and OSV the last three of which are rare In most generative theories of syntax the surface differences arise from a more complex clausal phrase structure and each order may be compatible with multiple derivations However word order can also reflect the semantics or function of the ordered elements 4 Grammatical relations Edit Another description of a language considers the set of possible grammatical relations in a language or in general and how they behave in relation to one another in the morphosyntactic alignment of the language The description of grammatical relations can also reflect transitivity passivization and head dependent marking or other agreement Languages have different criteria for grammatical relations For example subjecthood criteria may have implications for how the subject is referred to from a relative clause or coreferential with an element in an infinite clause 5 Constituency Edit Constituency is the feature of being a constituent and how words can work together to form a constituent or phrase Constituents are often moved as units and the constituent can be the domain of agreement Some languages allow discontinuous phrases in which words belonging to the same constituent are not immediately adjacent but are broken up by other constituents Constituents may be recursive as they may consist of other constituents potentially of the same type Early history EditThe Aṣṭadhyayi of Paṇini from c 4th century BC in Ancient India is often cited as an example of a premodern work that approaches the sophistication of a modern syntactic theory since works on grammar had been written long before modern syntax came about 6 In the West the school of thought that came to be known as traditional grammar began with the work of Dionysius Thrax For centuries a framework known as grammaire generale first expounded in 1660 by Antoine Arnauld in a book of the same title dominated work in syntax as its basic premise the assumption that language is a direct reflection of thought processes and so there is a single most natural way to express a thought citation needed However in the 19th century with the development of historical comparative linguistics linguists began to realize the sheer diversity of human language and to question fundamental assumptions about the relationship between language and logic It became apparent that there was no such thing as the most natural way to express a thought and so logic could no longer be relied upon as a basis for studying the structure of language citation needed The Port Royal grammar modeled the study of syntax upon that of logic Indeed large parts of Port Royal Logic were copied or adapted from the Grammaire generale 7 Syntactic categories were identified with logical ones and all sentences were analyzed in terms of subject copula predicate Initially that view was adopted even by the early comparative linguists such as Franz Bopp The central role of syntax within theoretical linguistics became clear only in the 20th century which could reasonably be called the century of syntactic theory as far as linguistics is concerned For a detailed and critical survey of the history of syntax in the last two centuries see the monumental work by Giorgio Graffi 2001 8 Theories EditSee also Theory of language There are a number of theoretical approaches to the discipline of syntax One school of thought founded in the works of Derek Bickerton 9 sees syntax as a branch of biology since it conceives of syntax as the study of linguistic knowledge as embodied in the human mind Other linguists e g Gerald Gazdar take a more Platonistic view since they regard syntax to be the study of an abstract formal system 10 Yet others e g Joseph Greenberg consider syntax a taxonomical device to reach broad generalizations across languages Syntacticians have attempted to explain the causes of word order variation within individual languages and cross linguistically Much of such work has been done within the framework of generative grammar which holds that syntax depends on a genetic endowment common to the human species In that framework and in others linguistic typology and universals have been primary explicanda 11 Alternative explanations such as those by functional linguists have been sought in language processing It is suggested that the brain finds it easier to parse syntactic patterns that are either right or left branching but not mixed The most widely held approach is the performance grammar correspondence hypothesis by John A Hawkins who suggests that language is a non innate adaptation to innate cognitive mechanisms Cross linguistic tendencies are considered as being based on language users preference for grammars that are organized efficiently and on their avoidance of word orderings that cause processing difficulty Some languages however exhibit regular inefficient patterning such as the VO languages Chinese with the adpositional phrase before the verb and Finnish which has postpositions but there are few other profoundly exceptional languages 12 More recently it is suggested that the left versus right branching patterns are cross linguistically related only to the place of role marking connectives adpositions and subordinators which links the phenomena with the semantic mapping of sentences 13 Theoretical syntactic models EditDependency grammar Edit Main article Dependency grammar Dependency grammar is an approach to sentence structure in which syntactic units are arranged according to the dependency relation as opposed to the constituency relation of phrase structure grammars Dependencies are directed links between words The finite verb is seen as the root of all clause structure and all the other words in the clause are either directly or indirectly dependent on the root Some prominent