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Urdu

March 12, 2023

Urdu (/ˈʊərduː/; اُردُو, ALA-LC: Urdū) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in South Asia.[11][12] It is the national language and lingua franca of Pakistan, where it is also an official language alongside English.[13] In India, Urdu is an Eighth Schedule language whose status and cultural heritage is recognized by the Constitution of India;[14][15] it also has an official status in several Indian states.[note 1][13] In Nepal, Urdu is a registered regional dialect.[16]

Urdu
Standard Urdu
اردو
"Urdu" written in the Nastaliq calligraphic hand
Pronunciation[ˈʊrduː] (listen)
Native toSouth Asia
RegionPakistan
India (Hindustani Belt & Deccan)
EthnicityUrdu-speaking people[1]
SpeakersNative: 70 million (2011–2018)[2]
L2: 160 million
Total: 230 million[2]
Early forms
Dialects
Indo-Pakistani Sign Language
Official status
Official language in
 Pakistan
(national, official)

 India
(state-additional official)[5]

Recognised minority
language in
 South Africa (protected language)[10]
Regulated byNational Language Promotion Department (Pakistan)
National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language (India)
Language codes
ISO 639-1ur
ISO 639-2urd
ISO 639-3urd
Glottologurdu1245
Linguasphere59-AAF-q
Map of the India and Pakistan showing:
  Areas where Urdu is either official or co-official
  Areas where Urdu is neither official nor co-official
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Urdu has been described as a Persianised register of the Hindustani language;[17][18] Urdu and Hindi share a common Sanskrit- and Prakrit-derived vocabulary base, phonology, syntax, and grammar, making them mutually intelligible during colloquial communication.[19][20] While formal Urdu draws literary, political, and technical vocabulary from Persian,[21] formal Hindi draws these aspects from Sanskrit; consequently, the two languages' mutual intelligibility effectively decreases as the factor of formality increases.

In 1837, Urdu became an official language of the British East India Company, replacing Persian across northern India during Company rule; Persian had until this point served as the court language of various Indo-Islamic empires.[22] Religious, social, and political factors arose during the European colonial period that advocated a distinction between Urdu and Hindi, leading to the Hindi–Urdu controversy.[23]

Urdu became a literary language in the 18th century and two similar standard forms came into existence in Delhi and Lucknow. Since the partition of India in 1947, a third standard has arisen in the Pakistani city of Karachi.[24][25] Deccani, an older form used in Deccan, became a court language of the Deccan sultanates by the 16th century.[26][25]

According to 2022 estimates by Ethnologue, Urdu is the 10th-most widely spoken language in the world, with 230 million total speakers, including those who speak it as a second language.[2][additional citation(s) needed]

Etymology

The name Urdu was first used by the poet Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi around 1780 for Hindustani language[27][28] even though he himself also used Hindavi term in his poetry to define the language.[29] Ordu means army in the Turkic languages. In late 18th century, it was known as Zaban-e-Urdu-e-Mualla زبانِ اُرْدُوِ مُعَلّٰی means language of the exalted camp.[30][31][32] Earlier it was known as Hindvi, Hindi and Hindustani.[28][33]

History

Main article: History of Hindustani

Urdu, like Hindi, is a form of Hindustani.[34][35][36] Some linguists have suggested that the earliest forms of Urdu evolved from the medieval (6th to 13th century) Apabhraṃśa register of the preceding Shauraseni language, a Middle Indo-Aryan language that is also the ancestor of other modern Indo-Aryan languages.[37][38]

Origins

In the Delhi region of India the native language was Khariboli, whose earliest form is known as Old Hindi (or Hindavi).[39][40][41][42] It belongs to the Western Hindi group of the Central Indo-Aryan languages.[43][44] The contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures during the period of Islamic conquests in the Indian subcontinent (12th to 16th centuries) led to the development of Hindustani as a product of a composite Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb.[45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][excessive citations]

In cities such as Delhi, the Indian language Old Hindi began to acquire many Persian loanwords and continued to be called "Hindi" and later, also "Hindustani".[41][33][53][28][43] An early literary tradition of Hindavi was founded by Amir Khusrau in the late 13th century.[54][55][56][57] After the conquest of the Deccan, and a subsequent immigration of noble Muslim families into the south, a form of the language flourished in medieval India as a vehicle of poetry, (especially under the Bahmanids),[58] and is known as Dakhini, which contains loanwords from Telugu and Marathi.[59][60][61]

From the 13th century until the end of the 18th century the language now known as Urdu was called Hindi,[28] Hindavi, Hindustani,[33] Dehlavi,[62] Dihlawi,[63] Lahori,[62] and Lashkari.[64] The Delhi Sultanate established Persian as its official language in India, a policy continued by the Mughal Empire, which extended over most of northern South Asia from the 16th to 18th centuries and cemented Persian influence on Hindustani.[65][53]

 
Opening pages of the Urdu divan of Ghalib, 1821

According to the Navadirul Alfaz by Khan-i Arzu, the "Zaban-e Urdu-e Shahi" [language of the Imperial Camp] had attained special importance in the time of Alamgir".[66] By the end of the reign of Aurangzeb in the early 1700s, the common language around Delhi began to be referred to as Zaban-e-Urdu,[31] a name derived from the Turkic word ordu (army) or orda and is said to have arisen as the "language of the camp", or "Zaban-i-Ordu" means "Language of High camps"[30] or natively "Lashkari Zaban" means "Language of Army".[67] It is recorded that Aurangzeb spoke in Hindvi, which was most likely Persianized, as there are substantial evidence that Hindvi was written in the Persian script in this period.[68]

During this time period Urdu was referred to as "Moors", which simply meant Muslim,[69] by European writers.[70] John Ovington wrote in 1689:[71]

The language of the Moors is different from that of the ancient original inhabitants of India but is oblig'd to these Gentiles for its characters. For though the Moors dialect is peculiar to themselves, yet it is destitute of Letters to express it; and therefore, in all their Writings in their Mother Tongue, they borrow their letters from the Heathens, or from the Persians, or other Nations.

In 1715, a complete literary Diwan in Rekhta was written by Nawab Sadruddin Khan.[72] An Urdu-Persian dictionary was written by Khan-i Arzu in 1751 in the reign of Ahmad Shah Bahadur.[73] The name Urdu was first introduced by the poet Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi around 1780.[27][28] As a literary language, Urdu took shape in courtly, elite settings.[74][75] While Urdu retained the grammar and core Indo-Aryan vocabulary of the local Indian dialect Khariboli, it adopted the Nastaleeq writing system[43][76] – which was developed as a style of Persian calligraphy.[77]

Other historical names

Throughout the history of the language, Urdu has been referred to by several other names: Hindi, Hindavi, Rekhta, Urdu-e-Muallah, Dakhini, Moors and Dehlavi.

In 1773, the Swiss French soldier Antoine Polier notes that the English liked to use the name "Moors" for Urdu:[78]

I have a deep knowledge [je possède à fond] of the common tongue of India, called Moors by the English, and Ourdouzebain by the natives of the land.

