Languages of the Philippines

There are some 120 to 187 languages spoken in the Philippines, depending on the method of classification.^[4][5][6] Almost all are Malayo-Polynesian languages native to the archipelago. A number of Spanish-influenced creole varieties generally called Chavacano along with some local varieties of Chinese^[7][8][9] are also spoken in certain communities. The 1987 constitution designates Filipino, a standardized version of Tagalog, as the national language and an official language along with English. Filipino is regulated by Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino and serves as a lingua franca used by Filipinos of various ethnolinguistic backgrounds.^[10]

Languages of the Philippines
Overview of the spread and overlap of the languages spoken throughout the country, by the KWF (Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino)
Official	Filipino^[2], English
National	Filipino
Regional	Aklanon Central Bikol Cebuano Chavacano Hiligaynon Ibanag Ilocano Ivatan Kapampangan Kinaray-a Maguindanao Maranao Pangasinan Sambal Surigaonon Tagalog Tausug Waray Yakan^[3]
Vernacular	Malay, Spanish, Philippine English, Taglish, Bislish
Foreign	Tamil Hokkien Mandarin Korean Japanese Arabic Latin Punjabi
Signed	American Sign Language Filipino Sign Language
Keyboard layout	QWERTY

On October 30, 2018, President Rodrigo Duterte signed into law Republic Act 11106, which declares Filipino Sign Language or FSL to be the country's official sign language and as the Philippine government's official language in communicating with the Filipino Deaf.^[11]

While Filipino is used for communication across the country's diverse linguistic groups and in popular culture, the government operates mostly using English. Including second-language speakers, there are more speakers of Filipino than English in the Philippines.^[12] The other regional languages are given official auxiliary status in their respective places according to the constitution but particular languages are not specified.^[13] Some of these regional languages are also used in education.^[3]

The indigenous scripts of the Philippines (such as the Kulitan, Tagbanwa and others) are used very little; instead, Philippine languages are today written in the Latin script because of the Spanish and American colonial experience. Baybayin, though generally not understood, is one of the most well-known of the Philippine indigenous scripts and is used mainly in artistic applications such as on the Philippine banknotes, where the word "Pilipino" is inscribed using the writing system. Additionally, the Arabic script is used in the Muslim areas in the southern Philippines.

Tagalog and Cebuano are the most commonly spoken native languages, together comprising about half of the population of the Philippines. Only Filipino and English are official languages and are taught in schools. This, among other reasons, has resulted in a rivalry between the two language groups.^[14]

National and official languages

 

Language map of the 12 recognized auxiliary languages based on Ethnologue maps.

History

Spanish was the official language of the country for more than three centuries under Spanish colonial rule, and became the lingua franca of the Philippines in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In 1863, a Spanish decree introduced universal education, creating free public schooling in Spanish.^[15] It was also the language of the Philippine Revolution, and the 1899 Malolos Constitution effectively proclaimed it as the official language of the First Philippine Republic.^[16] National hero José Rizal wrote most of his works in Spanish. Following the American occupation of the Philippines and the imposition of English, the use of Spanish declined gradually, especially after the 1940s.

Under the U.S. occupation and civil regime, English began to be taught in schools. By 1901, public education used English as the medium of instruction. Around 600 educators (called "Thomasites") who arrived in that year aboard the USAT Thomas replaced the soldiers who also functioned as teachers. The 1935 Constitution added English as an official language alongside Spanish. A provision in this constitution also called for Congress to "take steps toward the development and adoption of a common national language based on one of the existing native languages." On November 12, 1937, the First National Assembly created the National Language Institute. President Manuel L. Quezón appointed native Waray speaker Jaime C. De Veyra to chair a committee of speakers of other regional languages. Their aim was to select a national language among the other regional languages. Ultimately, Tagalog was chosen as the base language on December 30, 1937, on the basis that it was the most widely spoken and developed local language.^[17]

In 1939, President Manuel L. Quezón renamed the Tagalog language as Wikang Pambansa ("national language" in English translation).^[18] The language was further renamed in 1959 as Pilipino by Secretary of Education Jose Romero. The 1973 constitution declared the Pilipino language to be co-official, along with English, and mandated the development of a national language, to be known as Filipino. In addition, Spanish regained its official status when President Marcos signed Presidential Decree No. 155, s. 1973.^[19]

The 1987 Constitution declares Filipino as the national language of the country. Filipino and English are the official languages, with the recognition of the regional languages as auxiliary official in their respective regions (though not specifying any particular languages). Spanish and Arabic are to be promoted on an optional and voluntary basis.^[20] Filipino also had the distinction of being a national language that was to be "developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine and other languages." Although not explicitly stated in the constitution, Filipino is in practice almost completely composed of the Tagalog language as spoken in the capital, Manila; however, organizations such as the University of the Philippines began publishing dictionaries such as the UP Diksyonaryong Filipino in which words from various Philippine languages were also included. The present constitution is also the first to give recognition to other regional languages. The constitution also made mention of Spanish and Arabic, both of which are to be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis.

Republic Act No. 7104, approved on August 14, 1991, created the Commission on the Filipino Language, reporting directly to the President and tasked to undertake, coordinate and promote researches for the development, propagation and preservation of Filipino and other Philippine languages.^[21] On May 13, 1992, the commission issued Resolution 92–1, specifying that Filipino is the

...indigenous written and spoken language of Metro Manila and other urban centers in the Philippines used as the language of communication of ethnic groups.^[22]

Usage

 

Sign in Palawan in English, Filipino, Cebuano, Chinese, Korean and Russian.

Filipino is a standardized version of Tagalog, spoken mainly in Metro Manila.^[23] Both Filipino and English are used in government, education, print, broadcast media, and business, with third local languages often being used at the same time.^[24] Filipino has borrowings from, among other languages, Spanish,^[25] English,^[26] Arabic,^[27] Persian, Sanskrit,^[28] Malay,^[29] Chinese,^[30][31] Japanese,^[32] and Nahuatl.^[33] Filipino is an official language of education, but less important than English as a language of publication (except in some domains, like comic books) and less important for academic-scientific-technological discourse. Filipino is used as a lingua franca in all regions of the Philippines as well as within overseas Filipino communities, and is the dominant language of the armed forces (except perhaps for the small part of the commissioned officer corps from wealthy or upper-middle-class families) and of a large part of the civil service, most of whom are non-Tagalogs.