dependency based theories of syntax are the following Recursive categorical syntax or algebraic syntax Functional generative description Meaning text theory Operator grammar Word grammarLucien Tesniere 1893 1954 is widely seen as the father of modern dependency based theories of syntax and grammar He argued vehemently against the binary division of the clause into subject and predicate that is associated with the grammars of his day S NP VP and remains at the core of most phrase structure grammars In the place of that division he positioned the verb as the root of all clause structure 14 Categorial grammar Edit Main article Categorial grammar Categorial grammar is an approach in which constituents combine as function and argument according to combinatory possibilities specified in their syntactic categories For example other approaches might posit a rule that combines a noun phrase NP and a verb phrase VP but CG would posit a syntactic category NP and another NP S read as a category that searches to the left indicated by for an NP the element on the left and outputs a sentence the element on the right Thus the syntactic category for an intransitive verb is a complex formula representing the fact that the verb acts as a function word requiring an NP as an input and produces a sentence level structure as an output The complex category is notated as NP S instead of V The category of transitive verb is defined as an element that requires two NPs its subject and its direct object to form a sentence That is notated as NP NP S which means A category that searches to the right indicated by for an NP the object and generates a function equivalent to the VP which is NP S which in turn represents a function that searches to the left for an NP and produces a sentence Tree adjoining grammar is a categorial grammar that adds in partial tree structures to the categories Stochastic probabilistic grammars network theories Edit Theoretical approaches to syntax that are based upon probability theory are known as stochastic grammars One common implementation of such an approach makes use of a neural network or connectionism Functional grammars Edit Main article Functional theories of grammar Functionalist models of grammar study the form function interaction by performing a structural and a functional analysis Functional discourse grammar Dik Prague linguistic circle Role and reference grammar RRG Systemic functional grammarGenerative syntax Edit Generative syntax is the study of syntax within the overarching framework of generative grammar Generative theories of syntax typically propose analyses of grammatical patterns using formal tools such as phrase structure grammars augmented with additional operations such as syntactic movement Their goal in analyzing a particular language is to specify rules which generate all and only the expressions which are well formed in that language In doing so they seek to identify innate domain specific principles of linguistic cognition in line with the wider goals of the generative enterprise Generative syntax is among the approaches that adopt the principle of the autonomy of syntax by assuming that meaning and communicative intent is determined by the syntax rather than the other way around Generative syntax was proposed in the late 1950s by Noam Chomsky building on earlier work by Zellig Harris Louis Hjelmslev and others Since then numerous theories have been proposed under its umbrella Transformational grammar TG Original theory of generative syntax laid out by Chomsky in Syntactic Structures in 1957 15 Government and binding theory GB revised theory in the tradition of TG developed mainly by Chomsky in the 1970s and 1980s 16 Minimalist program MP a reworking of the theory out of the GB framework published by Chomsky in 1995 17 Other theories that find their origin in the generative paradigm are Arc pair grammar Generalized phrase structure grammar GPSG Generative semantics Head driven phrase structure grammar HPSG Lexical functional grammar LFG Nanosyntax Relational grammar RG Harmonic grammar HG Cognitive and usage based grammars Edit Main article Cognitive Linguistics The Cognitive Linguistics framework stems from generative grammar but adheres to evolutionary rather than Chomskyan linguistics Cognitive models often recognise the generative assumption that the object belongs to the verb phrase Cognitive frameworks include the following Cognitive grammar Construction grammar CxG Emergent grammarSee also EditCartographic syntax List of syntactic phenomena Metasyntax Musical syntax Semiotics Syntactic category Syntax academic journal Syntax programming languages Syntax Semantics Interface UsageSyntactic terms Edit Adjective Adjective phrase Adjunct Adpositional phrase Adverb Anaphora Answer ellipsis Antecedent Antecedent contained deletion Appositive Argument Article Aspect Attributive adjective and predicative adjective Auxiliary verb Binding Branching c command Case Category Catena Clause Closed class word Comparative Complement Compound noun and adjective Conjugation Conjunction Constituent Coordination Coreference Crossover Dangling modifier Declension Dependency grammar Dependent marking Determiner Discontinuity Do support Dual form for two Ellipsis Endocentric Exceptional case marking Expletive Extraposition Finite verb Function word Gapping Gender Gerund Government Head Head marking Infinitive Inverse copular construction Inversion Lexical item Logical form linguistics m command Measure word classifier Merge Modal particle Modal verb Modifier Mood Movement Movement paradox Nanosyntax Negative inversion Non configurational language Non finite verb Noun Noun ellipsis Noun phrase Number Object Open class word Parasitic gap Part of speech Particle Periphrasis Person Personal