Several works of Sufi writers like Ashraf Jahangir Semnani used similar names for the Urdu language. Shah Abdul Qadir Raipuri was the first person who translated The Quran into Urdu.[79]

During Shahjahan's time, the Capital was relocated to Delhi and named Shahjahanabad and the Bazar of the town was named Urdu e Muallah.[80][81]

In the Akbar era the word Rekhta was used to describe Urdu for the first time. It was originally a Persian word that meant "to create a mixture". Amir Khusrau was the first person to use the same word for Poetry.[citation needed]

Colonial period

Before the standardization of Urdu into colonial administration, British officers often referred to the language as "Moors" or "Moorish jargon". John Gilchrist was the first in British India to begin a systematic study on Urdu and began to use the term "Hindustani" what the majority of Europeans called "Moors", authoring the book The Strangers's East Indian Guide to the Hindoostanee or Grand Popular Language of India (improperly Called Moors).[82]

Urdu was then promoted in colonial India by British policies to counter the previous emphasis on Persian.[83] In colonial India, "ordinary Muslims and Hindus alike spoke the same language in the United Provinces in the nineteenth century, namely Hindustani, whether called by that name or whether called Hindi, Urdu, or one of the regional dialects such as Braj or Awadhi."[84] Elites from Muslim communities, as well as a minority of Hindu elites, such as Munshis of Hindu origin,[85] wrote the language in the Perso-Arabic script in courts and government offices, though Hindus continued to employ the Devanagari script in certain literary and religious contexts.[84][76][86] Through the late 19th century, people did not view Urdu and Hindi as being two distinct languages, though in urban areas, the standardized Hindustani language was increasingly being referred to as Urdu and written in the Perso-Arabic script.[87] Urdu and English replaced Persian as the official languages in northern parts of India in 1837.[88] In colonial Indian Islamic schools, Muslims were taught Persian and Arabic as the languages of Indo-Islamic civilization; the British, in order to promote literacy among Indian Muslims and attract them to attend government schools, started to teach Urdu written in the Perso-Arabic script in these governmental educational institutions and after this time, Urdu began to be seen by Indian Muslims as a symbol of their religious identity.[84] Hindus in northwestern India, under the Arya Samaj agitated against the sole use of the Perso-Arabic script and argued that the language should be written in the native Devanagari script,[89] which triggered a backlash against the use of Hindi written in Devanagari by the Anjuman-e-Islamia of Lahore.[89] Hindi in the Devanagari script and Urdu written in the Perso-Arabic script established a sectarian divide of "Urdu" for Muslims and "Hindi" for Hindus, a divide that was formalized with the partition of colonial India into the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan after independence (though there are Hindu poets who continue to write in Urdu, including Gopi Chand Narang and Gulzar).[90][91]

Post-Partition

Urdu had been used as a literary medium for colonial Indian writers from the Bombay Presidency, Bengal, Orissa Province, and Tamil Nadu[clarification needed] as well.[92]

In 1973, Urdu was recognized as the sole national language of Pakistan – although English and regional languages were also granted official recognition.[93] Following the 1979 Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and subsequent arrival of millions of Afghan refugees who have lived in Pakistan for many decades, many Afghans, including those who moved back to Afghanistan,[94] have also become fluent in Hindi-Urdu, an occurrence aided by exposure to the Indian media, chiefly Hindi-Urdu Bollywood films and songs.[95][96][97]

There have been attempts to purge Urdu of native Prakrit and Sanskrit words, and Hindi of Persian loanwords – new vocabulary draws primarily from Persian and Arabic for Urdu and from Sanskrit for Hindi.[98][99] English has exerted a heavy influence on both as a co-official language.[100] According to Bruce (2021), Urdu has adapted English words since the eighteenth century.[101] A movement towards the hyper-Persianisation of an Urdu emerged in Pakistan since its independence in 1947 which is "as artificial as" the hyper-Sanskritised Hindi that has emerged in India;[102] hyper-Persianisation of Urdu was prompted in part by the increasing Sanskritisation of Hindi.[103][page needed] However, the style of Urdu spoken on a day-to-day basis in Pakistan is akin to neutral Hindustani that serves as the lingua franca of the northern Indian subcontinent.[104][105]

Since at least 1977,[106] some commentators such as journalist Khushwant Singh have characterized Urdu as a "dying language", though others, such as Indian poet and writer Gulzar (who is popular in both countries and both language communities, but writes only in Urdu (script) and has difficulties reading Devanagari, so he lets others 'transcribe' his work) have disagreed with this assessment and state that Urdu "is the most alive language and moving ahead with times" in India.[107][108][109][106][110][111][112] This phenomenon pertains to the decrease in relative and absolute numbers of native Urdu speakers as opposed to speakers of other languages;[113][114] declining (advanced) knowledge of Urdu's Perso-Arabic script, Urdu vocabulary and grammar;[113][115] the role of translation and transliteration of literature from and into Urdu;[113] the shifting cultural image of Urdu and socio-economic status associated with Urdu speakers (which negatively impacts especially their employment opportunities in both countries),[115][113] the de jure legal status and de facto political status of Urdu,[115] how much Urdu is used as language of instruction and chosen by students in higher education,[115][113][114][112] and how the maintenance and development of Urdu is financially and institutionally supported by governments and NGOs.[115][113] In India, although Urdu is not and never was used exclusively by Muslims (and Hindi never exclusively by Hindus),[112][116] the ongoing Hindi–Urdu controversy and modern cultural association of each language with the two religions has led to fewer Hindus using Urdu.[112][116] In the 20th century, Indian Muslims initially more or less gradually collectively embraced Urdu[116] (for example, 'post-independence Muslim politics of Bihar saw a mobilization around the Urdu language as tool of empowerment for minorities especially coming from weaker socio-economic backgrounds'[113]), but in the early 21st century an increasing percentage of Indian Muslims began switching to Hindi due to socio-economic factors, such as Urdu being abandoned as the language of instruction in much of India,[114][113] and having limited employment opportunities compared to Hindi, English and regional languages.[112] The number of Urdu speakers in India fell 1.5% between 2001 and 2011 (then 5.08 million Urdu speakers), especially in the most Urdu-speaking states of Uttar Pradesh (c. 8% to 5%) and Bihar (c. 11.5% to 8.5%), even though the number of Muslims in these two states grew in the same period.[114] Although Urdu is still very prominent in early 21st-century Indian pop culture, ranging from Bollywood[111] to social media, knowledge of the Urdu script and the publication of books in Urdu have steadily declined, while policies of the Indian government do not actively support the preservation of Urdu in professional and official spaces.[113] In part because the Pakistani government proclaimed Urdu the national language at Partition, the Indian state and some religious nationalists began to regard Urdu as a 'foreign' language, to be viewed with suspicion.[110] Urdu advocates in India disagree whether it should be allowed to write Urdu in the Devanagari and Latin script (Roman Urdu) to allow its survival,[112][117] or whether this will only hasten its demise and that the language can only be preserved if expressed in the Perso-Arabic script.[113]