There are different forms of diglossia that exist in the case of regional languages. Locals may use their mother tongue or the regional lingua franca to communicate amongst themselves, but sometimes switch to foreign languages when addressing outsiders. Another is the prevalence of code-switching to English when speaking in both their first language and Tagalog.

The Constitution of the Philippines provides for the use of the vernacular languages as official auxiliary languages in provinces where Filipino is not the lingua franca. Filipinos by and large are polyglots; In the case where the vernacular language is a regional language, Filipinos would speak in Filipino when speaking in formal situations while the regional languages are spoken in non-formal settings. This is evident in major urban areas outside Metro Manila like Camarines Norte in the Bikol-speaking area, and Davao in the Cebuano-speaking area. As of 2017^[update], the case of Ilocano and Cebuano are becoming more of bilingualism than diglossia due to the publication of materials written in these languages.^{[citation needed]} The diglossia is more evident in the case of other languages such as Pangasinan, Kapampangan, Bikol, Waray, Hiligaynon, Sambal, and Maranao, where the written variant of the language is becoming less and less popular to give way to the use of Filipino. Although Philippine laws consider some of these languages as "major languages" there is little, if any, support coming from the government to preserve these languages. This may be bound to change, however, given current policy trends.^[34]

There still exists another type of diglossia, which is between the regional languages and the minority languages. Here, we label the regional languages as acrolects while the minority languages as the basilect. In this case, the minority language is spoken only in very intimate circles, like the family or the tribe one belongs to. Outside this circle, one would speak in the prevalent regional language, while maintaining an adequate command of Filipino for formal situations. Unlike the case of the regional languages, these minority languages are always in danger of becoming extinct because of speakers favoring the more prevalent regional language. Moreover, most of the users of these languages are illiterate^[specify] and as expected, there is a chance that these languages will no longer be revived due to lack of written records.^{[citation needed]}

In addition to Filipino and English, other languages have been proposed as additional nationwide languages. Among the most prominent proposals are Spanish,^[35][36] and Japanese.^[37][38]

Indigenous languages

 

Major languages by region. Regions marked with black diamonds denote the language comprises only a substantial minority of the populace.

According to Ethnologue, a total of 182 native languages are spoken in the nation and four languages have been classified as extinct: Dicamay Agta, Katabaga, Tayabas Ayta and Villaviciosa Agta.^[39] Except for English, Spanish, Chavacano and varieties of Chinese (Hokkien, Cantonese and Mandarin), all of the languages belong to the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family.

There are 4 indigenous languages with more than 5 million native speakers:^[40]

• Tagalog
• Cebuano
• Ilocano
• Hiligaynon

and 7 with 1 million to 5 million native speakers:

• Bikol
• Masbateňo
• Waray
• Kapampangan
• Pangasinan
• Maguindanao
• Maranao
• Tausug

One or more of these is spoken natively by more than 90% of the population.

A Philippine language sub-family identified by Robert Blust includes languages of north Sulawesi and the Yami language of Taiwan, but excludes the Sama–Bajaw languages of the Tawi-Tawi islands, as well as a couple of North Bornean languages spoken in southern Palawan.

Eskayan is an artificial auxiliary language created as the embodiment of a Bohol nation in the aftermath of the Philippine–American War. It is used by about 500 people.

A theory that the indigenous scripts of Sumatra, Sulawesi and the Philippines are descended from an early form of the Gujarati script was presented at the 2010 meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society.^[41]

Mutual intelligibility

Philippine languages are often referred to by Filipinos as dialects, partly as a relic of the inaccurate vocabulary used in literature during the American period (1898–1946).^[18] While there are indeed many hundreds of dialects in the Philippines, they represent variations of no fewer than 120 distinct languages, and many of these languages maintain greater differences than those between established European languages like French and Spanish.

The vast differences between the languages can be seen in the following translations of what has been asserted to be the Philippine national proverb:^[42]

