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Carthage

April 15, 2023

This article is about the historical city. For the Phoenician republic, see Ancient Carthage. For the modern municipality, see Carthage (municipality). For the airport, see Tunis–Carthage International Airport. For other uses, see Carthage (disambiguation).

Carthage[a] was the capital city of ancient Carthage, on the eastern side of the Lake of Tunis in what is now Tunisia. Carthage was one of the most important trading hubs of the Ancient Mediterranean and one of the most affluent cities of the classical world.

Carthage
Top: Carthage Saint-Louis Cathedral, Malik-ibn Anas Mosque, Middle: Carthage Palace, Bottom: Baths of Antoninus, Amphitheatre of Carthage (all items from left to right)
Shown within Tunisia
LocationTunisia
RegionTunis Governorate
Coordinates36°51′10″N 10°19′24″E / 36.8528°N 10.3233°E / 36.8528; 10.3233
TypeCultural
Criteriaii, iii, vi
Designated1979 (3rd session)
Reference no.37
RegionNorth Africa

The city developed from a Canaanite Phoenician colony into the capital of a Punic empire which dominated large parts of the Southwest Mediterranean during the first millennium BC.[1] The legendary Queen Alyssa or Dido, originally from Tyre, is regarded as the founder of the city,[2] though her historicity has been questioned. According to accounts by Timaeus of Tauromenium, she purchased from a local tribe the amount of land that could be covered by an oxhide. As Carthage prospered at home, the polity sent colonists abroad as well as magistrates to rule the colonies.[3]

The ancient city was destroyed in the nearly-three year siege of Carthage by the Roman Republic during the Third Punic War in 146 BC. It was re-developed a century later as Roman Carthage, which became the major city of the Roman Empire in the province of Africa. The question of Carthaginian decline and demise has remained a subject of literary, political, artistic, and philosophical debates in both ancient and modern histories.[3][4]

Late antique and medieval Carthage continued to play an important cultural and economic role in the Byzantine period. The city was sacked and destroyed by Umayyad forces after the Battle of Carthage in 698 to prevent it from being reconquered by the Byzantine Empire.[5] It remained occupied during the Muslim period[6] and was used as a fort by the Muslims until the Hafsid period when it was taken by the Crusaders with its inhabitants massacred during the Eighth Crusade. The Hafsids decided to destroy its defenses so it could not be used as a base by a hostile power again.[7] It also continued to function as an episcopal see.

The regional power had shifted to Kairouan and the Medina of Tunis in the medieval period, until the early 20th century, when it began to develop into a coastal suburb of Tunis, incorporated as Carthage municipality in 1919. The archaeological site was first surveyed in 1830, by Danish consul Christian Tuxen Falbe. Excavations were performed in the second half of the 19th century by Charles Ernest Beulé and by Alfred Louis Delattre. The Carthage National Museum was founded in 1875 by Cardinal Charles Lavigerie. Excavations performed by French archaeologists in the 1920s first attracted an extraordinary amount of attention because of the evidence they produced for child sacrifice. There has been considerable disagreement among scholars concerning whether child sacrifice was practiced by ancient Carthage.[8][9] The open-air Carthage Paleo-Christian Museum has exhibits excavated under the auspices of UNESCO from 1975 to 1984. The site of the ruins is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[10]

Reconstruction of Carthage, capital of the Canaanites

Name

Further information: Phoenicia § Etymology

The name Carthage (/ˈkɑːrθɪdʒ/ KAR-thij) is the Early Modern anglicisation of Middle French Carthage /kartaʒ/,[11] from Latin Carthāgō and Karthāgō (cf. Greek Karkhēdōn (Καρχηδών) and Etruscan *Carθaza) from the Punic qrt-ḥdšt (𐤒𐤓𐤕 𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕‎) "new city",[b] implying it was a "new Tyre".[13] The Latin adjective pūnicus, meaning "Phoenician", is reflected in English in some borrowings from Latin—notably the Punic Wars and the Punic language.

The Modern Standard Arabic form  Qarṭāj (قرطاج) is an adoption of French Carthage, replacing an older local toponym reported as Cartagenna that directly continued the Latin name.[14]

Topography, layout, and society

 
Modern reconstruction of Punic Carthage. The circular harbor at the front is the Cothon, the military port of Carthage, where all of Carthage's warships (Biremes) were anchored

Overview

Carthage was built on a promontory with sea inlets to the north and the south. The city's location made it master of the Mediterranean's maritime trade. All ships crossing the sea had to pass between Sicily and the coast of Tunisia, where Carthage was built, affording it great power and influence. Two large, artificial harbors were built within the city, one for harboring the city's prodigious navy of 220 warships and the other for mercantile trade. A walled tower overlooked both harbors. The city had massive walls, 37 km (23 mi) long, which was longer than the walls of comparable cities. Most of the walls were on the shore and so could be less impressive, as Carthaginian control of the sea made attack from that direction difficult. The 4.0 to 4.8 km (2.5 to 3 mi) of wall on the isthmus to the west were truly massive and were never penetrated.

Carthage was one of the largest cities of the Hellenistic period and was among the largest cities in preindustrial history. Whereas by AD 14, Rome had at least 750,000 inhabitants and in the following century may have reached 1 million, the cities of Alexandria and Antioch numbered only a few hundred thousand or less.[15] According to the history of Herodian, Carthage rivaled Alexandria for second place in the Roman empire.[16]

Layout

 
The layout of the Punic city-state Carthage, before its fall in 146 B.C.

The Punic Carthage was divided into four equally sized residential areas with the same layout, had religious areas, market places, council house, towers, a theater, and a huge necropolis; roughly in the middle of the city stood a high citadel called the Byrsa. Surrounding Carthage were walls "of great strength" said in places to rise above 13 m, being nearly 10 m thick, according to ancient authors. To the west, three parallel walls were built. The walls altogether ran for about 33 kilometres (21 miles) to encircle the city.[17][18] The heights of the Byrsa were additionally fortified; this area being the last to succumb to the Romans in 146 BC. Originally the Romans had landed their army on the strip of land extending southward from the city.[19][20]

Outside the city walls of Carthage is the Chora or farm lands of Carthage. Chora encompassed a limited area: the north coastal tell, the lower Bagradas river valley (inland from Utica), Cape Bon, and the adjacent sahel on the east coast. Punic culture here achieved the introduction of agricultural sciences first developed for lands of the eastern Mediterranean, and their adaptation to local African conditions.[21]

The urban landscape of Carthage is known in part from ancient authors,[22] augmented by modern digs and surveys conducted by archeologists. The "first urban nucleus" dating to the seventh century, in area about 10 hectares (25 acres), was apparently located on low-lying lands along the coast (north of the later harbors). As confirmed by archaeological excavations, Carthage was a "creation ex nihilo", built on 'virgin' land, and situated at what was then the end of a peninsula. Here among "mud brick walls and beaten clay floors" (recently uncovered) were also found extensive cemeteries, which yielded evocative grave goods like clay masks. "Thanks to this burial archaeology we know more about archaic Carthage than about any other contemporary city in the western Mediterranean." Already in the eighth century, fabric dyeing operations had been established, evident from crushed shells of murex (from which the 'Phoenician purple' was derived). Nonetheless, only a "meager picture" of the cultural life of the earliest pioneers in the city can be conjectured, and not much about housing, monuments or defenses.[23][24] The Roman poet Virgil (70–19 BC) imagined early Carthage, when his legendary character Aeneas had arrived there:

"Aeneas found, where lately huts had been,
marvelous buildings, gateways, cobbled ways,
and din of wagons. There the Tyrians
were hard at work: laying courses for walls,
rolling up stones to build the citadel,
while others picked out building sites and plowed
a boundary furrow. Laws were being enacted,
magistrates and a sacred senate chosen.
Here men were dredging harbors, there they laid
the deep foundations of a theatre,
and quarried massive pillars... ."[25][26]

 
Archaeological sites of modern Carthage

The two inner harbours, named cothon in Punic, were located in the southeast; one being commercial, and the other for war. Their definite functions are not entirely known, probably for the construction, outfitting, or repair of ships, perhaps also loading and unloading cargo.[27][28][29] Larger anchorages existed to the north and south of the city.[30] North and west of the cothon were located several industrial areas, e.g., metalworking and pottery (e.g., for amphora), which could serve both inner harbours, and ships anchored to the south of the city.[31]

About the Byrsa, the citadel area to the north,[32] considering its importance our knowledge of it is patchy. Its prominent heights were the scene of fierce combat during the fiery destruction of the city in 146 BC. The Byrsa was the reported site of the Temple of Eshmun (the healing god), at the top of a stairway of sixty steps.[33][34] A temple of Tanit (the city's queen goddess) was likely situated on the slope of the 'lesser Byrsa' immediately to the east, which runs down toward the sea.[35] Also situated on the Byrsa were luxury homes.[36]

South of the citadel, near the cothon was the tophet, a special and very old cemetery, which when begun lay outside the city's boundaries. Here the Salammbô was located, the Sanctuary of Tanit, not a temple but an enclosure for placing stone stelae. These were mostly short and upright, carved for funeral purposes. The presence of infant skeletons from here may indicate the occurrence of child sacrifice, as claimed in the Bible, although there has been considerable doubt among archeologists as to this interpretation and many consider it simply a cemetery devoted to infants.[37] Probably the tophet burial fields were "dedicated at an early date, perhaps by the first settlers."[38][39] Recent studies, on the other hand, indicate that child sacrifice was practiced by the Carthaginians.[40][41]

Between the sea-filled cothon for shipping and the Byrsa heights lay the agora [Greek: "market"], the city-state's central marketplace for business and commerce. The agora was also an area of public squares and plazas, where the people might formally assemble, or gather for festivals. It was the site of religious shrines, and the location of whatever were the major municipal buildings of Carthage. Here beat the heart of civic life. In this district of Carthage, more probably, the ruling suffets presided, the council of elders convened, the tribunal of the 104 met, and justice was dispensed at trials in the open air.[42][43]

Early residential districts wrapped around the Byrsa from the south to the north east. Houses usually were whitewashed and blank to the street, but within were courtyards open to the sky.[44] In these neighborhoods multistory construction later became common, some up to six stories tall according to an ancient Greek author.[45][46] Several architectural floorplans of homes have been revealed by recent excavations, as well as the general layout of several city blocks. Stone stairs were set in the streets, and drainage was planned, e.g., in the form of soakaways leaching into the sandy soil.[47] Along the Byrsa's southern slope were located not only fine old homes, but also many of the earliest grave-sites, juxtaposed in small areas, interspersed with daily life.[48]

Artisan workshops were located in the city at sites north and west of the harbours. The location of three metal workshops (implied from iron slag and other vestiges of such activity) were found adjacent to the naval and commercial harbours, and another two were further up the hill toward the Byrsa citadel. Sites of pottery kilns have been identified, between the agora and the harbours, and further north. Earthenware often used Greek models. A fuller's shop for preparing woolen cloth (shrink and thicken) was evidently situated further to the west and south, then by the edge of the city.[49] Carthage also produced objects of rare refinement. During the 4th and 3rd centuries, the sculptures of the sarcophagi became works of art. "Bronze engraving and stone-carving reached their zenith."[50]

The elevation of the land at the promontory on the seashore to the north-east (now called Sidi Bou Saïd), was twice as high above sea level as that at the Byrsa (100 m and 50 m). In between runs a ridge, several times reaching 50 m; it continues northwestward along the seashore, and forms the edge of a plateau-like area between the Byrsa and the sea.[51] Newer urban developments lay here in these northern districts.[52]

 
Punic ruins in Byrsa
 
Archaeological Site of Carthage

Due to the Roman's leveling of the city, the original Punic urban landscape of Carthage was largely lost. Since 1982, French archaeologist Serge Lancel excavated a residential area of the Punic Carthage on top of Byrsa hill near the Forum of the Roman Carthage. The neighborhood can be dated back to early second century BC, and with its houses, shops, and private spaces, is significant for what it reveals about daily life of the Punic Carthage.[53]

The remains have been preserved under embankments, the substructures of the later Roman forum, whose foundation piles dot the district. The housing blocks are separated by a grid of straight streets about 6 m (20 ft) wide, with a roadway consisting of clay; in situ stairs compensate for the slope of the hill. Construction of this type presupposes organization and political will, and has inspired the name of the neighborhood, "Hannibal district", referring to the legendary Punic general or sufet (consul) at the beginning of the second century BC. The habitat is typical, even stereotypical. The street was often used as a storefront/shopfront; cisterns were installed in basements to collect water for domestic use, and a long corridor on the right side of each residence led to a courtyard containing a sump, around which various other elements may be found. In some places, the ground is covered with mosaics called punica pavement, sometimes using a characteristic red mortar.

Society and local economy

 
Archaeological Site of Carthage
 
View of two columns at Carthage

Punic culture and agricultural sciences, after arriving at Carthage from the eastern Mediterranean, gradually adapted to the local conditions. The merchant harbor at Carthage was developed after settlement of the nearby Punic town of Utica, and eventually the surrounding African countryside was brought into the orbit of the Punic urban centers, first commercially, then politically. Direct management over cultivation of neighbouring lands by Punic owners followed.[54] A 28-volume work on agriculture written in Punic by Mago, a retired army general (c. 300), was translated into Latin and later into Greek. The original and both translations have been lost; however, some of Mago's text has survived in other Latin works.[55] Olive trees (e.g., grafting), fruit trees (pomegranate, almond, fig, date palm), viniculture, bees, cattle, sheep, poultry, implements, and farm management were among the ancient topics which Mago discussed. As well, Mago addresses the wine-maker's art (here a type of sherry).[56][57][58]

In Punic farming society, according to Mago, the small estate owners were the chief producers. They were, two modern historians write, not absent landlords. Rather, the likely reader of Mago was "the master of a relatively modest estate, from which, by great personal exertion, he extracted the maximum yield." Mago counselled the rural landowner, for the sake of their own 'utilitarian' interests, to treat carefully and well their managers and farm workers, or their overseers and slaves.[59] Yet elsewhere these writers suggest that rural land ownership provided also a new power base among the city's nobility, for those resident in their country villas.[60][61] By many, farming was viewed as an alternative endeavour to an urban business. Another modern historian opines that more often it was the urban merchant of Carthage who owned rural farming land to some profit, and also to retire there during the heat of summer.[62] It may seem that Mago anticipated such an opinion, and instead issued this contrary advice (as quoted by the Roman writer Columella):

The man who acquires an estate must sell his house, lest he prefer to live in the town rather than in the country. Anyone who prefers to live in a town has no need of an estate in the country."[63] "One who has bought land should sell his town house, so that he will have no desire to worship the household gods of the city rather than those of the country; the man who takes greater delight in his city residence will have no need of a country estate.[64]

The issues involved in rural land management also reveal underlying features of Punic society, its structure and stratification. The hired workers might be considered 'rural proletariat', drawn from the local Berbers. Whether there remained Berber landowners next to Punic-run farms is unclear. Some Berbers became sharecroppers. Slaves acquired for farm work were often prisoners of war. In lands outside Punic political control, independent Berbers cultivated grain and raised horses on their lands. Yet within the Punic domain that surrounded the city-state of Carthage, there were ethnic divisions in addition to the usual quasi feudal distinctions between lord and peasant, or master and serf. This inherent instability in the countryside drew the unwanted attention of potential invaders.[65] Yet for long periods Carthage was able to manage these social difficulties.[66]

The many amphorae with Punic markings subsequently found about ancient Mediterranean coastal settlements testify to Carthaginian trade in locally made olive oil and wine.[67] Carthage's agricultural production was held in high regard by the ancients, and rivaled that of Rome—they were once competitors, e.g., over their olive harvests. Under Roman rule, however, grain production (wheat and barley) for export increased dramatically in 'Africa'; yet these later fell with the rise in Roman Egypt's grain exports. Thereafter olive groves and vineyards were re-established around Carthage. Visitors to the several growing regions that surrounded the city wrote admiringly of the lush green gardens, orchards, fields, irrigation channels, hedgerows (as boundaries), as well as the many prosperous farming towns located across the rural landscape.[68][69]

Accordingly, the Greek author and compiler Diodorus Siculus (fl. 1st century BC), who enjoyed access to ancient writings later lost, and on which he based most of his writings, described agricultural land near the city of Carthage circa 310 BC:

It was divided into market gardens and orchards of all sorts of fruit trees, with many streams of water flowing in channels irrigating every part. There were country homes everywhere, lavishly built and covered with stucco. ... Part of the land was planted with vines, part with olives and other productive trees. Beyond these, cattle and sheep were pastured on the plains, and there were meadows with grazing horses.[70][71]

Ancient history

Main article: History of Carthage

Greek cities contested with Carthage for the Western Mediterranean culminating in the Sicilian Wars and the Pyrrhic War over Sicily, while the Romans fought three wars against Carthage, known as the Punic Wars,[72][73] from the Latin "Punic" meaning "Phoenician", as Carthage was a Phoenician colony grown into an empire.

Punic Republic

Main article: Ancient Carthage
 
Downfall of the Carthaginian Empire
  Lost to Rome in the First Punic War (264–241 BC)
  Won after the First Punic War, lost in the Second Punic War
  Lost in the Second Punic War (218–201 BC)
  Conquered by Rome in the Third Punic War (149–146 BC)

The Carthaginian republic was one of the longest-lived and largest states in the ancient Mediterranean. Reports relay several wars with Syracuse and finally, Rome, which eventually resulted in the defeat and destruction of Carthage in the Third Punic War. The Carthaginians were Phoenician settlers originating in the Mediterranean coast of the Near East. They spoke Canaanite, a Semitic language, and followed a local variety of the ancient Canaanite religion, the Punic religion. The Carthaginians travelled widely across the seas and set up numerous colonies. Unlike Greek, Phoenician, and Tyrian colonizers who "only required colonies to pay due respect for their home-cities", Carthage is said to have "sent its own magistrates to govern overseas settlements".[3]

 
Ruins of Carthage

The fall of Carthage came at the end of the Third Punic War in 146 BC at the Battle of Carthage.[74] Despite initial devastating Roman naval losses and Hannibal's 15-year occupation of much of Roman Italy, who was on the brink of defeat but managed to recover, the end of the series of wars resulted in the end of Carthaginian power and the complete destruction of the city by Scipio Aemilianus. The Romans pulled the Phoenician warships out into the harbor and burned them before the city, and went from house to house, capturing and enslaving the people. About 50,000 Carthaginians were sold into slavery.[75] The city was set ablaze and razed to the ground, leaving only ruins and rubble. After the fall of Carthage, Rome annexed the majority of the Carthaginian colonies, including other North African locations such as Volubilis, Lixus, Chellah.[76] Today a "Carthaginian peace" can refer to any brutal peace treaty demanding total subjugation of the defeated side.

Salting legend

Main article: Salting the earth § Carthage

Since at least 1863,[77] it has been claimed that Carthage was sown with salt after being razed, but there is no evidence for this.[78][79]

Roman Carthage

 
Roman Carthage City Center
 
Layout of Roman Carthage
Main article: Roman Carthage

When Carthage fell, its nearby rival Utica, a Roman ally, was made capital of the region and replaced Carthage as the leading center of Punic trade and leadership. It had the advantageous position of being situated on the outlet of the Medjerda River, Tunisia's only river that flowed all year long. However, grain cultivation in the Tunisian mountains caused large amounts of silt to erode into the river. This silt accumulated in the harbor until it became useless, and Rome was forced to rebuild Carthage.