For Pakistan, Willoughby & Aftab (2020) argued that Urdu originally had the image of a refined elite language of the Enlightenment, progress and emancipation, which contributed to the success of the independence movement.[115] But after the 1947 Partition, when it was chosen as the national language of Pakistan to unite all inhabitants with one linguistic identity, it faced serious competition primarily from Bengali (spoken by 56% of the total population, mostly in East Pakistan until that attained independence in 1971 as Bangladesh), and after 1971 from English. Both pro-independence elites that formed the leadership of the Muslim League in Pakistan and the Hindu-dominated Congress Party in India had been educated in English during the British colonial period, and continued to operate in English and send their children to English-medium schools as they continued dominate both countries' post-Partition politics.[115] Although the Anglicized elite in Pakistan has made attempts at Urduisation of education with varying degrees of success, no successful attempts were ever made to Urduise politics, the legal system, the army, or the economy, all of which remained solidly Anglophone.[115] Even the regime of general Zia-ul-Haq (1977–1988), who came from a middle-class Urdu-speaking family and initially fervently supported a rapid and complete Urduisation of Pakistani society (earning him the honorary title of the 'Patron of Urdu' in 1981), failed to make significant achievements, and by 1987 had abandoned most of his efforts in favor of pro-English policies.[115] Since the 1960s, the Urdu lobby and eventually the Urdu language itself in Pakistan has been associated with religious Islamism and political national conservatism (and eventually the lower and lower-middle classes, alongside regional languages such as Punjabi, Sindhi, and Balochi), while English has been associated with the internationally oriented secular and progressive left (and eventually the upper and upper-middle classes).[115] Despite these governmental attempts at Urduisation, the position and prestige of English only grew stronger in the meantime.[115]

Demographics and geographic distribution

See also: Languages of Pakistan and Languages of India
 
Geographical distribution of Urdu in India and Pakistan.

There are over 100 million native speakers of Urdu in India and Pakistan together: there were 50.8 million Urdu speakers in India (4.34% of the total population) as per the 2011 census;[118][119] approximately 16 million in Pakistan in 2006.[120] There are several hundred thousand in the United Kingdom, Saudi Arabia, United States, and Bangladesh.[2] However, Hindustani, of which Urdu is one variety, is spoken much more widely, forming the third most commonly spoken language in the world, after Mandarin and English.[121] The syntax (grammar), morphology, and the core vocabulary of Urdu and Hindi are essentially identical – thus linguists usually count them as one single language, while some contend that they are considered as two different languages for socio-political reasons.[122]

Owing to interaction with other languages, Urdu has become localized wherever it is spoken, including in Pakistan. Urdu in Pakistan has undergone changes and has incorporated and borrowed many words from regional languages, thus allowing speakers of the language in Pakistan to distinguish themselves more easily and giving the language a decidedly Pakistani flavor. Similarly, the Urdu spoken in India can also be distinguished into many dialects such as the Standard Urdu of Lucknow and Delhi, as well as the Dakhni (Deccan) of South India.[24][59] Because of Urdu's similarity to Hindi, speakers of the two languages can easily understand one another if both sides refrain from using literary vocabulary.[19]

Pakistan

 
The proportion of people with Urdu as their mother tongue in each Pakistani District as of the 2017 Pakistan Census

Although Urdu is widely spoken and understood throughout all of Pakistan,[123] only 7% of Pakistan's population spoke Urdu as their native language around 1992.[124] Most of the nearly three million Afghan refugees of different ethnic origins (such as Pashtun, Tajik, Uzbek, Hazarvi, and Turkmen) who stayed in Pakistan for over twenty-five years have also become fluent in Urdu.[97] Muhajirs since 1947 have historically formed the majority population in the city of Karachi, however.[125] Many newspapers are published in Urdu in Pakistan, including the Daily Jang, Nawa-i-Waqt, and Millat.

No region in Pakistan uses Urdu as its mother tongue, though it is spoken as the first language of Muslim migrants (known as Muhajirs) in Pakistan who left India after independence in 1947.[126] Other communities, most notably the Punjabi elite of Pakistan, have adopted Urdu as a mother tongue and identify with both an Urdu speaker as well as Punjabi identity.[127][128] Urdu was chosen as a symbol of unity for the new state of Pakistan in 1947, because it had already served as a lingua franca among Muslims in north and northwest British India. It is written, spoken and used in all provinces/territories of Pakistan, and together with English as the main languages of instruction,[129] although the people from differing provinces may have different native languages.[130]

Urdu is taught as a compulsory subject up to higher secondary school in both English and Urdu medium school systems, which has produced millions of second-language Urdu speakers among people whose native language is one of the other languages of Pakistan – which in turn has led to the absorption of vocabulary from various regional Pakistani languages,[131] while some Urdu vocabularies has also been assimilated by Pakistan's regional languages.[132] Some who are from a non-Urdu background now can read and write only Urdu. With such a large number of people(s) speaking Urdu, the language has acquired a peculiar Pakistani flavor further distinguishing it from the Urdu spoken by native speakers, resulting in more diversity within the language.[133][clarification needed]

India

In India, Urdu is spoken in places where there are large Muslim minorities or cities that were bases for Muslim empires in the past. These include parts of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra (Marathwada and Konkanis), Karnataka and cities such as Hyderabad, Lucknow, Delhi, Malerkotla, Bareilly, Meerut, Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Roorkee, Deoband, Moradabad, Azamgarh, Bijnor, Najibabad, Rampur, Aligarh, Allahabad, Gorakhpur, Agra, Firozabad, Kanpur, Badaun, Bhopal, Hyderabad, Aurangabad,[16] Bangalore, Kolkata, Mysore, Patna, Darbhanga,Gaya,Madhubani,Samastipur,Siwan, Saharsa, Supaul, Muzaffarpur, Nalanda, Munger, Bhagalpur, Araria, Gulbarga, Parbhani, Nanded, Malegaon, Bidar, Ajmer, and Ahmedabad.[134] In a very significant amount among the nearly 800 districts of India, there is a small Urdu-speaking minority at least. In Araria district, Bihar, there is a plurality of Urdu speakers and near-plurality in Hyderabad district, Telangana (43.35% Telugu speakers and 43.24% Urdu speakers).

Some Indian schools teach Urdu as a first language and have their own syllabi and exams. India's Bollywood industry frequently employs the use of Urdu – especially in songs.[135][page needed]

India has more than 3,000 Urdu publications, including 405 daily Urdu newspapers.[136][137] Newspapers such as Neshat News Urdu, Sahara Urdu, Daily Salar, Hindustan Express, Daily Pasban, Siasat Daily, The Munsif Daily and Inqilab are published and distributed in Bangalore, Malegaon, Mysore, Hyderabad, and Mumbai.[138]

Elsewhere

 
A trilingual signboard in Arabic, English and Urdu in the UAE. The Urdu sentence is not a direct translation of the English ("Your beautiful city invites you to preserve it.") It says, "apné shahar kī Khūbsūrtīi ko barqarār rakhié, or "Please preserve the beauty of your city."