Language	Translation
English	He who doesn't know how to look back at the place he came from, will never arrive at their destination.
Spanish	El que no sabe cómo mirar hacia atrás al lugar de donde viene nunca llegará a su destino.
Philippine Hokkien (Lán-nâng-ōe)	Hí-gê lâng é bô khòaⁿ kāi-kī ê kiâⁿ lō͘ , é bô tang kàu lō͘. 「許個儂彼無看家己的行路，彼無當到路。」
Malaysian & Indonesian (Malay)	Orang yang melupakan asal-usulnya tak mungkin mencapai tujuannya.
Aklanon	Ro uwa' gatan-aw sa anang ginhalinan hay indi makaabut sa anang ginapaeangpan.
Asi (Bantoanon)	Kag tawong waya giruromroma it ida ginghalinan, indi makaabot sa ida apagtuan.
Bolinao	Si'ya a kai tanda' nin lumingap sa pangibwatan na, kai ya mirate' sa keen na.
Bontoc (Ifuntok)	Nan Adi mang ustsong sinan narpuwan na, adi untsan isnan umayan na.
Botolan	Hay ahe nin nanlek ha pinag-ibatan, ay ahe makarateng ha lalakwen.
Butuanon	Kadtong dili kahibalo molingi sa iyang gigikanan, dili makaabot sa iyang adtu-an.
West Miraya Bikol (Ligao)	Kan idi tatao magkiling sa inalian, idi makaabot sa papaidtuhan.
Buhinon Bikol (Buhi)	Yu di nikiling sa pinagalinan, di makaantos sa pupuntahan.
Central Bikol (Canaman)	An dai tataong magsalingoy sa saiyang ginikanan, dai makakaabot sa padudumanan.
Gubatnon Bikol (Gubat)	An diri maaram mag-imud sa pinaghalian, diri makaabot sa pakakadtu-an.
East Miraya Bikol (Daraga)	Su indi tataw makarumdom nung ginitan, indi makaabot sa adunan.
West Miraya Bikol (Oas)	Kan na taw na idi tataw maglinguy sa sanyang inalian, idi man maka abot sa sanyang paidtunan.
Rinconada Bikol (Iriga)	A dirī tattaoŋ maglīlî sa pinaŋgalinan, dirī makaaābot sa pig-iyānan.
Capiznon	Ang indi kabalo magbalikid sa iya ginhalinan, indi makalab-ot sa iya palakadtuan.
Cebuano Bohol (Binol-anon)	Sija nga dî kahibáwng molíngì sa íjang gigikánan, dî gajod makaabot sa íjang padulngan.
Cebuano (Metro Cebu Variety)	Ang dî kahibáw molíngis' íyang gigikánan, dî gyud makaabots' íyang padulngan.
Cebuano (Sialo-Carcar Standard)	Ang dílì kahibalo molíngì sa iyáhang gigikánan, dílì gayod makaabot sa iyáhang padulngan.
Chavacano Caviteño	Quien no ta bira cara na su origen no de incarsa na su destinación.
Chavacano Ternateño	Ay nung sabi mira i donde ya bini no di llega na destinación.
Chavacano Zamboangueño	El Quien no sabe vira el cara na su origen, nunca llega na su destinación.
Cuyonon	Ang ara agabalikid sa anang ing-alinan, indi enged maka-abot sa anang papakonan.
Ibanag	I tolay nga ari mallipay ta naggafuananna, ari makadde ta angayanna.
Ilokano	Ti tao nga saan na ammo tumaliaw iti naggapuanna ket saan nga makadanon iti papananna.
Itawis	Ya tolay nga mari mallipay tsa naggafuananna, mari makakandet tsa angayanna.
Hiligaynon (Ilonggo)	Ang indi kabalo magbalikid sang iya nga ginhalinan, indi makaabot sa iya nga pakadtuan.
Jama Mapun	Soysoy niya' pandoy ngantele' patulakan ne, niya' ta'abut katakkahan ne.
Kapampangan	Ing e byasang malikid king kayang penibatan, e ya miras king kayang pupuntalan.
Kabalian	An dili kahibayu mulingi sa ija gigikanan, dili makaabot sa ija pasingdan/paduyungan.
Kinaray-a	Ang indi kamaan magbalikid sa ana ginhalinan, indi makaabot sa ana paaragtunan.
Manobo (Obo)	Iddos minuvu no konnod kotuig nod loingoy to id pomonan din, konna mandad od poko-uma riyon tod undiyonnan din.
Maranao	So tao a di matao domingil ko poonan iyan na di niyan kakowa so singanin iyan.
Masbateño	An dili maaram maglingi sa ginhalian, kay dili makaabot sa kakadtuhan.
Pangasinan	Say toon agga onlingao ed pinanlapuan to, agga makasabi'd laen to.
Northern Catanduanes Bikol	Ang mai batid magkiling sa hinarian, mai makaabot sa pupuntahan.
Romblomanon (Ini)	Ang tawo nga bukon tigo mag lingig sa iya guinghalinan hay indi makasampot sa iya ning pagakadtoan.
Sambali	Hay kay tanda mamanomtom ha pinangibatan, kay immabot sa kakaon.
Sangil	Tao mata taya mabiling su pubuakengnge taya dumanta su kadam tangi.
Sinama	Ya Aa ga-i tau pa beleng ni awwal na, ga-i du sab makasong ni maksud na.
Surigaonon	Adton dili mahibayo molingi sa ija ing-gikanan, dili gajod makaabot sa ija pasingdan.
Sorsoganon	An diri mag-imud sa pinaghalian diri makaabot sa kakadtuan.
Tagalog (Tayabas)	Ang hindi maalam lumingon sa pinaroonan ay hindi makakarating sa paroroonan.
Tagalog (Manila)	Ang hindi marunong lumingon sa pinanggalingan ay hindi makararating sa paroroonan.
Tausug	In di' maingat lumingi' pa bakas liyabayan niya, di' makasampay pa kadtuun niya.
Waray (Leyte)	An diri maaram lumingi ha tinikangan, diri maulpot ha kakadtoan.
Waray (Northern Samar)	An diri maaram lumingi sa tinikangan, diri maulpot sa kakadtoan.
Yakan	Mang gey matau mamayam si bakas palaihan nen, gey tekka si papilihan nen.

Dialectal variation

The amount of dialectal variation varies from language to language. Languages like Tagalog, Kapampangan and Pangasinan are known to have very moderate dialectal variation.

For the languages of the Bicol Region, however, there is great dialectal variation. There are cities and towns which have their own dialects and varieties. Below is the sentence "Were you there at the market for a long time?" translated into certain varieties of Bikol. The translation is followed by dialect and corresponding language, and a city/town in Bicol where they are spoken. The final translation is in Tagalog.

• Haloy ka duman sa saod? (Standard Coastal Bikol, a dialect of Central Bikol; Canaman, Camarines Sur)
• Aloy ka duman sa saod? (Magarao, a variety of Coastal Bikol; Magarao, Camarines Sur)
• Huray ka doon sa saod? (Northern Catanduanes Bicolano or Pandan Bikol; Pandan, Catanduanes)
• Naawat ka duman sa saod? (Southern Catanduanes Bikol or Virac Bikol, a dialect of Coastal Bikol; Virac, Catanduanes)
• Naəban ikā sadtō sāran? (Rinconada Bikol; Iriga City)
• Nauban ikā sadtō sāran? (Rinconada Bikol; Nabua, Camarines Sur)
• Uban ika adto sa saod? (Libon, Albay Bikol; Libon, Albay)
• Naëǧëy ika adto sa saran? (Buhinon, Albay Bikol; Buhi, Camarines Sur)
• Ëlëy ka idto sa sëd? (West Miraya Bikol, Albay Bikol; Oas, Albay)
• Na-alõy ika idto sa sâran/merkado? (West Miraya Bikol, Albay Bikol; Polangui, Albay)
• Naulay ka didto sa saran? (East Miraya Bikol, Albay Bikol; Daraga, Albay)
• Dugay ka didto sa merkado? (Ticao, Masbateño; Monreal, Masbate)
• Awat ka didto sa plasa? (Gubat, Southern Sorsogon; Gubat, Sorsogon)
• Awát ka didto sa rilansi? (Bulan, Southern Sorsogon; Bulan, Sorsogon)
• Matagal ka na ba roon sa palengke? (Tagalog)

Comparison chart

Below is a chart of Philippine languages. While there have been misunderstandings on which ones should be classified as language and which ones should be classified as dialect, the chart confirms that most have similarities, yet are not mutually comprehensible. These languages are arranged according to the regions they are natively spoken (from north to south, then east to west).