pronoun Pied piping Phrasal verb Phrase Phrase structure grammar Plural Predicate Predicative expression Preposition and postposition Pronoun Pseudogapping Raising Grammatical relation Restrictiveness Right node raising Sandhi Scrambling Selection Sentence Separable verb Shifting Singular Sluicing Small clause Stripping Subcategorization Subject Subject auxiliary inversion Subject verb inversion Subordination Superlative Tense Topicalization Tough movement Uninflected word V2 word order Valency Verb Verb phrase Verb phrase ellipsis Voice Wh movement Word order X bar theoryReferences EditCitations Edit syntax Lexico UK English Dictionary Oxford University Press Archived from the original on 2020 03 22 syntax Merriam Webster Dictionary Luuk Erkki 2015 Syntax Semantics Interface In Wright James D ed International Encyclopedia of the Social amp Behavioral Sciences 2nd ed Amsterdam Elsevier pp 900 905 doi 10 1016 b978 0 08 097086 8 57035 4 ISBN 978 0 08 097087 5 Rijkhoff Jan 2015 Word Order PDF In Wright James D ed International Encyclopedia of the Social amp Behavioral Sciences 2nd ed Amsterdam Elsevier pp 644 656 doi 10 1016 b978 0 08 097086 8 53031 1 ISBN 978 0 08 097087 5 Shibatani Masayoshi 2021 Syntactic Typology Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics Oxford Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 acrefore 9780199384655 013 154 ISBN 978 0 19 938465 5 Fortson Benjamin W 2004 Indo European Language and Culture An Introduction Blackwell p 186 ISBN 978 1 4051 8896 8 The Aṣṭadhyayi is a highly precise and thorough description of the structure of Sanskrit somewhat resembling modern generative grammar it remained the most advanced linguistic analysis of any kind until the twentieth century Arnauld Antoine 1683 La logique 5th ed Paris G Desprez p 137 Nous avons emprunte ce que nous avons dit d un petit Livre sous le titre de Grammaire generale Graffi 2001 See Bickerton Derek 1990 Language amp Species Chicago University of Chicago Press ISBN 0 226 04610 9 and for more recent advances Bickerton Derek Szathmary Eors eds 2009 Biological Foundations and Origin of Syntax Cambridge Massachusetts MIT Press ISBN 978 0 262 01356 7 Gazdar Gerald 2 May 2001 Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar Interview Interviewed by Ted Briscoe Archived from the original on 2005 11 22 Retrieved 2008 06 04 Moravcsik Edith 2010 Explaining Language Universals The Oxford Handbook of Linguistic Typology doi 10 1093 oxfordhb 9780199281251 013 0005 Retrieved 2022 03 13 Song Jae Jung 2012 Word Order New York Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 139 03393 0 Austin Patrik 2021 A semantic and pragmatic explanation of harmony Acta Linguistica Hafniensia 54 1 1 23 doi 10 1080 03740463 2021 1987685 S2CID 244941417 Retrieved 2022 05 19 Concerning Tesniere s rejection of the binary division of the clause into subject and predicate and in favor of the verb as the root of all structure see Tesniere 1969 103 105 Chomsky Noam 1957 Syntactic Structures The Hague Mouton p 15 Chomsky Noam 1993 Lectures on Government and Binding The Pisa Lectures 7th ed Berlin Mouton de Gruyter ISBN 3 11 014131 0 Chomsky Noam 1995 The Minimalist Program Cambridge Massachusetts The MIT Press Sources Edit Brown Keith Miller Jim eds 1996 Concise Encyclopedia of Syntactic Theories New York Elsevier Science ISBN 0 08 042711 1 Carnie Andrew 2006 Syntax A Generative Introduction 2nd ed Oxford Wiley Blackwell ISBN 1 4051 3384 8 Freidin Robert Lasnik Howard eds 2006 Syntax Critical Concepts in Linguistics New York Routledge ISBN 0 415 24672 5 Graffi Giorgio 2001 200 Years of Syntax A Critical Survey Studies in the History of the Language Sciences 98 Amsterdam Benjamins ISBN 90 272 4587 8 Talasiewicz Mieszko 2009 Philosophy of Syntax Foundational Topics Dordrecht Springer ISBN 978 90 481 3287 4 An interdisciplinary essay on the interplay between logic and linguistics on syntactic theories Tesniere Lucien 1969 Elements de syntaxe structurale in French 2nd ed Paris Klincksieck ISBN 2 252 01861 5 Further reading EditEveraert Martin Van Riemsdijk Henk Goedemans Rob Hollebrandse Bart eds 2006 The Blackwell Companion to Syntax Malden Massachusetts Blackwell ISBN 978 1 4051 1485 1 5 Volumes 77 case studies of syntactic phenomena Isac Daniela Reiss Charles 2013 I Language An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science 2nd ed Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 966017 9 Moravcsik Edith A 2006 An Introduction to Syntax Fundamentals of Syntactic Analysis London Continuum ISBN 978 0 8264 8946 3 Attempts to be a theory neutral introduction The companion Moravcsik Edith A 2006 An Introduction to Syntactic Theory London Continuum ISBN 0 8264 8943 5 surveys the major theories Jointly reviewed in Hewson John 2009 An Introduction to Syntax Fundamentals of Syntactic Analysis And An Introduction to Syntactic Theory Review The Canadian Journal of Linguistics La revue canadienne de linguistique 54 1 172 175 doi 10 1353 cjl 0 0036 S2CID 144032671 Muller Stefan 2020 Grammatical Theory From Transformational Grammar to Constraint Based Approaches 4th revised and extended ed Berlin Language Science Press ISBN 978 3 96110 273 0 Roark Brian Sproat Richard William 2007 Computational Approaches to Morphology and Syntax Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 927477 2 part II Computational approaches to syntax External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Syntax The syntax of natural language An online introduction using the Trees program Beatrice Santorini amp Anthony Kroch University of Pennsylvania 2007 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Syntax amp oldid 1131471529, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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