By 122 BC, Gaius Gracchus founded a short-lived colony, called Colonia Iunonia, after the Latin name for the Punic goddess Tanit, Iuno Caelestis. The purpose was to obtain arable lands for impoverished farmers. The Senate abolished the colony some time later, to undermine Gracchus' power.

After this ill-fated effort, a new city of Carthage was built on the same land by Julius Caesar in the period from 49 to 44 BC, and by the first century, it had grown to be the second-largest city in the western half of the Roman Empire, with a peak population of 500,000.[80][unreliable source?] It was the center of the province of Africa, which was a major breadbasket of the Empire. Among its major monuments was an amphitheater.

Carthage also became a center of early Christianity (see Carthage (episcopal see)). In the first of a string of rather poorly reported councils at Carthage a few years later, no fewer than 70 bishops attended. Tertullian later broke with the mainstream that was increasingly represented in the West by the primacy of the Bishop of Rome, but a more serious rift among Christians was the Donatist controversy, against which Augustine of Hippo spent much time and parchment arguing. At the Council of Carthage (397), the biblical canon for the western Church was confirmed. The Christians at Carthage conducted persecutions against the pagans, during which the pagan temples, notably the famous Temple of Juno Caelesti, were destroyed.[81]

 
The Vandal Kingdom in 500, centered on Carthage

The Vandals under Gaiseric invaded Africa in 429. They relinquished the facade of their allied status to Rome and defeated the Roman general Bonifacius to seize Carthage, the once most treasured province of Rome.[82] The 5th-century Roman bishop Victor Vitensis mentions in his Historia Persecutionis Africanae Provincia that the Vandals destroyed parts of Carthage, including various buildings and churches.[83] Once in power, the ecclesiastical authorities were persecuted, the locals were aggressively taxed, and naval raids were routinely launched on Romans in the Mediterranean.[82]

After a failed attempt to recapture the city in the fifth century, the Eastern Roman Empire finally subdued the Vandals in the Vandalic War in 533–534. Thereafter, the city became the seat of the praetorian prefecture of Africa, which was made into an exarchate during the emperor Maurice's reign, as was Ravenna on the Italian Peninsula. These two exarchates were the western bulwarks of the Byzantine Empire, all that remained of its power in the West. In the early seventh century Heraclius the Elder, the exarch of Carthage, overthrew the Byzantine emperor Phocas, whereupon his son Heraclius succeeded to the imperial throne.

Islamic period

Main articles: Muslim conquest of the Maghreb and Battle of Carthage (698)

The Roman Exarchate of Africa was not able to withstand the seventh-century Muslim conquest of the Maghreb. The Umayyad Caliphate under Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan in 686 sent a force led by Zuhayr ibn Qays, who won a battle over the Romans and Berbers led by King Kusaila of the Kingdom of Altava on the plain of Kairouan, but he could not follow that up. In 695, Hassan ibn al-Nu'man captured Carthage and advanced into the Atlas Mountains. An imperial fleet arrived and retook Carthage, but in 698, Hasan ibn al-Nu'man returned and defeated Emperor Tiberios III at the 698 Battle of Carthage. Roman imperial forces withdrew from all of Africa except Ceuta. Fearing that the Byzantine Empire might reconquer it, they decided to destroy Roman Carthage in a scorched earth policy and establish their headquarters somewhere else. Its walls were torn down, the water supply from its aqueducts cut off, the agricultural land was ravaged and its harbors made unusable.[5]

The destruction of the Exarchate of Africa marked a permanent end to the Byzantine Empire's influence in the region.

It is clear from archaeological evidence that the town of Carthage continued to be occupied, as did the neighborhood of Bjordi Djedid. The Baths of Antoninus continued to function in the Arab period and the eleventh-century historian Al-Bakri stated that they were still in good condition at that time. They also had production centers nearby. It is difficult to determine whether the continued habitation of some other buildings belonged to Late Byzantine or Early Arab period. The Bir Ftouha church may have continued to remain in use although it is not clear when it became uninhabited.[6] Constantine the African was born in Carthage.[84]

The Medina of Tunis, originally a Berber settlement, was established as the new regional center under the Umayyad Caliphate in the early 8th century. Under the Aghlabids, the people of Tunis revolted numerous times, but the city profited from economic improvements and quickly became the second most important in the kingdom. It was briefly the national capital, from the end of the reign of Ibrahim II in 902, until 909, when the Shi'ite Berbers took over Ifriqiya and founded the Fatimid Caliphate.

Carthage remained a residential see until the high medieval period, and is mentioned in two letters of Pope Leo IX dated 1053,[85] written in reply to consultations regarding a conflict between the bishops of Carthage and Gummi. In each of the two letters, Pope Leo declares that, after the Bishop of Rome, the first archbishop and chief metropolitan of the whole of Africa is the bishop of Carthage. Later, an archbishop of Carthage named Cyriacus was imprisoned by the Arab rulers because of an accusation by some Christians. Pope Gregory VII wrote Cyriacus a letter of consolation, repeating the hopeful assurances of the primacy of the Church of Carthage, "whether the Church of Carthage should still lie desolate or rise again in glory". By 1076, Cyriacus was set free, but there was only one other bishop in the province. These are the last of whom there is mention in that period of the history of the see.[86][87]

The fortress of Carthage was used by the Muslims until Hafsid era and was captured by the Crusaders during the Eighth Crusade. The inhabitants of Carthage were slaughtered by the Crusaders after they took it, and it was used as a base of operations against the Hafsids. After repelling them, Muhammad I al-Mustansir decided to raze Cathage's defenses in order to prevent a repeat.[7]

Modern history

 
Historical map of the Tunis area (1903), showing St. Louis of Carthage between Sidi Bou Said and Le Kram.
 
The first published sketch of artefacts from Carthage – mostly Carthaginian tombstones. This was published in Jean Emile Humbert's Notice sur quatre cippes sépulcraux et deux fragments, découverts en 1817, sur le sol de l'ancienne Carthage.

Carthage is some 15 kilometres (9.3 miles) east-northeast of Tunis; the settlements nearest to Carthage were the town of Sidi Bou Said to the north and the village of Le Kram to the south. Sidi Bou Said was a village which had grown around the tomb of the eponymous sufi saint (d. 1231), which had been developed into a town under Ottoman rule in the 18th century. Le Kram was developed in the late 19th century under French administration as a settlement close to the port of La Goulette.

In 1881, Tunisia became a French protectorate, and in the same year Charles Lavigerie, who was archbishop of Algiers, became apostolic administrator of the vicariate of Tunis. In the following year, Lavigerie became a cardinal. He "saw himself as the reviver of the ancient Christian Church of Africa, the Church of Cyprian of Carthage",[88] and, on 10 November 1884, was successful in his great ambition of having the metropolitan see of Carthage restored, with himself as its first archbishop.[89] In line with the declaration of Pope Leo IX in 1053, Pope Leo XIII acknowledged the revived Archdiocese of Carthage as the primatial see of Africa and Lavigerie as primate.[90][91]

The Acropolium of Carthage (Saint Louis Cathedral of Carthage) was erected on Byrsa hill in 1884.

Archaeological site

The Danish consul Christian Tuxen Falbe conducted a first survey of the topography of the archaeological site (published in 1833). Antiquarian interest was intensified following the publication of Flaubert's Salammbô in 1858. Charles Ernest Beulé performed some preliminary excavations of Roman remains on Byrsa hill in 1860.[92] A more systematic survey of both Punic and Roman-era remains is due to Alfred Louis Delattre, who was sent to Tunis by cardinal Charles Lavigerie in 1875 on both an apostolic and an archaeological mission.[93] Audollent (1901, p. 203) cites Delattre and Lavigerie to the effect that in the 1880s, locals still knew the area of the ancient city under the name of Cartagenna (i.e. reflecting the Latin n-stem Carthāgine).

Auguste Audollent divides the area of Roman Carthage into four quarters, Cartagenna, Dermèche, Byrsa and La Malga. Cartagenna and Dermèche correspond with the lower city, including the site of Punic Carthage; Byrsa is associated with the upper city, which in Punic times was a walled citadel above the harbour; and La Malga is linked with the more remote parts of the upper city in Roman times.

French-led excavations at Carthage began in 1921, and from 1923 reported finds of a large quantity of urns containing a mixture of animal and children's bones. René Dussaud identified a 4th-century BC stela found in Carthage as depicting a child sacrifice.[94]

A temple at Amman (1400–1250 BC) excavated and reported upon by J.B. Hennessy in 1966, shows the possibility of bestial and human sacrifice by fire. While evidence of child sacrifice in Canaan was the object of academic disagreement, with some scholars arguing that merely children's cemeteries had been unearthed in Carthage, the mixture of children's with animal bones as well as associated epigraphic evidence involving mention of mlk led some to believe that, at least in Carthage, child sacrifice was indeed common practice.[95] However, though the animals were surely sacrificed, this does not entirely indicate that the infants were, and in fact the bones indicate the opposite. Rather, the animal sacrifice was likely done to, in some way, honour the deceased.[96]

A study conducted in 1970 by M. Chabeuf, the then Doctor of Science from the University of Paris, showed little difference between 17 modern Tunisians, and 68 Punic remains.[97] An analysis the following year on 42 North-West African skulls dating back to Roman times concluded that they were overall similar to modern Berbers and other Mediterranean populations, especially eastern Iberians. They also noted the presence of one outlier in Tunisia who appears to have inherited mechtoid traits, which led them to hypothesize the persistence of such affinities well into the Punic and Roman era.[98]

M. C. Chamla and D Ferembach (1988) in their entry dealing with the craniometric conclusions of Protohistorical Algerians and Punics in the region of Tunisia, found strong sexual dimorphism with male skulls being robust. Mediterranean elements were dominant, but Mechtoid features, as well as 'Negroid' traits were present in some of the samples. Overall, Punic burials showed affinities with Algerians, Roman Era skulls from Tarragona (Spain), Guanches, and to a lesser extent Abydos (XVIIIth dynasty), Etruscans, Bronze Age Syrians (Euphrates) and skulls from Lozere (France). The anthropological position of the Algerian and Punic people when it comes to populations of the Mediterranean Basin agreed quite well with the geographical situation.[99]

Jehan Desanges stated that "In the Punic burial grounds, negroid remains were not rare and there were black auxiliaries in the Carthaginian army who were certainly not Nilotics".[100]

In 1990, Shomarka Keita, a biological anthropologist, had conducted a craniometric study which featured a set of remains from Northern Africa. He examined a sample of 49 Maghreban crania which included skulls from pre-Roman Carthage and concluded that, although they were heterogeneous, many of them showed physical similarities to crania from equatorial Africa, ancient Egypt, and Kush.[101] S.O.Y. Keita's report in 2018, found the pre-Roman Carthaginian series to be intermediate between the Phoenician and Maghrebian. He noted the findings are consistent with an interpretation that it reflects both local and Levantine ancestry due to specific interactions in the ancient period.[102]

In 2016, an ancient Carthaginian individual, who was excavated from a Punic tomb in Byrsa Hill, was found to belong to the rare U5b2c1 maternal haplogroup. The Young Man of Byrsa specimen dates from the late 6th century BC, and his lineage is believed to represent early gene flow from Iberia to the Maghreb.[103]

Climate change

Main article: Sea level rise

Due to its coastal location, Carthage Archeological Site is vulnerable to sea level rise. In 2022, the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report included it in the list of African cultural sites which would be threatened by flooding and coastal erosion by the end of the century, but only if climate change followed RCP 8.5, which is the scenario of high and continually increasing greenhouse gas emissions associated with the warming of over 4 °C.,[104] and is no longer considered very likely.[105][106] The other, more plausible scenarios result in lower warming levels and consequently lower sea level rise: yet, sea levels would continue to increase for about 10,000 years under all of them.[107] Even if the warming is limited to 1.5 °C, global sea level rise is still expected to exceed 2–3 m (7–10 ft) after 2000 years (and higher warming levels will see larger increases by then), consequently exceeding 2100 levels of sea level rise under RCP 8.5 (~0.75 m (2 ft) with a range of 0.5–1 m (2–3 ft)) well before the year 4000. Thus, it is a matter of time before the Carthage Archeological Site is threatened by rising water levels, unless it can be protected by adaptation efforts such as sea walls.[108]

Commune

Main article: Carthage (municipality)

The commune of Carthage was created by a decree of the Bey of Tunis on 15 June 1919,[109] during the rule of Naceur Bey.

In 1920, the first seaplane base was built on the Lake of Tunis for the seaplanes of Compagnie Aéronavale.[110] The Tunis Airfield opened in 1938, serving around 5,800 passengers annually on the Paris-Tunis route.[111] During World War II, the airport was used by the United States Army Air Force Twelfth Air Force as a headquarters and command control base for the Italian Campaign of 1943. Construction on the Tunis-Carthage Airport, which was fully funded by France, began in 1944, and in 1948 the airport become the main hub for Tunisair.

In the 1950s the Lycée Français de Carthage was established to serve French families in Carthage. In 1961 it was given to the Tunisian government as part of the Independence of Tunisia, so the nearby Collège Maurice Cailloux in La Marsa, previously an annex of the Lycée Français de Carthage, was renamed to the Lycée Français de La Marsa and began serving the lycée level. It is currently the Lycée Gustave Flaubert.[112]

After Tunisian independence in 1956, the Tunis conurbation gradually extended around the airport, and Carthage (قرطاج Qarṭāj) is now a suburb of Tunis, covering the area between Sidi Bou Said and Le Kram.[113][114] Its population as of January 2013 was estimated at 21,276,[115] mostly attracting the more wealthy residents.[116] If Carthage is not the capital, it tends to be the political pole, a "place of emblematic power" according to Sophie Bessis,[117] leaving to Tunis the economic and administrative roles. The Carthage Palace (the Tunisian presidential palace) is located in the coast.[118]

The suburb has six train stations of the TGM line between Le Kram and Sidi Bou Said: Carthage Salammbo (named for the ancient children’s cemetery where it stands), Carthage Byrsa (named for Byrsa hill), Carthage Dermech (Dermèche), Carthage Hannibal (named for Hannibal), Carthage Présidence (named for the Presidential Palace) and Carthage Amilcar (named for Hamilcar).

Trade and business

 
Map of the Mediterranean in 218 BC

The merchants of Carthage were in part heirs of the Mediterranean trade developed by Phoenicia, and so also heirs of the rivalry with Greek merchants. Business activity was accordingly both stimulated and challenged. Cyprus had been an early site of such commercial contests. The Phoenicians then had ventured into the western Mediterranean, founding trading posts, including Utica and Carthage. The Greeks followed, entering the western seas where the commercial rivalry continued. Eventually it would lead, especially in Sicily, to several centuries of intermittent war.[119][120] Although Greek-made merchandise was generally considered superior in design, Carthage also produced trade goods in abundance. That Carthage came to function as a manufacturing colossus was shown during the Third Punic War with Rome. Carthage, which had previously disarmed, then was made to face the fatal Roman siege. The city "suddenly organised the manufacture of arms" with great skill and effectiveness. According to Strabo (63 BC – AD 21) in his Geographica:

[Carthage] each day produced one hundred and forty finished shields, three hundred swords, five hundred spears, and one thousand missiles for the catapults... . Furthermore, [Carthage although surrounded by the Romans] built one hundred and twenty decked ships in two months... for old timber had been stored away in readiness, and a large number of skilled workmen, maintained at public expense.[121]

The textiles industry in Carthage probably started in private homes, but the existence of professional weavers indicates that a sort of factory system later developed. Products included embroidery, carpets, and use of the purple murex dye (for which the Carthaginian isle of Djerba was famous). Metalworkers developed specialized skills, i.e., making various weapons for the armed forces, as well as domestic articles, such as knives, forks, scissors, mirrors, and razors (all articles found in tombs). Artwork in metals included vases and lamps in bronze, also bowls, and plates. Other products came from such crafts as the potters, the glassmakers, and the goldsmiths. Inscriptions on votive stele indicate that many were not slaves but 'free citizens'.[122]

 
Trade routes of Phoenicia (Byblos, Sidon, Tyre) & Carthage

Phoenician and Punic merchant ventures were often run as a family enterprise, putting to work its members and its subordinate clients. Such family-run businesses might perform a variety of tasks: own and maintain the ships, providing the captain and crew; do the negotiations overseas, either by barter or buying and selling, of their own manufactured commodities and trade goods, and native products (metals, foodstuffs, etc.) to carry and trade elsewhere; and send their agents to stay at distant outposts in order to make lasting local contacts, and later to establish a warehouse of shipped goods for exchange, and eventually perhaps a settlement. Over generations, such activity might result in the creation of a wide-ranging network of trading operations. Ancillary would be the growth of reciprocity between different family firms, foreign and domestic.[123][124]

State protection was extended to its sea traders by the Phoenician city of Tyre and later likewise by the daughter city-state of Carthage.[125] Stéphane Gsell, the well-regarded French historian of ancient North Africa, summarized the major principles guiding the civic rulers of Carthage with regard to its policies for trade and commerce:

  • to open and maintain markets for its merchants, whether by entering into direct contact with foreign peoples using either treaty negotiations or naval power, or by providing security for isolated trading stations
  • the reservation of markets exclusively for the merchants of Carthage, or where competition could not be eliminated, to regulate trade by state-sponsored agreements with its commercial rivals
  • suppression of piracy, and promotion of Carthage's ability to freely navigate the seas[126]

Both the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians were well known in antiquity for their secrecy in general, and especially pertaining to commercial contacts and trade routes.[127][128][129] Both cultures excelled in commercial dealings. Strabo (63BC-AD21) the Greek geographer wrote that before its fall (in 146 BC) Carthage enjoyed a population of 700,000, and directed an alliance of 300 cities.[130] The Greek historian Polybius (c. 203–120) referred to Carthage as "the wealthiest city in the world".[131]

Constitution of state

 
Idealized depiction of Carthage from the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle.

A "suffet" (possibly two) was elected by the citizens, and held office with no military power for a one-year term. Carthaginian generals marshalled mercenary armies and were separately elected. From about 550 to 450 the Magonid family monopolized the top military position; later the Barcid family acted similarly. Eventually it came to be that, after a war, the commanding general had to testify justifying his actions before a court of 104 judges.[132]

Aristotle (384–322) discusses Carthage in his work, Politica; he begins: "The Carthaginians are also considered to have an excellent form of government." He briefly describes the city as a "mixed constitution", a political arrangement with cohabiting elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, i.e., a king (Gk: basileus), a council of elders (Gk: gerusia), and the people (Gk: demos).[133] Later Polybius of Megalopolis (c. 204–122, Greek) in his Histories would describe the Roman Republic in more detail as a mixed constitution in which the Consuls were the monarchy, the Senate the aristocracy, and the Assemblies the democracy.[134]

Evidently Carthage also had an institution of elders who advised the Suffets, similar to a Greek gerusia or the Roman Senate. We do not have a Punic name for this body. At times its members would travel with an army general on campaign. Members also formed permanent committees. The institution had several hundred members drawn from the wealthiest class who held office for life. Vacancies were probably filled by recruitment from among the elite, i.e., by co-option. From among its members were selected the 104 Judges mentioned above. Later the 104 would come to evaluate not only army generals but other office holders as well. Aristotle regarded the 104 as most important; he compared it to the ephorate of Sparta with regard to control over security. In Hannibal's time, such a Judge held office for life. At some stage there also came to be independent self-perpetuating boards of five who filled vacancies and supervised (non-military) government administration.[135]

Popular assemblies also existed at Carthage. When deadlocked the Suffets and the quasi-senatorial institution of elders might request the assembly to vote; also, assembly votes were requested in very crucial matters in order to achieve political consensus and popular coherence. The assembly members had no legal wealth or birth qualification. How its members were selected is unknown, e.g., whether by festival group or urban ward or another method.[136][137][138]

The Greeks were favourably impressed by the constitution of Carthage; Aristotle had a separate study of it made which unfortunately is lost. In his Politica he states: "The government of Carthage is oligarchical, but they successfully escape the evils of oligarchy by enriching one portion of the people after another by sending them to their colonies." "[T]heir policy is to send some [poorer citizens] to their dependent towns, where they grow rich."[139][140] Yet Aristotle continues, "[I]f any misfortune occurred, and the bulk of the subjects revolted, there would be no way of restoring peace by legal means." Aristotle remarked also:

Many of the Carthaginian institutions are excellent. The superiority of their constitution is proved by the fact that the common people remain loyal to the constitution; the Carthaginians have never had any rebellion worth speaking of, and have never been under the rule of a tyrant.[141]

Here one may remember that the city-state of Carthage, who citizens were mainly Libyphoenicians (of Phoenician ancestry born in Africa), dominated and exploited an agricultural countryside composed mainly of native Berber sharecroppers and farmworkers, whose affiliations to Carthage were open to divergent possibilities. Beyond these more settled Berbers and the Punic farming towns and rural manors, lived the independent Berber tribes, who were mostly pastoralists.