English	one	two	three	four	person	house	dog	coconut	day	new	we (inclusive)	what	and
Ivatan	asa	dadowa	tatdo	apat	tao	vahay	chito	niyoy	araw	va-yo	yaten	ango	kan
Ilokano	maysa	dua	tallo	uppat	tao	balay	aso	inyog	aldaw	baro	datayo	ania	ken
Maguindanao	isa	duwa	telu	pat	taw	walay	aso	niyug	gay	bagu	tanu	ngin	engu
Ifuntok	əsang	tswa	Tulo	əpat	tacu	Afong	aso	inyog	acəw	falu	tsattaku	ngag	ya
Ibanag	tadday	dua	tallu	appa'	tolay	balay	kitu	inniuk	aggaw	bagu	sittam	anni	anne
Gaddang	tata	addwa	tallo	appat	tolay	balay	atu	ayog	aw	bawu	ikkanetem	sanenay	e
Pangasinan	sakey	duara	talora	apatira	too	abong	aso	niyog	agew	balo	sikatayo	anto	tan/et
Kapampangan	métung	adwá	atlú	ápat	taú	bale	ásu	ngungút	aldó	bayu	ikátamú	nanú	ampong/at
Sambal	saya	rwa	tolo	àpat	tawu	balè	aso	ungut	awro	bâ-yo	udèng	ani	tan
Tagalog	isa	dalawa	tatlo	apat	tao	bahay	aso	niyog	araw	bago	tayo	ano	at
Coastal Bikol	saro	duwa	tulo	apat	tawo	harong	ayam	niyog	aldaw	ba-go	kita	ano	asin, buda
Rinconada Bikol	əsad	darwā	tolō	əpat	tawō	baləy	ayam	noyog	aldəw	bāgo	kitā	onō	ag, sagkəd, sakâ
West Miraya Bikol	sad	duwa	tulo	upat	taw	balõy	ayam	nuyog	aldõw	bâgo	kita, sato	uno	dangan, mî, saka
East Miraya Bikol	usad	duwa	tulo	upat	taw	balay	ayam	nuyog	aldaw	bâgo	kita, satun, kami	uno	dangan, mî, saka, kina
North Catanduanes Bikol	sadu	dawha	tatlo	apat	taho	baray	ayam	lubi / butong	ardaw	ba-go	kita, kami, amo	ano	kag / buda
Masbateño	usad	duha	tulo	upat	tawo	balay	ido	buko, lubi	aldaw	bag-o	kita, kami, amon	nano	kag
Romblomanon	isa	duha	tuyo	upat	tawo	bayay	ayam	niyog	adlaw	bag-o	kita, aton	ano	kag
Bantoanon	usa	ruha	tuyo	upat	tawo	bayay	iro	nidog	adlaw	bag-o	kita, ato	ni-o	ag
Onhan	isya	darwa	tatlo	apat	tawo	balay	ayam	niyog	adlaw	bag-o	kita, taton	ano	ag
Kinaray-a	sara	darwa	tatlo	apat	taho	balay	ayam	niyog	adlaw	bag-o	kita, taten	ano, iwan	kag
Hiligaynon	isa	duha	tatlo	apat	tawo	balay	ido	lubi	adlaw	bag-o	kita	ano	kag
Cebuano	usa	duha	tulo	upat	tawo	balay	iro	lubi	adlaw	bag-o	kita	unsa	ug
Kabalian	usa	duha	tuyo	upat	tawo	bayay	ido	lubi	adlaw	bag-o	kita	uno	ug
Waray	usa	duha	tulo	upat	tawo	balay	ayam	lubi	adlaw	bag-o	kita	ano	ngan, ug
Surigaonon	isa	duha	tuyo	upat	tao	bayay	idu	Niyog	adlaw	bag-o	kami	unu	sanan
T'boli	sotu	lewu	tlu	fat	tau	gunu	ohu	lefo	kdaw	lomi	tekuy	tedu	ne
Tausug	hambuuk	duwa	tu	upat	tau	bay	iru'	niyug	adlaw	ba-gu	kitaniyu	unu	iban
Chavacano	uno	dos	tres	cuatro	gente	casa	perro	coco	dia	nuevo	Zamboangueño: nosotros/kame; Bahra: mijotros/motros; Caviteño: nisos	cosá/ qué	y/e
Spanish	uno	dos	tres	cuatro	persona	casa	perro	coco	día	nuevo	nosotros	que	y/e
Philippine Hokkien	it / tsi̍t (一)	dī (二) / nňg (兩)	saⁿ (三)	sì (四)	lâng (儂)	tshù (厝)	káu (狗)	iâ (椰) / iâ-á (椰仔)	di̍t (日)	sin (新)	lán (咱)	siám-mih (啥物)	kap (佮) / ka̍h (交)

There is a language spoken by the Tao people (also known as Yami) of Orchid Island of Taiwan which is not included in the language of the Philippines. Their language, Tao (or Yami) is part of the Batanic languages which includes Ivatan, Babuyan, and Itbayat of the Batanes.

English	one	two	three	four	person	house	dog	coconut	day	new	we	what
Tao	ása	dóa (raroa)	tílo (tatlo)	ápat	tao	vahay	gara	ngata	araw	vayo	tata	vela
Ivatan	asa	dadowa	tatdo	apat	tao	vahay	chito	niyoy / gata	araw	va-yo	yaten	ango

Native speakers

Below are the number of Filipinos who speak the following 20 languages as a native language based on the 2010 Philippine census by the Philippine Statistics Authority.^{[40][discuss]}

Native languages in the Philippines

  Tagalog (24.44%)

  Cebuano (23.83%)

  Ilocano (8.77%)

  Hiligaynon (8.44%)

  Waray (3.97%)

  Kapampangan (3.02%)

  Pangasinan (1.98%)

  Maguindanao (1.58%)

  Maranao (1.47%)

  Tausug (1.33%)

  Others (21.16%)

Language	ISO 639-3	Native speakers
Tagalog	tl	22,512,089
Cebuano	ceb	21,943,948
Ilocano	ilo	8,074,536
Hiligaynon	hil	7,773,655
Waray	war	3,660,645
Kapampangan	pam	2,784,526
Pangasinan	pag	1,823,865
Maguindanao	mdh	1,456,141
Maranao	mrw	1,354,542
Tausug	tsg	1,226,601
Caviteño		756,139
Capizeño	cps	710,273
Masbateño	msb	677,942
Karay-a	krj	600,534
Aklanon	akl, mlz	559,416
Manobo		549,784
Subanën		492,978
Zamboangueño	cbk	427,354
Ibanag	ibg	402,591
Sama/Samal	ssb, sml, sse, slm	369,553

Negrito languages

Main article: Philippine Negrito languages

Language vitality

2010 UNESCO designation

Endangered and extinct languages in the Philippines are based on the 3rd world volume released by UNESCO in 2010.