Outside South Asia, it is spoken by large numbers of migrant South Asian workers in the major urban centres of the Persian Gulf countries. Urdu is also spoken by large numbers of immigrants and their children in the major urban centres of the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Germany, New Zealand, Norway, and Australia.[139] Along with Arabic, Urdu is among the immigrant languages with the most speakers in Catalonia.[140]

Cultural identity

Further information: Hindi–Urdu controversy

Colonial India

Religious and social atmospheres in early nineteenth century India played a significant role in the development of the Urdu register. Hindi became the distinct register spoken by those who sought to construct a Hindu identity in the face of colonial rule.[23] As Hindi separated from Hindustani to create a distinct spiritual identity, Urdu was employed to create a definitive Islamic identity for the Muslim population in India.[141] Urdu's use was not confined only to northern India – it had been used as a literary medium for Indian writers from the Bombay Presidency, Bengal, Orissa Province, and Tamil Nadu as well.[142]

As Urdu and Hindi became means of religious and social construction for Muslims and Hindus respectively, each register developed its own script. According to Islamic tradition, Arabic, the language spoken by the prophet Muhammad and uttered in the revelation of the Qur'an, holds spiritual significance and power.[143] Because Urdu was intentioned as means of unification for Muslims in Northern India and later Pakistan, it adopted a modified Perso-Arabic script.[144][23]

Pakistan

Urdu continued its role in developing a Pakistani identity as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan was established with the intent to construct a homeland for the south Asian Muslims of the northwest. Several languages and dialects spoken throughout the regions of Pakistan produced an imminent need for a uniting language. Urdu was chosen as a symbol of unity for the new state of Pakistan in 1947, because it had already served as a lingua franca among Muslims in north and northwest British India.[citation needed] Urdu is also seen as a repertory for the cultural and social heritage of Pakistan.[145]

While Urdu and Islam together played important roles in developing the national identity of Pakistan, disputes in the 1950s (particularly those in East Pakistan, where Bengali was the dominant language), challenged the idea of Urdu as a national symbol and its practicality as the lingua franca. The significance of Urdu as a national symbol was downplayed by these disputes when English and Bengali were also accepted as official languages in the former East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).[146]

Official status

Pakistan

Urdu is the sole national, and one of the two official languages of Pakistan (along with English).[93] It is spoken and understood throughout the country, whereas the state-by-state languages (languages spoken throughout various regions) are the provincial languages, although only 7.57% of Pakistanis speak Urdu as their first language.[147] Its official status has meant that Urdu is understood and spoken widely throughout Pakistan as a second or third language. It is used in education, literature, office and court business,[148] although in practice, English is used instead of Urdu in the higher echelons of government.[149] Article 251(1) of the Pakistani Constitution mandates that Urdu be implemented as the sole language of government, though English continues to be the most widely used language at the higher echelons of Pakistani government.[150]

India

 
A multilingual New Delhi railway station board. The Urdu and Hindi texts both read as: naī dillī.

Urdu is also one of the officially recognised languages in India and also has the status of "additional official language" in the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Telangana and the national capital territory Delhi.[151][152] Also as one of the five official languages of Jammu and Kashmir.[153] In the former Jammu and Kashmir state, section 145 of the Kashmir Constitution stated: "The official language of the State shall be Urdu but the English language shall unless the Legislature by law otherwise provides, continue to be used for all the official purposes of the State for which it was being used immediately before the commencement of the Constitution."[154]

India established the governmental Bureau for the Promotion of Urdu in 1969, although the Central Hindi Directorate was established earlier in 1960, and the promotion of Hindi is better funded and more advanced,[155] while the status of Urdu has been undermined by the promotion of Hindi.[156] Private Indian organisations such as the Anjuman-e-Tariqqi Urdu, Deeni Talimi Council and Urdu Mushafiz Dasta promote the use and preservation of Urdu, with the Anjuman successfully launching a campaign that reintroduced Urdu as an official language of Bihar in the 1970s.[155]

Dialects

Urdu has a few recognised dialects, including Dakhni, Dhakaiya, Rekhta, and Modern Vernacular Urdu (based on the Khariboli dialect of the Delhi region). Dakhni (also known as Dakani, Deccani, Desia, Mirgan) is spoken in Deccan region of southern India. It is distinct by its mixture of vocabulary from Marathi and Konkani, as well as some vocabulary from Arabic, Persian and Chagatai that are not found in the standard dialect of Urdu. Dakhini is widely spoken in all parts of Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Urdu is read and written as in other parts of India. A number of daily newspapers and several monthly magazines in Urdu are published in these states.[citation needed]

Dhakaiya Urdu is a dialect native to the city of Old Dhaka in Bangladesh, dating back to the Mughal era. However, its popularity, even amongst native speakers, has been gradually declining since the Bengali Language Movement in the 20th century. It is not officially recognised by the Government of Bangladesh. The Urdu spoken by Stranded Pakistanis in Bangladesh is different from this dialect.[citation needed]

Code switching

Many bilingual or multi-lingual Urdu speakers, being familiar with both Urdu and English, display code-switching (referred to as "Urdish") in certain localities and between certain social groups. On 14 August 2015, the Government of Pakistan launched the Ilm Pakistan movement, with a uniform curriculum in Urdish. Ahsan Iqbal, Federal Minister of Pakistan, said "Now the government is working on a new curriculum to provide a new medium to the students which will be the combination of both Urdu and English and will name it Urdish."[157][158][159]

Comparison with Modern Standard Hindi

 
Urdu and Hindi on a road sign in India. The Urdu version is a direct transliteration of the English; the Hindi is a part transliteration ("parcel" and "rail") and part translation "karyalay" and "arakshan kendra"
Further information: Hindi–Urdu controversy, Hindustani phonology, and Hindustani grammar

Standard Urdu is often compared with Standard Hindi.[160] Both Urdu and Hindi, which are considered standard registers of the same language, Hindustani (or Hindi-Urdu), share a core vocabulary and grammar.[161][18][19][162]

Apart from religious associations, the differences are largely restricted to the standard forms: Standard Urdu is conventionally written in the Nastaliq style of the Persian alphabet and relies heavily on Persian and Arabic as a source for technical and literary vocabulary,[163] whereas Standard Hindi is conventionally written in Devanāgarī and draws on Sanskrit.[164] However, both share a core vocabulary of native Sanskrit and Prakrit derived words and a significant amount of Arabic and Persian loanwords, with a consensus of linguists considering them to be two standardised forms of the same language[165][166] and consider the differences to be sociolinguistic;[167] a few classify them separately.[168] The two languages are often considered to be a single language (Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu) on a dialect continuum ranging from Persianised to Sanskritised vocabulary.[156] Old Urdu dictionaries also contain most of the Sanskrit words now present in Hindi.[169][170]

Mutual intelligibility decreases in literary and specialized contexts that rely on academic or technical vocabulary. In a longer conversation, differences in formal vocabulary and pronunciation of some Urdu phonemes are noticeable, though many native Hindi speakers also pronounce these phonemes.[171] At a phonological level, speakers of both languages are frequently aware of the Perso-Arabic or Sanskrit origins of their word choice, which affects the pronunciation of those words.[172] Urdu speakers will often insert vowels to break up consonant clusters found in words of Sanskritic origin, but will pronounce them correctly in Arabic and Persian loanwords.[173] As a result of religious nationalism since the partition of British India and continued communal tensions, native speakers of both Hindi and Urdu frequently assert that they are distinct languages.