In the brief, uneven review of government at Carthage found in his Politica Aristotle mentions several faults. Thus, "that the same person should hold many offices, which is a favorite practice among the Carthaginians." Aristotle disapproves, mentioning the flute-player and the shoemaker. Also, that "magistrates should be chosen not only for their merit but for their wealth." Aristotle's opinion is that focus on pursuit of wealth will lead to oligarchy and its evils.

[S]urely it is a bad thing that the greatest offices... should be bought. The law which allows this abuse makes wealth of more account than virtue, and the whole state becomes avaricious. For, whenever the chiefs of the state deem anything honorable, the other citizens are sure to follow their example; and, where virtue has not the first place, their aristocracy cannot be firmly established.[142]

In Carthage the people seemed politically satisfied and submissive, according to the historian Warmington. They in their assemblies only rarely exercised the few opportunities given them to assent to state decisions. Popular influence over government appears not to have been an issue at Carthage. Being a commercial republic fielding a mercenary army, the people were not conscripted for military service, an experience which can foster the feel for popular political action. But perhaps this misunderstands the society; perhaps the people, whose values were based on small-group loyalty, felt themselves sufficiently connected to their city's leadership by the very integrity of the person-to-person linkage within their social fabric. Carthage was very stable; there were few openings for tyrants. Only after defeat by Rome devastated Punic imperial ambitions did the people of Carthage seem to question their governance and to show interest in political reform.[143]

In 196, following the Second Punic War (218–201), Hannibal, still greatly admired as a Barcid military leader, was elected suffet. When his reforms were blocked by a financial official about to become a judge for life, Hannibal rallied the populace against the 104 judges. He proposed a one-year term for the 104, as part of a major civic overhaul. Additionally, the reform included a restructuring of the city's revenues, and the fostering of trade and agriculture. The changes rather quickly resulted in a noticeable increase in prosperity. Yet his incorrigible political opponents cravenly went to Rome, to charge Hannibal with conspiracy, namely, plotting war against Rome in league with Antiochus the Hellenic ruler of Syria. Although the Roman Scipio Africanus resisted such manoeuvre, eventually intervention by Rome forced Hannibal to leave Carthage. Thus, corrupt city officials efficiently blocked Hannibal in his efforts to reform the government of Carthage.[144][145]

Mago (6th century) was King of Carthage; the head of state, war leader, and religious figurehead. His family was considered to possess a sacred quality. Mago's office was somewhat similar to that of a pharaoh, but although kept in a family it was not hereditary, it was limited by legal consent. Picard, accordingly, believes that the council of elders and the popular assembly are late institutions. Carthage was founded by the king of Tyre who had a royal monopoly on this trading venture. Thus it was the royal authority stemming from this traditional source of power that the King of Carthage possessed. Later, as other Phoenician ship companies entered the trading region, and so associated with the city-state, the King of Carthage had to keep order among a rich variety of powerful merchants in their negotiations among themselves and over risky commerce across the Mediterranean. Under these circumstance, the office of king began to be transformed. Yet it was not until the aristocrats of Carthage became wealthy owners of agricultural lands in Africa that a council of elders was institutionalized at Carthage.[146]

Contemporary sources

Most ancient literature concerning Carthage comes from Greek and Roman sources as Carthage's own documents were destroyed by the Romans.[147][148] Apart from inscriptions, hardly any Punic literature has survived, and none in its own language and script.[149] A brief catalogue would include:[150]

  • three short treaties with Rome (Latin translations);[151][152][153]
  • several pages of Hanno the Navigator's log-book concerning his fifth century maritime exploration of the Atlantic coast of west Africa (Greek translation);[154]
  • fragments quoted from Mago's fourth/third century 28-volume treatise on agriculture (Latin translations);[155][156]
  • the Roman playwright Plautus (c. 250 – 184) in his Poenulus incorporates a few fictional speeches delivered in Punic, whose written lines are transcribed into Latin letters phonetically;[157][158]
  • the thousands of inscriptions made in Punic script, thousands, but many extremely short, e.g., a dedication to a deity with the personal name(s) of the devotee(s).[159][160]

"[F]rom the Greek author Plutarch [(c. 46 – c. 120)] we learn of the 'sacred books' in Punic safeguarded by the city's temples. Few Punic texts survive, however."[161] Once "the City Archives, the Annals, and the scribal lists of Suffets" existed, but evidently these were destroyed in the horrific fires during the Roman capture of the city in 146 BC.[162]

Yet some Punic books (Latin: libri punici) from the libraries of Carthage reportedly did survive the fires.[163] These works were apparently given by Roman authorities to the newly augmented Berber rulers.[164][165] Over a century after the fall of Carthage, the Roman politician-turned-author Gaius Sallustius Crispus or Sallust (86–34) reported his having seen volumes written in Punic, which books were said to be once possessed by the Berber king, Hiempsal II (r. 88–81).[166][167][168] By way of Berber informants and Punic translators, Sallust had used these surviving books to write his brief sketch of Berber affairs.[169][170]

 
Juba II, reigned 25 BC – AD 23

Probably some of Hiempsal II's libri punici, that had escaped the fires that consumed Carthage in 146 BC, wound up later in the large royal library of his grandson Juba II (r.25 BC-AD 24).[171] Juba II not only was a Berber king, and husband of Cleopatra's daughter, but also a scholar and author in Greek of no less than nine works.[172] He wrote for the Mediterranean-wide audience then enjoying classical literature. The libri punici inherited from his grandfather surely became useful to him when composing his Libyka, a work on North Africa written in Greek. Unfortunately, only fragments of Libyka survive, mostly from quotations made by other ancient authors.[173] It may have been Juba II who 'discovered' the five-centuries-old 'log book' of Hanno the Navigator, called the Periplus, among library documents saved from fallen Carthage.[174][175][176]

In the end, however, most Punic writings that survived the destruction of Carthage "did not escape the immense wreckage in which so many of Antiquity's literary works perished."[177] Accordingly, the long and continuous interactions between Punic citizens of Carthage and the Berber communities that surrounded the city have no local historian. Their political arrangements and periodic crises, their economic and work life, the cultural ties and social relations established and nourished (infrequently as kin), are not known to us directly from ancient Punic authors in written accounts. Neither side has left us their stories about life in Punic-era Carthage.[178]

Regarding Phoenician writings, few remain and these seldom refer to Carthage. The more ancient and most informative are cuneiform tablets, ca. 1600–1185, from ancient Ugarit, located to the north of Phoenicia on the Syrian coast; it was a Canaanite city politically affiliated with the Hittites. The clay tablets tell of myths, epics, rituals, medical and administrative matters, and also correspondence.[179][180][181] The highly valued works of Sanchuniathon, an ancient priest of Beirut, who reportedly wrote on Phoenician religion and the origins of civilization, are themselves completely lost, but some little content endures twice removed.[182][183] Sanchuniathon was said to have lived in the 11th century, which is considered doubtful.[184][185] Much later a Phoenician History by Philo of Byblos (64–141) reportedly existed, written in Greek, but only fragments of this work survive.[186][187] An explanation proffered for why so few Phoenician works endured: early on (11th century) archives and records began to be kept on papyrus, which does not long survive in a moist coastal climate.[188] Also, both Phoenicians and Carthaginians were well known for their secrecy.[189][190]

Thus, of their ancient writings we have little of major interest left to us by Carthage, or by Phoenicia the country of origin of the city founders. "Of the various Phoenician and Punic compositions alluded to by the ancient classical authors, not a single work or even fragment has survived in its original idiom." "Indeed, not a single Phoenician manuscript has survived in the original [language] or in translation."[191] We cannot therefore access directly the line of thought or the contour of their worldview as expressed in their own words, in their own voice.[192] Ironically, it was the Phoenicians who "invented or at least perfected and transmitted a form of writing [the alphabet] that has influenced dozens of cultures including our own."[193][194][195]

As noted, the celebrated ancient books on agriculture written by Mago of Carthage survives only via quotations in Latin from several later Roman works.

In art and literature

 
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Carthage, a poetical illustration by L. E. L.

The scant remains of what was once a great city are reflected upon in Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poetical illustration, Carthage, to an engraving of a painting by J. Salmon, published in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837 with quotes from Sir Grenville Temple's Journal.[196]

Notes

  1. ^ English pronunciation: /ˈkɑːrθɪdʒ/ KAR-thij; Punic Phoenician: 𐤒𐤓𐤕𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕, romanized: Qārtḥadāšt, lit. 'new city'; Latin: Carthāgō, pronounced [karˈtʰaːɡoː].
  2. ^ Adjective qrt-ḥdty "Carthaginian"; compare Aramaic קרת חדתה, Qeret Ḥadatha, and Hebrew קרת חדשה, Qeret Ḥadašah.[12]