Degree of endangerment (UNESCO standard)

• Safe: language is spoken by all generations; intergenerational transmission is uninterrupted
• Vulnerable: most children speak the language, but it may be restricted to certain domains (e.g., home)
• Definitely endangered: children no longer learn the language as mother tongue in the home
• Severely endangered: language is spoken by grandparents and older generations; while the parent generation may understand it, they do not speak it to children or among themselves
• Critically endangered: the youngest speakers are grandparents and older, and they speak the language partially and infrequently
• Extinct: there are no speakers left. These languages are included in the Atlas if presumably extinct since the 1950s

Vulnerable languages

Language	Speakers (in 2000)	Province	Coordinates	ISO 639-3 Code(s)	Source
Central Cagayan Agta	779	Cagayan	17°59′21″N 121°51′37″E / 17.9891°N 121.8603°E / 17.9891; 121.8603	agt	UNESCO 2000
Dupaninan Agta	1400	Cagayan	17°58′06″N 122°02′10″E / 17.9682°N 122.0361°E / 17.9682; 122.0361	duo	David Bradley (UNESCO 2000)

Definitely endangered

Language	Speakers (in 2000)	Province	Coordinates	ISO 639-3 Code(s)	Source
Bataan Agta	500	Bataan	14°25′57″N 120°28′44″E / 14.4324°N 120.4788°E / 14.4324; 120.4788	ayt	David Bradley (UNESCO 2000)
Mt. Iraya Agta	150	Camarines Sur	13°27′32″N 123°32′48″E / 13.459°N 123.5467°E / 13.459; 123.5467	atl	David Bradley (UNESCO 2000)
Batak	200	Palawan	10°06′29″N 119°00′00″E / 10.1081°N 119°E / 10.1081; 119	bya	David Bradley (UNESCO 2000)

Severely endangered

Language	Speakers (in 2000)	Province	Coordinates	ISO 639-3 Code(s)	Source
Faire Atta	300	Ilocos Norte	18°01′37″N 120°29′34″E / 18.027°N 120.4929°E / 18.027; 120.4929	azt	David Bradley (UNESCO 2000)
Northern Alta	200	Aurora	15°42′58″N 121°24′31″E / 15.7162°N 121.4085°E / 15.7162; 121.4085	agn	David Bradley (UNESCO 2000)
Camarines Norte Agta	150	Camarines Norte	14°00′49″N 122°53′14″E / 14.0135°N 122.8873°E / 14.0135; 122.8873	abd	David Bradley (UNESCO 2000)

Critically endangered

Language	Speakers (in 2000)	Province	Coordinates	ISO 639-3 Code(s)	Source
Alabat Island Agta	30	Quezon	14°07′15″N 122°01′42″E / 14.1209°N 122.0282°E / 14.1209; 122.0282	dul	David Bradley (UNESCO 2000)
Isarog Agta	5	Camarines Sur	13°40′50″N 123°22′50″E / 13.6805°N 123.3805°E / 13.6805; 123.3805	agk	David Bradley (UNESCO 2000)
Southern Ayta (Sorsogon Ayta)	150	Sorsogon	13°01′37″N 124°09′18″E / 13.027°N 124.1549°E / 13.027; 124.1549	ays	David Bradley (UNESCO 2000)

Extinct

Language	Speakers (in 2000)	Province	Coordinates	ISO 639-3 Code(s)	Source
Dicamay Agta (Dumagat, Dicamay Dumagat)	0	Isabela	16°41′59″N 122°01′00″E / 16.6998°N 122.0167°E / 16.6998; 122.0167	duy	David Bradley (UNESCO 2000)
Arta	0	near Isabela-Quirino Border	16°25′21″N 121°42′15″E / 16.4225°N 121.7042°E / 16.4225; 121.7042	atz	David Bradley (UNESCO 2000)
Katabaga	0	Quezon	13°26′12″N 122°33′25″E / 13.4366°N 122.5569°E / 13.4366; 122.5569	ktq	David Bradley (UNESCO 2000)
Ata	0	Negros Oriental	9°36′29″N 122°54′56″E / 9.6081°N 122.9155°E / 9.6081; 122.9155	atm	David Bradley (UNESCO 2000)

2014 North Dakota study

In a separate study by Thomas N. Headland, the Summer Institute of Linguistics in Dallas, and the University of North Dakota called Thirty Endangered Languages in the Philippines, the Philippines has 32 endangered languages, but 2 of the listed languages in the study are written with 0 speakers, noting that they are extinct or probably extinct. All of the listed languages are Negrito languages, the oldest languages in the Philippines.^[43]

Language	General location of speakers^[43]	Population of speakers in the 1990s^[43]	Bibliographic source^[43]
Batak	Palawan Island	386	Elder 1987
Mamanwa	Mindoro Island	1000	Grimes 2000
Ati	Northern Panay Island	30	Pennoyer 1987:4
Ati	Southern Panay Island	900	Pennoyer 1987:4
Ata	Negros Island	450	Cadelina 1980:96
Ata	Mabinay, Negros Oriental	25	Grimes 2000
Atta	Pamplona, western Cagayan	1000	Grimes 2000
Atta	Faire-Rizal, western Cagayan	400	Grimes 2000
Atta	Pudtol, Kalinga-Apayao	100	Grimes 2000
Ayta	Sorsogon	40	Grimes 2000
Agta (extinct, unverified)	Villaviciosa, Abra	0	Grimes 2000; Reid, per. com. 2001
Abenlen	Tarlac	6000	K. Storck SIL files
Mag-anchi	Zambales Tarlac, Pampanga	4166	K. Storck SIL files
Mag-indi	Zambales, Pampanga	3450	K. Storck SIL files
Ambala	Zambales, Pampanga, Bataan	1654	K. Storck SIL files
Magbeken	Bataan	381	K. Storck SIL files
Agta	Isarog, Camarines Sur (noted as nearly extinct)	1000	Grimes 2000
Agta	Mt. Iraya & Lake Buhi east, Camarines Sur (has 4 close dialects)	200	Grimes 2000
Agta	Mt. Iriga & Lake Buhi west, Camarines Sur	1500	Grimes 2000
Agta	Camarines Norte	200	Grimes 2000
Agta	Alabat Island, southern Quezon	50	Grimes 2000
Agta	Umirey, Quezon (with 3 close dialects)	3000	T. MacLeod SIL files
Agta	Casiguran, northern Aurora	609	Headland 1989
Agta	Maddela, Quirino	300	Headland field notes
Agta	Palanan & Divilacan, Isabela	856	Rai 1990: 176
Agta	San Mariano-Sisabungan, Isabela	377	Rai 1990: 176
Agta (noted as recently extinct)	Dicamay, Jones, Isabela	0	Headland field notes, and Grimes 2000
Arta	Aglipay, Quirino	11 (30 in 1977)	Headland field notes, and Reid 1994:40
Alta	Northern Aurora	250	Reid, per. comm.
Alta	Northern Quezon	400	Reid, per. comm.
Agta	eastern Cagayan, Supaninam (several close dialects)	1200	T. Nickell 1985:119
Agta	central Cagayan	800	Mayfield 1987:vii-viii; Grimes 2000

Proposals to conserve Philippine languages

There have been numerous proposals to conserve the many languages of the Philippines. According to the Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino, there are 135 ethnolinguistic groups in the country, each having their own distinct Philippine language.