The grammar of Hindi and Urdu is shared,[161][174] though formal Urdu makes more use of the Persian "-e-" izafat grammatical construct (as in Hammam-e-Qadimi, or Nishan-e-Haider) than does Hindi.

Urdu speakers by country

The following table shows the number of Urdu speakers in some countries.

Country Population Native language speakers % Native speakers and second-language speakers %
  India 1,296,834,042[175] 50,772,631[176] 3.9 12,151,715[176] 0.9
  Pakistan 207,862,518[177] 30,000,000[1] 14.4 164,000,000[2] 77%
  Saudi Arabia 33,091,113[178] 757,000[citation needed] 2.3 – -
    Nepal 29,717,587[179] 691,546[180] 2.3 – -
  United Kingdom 65,105,246[181] 269,000[2] 0.4 – -
  United States 329,256,465[182] 397,502[183] 0.1 – -
  United Arab Emirates 9,890,400 300,000 3.0 1,500,000 15.1
  Bangladesh 159,453,001[184] 250,000[185] 0.1 – -
  Canada 35,881,659[186] 243,090[187] 0.6 – -

Phonology

Main article: Hindustani phonology

Consonants

Consonant phonemes of Urdu[188]
Labial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasal m م n ن ŋ ن٘
Plosive/
Affricate 		voiceless p پ t ت ʈ ٹ tʃ چ k ک (q) ق
voiceless aspirated pʰ پھ tʰ تھ ʈʰ ٹھ tʃʰ چھ kʰ کھ
voiced b ب d د ɖ ڈ dʒ ج ɡ گ
voiced aspirated bʰ بھ dʰ دھ ɖʰ ڈھ dʒʰ جھ gʰ گھ
Flap/Trill plain r ر ɽ ڑ
voiced aspirated ɽʱ ڑھ
Fricative voiceless f ف s س ʃ ش x خ ɦ ہ
voiced ʋ و z ز (ʒ) ژ (ɣ) غ
Approximant l ل j ی
Notes
  • Marginal and non-universal phonemes are in parentheses.
  • /ɣ/ is post-velar.[189]

Vowels

Notes
  • This table contains a list of phones, not phonemes. In particular, [ɛ] is an allophone of /ə/ near /h/, and the short nasal vowels aren't phonemic either.
  • Marginal and non-universal vowels are in parentheses.

Vocabulary

Main article: Hindi-Urdu vocabulary
Further information: Hindustani etymology

Syed Ahmed Dehlavi, a 19th-century lexicographer who compiled the Farhang-e-Asifiya[192] Urdu dictionary, estimated that 75% of Urdu words have their etymological roots in Sanskrit and Prakrit,[193][194][195] and approximately 99% of Urdu verbs have their roots in Sanskrit and Prakrit.[196][197] Urdu has borrowed words from Persian and to a lesser extent, Arabic through Persian,[198] to the extent of about 25%[193][194][195][199] to 30% of Urdu's vocabulary.[200] A table illustrated by the linguist Afroz Taj of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill likewise illustrates the amount of Persian loanwords to native Sanskrit-derived words in literary Urdu as comprising a 1:3 ratio.[195]

 
The phrase zubān-e-Urdū-e-muʿallā ("the language of the exalted camp") written in Nastaʿlīq script[201]

The "trend towards Persianisation" started in the 18th century by the Delhi school of Urdu poets, though other writers, such as Meeraji, wrote in a Sanskritised form of the language.[202] There has been a move towards hyper Persianisation in Pakistan since 1947, which has been adopted by much of the country's writers;[203] as such, some Urdu texts can be composed of 70% Perso-Arabic loanwords just as some Persian texts can have 70% Arabic vocabulary.[204] Some Pakistani Urdu speakers have incorporated Hindi vocabulary into their speech as a result of exposure to Indian entertainment.[205][206] In India, Urdu has not diverged from Hindi as much as it has in Pakistan.[207]

Most borrowed words in Urdu are nouns and adjectives.[208] Many of the words of Arabic origin have been adopted through Persian,[193] and have different pronunciations and nuances of meaning and usage than they do in Arabic. There are also a smaller number of borrowings from Portuguese. Some examples for Portuguese words borrowed into Urdu are chabi ("chave": key), girja ("igreja": church), kamra ("cámara": room), qamīz ("camisa": shirt).[209]

Although the word Urdu is derived from the Turkic word ordu (army) or orda, from which English horde is also derived,[210] Turkic borrowings in Urdu are minimal[211] and Urdu is also not genetically related to the Turkic languages. Urdu words originating from Chagatai and Arabic were borrowed through Persian and hence are Persianised versions of the original words. For instance, the Arabic ta' marbuta ( ة ) changes to he ( ه ) or te ( ت ).[212][note 2] Nevertheless, contrary to popular belief, Urdu did not borrow from the Turkish language, but from Chagatai, a Turkic language from Central Asia. Urdu and Turkish both borrowed from Arabic and Persian, hence the similarity in pronunciation of many Urdu and Turkish words.[213]

Formality

 
Lashkari Zabān title in Naskh script

Urdu in its less formalized register has been referred to as a rek̤h̤tah (ریختہ, [reːxtaː]), meaning "rough mixture". The more formal register of Urdu is sometimes referred to as zabān-i Urdū-yi muʿallá (زبانِ اُردُوئے معلّٰى [zəbaːn eː ʊrdu eː moəllaː]), the "Language of the Exalted Camp", referring to the Imperial army[214] or in approximate local translation Lashkari Zabān (لشکری زبان [ləʃkəɾi: zɑ:bɑ:n])[215] or simply just Lashkari.[216] The etymology of the word used in Urdu, for the most part, decides how polite or refined one's speech is. For example, Urdu speakers would distinguish between پانی pānī and آب āb, both meaning "water": the former is used colloquially and has older Sanskrit origins, whereas the latter is used formally and poetically, being of Persian origin.[citation needed]

If a word is of Persian or Arabic origin, the level of speech is considered to be more formal and grander. Similarly, if Persian or Arabic grammar constructs, such as the izafat, are used in Urdu, the level of speech is also considered more formal and grander. If a word is inherited from Sanskrit, the level of speech is considered more colloquial and personal.[217]