References

  1. ^ Hitchner, R.; R. Talbert; S. Gillies; J. Åhlfeldt; R. Warner; J. Becker; T. Elliott. "Places: 314921 (Carthago)". Pleiades. Retrieved 7 April 2013.
  2. ^ Josephus, Against Apion (Book I, §18)
  3. ^ a b c Li, Hansong (2022). "Locating Mobile Sovereignty: Carthage in Natural Jurisprudence". History of Political Thought. 43 (2): 246–272. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
  4. ^ Winterer, Caroline (2010). "Model Empire, Lost City: Ancient Carthage and the Science of Politics in Revolutionary America". The William and Mary Quarterly. 67 (1): 3–30. doi:10.5309/willmaryquar.67.1.3. JSTOR 10.5309/willmaryquar.67.1.3. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
  5. ^ a b Bosworth, C. Edmund (2008). Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Brill Academic Press. p. 536. ISBN 978-9004153882.
  6. ^ a b Anna Leone (2007). Changing Townscapes in North Africa from Late Antiquity to the Arab Conquest. Edipuglia srl. pp. 179–186. ISBN 9788872284988.
  7. ^ a b Thomas F. Madden; James L. Naus; Vincent Ryan, eds. (2018). Crusades – Medieval Worlds in Conflict. pp. 113, 184. ISBN 9780198744320.
  8. ^ Skeletal Remains from Punic Carthage Do Not Support Systematic Sacrifice of Infants
  9. ^ Ancient Carthaginians really did sacrifice their children. 2020-12-14 at the Wayback Machine University of Oxford News
  10. ^ "Archaeological Site of Carthage". World Heritage Centre. UNESCO. from the original on 2005-11-28. Retrieved 19 October 2021.
  11. ^ c.f. Marlowes Dido, Queen of Carthage (c. 1590); Middle English still used the Latin form Carthago, e.g., John Trevisa, Polychronicon (1387) 1.169: That womman Dido that founded Carthago was comlynge.
  12. ^ Wolfgang David Cirilo de Melo (ed), Amphitryon, Volume 4 of The Loeb Classical Library: Plautus, Harvard University Press, 2011, p. 210 2022-11-26 at the Wayback Machine; D. Gary Miller, Ancient Greek Dialects and Early Authors: Introduction to the Dialect Mixture in Homer, with Notes on Lyric and Herodotus, Walter de Gruyter, 2014, p. 39 2022-11-26 at the Wayback Machine.
  13. ^ "Carthage: new excavations in a Mediterranean capital". ugent.be.
  14. ^ Audollent (1901:203)
  15. ^ Martin Percival Charlesworth; Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards; John Boardman; Frank William Walbank (2000). "Rome+was+larger" The Cambridge Ancient History: The fourth century B.C., 2nd ed., 1994. University Press. p. 813. ISBN 9780521263351.
  16. ^ Robert McQueen Grant (1 January 2004). Augustus to Constantine: The Rise and Triumph of Christianity in the Roman World. Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 54–. ISBN 978-0-664-22772-2.
  17. ^ Warmington, Carthage (1964) at 138–140, map at 139; at 273n.3, he cites the ancients: Appian, Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Polybius.
  18. ^ Harden, The Phoenicians (1962, 2d ed. 1963), text at 34, maps at 31 and 34. According to Harden, the outer walls ran several kilometres to the west of that indicated on the map here.
  19. ^ Picard and Picard, The Life and Death of Carthage (1968, 1969) at 395–396.
  20. ^ For an ample discussion of the ancient city: Serge Lancel, Carthage (Paris: Arthème Fayard 1992; Oxford: Blackwell 1995, 1997) at 134–172, ancient harbours at 172–192; archaic Carthage at 38–77.
  21. ^ Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage (1958; 1968) at 85 (limited area), at 88 (imported skills).
  22. ^ e.g., the Greek writers: Appian, Diodorus Siculus, Polybius; and, the Latin: Livy, Strabo.
  23. ^ Serge Lancel, Carthage (Paris 1992), as translated by A. Nevill (Oxford 1997), at 38–45 and 76–77 (archaic Carthage): maps of early city at 39 and 42; burial archaeology quote at 77; short quotes at 43, 38, 45, 39; clay masks at 60–62 (photographs); terracotta and ivory figurines at 64–66, 72–75 (photographs). Ancient coastline from Utica to Carthage: map at 18.
  24. ^ Cf., B. H. Warmington, Carthage (London: Robert Hale 1960; 2d ed. 1969) at 26–31.
  25. ^ Virgil (70–19 BC), The Aeneid [19 BC], translated by Robert Fitzgerald [(New York: Random House 1983), p. 18–19 (Book I, 421–424). Cf., Lancel, Carthage (1997) p. 38. Here capitalized as prose.
  26. ^ Virgil here, however, does innocently inject his own Roman cultural notions into his imagined description, e.g., Punic Carthage evidently built no theaters per se. Cf., Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage (1958; 1968).
  27. ^ The harbours, often mentioned by ancient authors, remain an archaeological problem due to the limited, fragmented evidence found. Lancel, Carthage (1992; 1997) at 172–192 (the two harbours).
  28. ^ Harden, The Phoenicians (1962, 2d ed. 1963) at 32, 130–131.
  29. ^ Warmington, Carthage (1960, 1964) at 138.
  30. ^ Sebkrit er Riana to the north, and El Bahira to the south [their modern names]. Harden, The Phoenicians (1962, 2d ed. 1963) at 31–32. Ships then could also be beached on the sand.
  31. ^ Cf., Lancel, Carthage (1992; 1997) at 139–140, city map at 138.
  32. ^ The lands immediately south of the hill is often also included by the term Byrsa.
  33. ^ Serge Lancel, Carthage. A history (Paris: Librairie Arthème Fayard 1992; Oxford: Blackwell 1995) at 148–152; 151 and 149 map (leveling operations on the Byrsa, circa 25 BC, to prepare for new construction), 426 (Temple of Eshmun), 443 (Byrsa diagram, circa 1859). The Byrsa had been destroyed during the Third Punic War (149–146).
  34. ^ Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage (Paris 1958; London 1961, reprint Macmillan 1968) at 8 (city map showing the Temple of Eshmoun, on the eastern heights of the Byrsa).
  35. ^ E. S. Bouchier, Life and Letters in Roman Africa (Oxford: B. H. Blackwell 1913) at 17, and 75. The Roman temple to Juno Caelestis is said to be later erected on the site of the ruined temple to Tanit.
  36. ^ On the Byrsa some evidence remains of quality residential construction of 2nd century BC. Soren, Khader, Slim, Carthage (1990) at 117.
  37. ^ Jeffrey H. Schwartz, Frank Houghton, Roberto Macchiarelli, Luca Bondioli "Skeletal Remains from Punic Carthage Do Not Support Systematic Sacrifice of Infants" http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0009177 2022-06-03 at the Wayback Machine
  38. ^ B. H. Warmington, Carthage (London: Robert Hale 1960; reprint Penguin 1964) at 15 (quote), 25, 141; (London: Robert Hale, 2d ed. 1969) at 27 (quote), 131–132, 133 (enclosure).
  39. ^ See the section on Punic religion below.
  40. ^ Xella, Paolo, et al. "Cemetery or sacrifice? Infant burials at the Carthage Tophet: Phoenician bones of contention." Antiquity 87.338 (2013): 1199-1207.
  41. ^ Smith, Patricia, et al. "Cemetery or sacrifice? Infant burials at the Carthage Tophet: Age estimations attest to infant sacrifice at the Carthage Tophet." Antiquity 87.338 (2013): 1191-1199.
  42. ^ Cf., Warmington, Carthage (1960, 1964) at 141.
  43. ^ Modern archeologists on the site have not yet 'discovered' the ancient agora. Lancel, Carthage (Paris 1992; Oxford 1997) at 141.
  44. ^ Warmington, Carthage (1960, 1964) at 142.
  45. ^ Appian of Alexandria (c.95 – c.160s), Pomaika known as the Roman History, at VII (Libyca), 128.
  46. ^ Harden, The Phoenicians (1962, 2d ed. 1963) at 133 & 229n17 (Appian cited).
  47. ^ Lancel, Carthage (Paris 1992; Oxford 1997) at 152–172, e.g., 163–165 (floorplans), 167–171 (neighborhood diagrams and photographs).
  48. ^ Warmington, Carthage (1960, 1964) at 139 (map of city, re the tophet), 141.
  49. ^ Lancel, Carthage (Paris 1992; Oxford 1997) at 138–140. These findings mostly relate to the 3rd century BC.
  50. ^ Picard, The Life and Death of Carthage (Paris 1970; New York 1968) at 162–165 (carvings described), 176–178 (quote).
  51. ^ Lancel, Carthage (1992; 1997) at 138 and 145 (city maps).
  52. ^ This was especially so, later in the Roman era. E.g., Soren, Khader, Slim, Carthage (1990) at 187–210.
  53. ^ Serge Lancel and Jean-Paul Morel, "Byrsa. Punic vestiges"; To save Carthage. Exploration and conservation of the city Punic, Roman and Byzantine, Unesco / INAA, 1992, pp. 43–59
  54. ^ Stéphanie Gsell, Histoire ancienne de l'Afrique du Nord, volume four (Paris 1920).
  55. ^ Serge Lancel, Carthage. A History (Paris: Arthème Fayard 1992; Oxford: Blackwell 1995) at 273–274 (Mago quoted by Columella), 278–279 (Mago and Cato's book), 358 (translations).
  56. ^ Gilbert and Colette Picard, La vie quotidienne à Carthage au temps d'Hannibal (Paris: Librairie Hachette 1958), translated as Daily Life in Carthage (London: George Allen & Unwin 1961; reprint Macmillan, New York 1968) at 83–93: 88 (Mago as retired general), 89–91 (fruit trees), 90 (grafting), 89–90 (vineyards), 91–93 (livestock and bees), 148–149 (wine making). Elephants also, of course, were captured and reared for war (at 92).
  57. ^ Sabatino Moscati, Il mondo dei Fenici (1966), translated as The World of the Phoenicians (London: Cardinal 1973) at 219–223. Hamilcar is named as another Carthaginian writing on agriculture (at 219).
  58. ^ Serge Lancel, Carthage (Paris: Arthème Fayard 1992; Oxford: Blackwell 1995), discussion of wine making and its 'marketing' at 273–276. Lancel says (at 274) that about wine making, Mago was silent. Punic agriculture and rural life are addressed at 269–302.
  59. ^ G. and C. Charles-Picard, La vie quotidienne à Carthage au temps d'Hannibal (Paris: Librairie Hachette 1958) translated as Daily Life in Carthage (London: George Allen and Unwin 1961; reprint Macmillan 1968) at 83–93: 86 (quote); 86–87, 88, 93 (management); 88 (overseers).
  60. ^ G. C. and C. Picard, Vie et mort de Carthage (Paris: Librairie Hachette 1970) translated (and first published) as The Life and Death of Carthage (New York: Taplinger 1968) at 86 and 129.
  61. ^ Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage (1958; 1968) at 83–84: the development of a "landed nobility".
  62. ^ B. H. Warmington, in his Carthage (London: Robert Hale 1960; reprint Penguin 1964) at 155.
  63. ^ Mago, quoted by Columella at I, i, 18; in Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage (1958; 1968) at 87, 101, n37.
  64. ^ Mago, quoted by Columella at I, i, 18; in Moscati, The World of the Phoenicians (1966; 1973) at 220, 230, n5.
  65. ^ Gilbert and Colette Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage (1958; 1968) at 83–85 (invaders), 86–88 (rural proletariat).
  66. ^ E.g., Gilbert Charles Picard and Colette Picard, The Life and Death of Carthage (Paris 1970; New York 1968) at 168–171, 172–173 (invasion of Agathocles in 310 BC). The mercenary revolt (240–237) following the First Punic War was also largely and actively, though unsuccessfully, supported by rural Berbers. Picard (1970; 1968) at 203–209.
  67. ^ Plato (c. 427 – c. 347) in his Laws at 674, a-b, mentions regulations at Carthage restricting the consumption of wine in specified circumstances. Cf., Lancel, Carthage (1997) at 276.
  68. ^ Warmington, Carthage (London: Robert Hale 1960, 2d ed. 1969) at 136–137.
  69. ^ Serge Lancel, Carthage (Paris: Arthème Fayard 1992) translated by Antonia Nevill (Oxford: Blackwell 1997) at 269–279: 274–277 (produce), 275–276 (amphora), 269–270 & 405 (Rome), 269–270 (yields), 270 & 277 (lands), 271–272 (towns).
  70. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibleoteca, at XX, 8, 1–4, transl. as Library of History (Harvard University 1962), vol.10 [Loeb Classics, no.390); per Soren, Khader, Slim, Carthage (1990) at 88.
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  117. ^ (in French) Sophie Bessis,"Défendre Carthage, encore et toujours", Le Courrier de l'Unesco, September 1999 2007-06-13 at the Wayback Machine
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  119. ^ Cf., Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage (Paris 195; Oxford 1961, reprint Macmillan 1968) at 165, 171–177.
  120. ^ Donald Harden, The Phoenicians (New York: Praeger 1962, 2d ed. 1963) at 57–62 (Cyprus and Aegean), 62–65 (western Mediterranean); 157–170 (trade); 67–70, 84–85, 160–164 (the Greeks).
  121. ^ Strabo, Geographica, XVII,3,15; as translated by H. L. Jones (Loeb Classic Library 1932) at VIII: 385.
  122. ^ Sabatino Moscati, The World of the Phoenicians (1966; 1973) at 223–224.
  123. ^ Richard J. Harrison, Spain at the Dawn of History (London: Thames and Hudson 1988), "Phoenician colonies in Spain" at 41–50, 42.
  124. ^ Cf., Harden, The Phoenicians (1962, 2d ed. 1963) at 157–166.
  125. ^ E.g., during the reign of Hiram (tenth century) of Tyre. Sabatino Moscati, Il Mondo dei Fenici (1966), translated as The World of the Phoenicians (1968, 1973) at 31–34.
  126. ^ Stéphane Gsell, Histoire ancienne de l'Afrique du Nord (Paris: Librairie Hachette 1924) at volume IV: 113.
  127. ^ Strabo (c.63 B.C. – A.D. 20s), Geographica at III, 5.11.
  128. ^ Walter W. Hyde, Ancient Greek Mariners (Oxford Univ. 1947) at 45–46.
  129. ^ Warmington, Carthage (1960, 1964) at 81 (secretive), 87 (monopolizing).
  130. ^ Strabo, Geographica, XVII,3,15; in the Loeb Classic Library edition of 1932, translated by H. L. Jones, at VIII: 385.
  131. ^ Cf., Theodor Mommsen, Römische Geschicht (Leipzig: Reimer and Hirzel 1854–1856), translated as the History of Rome (London 1862–1866; reprinted by J. M. Dent 1911) at II: 17–18 (Mommsen's Book III, Chapter I).
  132. ^ Warmington, B. H. (1964) [1960]. Carthage. Robert Hale, Pelican. pp. 144–147.
  133. ^ Aristotle, Politica at Book II, Chapter 11, (1272b–1274b); in The Basic Works of Aristotle edited by R. McKeon, translated by B. Jowett (Random House 1941), Politica at pages 1113–1316, "Carthage" at 1171–1174.
  134. ^ Polybius, Histories VI, 11–18, translated as The Rise of the Roman Empire (Penguin 1979) at 311–318.
  135. ^ Warmington, Carthage (1960; Penguin 1964) at 147–148.
  136. ^ Warmington, Carthage (1960; Penguin 1964) at 148.
  137. ^ Aristotle presents a slightly more expansive interpretation of the role of assemblies. Politica II, 11, (1273a/6–11); McKeon, ed., Basic Works of Aristotle (1941) at 1172.
  138. ^ Compare Roman assemblies.
  139. ^ Aristotle, Politica at II, 11, (1273b/17–20), and at VI, 5, (1320b/4–6) re colonies; in McKeon, ed., Basic Works of Aristotle (1941) at 1173, and at 1272.
  140. ^ "Aristotle said that the oligarchy was careful to treat the masses liberally and allow them a share in the profitable exploitation of the subject territories." Warmington, Carthage (1960, 1964) at 149, citing Aristotle's Politica as here.
  141. ^ Aristotle, Politica at II, 11, (1273b/23–24) re misfortune and revolt, (1272b/29–32) re constitution and loyalty; in McKeon, ed., Basic Works of Aristotle (1941) at 1173, 1171.
  142. ^ Aristotle, Politica at II, 11, (1273b/8–16) re one person many offices, and (1273a/22–1273b/7) re oligarchy; in McKeon, ed., Basic Works of Aristotle (1941) at 1173, 1172–1273.
  143. ^ Warmington, Carthage (1960, 1964) at 143–144, 148–150. "The fact is that compared to Greeks and Romans the Carthaginians were essentially non-political." Ibid. at 149.
  144. ^ H. H. Scullard, A History of the Roman World, 753–146 BC (London: Methuen 1935, 4th ed. 1980; reprint Routledge 1991) at 306–307.
  145. ^ Warmington, Carthage at 240–241, citing the Roman historian Livy.
  146. ^ Picard, Life and Death of Carthage (1968) at 80–86
  147. ^ Picard, Life and Death of Carthage (1968, 1969) at 40–41 (Greeks), .
  148. ^ Cf., Warmington, Carthage (1960; Penguin 1964) at 24–25 (Greeks), 259–260 (Romans).
  149. ^ B.H.Warmington, "The Carthiginian Period" at 246–260, 246 ("No Carthaginian literature has survived."), in General History of Africa, volume III. Ancient Civilizations of Africa (UNESCO 1990) Abridged Edition.
  150. ^ R. Bosworth Smith, Carthage and the Carthaginians (London: Longmans, Green 1878, 1902) at 12. Smith's catalogue has not been appreciably augmented since, but for newly found inscriptions.
  151. ^ Picard, Life and Death of Carthage (1968, 1969) at 72–73: translation of Romano-Punic Treaty, 509 BC; at 72–78: discussion.
  152. ^ Polybius (c. 200 – 118), Istorion at III, 22–25, selections translated as Rise of the Roman Empire (Penguin 1979) at 199–203. Nota bene: Polybius died well over 70 years before the start of the Roman Empire.
  153. ^ Cf., Arnold J. Toynbee, Hannibal's Legacy (1965) at I: 526, Appendix on the treaties.
  154. ^ Hanno's log translated in full by Warmington, Carthage (1960) at 74–76.
  155. ^ E.g., by Varro (116–27) in his De re rustica; by Columella (fl. AD 50–60) in his On trees and On agriculture, and by Pliny (23–79) in his Naturalis Historia. See below, paragraph on Mago's work.
  156. ^ Harden, The Phoenicians (New York: Praeger 1962, 2d ed. 1963) at 122–123 (28 books), 140 (quotation of paragraph).
  157. ^ Cf., H. J. Rose, A Handbook of Lanin Literature (London: Methuen 1930, 3d ed. 1954; reprint Dutton, New York 1960) at 51–52, where a plot summary of Poenulus (i.e., "The Man from Carthage") is given. Its main characters are Punic.
  158. ^ Eighteen lines from Poenulus are spoken in Punic by the character Hanno in Act 5, scene 1, beginning "Hyth alonim vualonuth sicorathi si ma com sith... ." Plautus gives a Latin paraphrase in the next ten lines. The gist is a prayer seeking divine aid in his quest to find his lost kin. The Comedies of Plautus (London: G. Bell and Sons 1912), translated by Henry Thomas Riley. The scholar Bochart considered the first ten lines to be Punic, but the last eight to be 'Lybic'. Another scholar, Samuel Petit, translated the text as if it were Hebrew, a sister-language of Punic. This according to notes accompanying the above scene by H. T. Riley.
  159. ^ Soren, Ben Khader, Slim, Carthage (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990) at 42 (over 6000 inscriptions found), at 139 (many very short, on religious stele).
  160. ^ An example of a longer inscription (of about 279 Punic characters) exists at Thugga, Tunisia. It concerns the dedication of a temple to the late king Masinissa. A translated text appears in Brett and Fentress, The Berbers (1997) at 39.
  161. ^ Glenn E. Markoe, Carthage (2000) at 114.
  162. ^ Picard and Picard, Life and Death of Carthage (1968, 1969) at 30.
  163. ^ Cf., Victor Matthews, "The libri punici of King Hiempsal" in American Journal of Philology 93: 330–335 (1972); and, Véronique Krings, "Les libri Punici de Sallust" in L'Africa Romana 7: 109–117 (1989). Cited by Roller (2003) at 27, n110.
  164. ^ Pliny the Elder (23–79), Naturalis Historia at XVIII, 22–23.
  165. ^ Serge Lancel, Carthage (Paris: Librairie Arthème Fayard 1992; Oxford: Blackwell 1995) at 358–360. Lancel here remarks that, following the fall of Carthage, there arose among the Romans there a popular reaction against the late Cato the Elder (234–149), the Roman censor who had notoriously lobbied for the destruction of the city. Lancel (1995) at 410.
  166. ^ Ronald Syme, however, in his Sallust (University of California, 1964, 2002) at 152–153, discounts any unique value of the libri punici mentioned in his Bellum Iugurthinum.
  167. ^ Lancel, Carthage (1992, 1995) at 359, raises questions concerning the provenance of these books.
  168. ^ Hiempsal II was the great-grandson of Masinissa (r. 202–148), through Mastanabal (r. 148–140) and Gauda (r. 105–88). D. W. Roller, The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene (2003) at 265.
  169. ^ Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum (ca. 42) at ¶17, translated as The Jugurthine War (Penguin 1963) at 54.
  170. ^ R. Bosworth Smith, in his Carthage and the Carthaginians (London: Longmans, Green 1878, 1908) at 38, laments that Sallust declined to directly address the history of the city of Carthage.
  171. ^ Duane W. Roller, The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene. Royal scholarship on Rome's African frontier (New York: Routledge 2003), at 183, 191, in his Chapter 8: "Libyka" (183–211) [cf., 179]; also at 19, 27, 159 (Juba's library described), 177 (per his book on Hanno).
  172. ^ Juba II's literary works are reviewed by D. W. Roller in The World of Jube II and Kleopatra Selene (2003) at chapters 7, 8, and 10.
  173. ^ Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker (Leiden 1923–), ed. Felix Jacoby, re "Juba II" at no. 275 (per Roller (2003) at xiii, 313).
  174. ^ Duane W. Roller, The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene (2003) at 189, n22; cf., 177.
  175. ^ Pliny the Elder (23–79), Naturalis Historia V, 8; II, 169.
  176. ^ Cf., Picard and Picard, The Life and Death of Carthage (Paris: Hachette [1968]; New York: Taplinger 1969) at 93–98, 115–119.
  177. ^ Serge Lancel, Carthage. A History (Paris 1992; Oxford 1995) at 358–360.
  178. ^ See section herein on Berber relations. See Early History of Tunisia for both indigenous and foreign reports concerning the Berbers, both in pre-Punic and Punic times.
  179. ^ Glenn E. Markoe, Phoenicians (London: British Museum, Berkeley: University of California 2000) at 21–22 (affinity), 95–96 (economy), 115–119 (religion), 137 (funerals), 143 (art).
  180. ^ David Diringer, Writing (London: Thames and Hudson 1962) at 115–116. The Ugarit tablet were discovered in 1929.
  181. ^ Allen C. Myers, editor, The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary (Grand Rapids: 1987) at 1027–1028.
  182. ^ Markoe, Phoenicians (2000) at 119. Eusebius of Caesarea (263–339), the Church Historian, quotes the Greek of Philo of Byblos whose source was the Phoenician writings of Sanchuniathon. Some doubt the existence of Sanchuniathon.
  183. ^ Cf., Attridge & Oden, Philo of Byblos (1981); Baumgarten, Phoenician History of Philo of Byblos (1981). Cited by Markoe (2000).
  184. ^ Donald Harden, The Phoenicians (New York: Praeger 1962, 2d ed. 1963) at 83–84.
  185. ^ Sabatino Moscati, Il Mondo dei Fenici (1966), translated as The World of the Phoenicians (London: Cardinal 1973) at 55. Prof. Moscati offers the tablets found at ancient Ugarit as independent substantiation for what we know about Sanchuniathon's writings.
  186. ^ Soren, Khader, Slim, Carthage (1990) at 128–129.
  187. ^ The ancient Romanized Jewish historian Flavius Josephus (37–100s) also mentions a lost Phoenician work; he quotes from a Phoenician History of one "Dius". Josephus, Against Apion (c.100) at I:17; found in The Works of Josephus translated by Whiston (London 1736; reprinted by Hendrickson, Peabody, Massachusetts 1987) at 773–814, 780.
  188. ^ Glenn E. Markoe, Phoenicians (Univ.of California 2002) at 11, 110. Of course, this also applies to Carthage. Cf., Markoe (2000) at 114.
  189. ^ Strabo (c. 63 B.C. – A.D. 20s), Geographica at III, 5.11.
  190. ^ "He knows all lingos, but pretends he doesn't. He must be Punic; need we labor it?" From Poenulus at 112–113, by the Roman playwright Plautus (c. 250–184). Cited by Hardon, The Phoenicians (1963) at 228, n102.
  191. ^ Markoe, Phoenicians (2000) at 110, at 11. Inserted in second Markoe quote: [language].
  192. ^ Cf., Harden, The Phoenicians (1963) at 123. [Ancient Peoples and Places]
  193. ^ Soren, Ben Khader, Slim, Carthage (New York: Simon and Schuster 1990) at 34–35 (script), at 42 (inserted in quote: [the alphabet]).
  194. ^ Steven Roger Fischer, A History of Writing (London: Reaktion 2001) at 82–93. Facsimiles of early alphabetical writing from ancient inscriptions are given for: Proto-Canaanite in the Levant of the 2nd millennium (at 88), Phoenician (Old Hebrew) in Moab of 842 (at 91), Phoenician (Punic) in Marseilles [France] circa 300 BC (at 92). Also given (at 92) is a bilingual (Punic and Numidian) inscription from Thugga [Tunisia] circa 218–201, which regards a temple being dedicated to king Masinissa.
  195. ^ David Diringer, Writing (London: Thames and Hudson 1962) at 112–121.
  196. ^ Landon, Letitia Elizabeth (1836). "picture". Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837. Fisher, Son & Co.Landon, Letitia Elizabeth (1836). "poetical illustration". Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837. Fisher, Son & Co.

Sources

  • Polybius, The Histories, Cambridge: translated from the Latin by W.R. Paton for Harvard University Press from 1922 to 1927.
  • Polybius, "Rome at the End of the Punic Wars", History, Book VI, Milwaukee: translated from the Latin by Oliver J. Thatcher for University Research Extension Co. in 1907.
  • Ernest Babelon, Carthage, Paris (1896).
  • Auguste Audollent, Carthage Romaine, 146 avant Jésus-Christ — 698 après Jésus-Christ, Paris (1901).
  • Charles-Picard, Gibert; et al. (1958), La vie quotidienne à Carthage au temps d'Hannibal [Daily Life in Carthage in the Time of Hannibal], Paris: Hachette. (in French)
  • Bath, Tony (1981), Hannibal's Campaigns, New York: Barnes & Noble Books.
  • Aubet, Maria Eugenia (1987), The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies, and Trade, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Soren, David; et al. (1990), Carthage: Uncovering the Mysteries and Splendors of Ancient Tunisia, New York: Simon & Schuster.
  • Beschaouch, Azedine (1993), La légende de Carthage [The Legend of Carthage], Découvertes Gallimard, vol. 172, Paris: Gallimard. (in French)
  • Raven, S. (2002), Rome in Africa, 3rd ed.
  • Lipinski, Edward (2004), Itineraria Phoenicia, Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters en Department Oosterse Studies.
  • Winterer, Caroline (2010). "Model Empire, Lost City: Ancient Carthage and the Science of Politics in Revolutionary America" The William and Mary Quarterly 67(1): 3-30.
  • Freed, J. (2011), Bringing Carthage Home: The Excavations of Nathan Davis, 1856–1859.
  • Miles, Richard (2011), Carthage Must Be Destroyed: The Rise and Fall of an Ancient Civilization, Viking.
  • Li, Hansong (2022). "Locating Mobile Sovereignty: Carthage in Natural Jurisprudence" History of Political Thought 43(2): 246–272.