Among the proposals include (1) "establishing a dictionary & sentence construction manual" for each of the 135 living languages in the country, (2) "video documentation" of all Philippine languages, (3) "revival of the ancient scripts of the Philippines" where each ethnic group's own script shall be revived and used in schools along with the currently-used Roman script in communities where those script/s used to be known, (4) "teaching of ethnic mother languages first" in homes and schools before the teaching of Filipino and foreign languages (English, Spanish, and/or Arabic), and (5) "using the ethnic mother language and script first in public signs" followed by Filipino and foreign languages (English, Spanish, and/or Arabic) and scripts, for example, using Cebuano first followed by Filipino and English underneath the sign.

Currently, only the fourth proposal has been made by the national government of the Philippines.^[44] A National Script bill has been filed in Congress in support of the third and fifth proposal, however, the bill only mandates the usage of the ancient script compatible with the national language, which is Filipino.^[45]

Major immigrant languages

French, German, Japanese, Chinese (Mandarin), Korean, and Spanish are taught in some public and private schools.^[46][47]

Arabic

Arabic is used by some Filipino Muslims in both a liturgical and instructional capacity since the arrival of Islam and establishment of several Sultanates in the 14th century. Along with Malay, Arabic was the lingua franca of the Malay Archipelago among Muslim traders and the Malay aristocracy.^{[citation needed]}

The 1987 Constitution mandates that Arabic (along with Spanish) is to be promoted on an optional and voluntary basis. As of 2015^[update] Arabic is taught for free and is promoted in some Islamic centres predominantly in the southernmost parts of Philippines. It is used primarily in religious activities and education (such as in a madrasa or Islamic school) and rarely for official events or daily conversation. In this respect, its function and use is somewhat like the traditional roles of Latin and Spanish in Filipino Catholicism vis-à-vis other currently spoken languages.

Islamic schools in Mindanao teach Modern Standard Arabic in their curriculum.^[48]

English

Main articles: Philippine English, Taglish, and Bislish

The first significant exposure of Filipinos to the English language occurred in 1762 when the British invaded Manila during the Seven Years' War, but this was a brief episode that had no lasting influence. English later became more important and widespread during American rule between 1898 and 1946, and remains an official language of the Philippines.

On August 22, 2007, three Malolos City regional trial courts in Bulacan decided to use Filipino, instead of English, in order to promote the national language. Twelve stenographers from Branches 6, 80 and 81, as model courts, had undergone training at Marcelo H. del Pilar College of Law of Bulacan State University College of Law following a directive from the Supreme Court of the Philippines. De la Rama said it was the dream of former Chief Justice Reynato Puno to implement the program in other areas such as Laguna, Cavite, Quezón, Nueva Écija, Batangas, Rizal, and Metro Manila.^[49]

English is used in official documents of business, government, the legal system, medicine, the sciences and as a medium of instruction. Filipinos prefer textbooks for subjects like calculus, physics, chemistry, biology, etc., written in English rather than Filipino.^{[dubious ]} However, the topics are usually taught, even in colleges, in Tagalog or the local language. By way of contrast, native languages are often heard in colloquial and domestic settings, spoken mostly with family and friends. The use of English attempts to give an air of formality, given its use in school, government and various ceremonies.^{[citation needed]} A percentage of the media such as cable television and newspapers are also in English; major television networks such as ABS-CBN and GMA and all AM radio stations broadcast primarily in Filipino, as well as government-run stations like PTV and the Philippine Broadcasting Service. However, a 2009 article by a UNICEF worker reported that the level of spoken English language in the Philippines was poor. The article reported that aspiring Filipino teachers score the lowest in English out of all of the subjects on their licensing exams.^[50]

A large influx of English (American English) words have been assimilated into Tagalog and the other native languages called Taglish or Bislish. There is a debate, however, on whether there is diglossia or bilingualism, between Filipino and English. Filipino is also used both in formal and informal situations. Though the masses would prefer to speak in Filipino, government officials tend to speak in English when performing government functions.^{[according to whom?]} There is still resistance to the use of Filipino in courts and the drafting of national statutes.

In parts of Mindanao, English and Tagalog blend with Cebuano to form "Davao Tagalog".^[51]

Hokkien

Main article: Philippine Hokkien

Diplomatic ties with the Ming dynasty among some established states or kingdoms in Luzon and direct interactions and trade overall within the archipelago as a whole may go as far back as the early 10th century. Mandarin Chinese is the medium of instruction and subject matter being taught for Chinese class in Chinese schools in the Philippines. However, the Lan-nang-ue variant of Hokkien Chinese is the majority household and heritage language of the overseas Chinese in the Philippines, who for generations originally mostly trace roots from Southern Fujian (pronounced locally as Fukkien or Hokkien) province in China. Other varieties of Chinese such as Yue Chinese (especially Taishanese or Cantonese), Teochew, and Hakka are spoken among a minority of Chinese Filipinos whose ancestral roots trace all the way back from the Guangdong or Guangxi provinces of Southern China. Most Chinese Filipinos raised in the Philippines, especially those of families of who have lived in the Philippines for multiple generations, are typically able and usually primarily speak Philippine English and/or Filipino (Tagalog) and/or other regional Philippine languages, or the code-switching or code-mixing of these, such as Taglish or Bislish, but Philippine Hokkien is typically or occasionally used within Chinese Filipino households privately amongst family or acts a heritage language among descendants of such. Hokaglish is the code-switching equivalent of the above languages.

As with Spanish, many native languages have co-opted numerous loanwords from Chinese, in particular words that refer to cuisine, household objects, and Philippine kinship terminology.