Writing system

Main articles: Urdu alphabet and Urdu braille
Further information: Hindustani orthography
 
The Urdu Nastaʿliq alphabet, with names in the Devanagari and Latin alphabets

Urdu is written right-to left in an extension of the Persian alphabet, which is itself an extension of the Arabic alphabet. Urdu is associated with the Nastaʿlīq style of Persian calligraphy, whereas Arabic is generally written in the Naskh or Ruq'ah styles. Nasta’liq is notoriously difficult to typeset, so Urdu newspapers were hand-written by masters of calligraphy, known as kātib or khush-nawīs, until the late 1980s. One handwritten Urdu newspaper, The Musalman, is still published daily in Chennai.[218]

A highly Persianised and technical form of Urdu was the lingua franca of the law courts of the British administration in Bengal and the North-West Provinces & Oudh. Until the late 19th century, all proceedings and court transactions in this register of Urdu were written officially in the Persian script. In 1880, Sir Ashley Eden, the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal in colonial India abolished the use of the Persian alphabet in the law courts of Bengal and ordered the exclusive use of Kaithi, a popular script used for both Urdu and Hindi; in the Bihar Province, the court language was Urdu written in the Kaithi script.[219][220][221][222] Kaithi's association with Urdu and Hindi was ultimately eliminated by the political contest between these languages and their scripts, in which the Persian script was definitively linked to Urdu.[223]

 
An English-Urdu bilingual sign at the archaeological site of Sirkap, near Taxila. The Urdu says: (right to left) دو سروں والے عقاب کی شبيہ والا مندر, dō sarōñ wālé u'qāb kī shabīh wāla mandir. "The temple with the image of the eagle with two heads."

More recently in India, Urdu speakers have adopted Devanagari for publishing Urdu periodicals and have innovated new strategies to mark Urdu in Devanagari as distinct from Hindi in Devanagari. Such publishers have introduced new orthographic features into Devanagari for the purpose of representing the Perso-Arabic etymology of Urdu words. One example is the use of अ (Devanagari a) with vowel signs to mimic contexts of ع (‘ain), in violation of Hindi orthographic rules. For Urdu publishers, the use of Devanagari gives them a greater audience, whereas the orthographic changes help them preserve a distinct identity of Urdu.[224]

Some poets from Bengal, namely Qazi Nazrul Islam, have historically used the Bengali script to write Urdu poetry like Prem Nagar Ka Thikana Karle and Mera Beti Ki Khela, as well as bilingual Bengali-Urdu poems like Alga Koro Go Khõpar Bãdhon, Juboker Chholona and Mera Dil Betab Kiya.[225][226][227] Dhakaiya Urdu is a colloquial non-standard dialect of Urdu which was typically not written. However, organisations seeking to preserve the dialect have begun transcribing the dialect in the Bengali script.[note 3][228][229]

 
This article contains Urdu text. Without proper rendering support, you may see unjoined letters running left to right or other symbols instead of Urdu script.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Urdu has some form of official status in the Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, as well as the national capital territory of Delhi and the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir.[13]
  2. ^ An example can be seen in the word "need" in Urdu. Urdu uses the Persian version ضرورت rather than the original Arabic ضرورة. See: John T. Platts "A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English" (1884) Page 749. Urdu and Hindi use Persian pronunciation in their loanwords, rather than that of Arabic– for instance rather than pronouncing ض as the emphatic consonant "ḍ", the original sound in Arabic, Urdu uses the Persian pronunciation "z". See: John T. Platts "A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English" (1884) Page 748
  3. ^ Organisations like Dhakaiya Sobbasi Jaban and Dhakaiya Movement, among others, consistently write Dhakaiya Urdu using the Bengali script.