External links

 
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Carthage (ancient city)".
  •   The dictionary definition of Carthago at Wiktionary
  •   Carthage travel guide from Wikivoyage
  •   Media related to Archaeological site of Carthage at Wikimedia Commons
  •   Media related to Cultural heritage monuments in Carthage at Wikimedia Commons

April 15, 2023
carthage, this, article, about, historical, city, phoenician, republic, ancient, modern, municipality, municipality, airport, tunis, international, airport, other, uses, disambiguation, capital, city, ancient, eastern, side, lake, tunis, what, tunisia, most, i. This article is about the historical city For the Phoenician republic see Ancient Carthage For the modern municipality see Carthage municipality For the airport see Tunis Carthage International Airport For other uses see Carthage disambiguation Carthage a was the capital city of ancient Carthage on the eastern side of the Lake of Tunis in what is now Tunisia Carthage was one of the most important trading hubs of the Ancient Mediterranean and one of the most affluent cities of the classical world CarthageTop Carthage Saint Louis Cathedral Malik ibn Anas Mosque Middle Carthage Palace Bottom Baths of Antoninus Amphitheatre of Carthage all items from left to right Shown within TunisiaLocationTunisiaRegionTunis GovernorateCoordinates36 51 10 N 10 19 24 E 36 8528 N 10 3233 E 36 8528 10 3233UNESCO World Heritage SiteTypeCulturalCriteriaii iii viDesignated1979 3rd session Reference no 37RegionNorth AfricaThe city developed from a Canaanite Phoenician colony into the capital of a Punic empire which dominated large parts of the Southwest Mediterranean during the first millennium BC 1 The legendary Queen Alyssa or Dido originally from Tyre is regarded as the founder of the city 2 though her historicity has been questioned According to accounts by Timaeus of Tauromenium she purchased from a local tribe the amount of land that could be covered by an oxhide As Carthage prospered at home the polity sent colonists abroad as well as magistrates to rule the colonies 3 The ancient city was destroyed in the nearly three year siege of Carthage by the Roman Republic during the Third Punic War in 146 BC It was re developed a century later as Roman Carthage which became the major city of the Roman Empire in the province of Africa The question of Carthaginian decline and demise has remained a subject of literary political artistic and philosophical debates in both ancient and modern histories 3 4 Late antique and medieval Carthage continued to play an important cultural and economic role in the Byzantine period The city was sacked and destroyed by Umayyad forces after the Battle of Carthage in 698 to prevent it from being reconquered by the Byzantine Empire 5 It remained occupied during the Muslim period 6 and was used as a fort by the Muslims until the Hafsid period when it was taken by the Crusaders with its inhabitants massacred during the Eighth Crusade The Hafsids decided to destroy its defenses so it could not be used as a base by a hostile power again 7 It also continued to function as an episcopal see The regional power had shifted to Kairouan and the Medina of Tunis in the medieval period until the early 20th century when it began to develop into a coastal suburb of Tunis incorporated as Carthage municipality in 1919 The archaeological site was first surveyed in 1830 by Danish consul Christian Tuxen Falbe Excavations were performed in the second half of the 19th century by Charles Ernest Beule and by Alfred Louis Delattre The Carthage National Museum was founded in 1875 by Cardinal Charles Lavigerie Excavations performed by French archaeologists in the 1920s first attracted an extraordinary amount of attention because of the evidence they produced for child sacrifice There has been considerable disagreement among scholars concerning whether child sacrifice was practiced by ancient Carthage 8 9 The open air Carthage Paleo Christian Museum has exhibits excavated under the auspices of UNESCO from 1975 to 1984 The site of the ruins is a UNESCO World Heritage Site 10 source source source source source source source source source source source source source source track track track track track track Reconstruction of Carthage capital of the Canaanites Contents 1 Name 2 Topography layout and society 2 1 Overview 2 2 Layout 2 3 Society and local economy 3 Ancient history 3 1 Punic Republic 3 1 1 Salting legend 3 2 Roman Carthage 3 3 Islamic period 4 Modern history 4 1 Archaeological site 4 1 1 Climate change 4 2 Commune 5 Trade and business 6 Constitution of state 7 Contemporary sources 8 In art and literature 9 Notes 10 References 10 1 Sources 11 External linksName EditFurther information Phoenicia Etymology The name Carthage ˈ k ɑːr 8 ɪ dʒ KAR thij is the Early Modern anglicisation of Middle French Carthage kartaʒ 11 from Latin Carthagō and Karthagō cf Greek Karkhedōn Karxhdwn and Etruscan Car8aza from the Punic qrt ḥdst 𐤒𐤓𐤕 𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕 new city b implying it was a new Tyre 13 The Latin adjective punicus meaning Phoenician is reflected in English in some borrowings from Latin notably the Punic Wars and the Punic language The Modern Standard Arabic form Qarṭaj قرطاج is an adoption of French Carthage replacing an older local toponym reported as Cartagenna that directly continued the Latin name 14 Topography layout and society Edit Modern reconstruction of Punic Carthage The circular harbor at the front is the Cothon the military port of Carthage where all of Carthage s warships Biremes were anchored Overview Edit Carthage was built on a promontory with sea inlets to the north and the south The city s location made it master of the Mediterranean s maritime trade All ships crossing the sea had to pass between Sicily and the coast of Tunisia where Carthage was built affording it great power and influence Two large artificial harbors were built within the city one for harboring the city s prodigious navy of 220 warships and the other for mercantile trade A walled tower overlooked both harbors The city had massive walls 37 km 23 mi long which was longer than the walls of comparable cities Most of the walls were on the shore and so could be less impressive as Carthaginian control of the sea made attack from that direction difficult The 4 0 to 4 8 km 2 5 to 3 mi of wall on the isthmus to the west were truly massive and were never penetrated Carthage was one of the largest cities of the Hellenistic period and was among the largest cities in preindustrial history Whereas by AD 14 Rome had at least 750 000 inhabitants and in the following century may have reached 1 million the cities of Alexandria and Antioch numbered only a few hundred thousand or less 15 According to the history of Herodian Carthage rivaled Alexandria for second place in the Roman empire 16 Layout Edit The layout of the Punic city state Carthage before its fall in 146 B C The Punic Carthage was divided into four equally sized residential areas with the same layout had religious areas market places council house towers a theater and a huge necropolis roughly in the middle of the city stood a high citadel called the Byrsa Surrounding Carthage were walls of great strength said in places to rise above 13 m being nearly 10 m thick according to ancient authors To the west three parallel walls were built The walls altogether ran for about 33 kilometres 21 miles to encircle the city 17 18 The heights of the Byrsa were additionally fortified this area being the last to succumb to the Romans in 146 BC Originally the Romans had landed their army on the strip of land extending southward from the city 19 20 Outside the city walls of Carthage is the Chora or farm lands of Carthage Chora encompassed a limited area the north coastal tell the lower Bagradas river valley inland from Utica Cape Bon and the adjacent sahel on the east coast Punic culture here achieved the introduction of agricultural sciences first developed for lands of the eastern Mediterranean and their adaptation to local African conditions 21 The urban landscape of Carthage is known in part from ancient authors 22 augmented by modern digs and surveys conducted by archeologists The first urban nucleus dating to the seventh century in area about 10 hectares 25 acres was apparently located on low lying lands along the coast north of the later harbors As confirmed by archaeological excavations Carthage was a creation ex nihilo built on virgin land and situated at what was then the end of a peninsula Here among mud brick walls and beaten clay floors recently uncovered were also found extensive cemeteries which yielded evocative grave goods like clay masks Thanks to this burial archaeology we know more about archaic Carthage than about any other contemporary city in the western Mediterranean Already in the eighth century fabric dyeing operations had been established evident from crushed shells of murex from which the Phoenician purple was derived Nonetheless only a meager picture of the cultural life of the earliest pioneers in the city can be conjectured and not much about housing monuments or defenses 23 24 The Roman poet Virgil 70 19 BC imagined early Carthage when his legendary character Aeneas had arrived there Aeneas found where lately huts had been marvelous buildings gateways cobbled ways and din of wagons There the Tyrians were hard at work laying courses for walls rolling up stones to build the citadel while others picked out building sites and plowed a boundary furrow Laws were being enacted magistrates and a sacred senate chosen Here men were dredging harbors there they laid the deep foundations of a theatre and quarried massive pillars 25 26 Archaeological sites of modern Carthage The two inner harbours named cothon in Punic were located in the southeast one being commercial and the other for war Their definite functions are not entirely known probably for the construction outfitting or repair of ships perhaps also loading and unloading cargo 27 28 29 Larger anchorages existed to the north and south of the city 30 North and west of the cothon were located several industrial areas e g metalworking and pottery e g for amphora which could serve both inner harbours and ships anchored to the south of the city 31 About the Byrsa the citadel area to the north 32 considering its importance our knowledge of it is patchy Its prominent heights were the scene of fierce combat during the fiery destruction of the city in 146 BC The Byrsa was the reported site of the Temple of Eshmun the healing god at the top of a stairway of sixty steps 33 34 A temple of Tanit the city s queen goddess was likely situated on the slope of the lesser Byrsa immediately to the east which runs down toward the sea 35 Also situated on the Byrsa were luxury homes 36 South of the citadel near the cothon was the tophet a special and very old cemetery which when begun lay outside the city s boundaries Here the Salammbo was located the Sanctuary of Tanit not a temple but an enclosure for placing stone stelae These were mostly short and upright carved for funeral purposes The presence of infant skeletons from here may indicate the occurrence of child sacrifice as claimed in the Bible although there has been considerable doubt among archeologists as to this interpretation and many consider it simply a cemetery devoted to infants 37 Probably the tophet burial fields were dedicated at an early date perhaps by the first settlers 38 39 Recent studies on the other hand indicate that child sacrifice was practiced by the Carthaginians 40 41 Between the sea filled cothon for shipping and the Byrsa heights lay the agora Greek market the city state s central marketplace for business and commerce The agora was also an area of public squares and plazas where the people might formally assemble or gather for festivals It was the site of religious shrines and the location of whatever were the major municipal buildings of Carthage Here beat the heart of civic life In this district of Carthage more probably the ruling suffets presided the council of elders convened the tribunal of the 104 met and justice was dispensed at trials in the open air 42 43 Early residential districts wrapped around the Byrsa from the south to the north east Houses usually were whitewashed and blank to the street but within were courtyards open to the sky 44 In these neighborhoods multistory construction later became common some up to six stories tall according to an ancient Greek author 45 46 Several architectural floorplans of homes have been revealed by recent excavations as well as the general layout of several city blocks Stone stairs were set in the streets and drainage was planned e g in the form of soakaways leaching into the sandy soil 47 Along the Byrsa s southern slope were located not only fine old homes but also many of the earliest grave sites juxtaposed in small areas interspersed with daily life 48 Artisan workshops were located in the city at sites north and west of the harbours The location of three metal workshops implied from iron slag and other vestiges of such activity were found adjacent to the naval and commercial harbours and another two were further up the hill toward the Byrsa citadel Sites of pottery kilns have been identified between the agora and the harbours and further north Earthenware often used Greek models A fuller s shop for preparing woolen cloth shrink and thicken was evidently situated further to the west and south then by the edge of the city 49 Carthage also produced objects of rare refinement During the 4th and 3rd centuries the sculptures of the sarcophagi became works of art Bronze engraving and stone carving reached their zenith 50 The elevation of the land at the promontory on the seashore to the north east now called Sidi Bou Said was twice as high above sea level as that at the Byrsa 100 m and 50 m In between runs a ridge several times reaching 50 m it continues northwestward along the seashore and forms the edge of a plateau like area between the Byrsa and the sea 51 Newer urban developments lay here in these northern districts 52 Punic ruins in Byrsa Archaeological Site of Carthage Due to the Roman s leveling of the city the original Punic urban landscape of Carthage was largely lost Since 1982 French archaeologist Serge Lancel excavated a residential area of the Punic Carthage on top of Byrsa hill near the Forum of the Roman Carthage The neighborhood can be dated back to early second century BC and with its houses shops and private spaces is significant for what it reveals about daily life of the Punic Carthage 53 The remains have been preserved under embankments the substructures of the later Roman forum whose foundation piles dot the district The housing blocks are separated by a grid of straight streets about 6 m 20 ft wide with a roadway consisting of clay in situ stairs compensate for the slope of the hill Construction of this type presupposes organization and political will and has inspired the name of the neighborhood Hannibal district referring to the legendary Punic general or sufet consul at the beginning of the second century BC The habitat is typical even stereotypical The street was often used as a storefront shopfront cisterns were installed in basements to collect water for domestic use and a long corridor on the right side of each residence led to a courtyard containing a sump around which various other elements may be found In some places the ground is covered with mosaics called punica pavement sometimes using a characteristic red mortar Society and local economy Edit Archaeological Site of Carthage View of two columns at Carthage Punic culture and agricultural sciences after arriving at Carthage from the eastern Mediterranean gradually adapted to the local conditions The merchant harbor at Carthage was developed after settlement of the nearby Punic town of Utica and eventually the surrounding African countryside was brought into the orbit of the Punic urban centers first commercially then politically Direct management over cultivation of neighbouring lands by Punic owners followed 54 A 28 volume work on agriculture written in Punic by Mago a retired army general c 300 was translated into Latin and later into Greek The original and both translations have been lost however some of Mago s text has survived in other Latin works 55 Olive trees e g grafting fruit trees pomegranate almond fig date palm viniculture bees cattle sheep poultry implements and farm management were among the ancient topics which Mago discussed As well Mago addresses the wine maker s art here a type of sherry 56 57 58 In Punic farming society according to Mago the small estate owners were the chief producers They were two modern historians write not absent landlords Rather the likely reader of Mago was the master of a relatively modest estate from which by great personal exertion he extracted the maximum yield Mago counselled the rural landowner for the sake of their own utilitarian interests to treat carefully and well their managers and farm workers or their overseers and slaves 59 Yet elsewhere these writers suggest that rural land ownership provided also a new power base among the city s nobility for those resident in their country villas 60 61 By many farming was viewed as an alternative endeavour to an urban business Another modern historian opines that more often it was the urban merchant of Carthage who owned rural farming land to some profit and also to retire there during the heat of summer 62 It may seem that Mago anticipated such an opinion and instead issued this contrary advice as quoted by the Roman writer Columella The man who acquires an estate must sell his house lest he prefer to live in the town rather than in the country Anyone who prefers to live in a town has no need of an estate in the country 63 One who has bought land should sell his town house so that he will have no desire to worship the household gods of the city rather than those of the country the man who takes greater delight in his city residence will have no need of a country estate 64 The issues involved in rural land management also reveal underlying features of Punic society its structure and stratification The hired workers might be considered rural proletariat drawn from the local Berbers Whether there remained Berber landowners next to Punic run farms is unclear Some Berbers became sharecroppers Slaves acquired for farm work were often prisoners of war In lands outside Punic political control independent Berbers cultivated grain and raised horses on their lands Yet within the Punic domain that surrounded the city state of Carthage there were ethnic divisions in addition to the usual quasi feudal distinctions between lord and peasant or master and serf This inherent instability in the countryside drew the unwanted attention of potential invaders 65 Yet for long periods Carthage was able to manage these social difficulties 66 The many amphorae with Punic markings subsequently found about ancient Mediterranean coastal settlements testify to Carthaginian trade in locally made olive oil and wine 67 Carthage s agricultural production was held in high regard by the ancients and rivaled that of Rome they were once competitors e g over their olive harvests Under Roman rule however grain production wheat and barley for export increased dramatically in Africa yet these later fell with the rise in Roman Egypt s grain exports Thereafter olive groves and vineyards were re established around Carthage Visitors to the several growing regions that surrounded the city wrote admiringly of the lush green gardens orchards fields irrigation channels hedgerows as boundaries as well as the many prosperous farming towns located across the rural landscape 68 69 Accordingly the Greek author and compiler Diodorus Siculus fl 1st century BC who enjoyed access to ancient writings later lost and on which he based most of his writings described agricultural land near the city of Carthage circa 310 BC It was divided into market gardens and orchards of all sorts of fruit trees with many streams of water flowing in channels irrigating every part There were country homes everywhere lavishly built and covered with stucco Part of the land was planted with vines part with olives and other productive trees Beyond these cattle and sheep were pastured on the plains and there were meadows with grazing horses 70 71 Ancient history EditMain article History of Carthage Greek cities contested with Carthage for the Western Mediterranean culminating in the Sicilian Wars and the Pyrrhic War over Sicily while the Romans fought three wars against Carthage known as the Punic Wars 72 73 from the Latin Punic meaning Phoenician as Carthage was a Phoenician colony grown into an empire Punic Republic Edit Main article Ancient Carthage Downfall of the Carthaginian Empire Lost to Rome in the First Punic War 264 241 BC Won after the First Punic War lost in the Second Punic War Lost in the Second Punic War 218 201 BC Conquered by Rome in the Third Punic War 149 146 BC The Carthaginian republic was one of the longest lived and largest states in the ancient Mediterranean Reports relay several wars with Syracuse and finally Rome which eventually resulted in the defeat and destruction of Carthage in the Third Punic War The Carthaginians were Phoenician settlers originating in the Mediterranean coast of the Near East They spoke Canaanite a Semitic language and followed a local variety of the ancient Canaanite religion the Punic religion The Carthaginians travelled widely across the seas and set up numerous colonies Unlike Greek Phoenician and Tyrian colonizers who only required colonies to pay due respect for their home cities Carthage is said to have sent its own magistrates to govern overseas settlements 3 Ruins of Carthage The fall of Carthage came at the end of the Third