Japanese

The Japanese first came to the Philippines around the 11th century CE, the first country they emigrated to, as well as in waves from the 15th century (as depicted in the Boxer Codex) 17th century, late 19th century, 1900s, 1930s, and the 1940s.^{[52][53][54][55][56]} There is a small Japanese community and a school for Japanese in Metro Manila due to the number of Japanese companies. Also there is a large community of Japanese and Japanese descendants in Laguna province, Baguio, and in the Davao Region. Davao City is a home to a large population of Japanese descendants. Japanese laborers were hired by American companies like the National Fiber Company (NAFCO) in the first decades of the 20th century to work in abaca plantations. Japanese were known for their hard work and industry. During World War II, Japanese schools were present in Davao City.

Korean

Korean is mainly spoken by the expatriates from South Korea and people born in the Philippines with Korean ancestry. The Korean language has been added under the Department of Education (DepEd) Special Program in Foreign Language (SPFL) curriculum, together with Spanish, French, German, Chinese, and Japanese.^[57]

Malay

Main article: Malay language in the Philippines

Malay is spoken as a second language by a minority of the Tausug, Sama-Bajau, and Yakan peoples in the southernmost parts of the Philippines, from Zamboanga down to Tawi-Tawi.^{[citation needed]} It is also spoken as a daily language by the Malaysians and Indonesians who have settled, or do business in the Philippines. It is also spoken in southern Palawan to some extent. It is not spoken among the Maranao and Maguindanao peoples. Brunei, Malaysia, Indonesia and the southern Philippines are largely Islamic and the liturgical language of Islam is Arabic, but the vast majority of Muslims in the Philippines have little practical knowledge of Arabic beyond limited religious terminology.

The Malay language, a Malayo-Polynesian language alongside the Philippine languages, has had an immense influence on many of the languages of the Philippines. This is because Old Malay used to be the lingua franca throughout the archipelago, a good example of this is Magellan's translator Enrique using Malay to converse with the native Sugbuanon (Cebuano) during this time period.

An example of Old Malay spoken in Philippine history can be seen in the language of the 10th century Laguna Copperplate Inscription.

When the Spanish had first arrived in the Philippines in the 16th century, Old Malay was spoken among the aristocracy.

It is believed that Ferdinand Magellan's slave Enrique of Malacca could converse with the local leaders in Cebu Island, confirming to Magellan his arrival in Southeast Asia.

Today, Indonesian is taught as a foreign language in the Department of Linguistics and Asian Languages in the University of the Philippines. Also, the Indonesian School in Davao City teaches the language to preserve the culture of Indonesian immigrants there. The Indonesian Embassy in Manila also offers occasional classes for Filipinos and foreigners.

Since 2013, the Indonesian Embassy in the Philippines has given basic Indonesian language training to members of the Armed Forces of the Philippines.^[58]

In an interview, Department of Education Secretary Armin Luistro^[29] said that the country's government should promote Indonesian and Malaysian, which are both related to Filipino and other Philippine languages. Thus, the possibility of offering it as an optional subject in public schools is being studied.

South Asian languages

Since pre-Spanish times, there have been small Indian communities in the Philippines. Indians tend to be able to speak Tagalog and the other native languages, and are often fluent in English. Among themselves, Sindhi and Punjabi are used. Urdu is spoken among the Pakistani community. Only few South Asians, such as Pakistani, as well as the recent newcomers like speakers of Tamil, Nepali and Marathi retain their own respective languages.^{[53][59][60][61][62][63]}

Spanish

Main article: Spanish language in the Philippines

Spanish was introduced in the islands after 1565, when the Spanish conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi set sail from Mexico and founded the first Spanish settlement on Cebú. Though its usage is not as widespread as before, Spanish has had a significant influence in the various local Philippine languages such as providing numerous loan words.^[50] Several Spanish-based creole language varieties collectively known as Chabacano have also emerged. The current 1987 constitution makes mention of Spanish in which it provides that Spanish (along with Arabic) is to be promoted on an optional and voluntary basis.

In 1593, the first printing press in the Philippine islands was founded and it released the first (albeit polyglot) book, the Doctrina Christiana that same year. In the 17th century, Spanish religious orders founded the first universities in the Philippines, some of which are considered the oldest in Asia. During colonial rule through Mexico, Spanish was the language of education, trade, politics, and religion, and by the 19th century, became the colony's lingua franca although it was mainly used by the educated Filipinos.^[64] In 1863, a Spanish decree introduced a system of public education, creating free public schooling in Spanish. In the 1890s, the Philippines had a prominent group of Spanish-speaking scholars called the Ilustrados, such as José Rizal. Some of these scholars participated in the Philippine Revolution and later in the struggle against American occupation. Both the Malolos Constitution and the Lupang Hinirang (national anthem) were written in Spanish.

Under U.S. rule, the English language began to be promoted instead of Spanish. The use of Spanish began to decline as a result of the introduction of English into the public schools as a language of instruction.^[15] The 1935 constitution establishing the Philippine Commonwealth designated both English and Spanish as official languages. The 1950 census stated that Filipinos who spoke Spanish as a first or second language made up only 6% of the population. In 1990, the census reported that the number had dwindled to just 2,500. A 2012 survey estimates that while around 1 million people can speak Spanish with varying degrees of competency, only around 439,000 people can speak the language at a native level.^[65]

Spanish briefly lost its status as an official language upon promulgation of the 1973 constitution but regained official status two months later when President Marcos signed Presidential Decree No. 155.^[19] In the 1987 constitution, Spanish is designated as an "optional and voluntary language" but does not mention it as an "official language". Spanish was dropped as a college requirement during Corazón Aquino's administration. Former president Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, a third-language Spanish speaker, introduced legislation to re-establish the instruction of Spanish in 2009 in the state education system. Today, the language is still spoken by Filipino-Spanish mestizos and Spanish families who are mainly concentrated in Metro Manila, Iloilo and Cebu. It remains an optional subject in some academic institutions, such as the University of Santo Tomás in Manila and the University of San Carlos in Cebu. Most foreign language study takes place in Grades 9–12, where over a third of the students study a foreign language. Spanish is the most popular language, studied by about 28% of all secondary school students, followed by French with 11%, and German with 3%. At the primary level, over 6% of the students study foreign languages, again with Spanish leading the list at 4.5% followed by French with 1.5%, and German and Japanese each with 0.2% of enrollments.^{[citation needed]}

Many historical documents, land titles, and works of literature are written in Spanish and are still not translated into Filipino languages, despite the fact that some such as land titles have legal value. Spanish, through colonization has contributed the largest number of loanwords and expressions in Tagalog, Cebuano, and other Philippine languages.^[66] The Academia Filipina de la Lengua Española (Philippine Academy of the Spanish Language), established in 1924, is a founding member of the Association of Academies of the Spanish Language; an association of the various Spanish academies of the world which cooperate in the standardizing and promotion of the Spanish language. Among its past and present academics are former President Arroyo, former Foreign Affairs Secretary Alberto Romulo, and Archbishop of Cebú Cardinal Ricardo Vidal.