References

  1. ^ a b Carl Skutsch (7 November 2013). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. Taylor & Francis. pp. 2234–. ISBN 978-1-135-19395-9.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Urdu at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)  
  3. ^ Hindustani (2005). Keith Brown (ed.). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2 ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 0-08-044299-4.
  4. ^ "Indo-Pakistani Sign Language", Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics
  5. ^ "Official languages specified in the Constitution of India". Jagran Prakashan. 29 March 2018.
  6. ^ "Urdu second official language in Andhra Pradesh". Deccan Chronicles. 24 March 2022. Retrieved 25 March 2022.
  7. ^ "Bill recognising Urdu as second official language passed". The Hindu. 23 March 2022. Retrieved 1 April 2022.
  8. ^ "Urdu is Telangana's second official language". The Indian Express. 16 November 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
  9. ^ "Urdu is second official language in Telangana as state passes Bill". The News Minute. 17 November 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
  10. ^ "Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 - Chapter 1: Founding Provisions". www.gov.za. Retrieved 6 December 2014.
  11. ^ Urdu language, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 5 December 2019, retrieved 17 October 2020, member of the Indo-Aryan group within the Indo-European family of languages. Urdu is spoken as a first language by nearly 70 million people and as a second language by more than 100 million people, predominantly in Pakistan and India. It is the official state language of Pakistan and is also officially recognized, or "scheduled," in the constitution of India.
  12. ^ Urdu (n), Oxford English Dictionary, June 2020, retrieved 11 September 2020, An Indo-Aryan language of northern South Asia (now esp. Pakistan), closely related to Hindi but written in a modified form of the Arabic script and having many loanwords from Persian and Arabic.
  13. ^ a b c Muzaffar, Sharmin; Behera, Pitambar (2014). "Error analysis of the Urdu verb markers: a comparative study on Google and Bing machine translation platforms". Aligarh Journal of Linguistics. 4 (1–2): 1. Modern Standard Urdu, a register of the Hindustani language, is the national language, lingua-franca and is one of the two official languages along with English in Pakistan and is spoken in all over the world. It is also one of the 22 scheduled languages and officially recognized languages in the Constitution of India and has been conferred the status of the official language in many Indian states of Bihar, Telangana, Jammu, and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, and New Delhi. Urdu is one of the members of the new or modern Indo-Aryan language group within the Indo-European family of languages.
  14. ^ Gazzola, Michele; Wickström, Bengt-Arne (2016). The Economics of Language Policy. MIT Press. pp. 469–. ISBN 978-0-262-03470-8. Quote: "The Eighth Schedule recognizes India's national languages as including the major regional languages as well as others, such as Sanskrit and Urdu, which contribute to India's cultural heritage. ... The original list of fourteen languages in the Eighth Schedule at the time of the adoption of the Constitution in 1949 has now grown to twenty-two."
  15. ^ Groff, Cynthia (2017). The Ecology of Language in Multilingual India: Voices of Women and Educators in the Himalayan Foothills. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 58–. ISBN 978-1-137-51961-0. Quote: "As Mahapatra says: “It is generally believed that the significance for the Eighth Schedule lies in providing a list of languages from which Hindi is directed to draw the appropriate forms, style and expressions for its enrichment” ... Being recognized in the Constitution, however, has had significant relevance for a language's status and functions.
  16. ^ a b "National Languages Policy Recommendation Commission" (PDF). MOE Nepal. 1994. p. Appendix one. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
  17. ^ Gibson, Mary (13 May 2011). Indian Angles: English Verse in Colonial India from Jones to Tagore. Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-0821443583. Bayly's description of Hindustani (roughly Hindi/Urdu) is helpful here; he uses the term Urdu to represent "the more refined and Persianised form of the common north Indian language Hindustani" (Empire and Information, 193); Bayly more or less follows the late eighteenth-century scholar Sirajuddin Ali Arzu, who proposed a typology of language that ran from "pure Sanskrit, through popular and regional variations of Hindustani to Urdu, which incorporated many loan words from Persian and Arabic. His emphasis on the unity of languages reflected the view of the Sanskrit grammarians and also affirmed the linguistic unity of the north Indian ecumene. What emerged was a kind of register of language types that were appropriate to different conditions. ...But the abiding impression is of linguistic plurality running through the whole society and an easier adaptation to circumstances in both spoken and written speech" (193). The more Persianized the language, the more likely it was to be written in Arabic script; the more Sanskritized the language; the more likely it was to be written in Devanagari.
  18. ^ a b Basu, Manisha (2017). The Rhetoric of Hindutva. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107149878. Urdu, like Hindi, was a standardized register of the Hindustani language deriving from the Dehlavi dialect and emerged in the eighteenth century under the rule of the late Mughals.
  19. ^ a b c Gube, Jan; Gao, Fang (2019). Education, Ethnicity and Equity in the Multilingual Asian Context. Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-981-13-3125-1. The national language of India and Pakistan 'Standard Urdu' is mutually intelligible with 'Standard Hindi' because both languages share the same Indic base and are all but indistinguishable in phonology.
  20. ^ Clyne, Michael (24 May 2012). Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Walter de Gruyter. p. 385. ISBN 978-3-11-088814-0. With the consolidation of the different linguistic bases of Khari Boli there were three distinct varieties of Hindi-Urdu: the High Hindi with predominant Sanskrit vocabulary, the High-Urdu with predominant Perso-Arabic vocabulary and casual or colloquial Hindustani which was commonly spoken among both the Hindus and Muslims in the provinces of north India. The last phase of the emergence of Hindi and Urdu as pluricentric national varieties extends from the late 1920s till the partition of India in 1947.
  21. ^ Kiss, Tibor; Alexiadou, Artemis (10 March 2015). Syntax - Theory and Analysis. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 1479. ISBN 978-3-11-036368-5.
  22. ^ Metcalf, Barbara D. (2014). Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860-1900. Princeton University Press. pp. 207–. ISBN 978-1-4008-5610-7. The basis of that shift was the decision made by the government in 1837 to replace Persian as court language by the various vernaculars of the country. Urdu was identified as the regional vernacular in Bihar, Oudh, the North-Western Provinces, and Punjab, and hence was made the language of government across upper India.
  23. ^ a b c Ahmad, Rizwan (1 July 2008). "Scripting a new identity: The battle for Devanagari in nineteenth-century India". Journal of Pragmatics. 40 (7): 1163–1183. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2007.06.005.
  24. ^ a b Schmidt, Ruth Laila (8 December 2005). Urdu: An Essential Grammar. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-71319-6. Historically, Urdu developed from the sub-regional language of the Delhi area, which became a literary language in the eighteenth century. Two quite similar standard forms of the language developed in Delhi, and in Lucknow in modern Uttar Pradesh. Since 1947, a third form, Karachi standard Urdu, has evolved.
  25. ^ a b Mahapatra, B. P. (1989). Constitutional languages. Presses Université Laval. p. 553. ISBN 978-2-7637-7186-1. Modern Urdu is a fairly homogenous language. An older southern form, Deccani Urdu, is now obsolete. Two varieties however, must be mentioned viz. the Urdu of Delhi, and the Urdu of Lucknow. Both are almost identical, differing only in some minor points. Both of these varieties are considered 'Standard Urdu' with some minor divergences.
  26. ^ Dwyer, Rachel (27 September 2006). Filming the Gods: Religion and Indian Cinema. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-38070-1.
  27. ^ a b Faruqi, Shamsur Rahman (2003), Sheldon Pollock (ed.), A Long History of Urdu Literary Culture Part 1, Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions From South Asia, University of California Press, p. 806, ISBN 978-0-520-22821-4
  28. ^ a b c d e Rahman, Tariq (2001). (PDF). Oxford University Press. pp. 1–22. ISBN 978-0-19-906313-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
  29. ^ . 15 October 2022. Archived from the original on 15 October 2022. Retrieved 17 October 2022.
  30. ^ a b Dictionary, Rekhta (5 April 2022). "Meaning of Urdu". Rekhta dictionary. Retrieved 5 April 2022.
  31. ^ a b Clyne, Michael G. (1992). Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Walter de Gruyter. p. 383. ISBN 9783110128550.
  32. ^ "Meaning of urdu-e-mualla in English". Rekhta Dictionary. Retrieved 17 October 2022.