Punic War in 146 BC at the Battle of Carthage 74 Despite initial devastating Roman naval losses and Hannibal s 15 year occupation of much of Roman Italy who was on the brink of defeat but managed to recover the end of the series of wars resulted in the end of Carthaginian power and the complete destruction of the city by Scipio Aemilianus The Romans pulled the Phoenician warships out into the harbor and burned them before the city and went from house to house capturing and enslaving the people About 50 000 Carthaginians were sold into slavery 75 The city was set ablaze and razed to the ground leaving only ruins and rubble After the fall of Carthage Rome annexed the majority of the Carthaginian colonies including other North African locations such as Volubilis Lixus Chellah 76 Today a Carthaginian peace can refer to any brutal peace treaty demanding total subjugation of the defeated side Salting legend Edit Main article Salting the earth Carthage Since at least 1863 77 it has been claimed that Carthage was sown with salt after being razed but there is no evidence for this 78 79 Roman Carthage Edit Roman Carthage City Center Layout of Roman Carthage Main article Roman Carthage When Carthage fell its nearby rival Utica a Roman ally was made capital of the region and replaced Carthage as the leading center of Punic trade and leadership It had the advantageous position of being situated on the outlet of the Medjerda River Tunisia s only river that flowed all year long However grain cultivation in the Tunisian mountains caused large amounts of silt to erode into the river This silt accumulated in the harbor until it became useless and Rome was forced to rebuild Carthage By 122 BC Gaius Gracchus founded a short lived colony called Colonia Iunonia after the Latin name for the Punic goddess Tanit Iuno Caelestis The purpose was to obtain arable lands for impoverished farmers The Senate abolished the colony some time later to undermine Gracchus power After this ill fated effort a new city of Carthage was built on the same land by Julius Caesar in the period from 49 to 44 BC and by the first century it had grown to be the second largest city in the western half of the Roman Empire with a peak population of 500 000 80 unreliable source It was the center of the province of Africa which was a major breadbasket of the Empire Among its major monuments was an amphitheater Carthage also became a center of early Christianity see Carthage episcopal see In the first of a string of rather poorly reported councils at Carthage a few years later no fewer than 70 bishops attended Tertullian later broke with the mainstream that was increasingly represented in the West by the primacy of the Bishop of Rome but a more serious rift among Christians was the Donatist controversy against which Augustine of Hippo spent much time and parchment arguing At the Council of Carthage 397 the biblical canon for the western Church was confirmed The Christians at Carthage conducted persecutions against the pagans during which the pagan temples notably the famous Temple of Juno Caelesti were destroyed 81 The Vandal Kingdom in 500 centered on Carthage The Vandals under Gaiseric invaded Africa in 429 They relinquished the facade of their allied status to Rome and defeated the Roman general Bonifacius to seize Carthage the once most treasured province of Rome 82 The 5th century Roman bishop Victor Vitensis mentions in his Historia Persecutionis Africanae Provincia that the Vandals destroyed parts of Carthage including various buildings and churches 83 Once in power the ecclesiastical authorities were persecuted the locals were aggressively taxed and naval raids were routinely launched on Romans in the Mediterranean 82 After a failed attempt to recapture the city in the fifth century the Eastern Roman Empire finally subdued the Vandals in the Vandalic War in 533 534 Thereafter the city became the seat of the praetorian prefecture of Africa which was made into an exarchate during the emperor Maurice s reign as was Ravenna on the Italian Peninsula These two exarchates were the western bulwarks of the Byzantine Empire all that remained of its power in the West In the early seventh century Heraclius the Elder the exarch of Carthage overthrew the Byzantine emperor Phocas whereupon his son Heraclius succeeded to the imperial throne Islamic period Edit Main articles Muslim conquest of the Maghreb and Battle of Carthage 698 The Roman Exarchate of Africa was not able to withstand the seventh century Muslim conquest of the Maghreb The Umayyad Caliphate under Abd al Malik ibn Marwan in 686 sent a force led by Zuhayr ibn Qays who won a battle over the Romans and Berbers led by King Kusaila of the Kingdom of Altava on the plain of Kairouan but he could not follow that up In 695 Hassan ibn al Nu man captured Carthage and advanced into the Atlas Mountains An imperial fleet arrived and retook Carthage but in 698 Hasan ibn al Nu man returned and defeated Emperor Tiberios III at the 698 Battle of Carthage Roman imperial forces withdrew from all of Africa except Ceuta Fearing that the Byzantine Empire might reconquer it they decided to destroy Roman Carthage in a scorched earth policy and establish their headquarters somewhere else Its walls were torn down the water supply from its aqueducts cut off the agricultural land was ravaged and its harbors made unusable 5 The destruction of the Exarchate of Africa marked a permanent end to the Byzantine Empire s influence in the region It is clear from archaeological evidence that the town of Carthage continued to be occupied as did the neighborhood of Bjordi Djedid The Baths of Antoninus continued to function in the Arab period and the eleventh century historian Al Bakri stated that they were still in good condition at that time They also had production centers nearby It is difficult to determine whether the continued habitation of some other buildings belonged to Late Byzantine or Early Arab period The Bir Ftouha church may have continued to remain in use although it is not clear when it became uninhabited 6 Constantine the African was born in Carthage 84 The Medina of Tunis originally a Berber settlement was established as the new regional center under the Umayyad Caliphate in the early 8th century Under the Aghlabids the people of Tunis revolted numerous times but the city profited from economic improvements and quickly became the second most important in the kingdom It was briefly the national capital from the end of the reign of Ibrahim II in 902 until 909 when the Shi ite Berbers took over Ifriqiya and founded the Fatimid Caliphate Carthage remained a residential see until the high medieval period and is mentioned in two letters of Pope Leo IX dated 1053 85 written in reply to consultations regarding a conflict between the bishops of Carthage and Gummi In each of the two letters Pope Leo declares that after the Bishop of Rome the first archbishop and chief metropolitan of the whole of Africa is the bishop of Carthage Later an archbishop of Carthage named Cyriacus was imprisoned by the Arab rulers because of an accusation by some Christians Pope Gregory VII wrote Cyriacus a letter of consolation repeating the hopeful assurances of the primacy of the Church of Carthage whether the Church of Carthage should still lie desolate or rise again in glory By 1076 Cyriacus was set free but there was only one other bishop in the province These are the last of whom there is mention in that period of the history of the see 86 87 The fortress of Carthage was used by the Muslims until Hafsid era and was captured by the Crusaders during the Eighth Crusade The inhabitants of Carthage were slaughtered by the Crusaders after they took it and it was used as a base of operations against the Hafsids After repelling them Muhammad I al Mustansir decided to raze Cathage s defenses in order to prevent a repeat 7 Modern history Edit Historical map of the Tunis area 1903 showing St Louis of Carthage between Sidi Bou Said and Le Kram The first published sketch of artefacts from Carthage mostly Carthaginian tombstones This was published in Jean Emile Humbert s Notice sur quatre cippes sepulcraux et deux fragments decouverts en 1817 sur le sol de l ancienne Carthage Carthage is some 15 kilometres 9 3 miles east northeast of Tunis the settlements nearest to Carthage were the town of Sidi Bou Said to the north and the village of Le Kram to the south Sidi Bou Said was a village which had grown around the tomb of the eponymous sufi saint d 1231 which had been developed into a town under Ottoman rule in the 18th century Le Kram was developed in the late 19th century under French administration as a settlement close to the port of La Goulette In 1881 Tunisia became a French protectorate and in the same year Charles Lavigerie who was archbishop of Algiers became apostolic administrator of the vicariate of Tunis In the following year Lavigerie became a cardinal He saw himself as the reviver of the ancient Christian Church of Africa the Church of Cyprian of Carthage 88 and on 10 November 1884 was successful in his great ambition of having the metropolitan see of Carthage restored with himself as its first archbishop 89 In line with the declaration of Pope Leo IX in 1053 Pope Leo XIII acknowledged the revived Archdiocese of Carthage as the primatial see of Africa and Lavigerie as primate 90 91 The Acropolium of Carthage Saint Louis Cathedral of Carthage was erected on Byrsa hill in 1884 Archaeological site Edit The Danish consul Christian Tuxen Falbe conducted a first survey of the topography of the archaeological site published in 1833 Antiquarian interest was intensified following the publication of Flaubert s Salammbo in 1858 Charles Ernest Beule performed some preliminary excavations of Roman remains on Byrsa hill in 1860 92 A more systematic survey of both Punic and Roman era remains is due to Alfred Louis Delattre who was sent to Tunis by cardinal Charles Lavigerie in 1875 on both an apostolic and an archaeological mission 93 Audollent 1901 p 203 cites Delattre and Lavigerie to the effect that in the 1880s locals still knew the area of the ancient city under the name of Cartagenna i e reflecting the Latin n stem Carthagine Auguste Audollent divides the area of Roman Carthage into four quarters Cartagenna Dermeche Byrsa and La Malga Cartagenna and Dermeche correspond with the lower city including the site of Punic Carthage Byrsa is associated with the upper city which in Punic times was a walled citadel above the harbour and La Malga is linked with the more remote parts of the upper city in Roman times French led excavations at Carthage began in 1921 and from 1923 reported finds of a large quantity of urns containing a mixture of animal and children s bones Rene Dussaud identified a 4th century BC stela found in Carthage as depicting a child sacrifice 94 A temple at Amman 1400 1250 BC excavated and reported upon by J B Hennessy in 1966 shows the possibility of bestial and human sacrifice by fire While evidence of child sacrifice in Canaan was the object of academic disagreement with some scholars arguing that merely children s cemeteries had been unearthed in Carthage the mixture of children s with animal bones as well as associated epigraphic evidence involving mention of mlk led some to believe that at least in Carthage child sacrifice was indeed common practice 95 However though the animals were surely sacrificed this does not entirely indicate that the infants were and in fact the bones indicate the opposite Rather the animal sacrifice was likely done to in some way honour the deceased 96 A study conducted in 1970 by M Chabeuf the then Doctor of Science from the University of Paris showed little difference between 17 modern Tunisians and 68 Punic remains 97 An analysis the following year on 42 North West African skulls dating back to Roman times concluded that they were overall similar to modern Berbers and other Mediterranean populations especially eastern Iberians They also noted the presence of one outlier in Tunisia who appears to have inherited mechtoid traits which led them to hypothesize the persistence of such affinities well into the Punic and Roman era 98 M C Chamla and D Ferembach 1988 in their entry dealing with the craniometric conclusions of Protohistorical Algerians and Punics in the region of Tunisia found strong sexual dimorphism with male skulls being robust Mediterranean elements were dominant but Mechtoid features as well as Negroid traits were present in some of the samples Overall Punic burials showed affinities with Algerians Roman Era skulls from Tarragona Spain Guanches and to a lesser extent Abydos XVIIIth dynasty Etruscans Bronze Age Syrians Euphrates and skulls from Lozere France The anthropological position of the Algerian and Punic people when it comes to populations of the Mediterranean Basin agreed quite well with the geographical situation 99 Jehan Desanges stated that In the Punic burial grounds negroid remains were not rare and there were black auxiliaries in the Carthaginian army who were certainly not Nilotics 100 In 1990 Shomarka Keita a biological anthropologist had conducted a craniometric study which featured a set of remains from Northern Africa He examined a sample of 49 Maghreban crania which included skulls from pre Roman Carthage and concluded that although they were heterogeneous many of them showed physical similarities to crania from equatorial Africa ancient Egypt and Kush 101 S O Y Keita s report in 2018 found the pre Roman Carthaginian series to be intermediate between the Phoenician and Maghrebian He noted the findings are consistent with an interpretation that it reflects both local and Levantine ancestry due to specific interactions in the ancient period 102 In 2016 an ancient Carthaginian individual who was excavated from a Punic tomb in Byrsa Hill was found to belong to the rare U5b2c1 maternal haplogroup The Young Man of Byrsa specimen dates from the late 6th century BC and his lineage is believed to represent early gene flow from Iberia to the Maghreb 103 Climate change Edit Main article Sea level rise Due to its coastal location Carthage Archeological Site is vulnerable to sea level rise In 2022 the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report included it in the list of African cultural sites which would be threatened by flooding and coastal erosion by the end of the century but only if climate change followed RCP 8 5 which is the scenario of high and continually increasing greenhouse gas emissions associated with the warming of over 4 C 104 and is no longer considered very likely 105 106 The other more plausible scenarios result in lower warming levels and consequently lower sea level rise yet sea levels would continue to increase for about 10 000 years under all of them 107 Even if the warming is limited to 1 5 C global sea level rise is still expected to exceed 2 3 m 7 10 ft after 2000 years and higher warming levels will see larger increases by then consequently exceeding 2100 levels of sea level rise under RCP 8 5 0 75 m 2 ft with a range of 0 5 1 m 2 3 ft well before the year 4000 Thus it is a matter of time before the Carthage Archeological Site is threatened by rising water levels unless it can be protected by adaptation efforts such as sea walls 108 Commune Edit Main article Carthage municipality The commune of Carthage was created by a decree of the Bey of Tunis on 15 June 1919 109 during the rule of Naceur Bey In 1920 the first seaplane base was built on the Lake of Tunis for the seaplanes of Compagnie Aeronavale 110 The Tunis Airfield opened in 1938 serving around 5 800 passengers annually on the Paris Tunis route 111 During World War II the airport was used by the United States Army Air Force Twelfth Air Force as a headquarters and command control base for the Italian Campaign of 1943 Construction on the Tunis Carthage Airport which was fully funded by France began in 1944 and in 1948 the airport become the main hub for Tunisair In the 1950s the Lycee Francais de Carthage was established to serve French families in Carthage In 1961 it was given to the Tunisian government as part of the Independence of Tunisia so the nearby College Maurice Cailloux in La Marsa previously an annex of the Lycee Francais de Carthage was renamed to the Lycee Francais de La Marsa and began serving the lycee level It is currently the Lycee Gustave Flaubert 112 After Tunisian independence in 1956 the Tunis conurbation gradually extended around the airport and Carthage قرطاج Qarṭaj is now a suburb of Tunis covering the area between Sidi Bou Said and Le Kram 113 114 Its population as of January 2013 was estimated at 21 276 115 mostly attracting the more wealthy residents 116 If Carthage is not the capital it tends to be the political pole a place of emblematic power according to Sophie Bessis 117 leaving to Tunis the economic and administrative roles The Carthage Palace the Tunisian presidential palace is located in the coast 118 The suburb has six train stations of the TGM line between Le Kram and Sidi Bou Said Carthage Salammbo named for the ancient children s cemetery where it stands Carthage Byrsa named for Byrsa hill Carthage Dermech Dermeche Carthage Hannibal named for Hannibal Carthage Presidence named for the Presidential Palace and Carthage Amilcar named for Hamilcar Trade and business Edit Map of the Mediterranean in 218 BC The merchants of Carthage were in part heirs of the Mediterranean trade developed by Phoenicia and so also heirs of the rivalry with Greek merchants Business activity was accordingly both stimulated and challenged Cyprus had been an early site of such commercial contests The Phoenicians then had ventured into the western Mediterranean founding trading posts including Utica and Carthage The Greeks followed entering the western seas where the commercial rivalry continued Eventually it would lead especially in Sicily to several centuries of intermittent war 119 120 Although Greek made merchandise was generally considered superior in design Carthage also produced trade goods in abundance That Carthage came to function as a manufacturing colossus was shown during the Third Punic War with Rome Carthage which had previously disarmed then was made to face the fatal Roman siege The city suddenly organised the manufacture of arms with great skill and effectiveness According to Strabo 63 BC AD 21 in his Geographica Carthage each day produced one hundred and forty finished shields three hundred swords five hundred spears and one thousand missiles for the catapults Furthermore Carthage although surrounded by the Romans built one hundred and twenty decked ships in two months for old timber had been stored away in readiness and a large number of skilled workmen maintained at public expense 121 The textiles industry in Carthage probably started in private homes but the existence of professional weavers indicates that a sort of factory system later developed Products included embroidery carpets and use of the purple murex dye for which the Carthaginian isle of Djerba was famous Metalworkers developed specialized skills i e making various weapons for the armed forces as well as domestic articles such as knives forks scissors mirrors and razors all articles found in tombs Artwork in metals included vases and lamps in bronze also bowls and plates Other products came from such crafts as the potters the glassmakers and the goldsmiths Inscriptions on votive stele indicate that many were not slaves but free citizens 122 Trade routes of Phoenicia Byblos Sidon Tyre amp Carthage Phoenician and Punic merchant ventures were often run as a family enterprise putting to work its members and its subordinate clients Such family run businesses might perform a variety of tasks own and maintain the ships providing the captain and crew do the negotiations overseas either by barter or buying and selling of their own manufactured commodities and trade goods and native products metals foodstuffs etc to carry and trade elsewhere and send their agents to stay at distant outposts in order to make lasting local contacts and later to establish a warehouse of shipped goods for exchange and eventually perhaps a settlement Over generations such activity might result in the creation of a wide ranging network of trading operations Ancillary would be the growth of reciprocity between different family firms foreign and domestic 123 124 State protection was extended to its sea traders by the Phoenician city of Tyre and later likewise by the daughter city state of Carthage 125 Stephane Gsell the well regarded French historian of ancient North Africa summarized the major principles guiding the civic rulers of Carthage with regard to its policies for trade and commerce to open and maintain markets for its merchants whether by entering into direct contact with foreign peoples using either treaty negotiations or naval power or by providing security for isolated trading stations the reservation of markets exclusively for the merchants of Carthage or where competition could not be eliminated to regulate trade by state sponsored agreements with its commercial rivals suppression of piracy and promotion of Carthage s ability to freely navigate the seas 126 Both the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians were well known in antiquity for their secrecy in general and especially pertaining to commercial contacts and trade routes 127 128 129 Both cultures excelled in commercial dealings Strabo 63BC AD21 the Greek geographer wrote that before its fall in 146 BC Carthage enjoyed a population of 700 000 and directed an alliance of 300 cities 130 The Greek historian Polybius c 203 120 referred to Carthage as the wealthiest city in the world 131 Constitution of state Edit Idealized depiction of Carthage from the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle A suffet possibly two was elected by the citizens and held office with