Spanish creoles

Main article: Chavacano

There are several Spanish-based creole languages in the Philippines, collectively called Chavacano. These may be split into two major geographical groups:

• In Luzon:
  • Caviteño (Chabacano de Cavite), spoken in Cavite City, Cavite.
  • Ternateño (Chabacano de Barra), spoken in Ternate, Cavite.
  • Ermitaño (Chabacano de Ermita), formerly spoken in Ermita, Manila but is now extinct. The last reported speakers were a woman and her grandson during the 1980s and 1990s.
• In Mindanao:
  • Zamboangueño Chavacano (Chabacano de Zamboanga / Zamboangueño Chavacano), spoken in Zamboanga City, Zamboanga Sibugay, Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga del Norte, Basilan, Sulu, Tawi-Tawi and Semporna, Sabah, Malaysia (360,000 native speakers-Zamboanga City alone as per 2000 census, making it the most spoken form and known form of Chavacano)
  • Cotabateño (Chabacano de Cotabato), spoken in Cotabato
  • Davaoeño Abakay (Chabacano de Davao), spoken in Davao City

See also

•  Philippines portal
•  Languages portal

• Filipino alphabet
• Filipino orthography
• Philippine languages
• List of English words of Philippine origin

References

Notes

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6. The Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino enumerated 134 Philippine languages and 1 national language (Filipino) present in the country through its Atlas Filipinas map published in 2016.
7. Tsai, Hui-Ming 蔡惠名 (2017). Fēilǜbīn zán rén huà (Lán-lâng-uē) yánjiū 菲律賓咱人話（Lán-lâng-uē）研究 [A Study of Philippine Hokkien Language] (PhD thesis) (in Chinese). National Taiwan Normal University.
8. Wong Gonzales, Wilkinson Daniel (May 2016). "Exploring trilingual code-switching: The case of 'Hokaglish' (PDF Download Available)". Retrieved October 24, 2016 – via ResearchGate.
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10. Filipino, not English, is the country’s lingua franca, Inquirer, Feb 27, 2014
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13. The regional languages are the auxiliary official languages in the regions and shall serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein... Article XIV Section 7.
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42. The Philippine National Proverb^{[unreliable source?]}
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General references

• Bellwood, Peter; Fox, James; Tryon, Darrell (1995). The Austronesians: Historical and comparative perspectives. Department of Anthropology, Australian National University. ISBN 0-7315-2132-3.
• "Ethnologue report for Philippines".
• Lobel, Jason William; Tria, Wilmer Joseph S. (2000). An Satuyang Tataramon: A Study of the Bikol language. Lobel & Tria Partnership Co. ISBN 971-92226-0-3.
• Mintz, Malcolm Warren (2001). "Bikol". Facts About the World's Languages: An Encyclopedia of the World's Major Languages, Past and Present. ISBN 0-8242-0970-2.
• Reid, Lawrence A. (1971). Philippine minor Languages: Word lists and phonologies. University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 0-87022-691-6.
• Rubino, Carl Ralph Galvez (1998). Tagalog-English English-Tagalog Dictionary. Hippocrene Books. ISBN 0-7818-0961-4.
• Rubino, Carl Ralph Galvez (2000). Ilocano Dictionary and Grammar. University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 0-8248-2088-6.
• Rubino, Carl Ralph Galvez. "The Philippine National Proverb". Translated into various Philippine languages. Retrieved July 28, 2005.
• Sundita, Christopher Allen (2002). In Bahasa Sug: An Introduction to Tausug. Lobel & Tria Partnership, Co. ISBN 971-92226-6-2.
• Sundita, Christopher. . Understanding the Native Tongues of the Philippines. Archived from the original on June 16, 2006. Retrieved July 28, 2005.
• Yap, Fe Aldave (1977). A Comparative Study of Philippine Lexicons. Institute of Philippine languages, Department of Education, Culture, and Sports. ISBN 971-8705-05-8.
• Zorc, R. David (1977). "The Bisayan dialects of the Philippines: Subgrouping and reconstruction". Pacific Linguistics. C (44).
• Zorc, R. David (2001). "Hiligaynon". Facts About the World's Languages: An Encyclopedia of the World's Major Languages, Past and Present.
• Viray, Joseph Reylan B. (2006). "Dagang Simbahan". Makata International Journal of Poetry. 7 (12).
• de la Rosa, Luciano (1960). "El Filipino: Origen y Connotación". El Renacimiento Filipino.

Further reading

• Dedaić, Mirjana N.; Nelson, Daniel N. (2003). At War With Words. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-017649-1. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
• Hamers, Josiane F. (2000). Bilinguality and Bilingualism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64843-2. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
• Tupas, Ruanni (2015). "The Politics of "P" and "F": A Linguistic History of Nation-Building in the Philippines". Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 36 (6): 587–597. doi:10.1080/01434632.2014.979831. S2CID 143332545.
• Thompson, Roger M. (January 1, 2003). Filipino English and Taglish: Language Switching from Multiple Perspectives. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 9789027248916.

External links

• Linguistic map of the Philippines at Muturzikin.com
• Ricardo Maria Nolasco on the diversity of languages in the Philippines
• Lawrence R. Reid webpage of Dr. Lawrence A. Reid. Researcher Emeritus of linguistics at the University of Hawai'i at Manoa. Has researched Philippine languages for decades.
• The Metamorphosis of Filipino as a National Language
• Carl Rubino webpage of Dr. Carl Rubino. A Filipino linguist who has studied Philippine languages.
• by Edmundo Farolan Romero, with a brief Philippine poetry anthology in Spanish.
• Salita Blog by Christopher Sundita. A blog about a variety of issues concerning the languages of the Philippines.
• Espaniero An Online Spanish conversation group for Pinoys
• Philippine Language Tree
• , by Andrew González, FSC
• kaibigankastila webpage of the Spanish culture in the Philippines.
• Filipino Translator
• Tagalog Translator Online Online dictionary for translating Tagalog from/to English, including expressions and latest headlines regarding the Philippines.
• Linguistic map of the Philippines
• Learn Philippine Languages a compilation of lessons about languages of the Philippines.

  Media related to Languages of the Philippines at Wikimedia Commons