no military power for a one year term Carthaginian generals marshalled mercenary armies and were separately elected From about 550 to 450 the Magonid family monopolized the top military position later the Barcid family acted similarly Eventually it came to be that after a war the commanding general had to testify justifying his actions before a court of 104 judges 132 Aristotle 384 322 discusses Carthage in his work Politica he begins The Carthaginians are also considered to have an excellent form of government He briefly describes the city as a mixed constitution a political arrangement with cohabiting elements of monarchy aristocracy and democracy i e a king Gk basileus a council of elders Gk gerusia and the people Gk demos 133 Later Polybius of Megalopolis c 204 122 Greek in his Histories would describe the Roman Republic in more detail as a mixed constitution in which the Consuls were the monarchy the Senate the aristocracy and the Assemblies the democracy 134 Evidently Carthage also had an institution of elders who advised the Suffets similar to a Greek gerusia or the Roman Senate We do not have a Punic name for this body At times its members would travel with an army general on campaign Members also formed permanent committees The institution had several hundred members drawn from the wealthiest class who held office for life Vacancies were probably filled by recruitment from among the elite i e by co option From among its members were selected the 104 Judges mentioned above Later the 104 would come to evaluate not only army generals but other office holders as well Aristotle regarded the 104 as most important he compared it to the ephorate of Sparta with regard to control over security In Hannibal s time such a Judge held office for life At some stage there also came to be independent self perpetuating boards of five who filled vacancies and supervised non military government administration 135 Popular assemblies also existed at Carthage When deadlocked the Suffets and the quasi senatorial institution of elders might request the assembly to vote also assembly votes were requested in very crucial matters in order to achieve political consensus and popular coherence The assembly members had no legal wealth or birth qualification How its members were selected is unknown e g whether by festival group or urban ward or another method 136 137 138 The Greeks were favourably impressed by the constitution of Carthage Aristotle had a separate study of it made which unfortunately is lost In his Politica he states The government of Carthage is oligarchical but they successfully escape the evils of oligarchy by enriching one portion of the people after another by sending them to their colonies T heir policy is to send some poorer citizens to their dependent towns where they grow rich 139 140 Yet Aristotle continues I f any misfortune occurred and the bulk of the subjects revolted there would be no way of restoring peace by legal means Aristotle remarked also Many of the Carthaginian institutions are excellent The superiority of their constitution is proved by the fact that the common people remain loyal to the constitution the Carthaginians have never had any rebellion worth speaking of and have never been under the rule of a tyrant 141 Here one may remember that the city state of Carthage who citizens were mainly Libyphoenicians of Phoenician ancestry born in Africa dominated and exploited an agricultural countryside composed mainly of native Berber sharecroppers and farmworkers whose affiliations to Carthage were open to divergent possibilities Beyond these more settled Berbers and the Punic farming towns and rural manors lived the independent Berber tribes who were mostly pastoralists In the brief uneven review of government at Carthage found in his Politica Aristotle mentions several faults Thus that the same person should hold many offices which is a favorite practice among the Carthaginians Aristotle disapproves mentioning the flute player and the shoemaker Also that magistrates should be chosen not only for their merit but for their wealth Aristotle s opinion is that focus on pursuit of wealth will lead to oligarchy and its evils S urely it is a bad thing that the greatest offices should be bought The law which allows this abuse makes wealth of more account than virtue and the whole state becomes avaricious For whenever the chiefs of the state deem anything honorable the other citizens are sure to follow their example and where virtue has not the first place their aristocracy cannot be firmly established 142 In Carthage the people seemed politically satisfied and submissive according to the historian Warmington They in their assemblies only rarely exercised the few opportunities given them to assent to state decisions Popular influence over government appears not to have been an issue at Carthage Being a commercial republic fielding a mercenary army the people were not conscripted for military service an experience which can foster the feel for popular political action But perhaps this misunderstands the society perhaps the people whose values were based on small group loyalty felt themselves sufficiently connected to their city s leadership by the very integrity of the person to person linkage within their social fabric Carthage was very stable there were few openings for tyrants Only after defeat by Rome devastated Punic imperial ambitions did the people of Carthage seem to question their governance and to show interest in political reform 143 In 196 following the Second Punic War 218 201 Hannibal still greatly admired as a Barcid military leader was elected suffet When his reforms were blocked by a financial official about to become a judge for life Hannibal rallied the populace against the 104 judges He proposed a one year term for the 104 as part of a major civic overhaul Additionally the reform included a restructuring of the city s revenues and the fostering of trade and agriculture The changes rather quickly resulted in a noticeable increase in prosperity Yet his incorrigible political opponents cravenly went to Rome to charge Hannibal with conspiracy namely plotting war against Rome in league with Antiochus the Hellenic ruler of Syria Although the Roman Scipio Africanus resisted such manoeuvre eventually intervention by Rome forced Hannibal to leave Carthage Thus corrupt city officials efficiently blocked Hannibal in his efforts to reform the government of Carthage 144 145 Mago 6th century was King of Carthage the head of state war leader and religious figurehead His family was considered to possess a sacred quality Mago s office was somewhat similar to that of a pharaoh but although kept in a family it was not hereditary it was limited by legal consent Picard accordingly believes that the council of elders and the popular assembly are late institutions Carthage was founded by the king of Tyre who had a royal monopoly on this trading venture Thus it was the royal authority stemming from this traditional source of power that the King of Carthage possessed Later as other Phoenician ship companies entered the trading region and so associated with the city state the King of Carthage had to keep order among a rich variety of powerful merchants in their negotiations among themselves and over risky commerce across the Mediterranean Under these circumstance the office of king began to be transformed Yet it was not until the aristocrats of Carthage became wealthy owners of agricultural lands in Africa that a council of elders was institutionalized at Carthage 146 Contemporary sources EditMost ancient literature concerning Carthage comes from Greek and Roman sources as Carthage s own documents were destroyed by the Romans 147 148 Apart from inscriptions hardly any Punic literature has survived and none in its own language and script 149 A brief catalogue would include 150 three short treaties with Rome Latin translations 151 152 153 several pages of Hanno the Navigator s log book concerning his fifth century maritime exploration of the Atlantic coast of west Africa Greek translation 154 fragments quoted from Mago s fourth third century 28 volume treatise on agriculture Latin translations 155 156 the Roman playwright Plautus c 250 184 in his Poenulus incorporates a few fictional speeches delivered in Punic whose written lines are transcribed into Latin letters phonetically 157 158 the thousands of inscriptions made in Punic script thousands but many extremely short e g a dedication to a deity with the personal name s of the devotee s 159 160 F rom the Greek author Plutarch c 46 c 120 we learn of the sacred books in Punic safeguarded by the city s temples Few Punic texts survive however 161 Once the City Archives the Annals and the scribal lists of Suffets existed but evidently these were destroyed in the horrific fires during the Roman capture of the city in 146 BC 162 Yet some Punic books Latin libri punici from the libraries of Carthage reportedly did survive the fires 163 These works were apparently given by Roman authorities to the newly augmented Berber rulers 164 165 Over a century after the fall of Carthage the Roman politician turned author Gaius Sallustius Crispus or Sallust 86 34 reported his having seen volumes written in Punic which books were said to be once possessed by the Berber king Hiempsal II r 88 81 166 167 168 By way of Berber informants and Punic translators Sallust had used these surviving books to write his brief sketch of Berber affairs 169 170 Juba II reigned 25 BC AD 23 Probably some of Hiempsal II s libri punici that had escaped the fires that consumed Carthage in 146 BC wound up later in the large royal library of his grandson Juba II r 25 BC AD 24 171 Juba II not only was a Berber king and husband of Cleopatra s daughter but also a scholar and author in Greek of no less than nine works 172 He wrote for the Mediterranean wide audience then enjoying classical literature The libri punici inherited from his grandfather surely became useful to him when composing his Libyka a work on North Africa written in Greek Unfortunately only fragments of Libyka survive mostly from quotations made by other ancient authors 173 It may have been Juba II who discovered the five centuries old log book of Hanno the Navigator called the Periplus among library documents saved from fallen Carthage 174 175 176 In the end however most Punic writings that survived the destruction of Carthage did not escape the immense wreckage in which so many of Antiquity s literary works perished 177 Accordingly the long and continuous interactions between Punic citizens of Carthage and the Berber communities that surrounded the city have no local historian Their political arrangements and periodic crises their economic and work life the cultural ties and social relations established and nourished infrequently as kin are not known to us directly from ancient Punic authors in written accounts Neither side has left us their stories about life in Punic era Carthage 178 Regarding Phoenician writings few remain and these seldom refer to Carthage The more ancient and most informative are cuneiform tablets ca 1600 1185 from ancient Ugarit located to the north of Phoenicia on the Syrian coast it was a Canaanite city politically affiliated with the Hittites The clay tablets tell of myths epics rituals medical and administrative matters and also correspondence 179 180 181 The highly valued works of Sanchuniathon an ancient priest of Beirut who reportedly wrote on Phoenician religion and the origins of civilization are themselves completely lost but some little content endures twice removed 182 183 Sanchuniathon was said to have lived in the 11th century which is considered doubtful 184 185 Much later a Phoenician History by Philo of Byblos 64 141 reportedly existed written in Greek but only fragments of this work survive 186 187 An explanation proffered for why so few Phoenician works endured early on 11th century archives and records began to be kept on papyrus which does not long survive in a moist coastal climate 188 Also both Phoenicians and Carthaginians were well known for their secrecy 189 190 Thus of their ancient writings we have little of major interest left to us by Carthage or by Phoenicia the country of origin of the city founders Of the various Phoenician and Punic compositions alluded to by the ancient classical authors not a single work or even fragment has survived in its original idiom Indeed not a single Phoenician manuscript has survived in the original language or in translation 191 We cannot therefore access directly the line of thought or the contour of their worldview as expressed in their own words in their own voice 192 Ironically it was the Phoenicians who invented or at least perfected and transmitted a form of writing the alphabet that has influenced dozens of cultures including our own 193 194 195 As noted the celebrated ancient books on agriculture written by Mago of Carthage survives only via quotations in Latin from several later Roman works In art and literature Edit Wikisource has original text related to this article Carthage a poetical illustration by L E L The scant remains of what was once a great city are reflected upon in Letitia Elizabeth Landon s poetical illustration Carthage to an engraving of a painting by J Salmon published in Fisher s Drawing Room Scrap Book 1837 with quotes from Sir Grenville Temple s Journal 196 Notes Edit English pronunciation ˈ k ɑːr 8 ɪ dʒ KAR thij Punic Phoenician 𐤒𐤓𐤕𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕 romanized Qartḥadast lit new city Latin Carthagō pronounced karˈtʰaːɡoː Adjective qrt ḥdty Carthaginian compare Aramaic קרת חדתה Qeret Ḥadatha and Hebrew קרת חדשה Qeret Ḥadasah 12 References Edit Hitchner R R Talbert S Gillies J Ahlfeldt R Warner J Becker T Elliott Places 314921 Carthago Pleiades Retrieved 7 April 2013 Josephus Against Apion Book I 18 a b c Li Hansong 2022 Locating Mobile Sovereignty Carthage in Natural Jurisprudence History of Political Thought 43 2 246 272 Retrieved 13 August 2022 Winterer Caroline 2010 Model Empire Lost City Ancient Carthage and the Science of Politics in Revolutionary America The William and Mary Quarterly 67 1 3 30 doi 10 5309 willmaryquar 67 1 3 JSTOR 10 5309 willmaryquar 67 1 3 Retrieved 13 August 2022 a b Bosworth C Edmund 2008 Historic Cities of the Islamic World Brill Academic Press p 536 ISBN 978 9004153882 a b Anna Leone 2007 Changing Townscapes in North Africa from Late Antiquity to the Arab Conquest Edipuglia srl pp 179 186 ISBN 9788872284988 a b Thomas F Madden James L Naus Vincent Ryan eds 2018 Crusades Medieval Worlds in Conflict pp 113 184 ISBN 9780198744320 Skeletal Remains from Punic Carthage Do Not Support Systematic Sacrifice of Infants Ancient Carthaginians really did sacrifice their children Archived 2020 12 14 at the Wayback Machine University of Oxford News Archaeological Site of Carthage World Heritage Centre UNESCO Archived from the original on 2005 11 28 Retrieved 19 October 2021 c f Marlowes Dido Queen of Carthage c 1590 Middle English still used the Latin form Carthago e g John Trevisa Polychronicon 1387 1 169 That womman Dido that founded Carthago was comlynge Wolfgang David Cirilo de Melo ed Amphitryon Volume 4 of The Loeb Classical Library Plautus Harvard University Press 2011 p 210 Archived 2022 11 26 at the Wayback Machine D Gary Miller Ancient Greek Dialects and Early Authors Introduction to the Dialect Mixture in Homer with Notes on Lyric and Herodotus Walter de Gruyter 2014 p 39 Archived 2022 11 26 at the Wayback Machine Carthage new excavations in a Mediterranean capital ugent be Audollent 1901 203 Martin Percival Charlesworth Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards John Boardman Frank William Walbank 2000 Rome was larger The Cambridge Ancient History The fourth century B C 2nd ed 1994 University Press p 813 ISBN 9780521263351 Robert McQueen Grant 1 January 2004 Augustus to Constantine The Rise and Triumph of Christianity in the Roman World Westminster John Knox Press pp 54 ISBN 978 0 664 22772 2 Warmington Carthage 1964 at 138 140 map at 139 at 273n 3 he cites the ancients Appian Strabo Diodorus Siculus Polybius Harden The Phoenicians 1962 2d ed 1963 text at 34 maps at 31 and 34 According to Harden the outer walls ran several kilometres to the west of that indicated on the map here Picard and Picard The Life and Death of Carthage 1968 1969 at 395 396 For an ample discussion of the ancient city Serge Lancel Carthage Paris Artheme Fayard 1992 Oxford Blackwell 1995 1997 at 134 172 ancient harbours at 172 192 archaic Carthage at 38 77 Charles Picard Daily Life in Carthage 1958 1968 at 85 limited area at 88 imported skills e g the Greek writers Appian Diodorus Siculus Polybius and the Latin Livy Strabo Serge Lancel Carthage Paris 1992 as translated by A Nevill Oxford 1997 at 38 45 and 76 77 archaic Carthage maps of early city at 39 and 42 burial archaeology quote at 77 short quotes at 43 38 45 39 clay masks at 60 62 photographs terracotta and ivory figurines at 64 66 72 75 photographs Ancient coastline from Utica to Carthage map at 18 Cf B H Warmington Carthage London Robert Hale 1960 2d ed 1969 at 26 31 Virgil 70 19 BC The Aeneid 19 BC translated by Robert Fitzgerald New York Random House 1983 p 18 19 Book I 421 424 Cf Lancel Carthage 1997 p 38 Here capitalized as prose Virgil here however does innocently inject his own Roman cultural notions into his imagined description e g Punic Carthage evidently built no theaters per se Cf Charles Picard Daily Life in Carthage 1958 1968 The harbours often mentioned by ancient authors remain an archaeological problem due to the limited fragmented evidence found Lancel Carthage 1992 1997 at 172 192 the two harbours Harden The Phoenicians 1962 2d ed 1963 at 32 130 131 Warmington Carthage 1960 1964 at 138 Sebkrit er Riana to the north and El Bahira to the south their modern names Harden The Phoenicians 1962 2d ed 1963 at 31 32 Ships then could also be beached on the sand Cf Lancel Carthage 1992 1997 at 139 140 city map at 138 The lands immediately south of the hill is often also included by the term Byrsa Serge Lancel Carthage A history Paris Librairie Artheme Fayard 1992 Oxford Blackwell 1995 at 148 152 151 and 149 map leveling operations on the Byrsa circa 25 BC to prepare for new construction 426 Temple of Eshmun 443 Byrsa diagram circa 1859 The Byrsa had been destroyed during the Third Punic War 149 146 Charles Picard Daily Life in Carthage Paris 1958 London 1961 reprint Macmillan 1968 at 8 city map showing the Temple of Eshmoun on the eastern heights of the Byrsa E S Bouchier Life and Letters in Roman Africa Oxford B H Blackwell 1913 at 17 and 75 The Roman temple to Juno Caelestis is said to be later erected on the site of the ruined temple to Tanit On the Byrsa some evidence remains of quality residential construction of 2nd century BC Soren Khader Slim Carthage 1990 at 117 Jeffrey H Schwartz Frank Houghton Roberto Macchiarelli Luca Bondioli Skeletal Remains from Punic Carthage Do Not Support Systematic Sacrifice of Infants http journals plos org plosone article id 10 1371 journal pone 0009177 Archived 2022 06 03 at the Wayback Machine B H Warmington Carthage London Robert Hale 1960 reprint Penguin 1964 at 15 quote 25 141 London Robert Hale 2d ed 1969 at 27 quote 131 132 133 enclosure See the section on Punic religion below Xella Paolo et al Cemetery or sacrifice Infant burials at the Carthage Tophet Phoenician bones of contention Antiquity 87 338 2013 1199 1207 Smith Patricia et al Cemetery or sacrifice Infant burials at the Carthage Tophet Age estimations attest to infant sacrifice at the Carthage Tophet Antiquity 87 338 2013 1191 1199 Cf Warmington Carthage 1960 1964 at 141 Modern archeologists on the site have not yet discovered the ancient agora Lancel Carthage Paris 1992 Oxford 1997 at 141 Warmington Carthage 1960 1964 at 142 Appian of Alexandria c 95 c 160s Pomaika known as the Roman History at VII Libyca 128 Harden The Phoenicians 1962 2d ed 1963 at 133 amp 229n17 Appian cited Lancel Carthage Paris 1992 Oxford 1997 at 152 172 e g 163 165 floorplans 167 171 neighborhood diagrams and photographs Warmington Carthage 1960 1964 at 139 map of city re the tophet 141 Lancel Carthage Paris 1992 Oxford 1997 at 138 140 These findings mostly relate to the 3rd century BC Picard The Life and Death of Carthage Paris 1970 New York 1968 at 162 165 carvings described 176 178 quote Lancel Carthage 1992 1997 at 138 and 145 city maps This was especially so later in the Roman era E g Soren Khader Slim Carthage 1990 at 187 210 Serge Lancel and Jean Paul Morel Byrsa Punic vestiges To save Carthage Exploration and conservation of the city Punic Roman and Byzantine Unesco INAA 1992 pp 43 59 Stephanie Gsell Histoire ancienne de l Afrique du Nord volume four Paris 1920 Serge Lancel Carthage A History Paris Artheme Fayard 1992 Oxford Blackwell 1995 at 273 274 Mago quoted by Columella 278 279 Mago and Cato s book 358 translations Gilbert and Colette Picard La vie quotidienne a Carthage au temps d Hannibal Paris Librairie Hachette 1958 translated as Daily Life in Carthage London George Allen amp Unwin 1961 reprint Macmillan New York 1968 at 83 93 88 Mago as retired general 89 91 fruit trees 90 grafting 89 90 vineyards 91 93 livestock and bees 148 149 wine making Elephants also of course were captured and reared for war at 92 Sabatino Moscati Il mondo dei Fenici 1966 translated as The World of the Phoenicians London Cardinal 1973 at 219 223 Hamilcar is named as another Carthaginian writing on agriculture at 219 Serge Lancel Carthage Paris Artheme Fayard 1992 Oxford Blackwell 1995 discussion of wine making and its marketing at 273 276 Lancel says at 274 that about wine making Mago was silent Punic agriculture and rural life are addressed at 269 302 G and C Charles Picard La vie quotidienne a Carthage au temps d Hannibal Paris Librairie Hachette 1958 translated as Daily Life in Carthage London George Allen and Unwin 1961 reprint Macmillan 1968 at 83 93 86 quote 86 87 88 93 management 88 overseers G C and C Picard Vie et mort de Carthage Paris Librairie Hachette 1970 translated and first published as The Life and Death of Carthage New York Taplinger 1968 at 86 and 129 Charles Picard Daily Life in Carthage 1958 1968 at 83 84 the development of a landed nobility B H Warmington in his Carthage London Robert Hale 1960 reprint Penguin 1964 at 155 Mago quoted by Columella at I i 18 in Charles Picard Daily Life in Carthage 1958 1968 at 87 101 n37 Mago quoted by Columella at I i 18 in Moscati The World of the Phoenicians 1966 1973 at 220 230 n5 Gilbert and Colette Charles Picard Daily Life in Carthage 1958 1968 at 83 85 invaders 86 88 rural proletariat E g Gilbert Charles Picard and Colette Picard The Life and Death of Carthage Paris 1970 New York 1968 at 168 171 172 173 invasion of Agathocles in 310 BC The mercenary revolt 240 237 following the First Punic War was also largely and actively though unsuccessfully supported by rural Berbers Picard 1970 1968 at 203 209 Plato c 427 c 347 in his Laws at 674 a b mentions regulations at Carthage restricting the consumption of wine in specified circumstances Cf Lancel Carthage 1997 at 276 Warmington Carthage London Robert Hale 1960 2d ed 1969 at 136 137 Serge Lancel Carthage Paris Artheme Fayard 1992 translated by Antonia Nevill Oxford Blackwell 1997 at 269 279 274 277 produce 275 276 amphora 269 270 amp 405 Rome 269 270 yields 270 amp 277 lands 271 272 towns Diodorus Siculus Bibleoteca at XX 8 1 4 transl as Library of History Harvard University 1962 vol 10 Loeb Classics no 390 per Soren Khader Slim Carthage 1990 at 88 Lancel Carthage Paris 1992 Oxford 1997 at 277 Herodotus V2 165 7 Polybius World History 1 7 1 60 Pellechia Thomas 2006 Wine The 8 000 Year Old Story of the Wine Trade London Running Press ISBN 1 56025 871 3 Ancient History infoplease com C Michael Hogan 2007 Volubilis The Megalithic Portal ed by A Burnham Ripley George Dana Charles A 1858 1863 Carthage The New American Cyclopaedia a Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge Vol 4 New York D Appleton p 497 OCLC 1173144180 Retrieved 29 July 2020 Warmington B H 1988 The Destruction of Carthage A Retractation Classical Philology 83 4 308 310 doi 10 1086 367123 S2CID 162850949 Stevens 1988 p 39 40 Bridges That Babble On 15 Amazing Roman Aqueducts Article by Steve filed under Abandoned Places in the Architecture category 26 September 2010 Brent D Shaw Sacred Violence African Christians and Sectarian Hatred in the Age of Augustine Archived 2022 11 26 at the Wayback Machine a b Brown Thomas Holmes George 1988 The Oxford History of Medieval Europe Great Britain Oxford University Press p 3 Anna Leone 2007 Changing Townscapes in North Africa from Late Antiquity to the Arab Conquest Edipuglia srl p 155 ISBN 9788872284988 Singer Charles 2013 10 29 A Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century ISBN 9780486169286 Patrologia Latina Contractus Hermannus 1853 vol 143 coll 727 731 Bouchier E S 1913 Life and Letters in Roman Africa Oxford Blackwells p 117 Retrieved 15 January 2015 Francois Decret Early Christianity in North Africa James Clarke amp Co 2011 p200 Hastings Adrian 2004 1994 The Victorian Missionary The Church in Africa 1450 1950 history of the Christian Church Oxford Oxford University Press p 255 doi 10 1093 0198263996 003 0007 ISBN 9780198263999 Chisholm Hugh ed 1911 Lavigerie Charles Martial Allemand Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th ed Cambridge University Press Joseph Sollier Charles Martial Allemand Lavigerie Archived 2010 06 12 at the Wayback Machine in Catholic Encyclopedia New York 1910 Jenkins Philip 2011 The next christendom the coming of global Christianity 3rd ed Oxford u a Oxford University Press p 46 ISBN 9780199767465 Jackson Samuel Macauley ed 1910 Lavigerie Charles Martial Allemand New Schaff Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge Vol 6 third ed London and New York Funk and Wagnalls p 425 In 1964 the episcopal see of Carthage had to be de established again in a compromise reached with the government of Habib Bourguiba which permitted the Catholic Church in Tunisia to retain legal personality and representation by the prelate nullius of Tunis Charles Ernest Beule Fouilles a Carthage ed Imprimerie imperiale Paris 1861 Azedine Beschaouch La legende de Carthage ed Decouvertes Gallimard Paris 1993 p 94 Dussaud Bulletin Archeologique 1922 p 245 J B Hennessey Palestine Exploration Quarterly 1966 Schwartz Jeffery H Houghton Frank Macchiarelli Roberto Bondioli Luca 2010 02 17 Skeletal Remains from Punic Carthage Do Not Support Systematic Sacrifice of Infants PLOS ONE 5 2 e9177 Bibcode 2010PLoSO 5 9177S doi 10 1371 journal pone 0009177 PMC 2822869 PMID 20174667 Chabeuf Maurice 1970 Contribution a la craniometrie des Algeriens modernes Bulletins et Memoires de la Societe d Anthropologie de Paris 6 3 281 294 doi 10 3406 bmsap 1970 2200 Boulinier Georges Chabeuf Maurice 1971 Les squelettes romains et paleochretiens du Musee d Alger remarques sur le peuplement preislamique de l Afrique du Nord Bulletins et Memoires de la Societe d Anthropologie de Paris 7 1 7 43 doi 10 3406 bmsap 1971 2007 Chamla M C Ferembach D 1988 04 01 Anthropologie Partie II Encyclopedie berbere in French 5 713 775 doi 10 4000 encyclopedieberbere 2896 ISSN 1015 7344 General History of Africa Vol 2 Ancient civilizations of Africa Abridged ed London England J Currey 1990 p 238 ISBN 0852550928 Keita S O Y September 1990 Studies of ancient crania from northern Africa American Journal of Physical Anthropology 83 1 35 48 doi 10 1002 ajpa 1330830105 ISSN 0002 9483 PMID 2221029 Keita S O Y 2018 Brief Report Carthaginian Affinities with Ancient and Recent Maghreban and Levantine Groups Craniometric Analyses Using Distance and Discrimination The African Archaeological Review 35 1 133 137 doi 10 1007 s10437 018 9285 3 ISSN 0263 0338 JSTOR 44988676 S2CID 165330295 Matisoo Smith EA Gosling AL Boocock J Kardailsky O Kurumilian Y Roudesli Chebbi S et al May 25 2016 A European Mitochondrial Haplotype Identified in Ancient Phoenician Remains from Carthage North Africa PLOS ONE 11 5 e0155046 Bibcode 2016PLoSO 1155046M doi 10 1371 journal pone 0155046 PMC 4880306 PMID 27224451 Trisos C H I O Adelekan E Totin A Ayanlade J Efitre A Gemeda K Kalaba C Lennard C Masao Y Mgaya G Ngaruiya D Olago N P Simpson and S Zakieldeen 2022 Chapter 9 Africa In Climate Change 2022 Impacts Adaptation and Vulnerability H O Portner D C Roberts M Tignor E S Poloczanska K Mintenbeck A Alegria M Craig S Langsdorf S Loschke V Moller A Okem B Rama eds Cambridge University Press Cambridge United Kingdom and New York NY USA pp 2043 2121 Hausfather Zeke Peters Glen 29 January 2020 Emissions the business as usual story is misleading Nature 577 7792 618 20 Bibcode 2020Natur 577 618H doi 10 1038 d41586 020 00177 3 PMID 31996825 Hausfather Zeke Peters Glen 20 October 2020 RCP8 5 is a problematic scenario for near term emissions PNAS 117 45 27791 27792 Bibcode 2020PNAS 11727791H doi 10 1073 pnas 2017124117 PMC 7668049 PMID 33082220 Technical Summary In Climate Change 2021 The Physical Science Basis Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change PDF IPCC August 2021 p TS14 Retrieved 12 November 2021 IPCC 2021 Summary for Policymakers In Climate Change 2021 The Physical Science Basis Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Masson Delmotte V P Zhai A Pirani S L Connors C Pean S Berger N Caud Y Chen L Goldfarb M I Gomis M Huang K Leitzell E Lonnoy J B R Matthews T K Maycock T Waterfield O Yelekci R Yu and B Zhou eds Cambridge University Press Cambridge United Kingdom and New York NY USA pp 3 32 doi 10 1017 9781009157896 001 Creation Date commune carthage gov tn 2014 Philippe Bonnichon Pierre Geny Jean Nemo 2012 Presences francaises outre mer XVIe XXIe siecles KARTHALA Editions p 453 ISBN 978 2 8111 0737 6 Encyclopedie Mensuelle d Outre mer staff 1954 Tunisia 54 Negro Universities Press p 166 ISBN 9780837124421 Qui sommes nous Archive Lycee Gustave Flaubert La Marsa Retrieved on February 24 2016 Trudy Ring Robert M Salkin Sharon La Boda January 1996 International Dictionary of Historic Places Middle East and Africa Taylor amp Francis p 177 ISBN 978 1 884964 03 9 Illustrated Encyclopaedia of World History Mittal Publications p 1615 GGKEY C6Z1Y8ZWS0N Statistical Information Population National Institute of Statistics Tunisia Archived from the original on 24 September 2015 Retrieved 3 January 2014 up from 15 922 in 2004 Population menages et logements par unite administrative in French National Institute of Statistics Tunisia Archived from the original on 7 December 2013 Retrieved 3 January 2014 David Lambert Notables des colonies Une elite de circonstance en Tunisie et au Maroc 1881 1939 ed Presses universitaires de Rennes Rennes 2009 pp 257 258 in French Sophie Bessis Defendre Carthage encore et toujours Le Courrier de l Unesco September 1999 Archived 2007 06 13 at the Wayback Machine More Tunisia unrest Presidential palace gunbattle philSTAR com 17 January 2011 Archived from the original on 8 September 2012 Retrieved 28 October 2011 Cf Charles Picard Daily Life in Carthage Paris 195 Oxford 1961 reprint Macmillan 1968 at 165 171 177 Donald Harden The Phoenicians New York Praeger 1962 2d ed 1963 at 57 62 Cyprus and Aegean 62 65 western Mediterranean 157 170 trade 67 70 84 85 160 164 the Greeks Strabo Geographica XVII 3 15 as translated by H L Jones Loeb Classic Library 1932 at VIII 385 Sabatino Moscati The World of the Phoenicians 1966 1973 at 223 224 Richard J Harrison Spain at the Dawn of History London Thames and Hudson 1988 Phoenician colonies in Spain at 41 50 42 Cf Harden The Phoenicians 1962 2d ed 1963 at 157 166 E g during the reign of Hiram tenth century of Tyre Sabatino Moscati Il Mondo dei Fenici 1966 translated as The World of the Phoenicians 1968 1973 at 31 34 Stephane Gsell Histoire ancienne de l Afrique du Nord Paris Librairie Hachette 1924 at volume IV 113 Strabo c 63 B C A D 20s Geographica at III 5 11 Walter W Hyde Ancient Greek Mariners Oxford Univ 1947 at 45 46 Warmington Carthage 1960 1964 at 81 secretive 87 monopolizing Strabo Geographica XVII 3 15 in the Loeb Classic Library edition of 1932 translated by H L Jones at VIII 385 Cf Theodor Mommsen Romische Geschicht Leipzig Reimer and Hirzel 1854 1856 translated as the History of Rome London 1862 1866 reprinted by J M Dent 1911 at II 17 18 Mommsen s Book III Chapter I Warmington B H 1964 1960 Carthage Robert Hale Pelican pp 144 147 Aristotle Politica at Book II Chapter 11 1272b 1274b in The Basic Works of Aristotle edited by R McKeon translated by B Jowett Random House 1941 Politica at pages 1113 1316 Carthage at 1171 1174 Polybius Histories VI 11 18 translated as The Rise of the Roman Empire Penguin 1979 at 311 318 Warmington Carthage 1960 Penguin 1964 at 147 148 Warmington Carthage 1960 Penguin 1964 at 148 Aristotle presents a slightly more expansive interpretation of the role of assemblies Politica II 11 1273a 6 11 McKeon ed Basic Works of Aristotle 1941 at 1172 Compare Roman assemblies Aristotle Politica at II 11 1273b 17 20 and at VI 5 1320b 4 6 re colonies in McKeon ed Basic Works of Aristotle 1941 at 1173 and at 1272 Aristotle said that the oligarchy was careful to treat the masses liberally and allow them a share in the profitable exploitation of the subject territories Warmington Carthage 1960 1964 at 149 citing Aristotle s Politica as here Aristotle Politica at II 11 1273b 23 24 re misfortune and revolt 1272b 29 32 re constitution and loyalty in McKeon ed Basic Works of Aristotle 1941 at 1173 1171 Aristotle Politica at II 11 1273b 8 16 re one person many offices and 1273a 22 1273b 7 re oligarchy in McKeon ed Basic Works of Aristotle 1941 at 1173 1172 1273 Warmington Carthage 1960 1964 at 143 144 148 150 The fact is that compared to Greeks and Romans the Carthaginians were essentially non political Ibid at 149 H H Scullard A History of the Roman World 753 146 BC London Methuen 1935 4th ed 1980 reprint Routledge 1991 at 306 307 Warmington Carthage at 240 241 citing the Roman historian Livy Picard Life and Death of Carthage 1968 at 80 86 Picard Life and Death of Carthage 1968 1969 at 40 41 Greeks Cf Warmington Carthage 1960 Penguin 1964 at 24 25 Greeks 259 260 Romans B H Warmington The Carthiginian Period at 246 260 246 No Carthaginian literature has survived in General History of Africa volume III Ancient Civilizations of Africa UNESCO 1990 Abridged Edition R Bosworth Smith Carthage and the Carthaginians London Longmans Green 1878 1902 at 12 Smith s catalogue has not been appreciably augmented since but for newly found inscriptions Picard Life and Death of Carthage 1968 1969 at 72 73 translation of Romano Punic Treaty 509 BC at 72 78 discussion Polybius c 200 118 Istorion at III 22 25 selections translated as Rise of the Roman Empire Penguin 1979 at 199 203 Nota bene Polybius died well over 70 years before the start of the Roman Empire Cf Arnold J Toynbee Hannibal s Legacy 1965 at I 526 Appendix on the treaties Hanno s log translated in full by Warmington Carthage 1960 at 74 76 E g by Varro 116 27 in his De re rustica by Columella fl AD 50 60 in his On trees and On agriculture and by Pliny 23 79 in his Naturalis Historia See below paragraph on Mago s work Harden The Phoenicians New York Praeger 1962 2d ed 1963 at 122 123 28 books 140 quotation of paragraph Cf H J Rose A Handbook of Lanin Literature London Methuen 1930 3d ed 1954 reprint Dutton New York 1960 at 51 52 where a plot summary of Poenulus i e The Man from Carthage is given Its main characters are Punic Eighteen lines from Poenulus are spoken in Punic by the character Hanno in Act 5 scene 1 beginning Hyth alonim vualonuth sicorathi si ma com sith Plautus gives a Latin paraphrase in the next ten lines The gist is a prayer seeking divine aid in his quest to find his lost kin The Comedies of Plautus London G Bell and Sons 1912 translated by Henry Thomas Riley The scholar Bochart considered the first ten lines to be Punic but the last eight to be Lybic Another scholar Samuel Petit translated the text as if it were Hebrew a sister language of Punic This according to notes accompanying the above scene by H T Riley Soren Ben Khader Slim Carthage New York Simon and Schuster 1990 at 42 over 6000 inscriptions found at 139 many very short on religious stele An example of a longer inscription of about 279 Punic characters exists at Thugga Tunisia It concerns the dedication of a temple to the late king Masinissa A translated text appears in Brett and Fentress The Berbers 1997 at 39 Glenn E Markoe Carthage 2000 at 114 Picard and Picard Life and Death of Carthage 1968 1969 at 30 Cf Victor Matthews The libri punici of King Hiempsal in American Journal of Philology 93 330 335 1972 and Veronique Krings Les libri Punici de Sallust in L Africa Romana 7 109 117 1989 Cited by Roller 2003 at 27 n110 Pliny the Elder 23 79 Naturalis Historia at XVIII 22 23 Serge Lancel Carthage Paris Librairie Artheme Fayard 1992 Oxford Blackwell 1995 at 358 360 Lancel here remarks that following the fall of Carthage there arose among the Romans there a popular reaction against the late Cato the Elder 234 149 the Roman censor who had notoriously lobbied for the destruction of the city Lancel 1995 at 410 Ronald Syme however in his Sallust University of California 1964 2002 at 152 153 discounts any unique value of the libri punici mentioned in his Bellum Iugurthinum Lancel Carthage 1992 1995 at 359 raises questions concerning the provenance of these books Hiempsal II was the great grandson of Masinissa r 202 148 through Mastanabal r 148 140 and Gauda r 105 88 D W Roller The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene 2003 at 265 Sallust Bellum Iugurthinum ca 42 at 17 translated as The Jugurthine War Penguin 1963 at 54 R Bosworth Smith in his Carthage and the Carthaginians London Longmans Green 1878 1908 at 38 laments that Sallust declined to directly address the history of the city of Carthage Duane W Roller The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene Royal scholarship on Rome s African frontier New York Routledge 2003 at 183 191 in his Chapter 8 Libyka 183 211 cf 179 also at 19 27 159 Juba s library described 177 per his book on Hanno Juba II s literary works are reviewed by D W Roller in The World of Jube II and Kleopatra Selene 2003 at chapters 7 8 and 10 Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker Leiden 1923 ed Felix Jacoby re Juba II at no 275 per Roller 2003 at xiii 313 Duane W Roller The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene 2003 at 189 n22 cf 177 Pliny the Elder 23 79 Naturalis Historia V 8 II 169 Cf Picard and Picard The Life and Death of Carthage Paris Hachette 1968 New York Taplinger 1969 at 93 98 115 119 Serge Lancel Carthage A History Paris 1992 Oxford 1995 at 358 360 See section herein on Berber relations See Early History of Tunisia for both indigenous and foreign reports concerning the Berbers both in pre Punic and Punic times Glenn E Markoe Phoenicians London British Museum Berkeley University of California 2000 at 21 22 affinity 95 96 economy 115 119 religion 137 funerals 143 art David Diringer Writing London Thames and Hudson 1962 at 115 116 The Ugarit tablet were discovered in 1929 Allen C Myers editor The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary Grand Rapids 1987 at 1027 1028 Markoe Phoenicians 2000 at 119 Eusebius of Caesarea 263 339 the Church Historian quotes the Greek of Philo of Byblos whose source was the Phoenician writings of Sanchuniathon Some doubt the existence of Sanchuniathon Cf Attridge amp Oden Philo of Byblos 1981 Baumgarten Phoenician History of Philo of Byblos 1981 Cited by Markoe 2000 Donald Harden The Phoenicians New York Praeger 1962 2d ed 1963 at 83 84 Sabatino Moscati Il Mondo dei Fenici 1966 translated as The World of the Phoenicians London Cardinal 1973 at 55 Prof Moscati offers the tablets found at ancient Ugarit as independent substantiation for what we know about Sanchuniathon s writings Soren Khader Slim Carthage 1990 at 128 129 The ancient Romanized Jewish historian Flavius Josephus 37 100s also mentions a lost Phoenician work he quotes from a Phoenician History of one Dius Josephus Against Apion c 100 at I 17 found in The Works of Josephus translated by Whiston London 1736 reprinted by Hendrickson Peabody Massachusetts 1987 at 773 814 780 Glenn E Markoe Phoenicians Univ of California 2002 at 11 110 Of course this also applies to Carthage Cf Markoe 2000 at 114 Strabo c 63 B C A D 20s Geographica at III 5 11 He knows all lingos but pretends he doesn t He must be Punic need we labor it From Poenulus at 112 113 by the Roman playwright Plautus c 250 184 Cited by Hardon The Phoenicians 1963 at 228 n102 Markoe Phoenicians 2000 at 110 at 11 Inserted in second Markoe quote language Cf Harden The Phoenicians 1963 at 123 Ancient Peoples and Places Soren Ben Khader Slim Carthage New York Simon and Schuster 1990 at 34 35 script at 42 inserted in quote the alphabet Steven Roger Fischer A History of Writing London Reaktion 2001 at 82 93 Facsimiles of early alphabetical writing from ancient inscriptions are given for Proto Canaanite in the Levant of the 2nd millennium at 88 Phoenician Old Hebrew in Moab of 842 at 91 Phoenician Punic in Marseilles France circa 300 BC at 92 Also given at 92 is a bilingual Punic and Numidian inscription from Thugga Tunisia circa 218 201 which regards a temple being dedicated to king Masinissa David Diringer Writing London Thames and Hudson 1962 at 112 121 Landon Letitia Elizabeth 1836 picture Fisher s Drawing Room Scrap Book 1837 Fisher Son amp Co Landon Letitia Elizabeth 1836 poetical illustration Fisher s Drawing Room Scrap Book 1837 Fisher Son amp Co Sources Edit Polybius The Histories Cambridge translated from the Latin by W R Paton for Harvard University Press from 1922 to 1927 Polybius Rome at the End of the Punic Wars History Book VI Milwaukee translated from the Latin by Oliver J Thatcher for University Research Extension Co in 1907 Ernest Babelon Carthage Paris 1896 Auguste Audollent Carthage Romaine 146 avant Jesus Christ 698 apres Jesus Christ Paris 1901 Charles Picard Gibert et al 1958 La vie quotidienne a Carthage au temps d Hannibal Daily Life in Carthage in the Time of Hannibal Paris Hachette in French Bath Tony 1981 Hannibal s Campaigns New York Barnes amp Noble Books Aubet Maria Eugenia 1987 The Phoenicians and the West Politics Colonies and Trade Cambridge Cambridge University Press Soren David et al 1990 Carthage Uncovering the Mysteries and Splendors of Ancient Tunisia New York Simon amp Schuster Beschaouch Azedine 1993 La legende de Carthage The Legend of Carthage Decouvertes Gallimard vol 172 Paris Gallimard in French Raven S 2002 Rome in Africa 3rd ed Lipinski Edward 2004 Itineraria Phoenicia Leuven Uitgeverij Peeters en Department Oosterse Studies Winterer Caroline 2010 Model Empire Lost City Ancient Carthage and the Science of Politics in Revolutionary America The William and Mary Quarterly 67 1 3 30 Freed J 2011 Bringing Carthage Home The Excavations of Nathan Davis 1856 1859 Miles Richard 2011 Carthage Must Be Destroyed The Rise and Fall of an Ancient Civilization Viking Li Hansong 2022 Locating Mobile Sovereignty Carthage in Natural Jurisprudence History of Political Thought 43 2 246 272 External links Edit Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article Carthage ancient city The dictionary definition of Carthago at Wiktionary Carthage travel guide from Wikivoyage Media related to Archaeological site of Carthage at Wikimedia Commons Media related to Cultural heritage monuments in Carthage at Wikimedia Commons Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Carthage amp oldid 1147586382, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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