  33. ^ a b c Bhat, M. Ashraf (2017). The Changing Language Roles and Linguistic Identities of the Kashmiri Speech Community. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 72. ISBN 978-1-4438-6260-8. Although it has borrowed a large number of lexical items from Persian and some from Turkish, it is a derivative of Hindvi (also called 'early Urdu'), the parent of both modern Hindi and Urdu. It originated as a new, common language of Delhi, which has been called Hindavi or Dahlavi by Amir Khusrau. After the advent of the Mughals on the stage of Indian history, the Hindavi language enjoyed greater space and acceptance. Persian words and phrases came into vogue. The Hindavi of that period was known as Rekhta, or Hindustani, and only later as Urdu. Perfect amity and tolerance between Hindus and Muslims tended to foster Rekhta or Urdu, which represented the principle of unity in diversity, thus marking a feature of Indian life at its best. The ordinary spoken version ('bazaar Urdu') was almost identical to the popularly spoken version of Hindi. Most prominent scholars in India hold the view that Urdu is neither a Muslim nor a Hindu language; it is an outcome of a multicultural and multi-religious encounter.
  34. ^ Dua, Hans R. (1992). Hindi-Urdu is a pluricentric language. In M. G. Clyne (Ed.), Pluricentric languages: Differing norms in different nations. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-012855-1.
  35. ^ Kachru, Yamuna (2008), Braj Kachru; Yamuna Kachru; S. N. Sridhar (eds.), , Language in South Asia, Cambridge University Press, p. 82, ISBN 978-0-521-78653-9, archived from the original on 24 January 2020
  36. ^ Qalamdaar, Azad (27 December 2010). . Hamari Boli Foundation. Archived from the original on 27 December 2010. Historically, Hindustani developed in the post-12th century period under the impact of the incoming Afghans and Turks as a linguistic modus vivendi from the sub-regional apabhramshas of north-western India. Its first major folk poet was the great Persian master, Amir Khusrau (1253–1325), who is known to have composed dohas (couplets) and riddles in the newly-formed speech, then called 'Hindavi'. Through the medieval time, this mixed speech was variously called by various speech sub-groups as 'Hindavi', 'Zaban-e-Hind', 'Hindi', 'Zaban-e-Dehli', 'Rekhta', 'Gujarii. 'Dakkhani', 'Zaban-e-Urdu-e-Mualla', 'Zaban-e-Urdu', or just 'Urdu'. By the late 11th century, the name 'Hindustani' was in vogue and had become the lingua franca for most of northern India. A sub-dialect called Khari Boli was spoken in and around the Delhi region at the start of the 13th century when the Delhi Sultanate was established. Khari Boli gradually became the prestige dialect of Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu) and became the basis of modern Standard Hindi & Urdu.
  37. ^ Schmidt, Ruth Laila. "1 Brief history and geography of Urdu 1.1 History and sociocultural position." The Indo-Aryan Languages 3 (2007): 286.
  38. ^ Malik, Shahbaz, Shareef Kunjahi, Mir Tanha Yousafi, Sanawar Chadhar, Alam Lohar, Abid Tamimi, Anwar Masood et al. "Census History of Punjabi Speakers in Pakistan."
  39. ^ Mody, Sujata Sudhakar (2008). Literature, Language, and Nation Formation: The Story of a Modern Hindi Journal 1900-1920. University of California, Berkeley. p. 7. ...Hindustani, Rekhta, and Urdu as later names of the old Hindi (a.k.a. Hindavi).
  40. ^ English-Urdu Learner's Dictionary. Multi Linguis. 6 March 2021. ISBN 978-1-005-94089-8. ** History (Simplified) ** Proto-Indo European > Proto-Indo-Iranian > Proto-Indo-Aryan > Vedic Sanskrit > Classical Sanskrit > Sauraseni Prakrit > Sauraseni Apabhramsa > Old Hindi > Hindustani > Urdu
  41. ^ a b Kesavan, B. S. (1997). History Of Printing And Publishing in India. National Book Trust, India. p. 31. ISBN 978-81-237-2120-0. It might be useful to recall here that Old Hindi or Hindavi, which was a naturally Persian- mixed language in the largest measure, has played this role before, as we have seen, for five or six centuries.
  42. ^ Sisir Kumar Das (2005). History of Indian Literature. Sahitya Akademi. p. 142. ISBN 978-81-7201-006-5. The most important trend in the history of Hindi-Urdu is the process of Persianization on the one hand and that of Sanskritization on the other. Amrit Rai offers evidence to show that although the employment of Perso-Arabic script for the language which was akin to Hindi/Hindavi or old Hindi was the first step towards the establishment of the separate identity of Urdu, it was called Hindi for a long time. "The final and complete change-over to the new name took place after the content of the language had undergone a drastic change." He further observes: "In the light of the literature that has come down to us, for about six hundred years, the development of Hindi/Hindavi seems largely to substantiate the view of the basic unity of the two languages. Then, sometime in the first quarter of the eighteenth century, the cleavage seems to have begun." Rai quotes from Sadiq, who points out how it became a "systematic policy of poets and scholars" of the eighteenth century to weed out, what they called and thought, "vulgar words." This weeding out meant "the elimination, along with some rough and unmusical plebian words, of a large number of Hindi words for the reason that to the people brought up in Persian traditions they appeared unfamiliar and vulgar." Sadiq concludes: hence the paradox that this crusade against Persian tyranny, instead of bringing Urdu close to the indigenous element, meant in reality a wider gulf between it and the popular speech. But what differentiated Urdu still more from the local dialects was a process of ceaseless importation from Persian. It may seem strange that Urdu writers in rebellion against Persian should decide to draw heavily on Persian vocabulary, idioms, forms, and sentiments. . . . Around 1875 in his word Urdu Sarf O Nahr, however, he presented a balanced view pointing out that attempts of the Maulavis to Persianize and of the Pandits to Sanskritize the language were not only an error but against the natural laws of linguistic growth. The common man, he pointed out, used both Persian and Sanskrit words without any qualms;
  43. ^ a b c Taj, Afroz (1997). "About Hindi-Urdu". The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. from the original on 15 August 2009. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
  44. ^ "Two Languages or One?". hindiurduflagship.org. from the original on 11 March 2015. Retrieved 29 March 2015. Hindi and Urdu developed from the "khari boli" dialect spoken in the Delhi region of northern India.
  45. ^ Farooqi, M. (2012). Urdu Literary Culture: Vernacular Modernity in the Writing of Muhammad Hasan Askari. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-02692-7. Historically speaking, Urdu grew out of interaction between Hindus and Muslims. He noted that Urdu is not the language of Muslims alone, although Muslims may have played a larger role in making it a literary language. Hindu poets and writers could and did bring specifically Hindu cultural elements into Urdu and these were accepted.
  46. ^ King, Christopher Rolland (1999). One Language, Two Scripts: The Hindi Movement in Nineteenth Century North India. Oxford University Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-19-565112-6. Educated Muslims, for the most part supporters of Urdu, rejected the Hindu linguistic heritage and emphasized the joint Hindu-Muslim origins of Urdu.
  47. ^ Taylor, Insup; Olson, David R. (1995). Scripts and Literacy: Reading and Learning to Read Alphabets, Syllabaries, and Characters. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 299. ISBN 978-0-7923-2912-1. Urdu emerged as the language of contact between Hindu inhabitants and Muslim invaders to India in the 11th century.
  48. ^ Dhulipala, Venkat (2000). The Politics of Secularism: Medieval Indian Historiography and the Sufis. University of Wisconsin–Madison. p. 27. Persian became the court language, and many Persian words crept into popular usage. The composite culture of northern India, known as the Ganga Jamuni tehzeeb was a product of the interaction between Hindu society and Islam.
  49. ^ Indian Journal of Social Work, Volume 4. Tata Institute of Social Sciences. 1943. p. 264. ... more words of Sanskrit origin but 75% of the vocabulary is common. It is also admitted that while this language is known as Hindustani, ... Muslims call it Urdu and the Hindus call it Hindi. ... Urdu is a national language that evolved through years of Hindu and Muslim cultural contact and, as stated by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, is essentially an Indian language and has no place outside.
  50. ^ "Women of the Indian Sub-Continent: Makings of a Culture - Rekhta Foundation". Google Arts & Culture. Retrieved 25 February 2020. The "Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb" is one such instance of the composite culture that marks various regions of the country. Prevalent in the North, particularly in the central plains, it is born of the union between the Hindu and Muslim cultures. Most of the temples were lined along the Ganges and the Khanqah (Sufi school of thought) were situated along the Yamuna river (also called Jamuna). Thus, it came to be known as the Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb, with the word "tehzeeb" meaning culture. More than communal harmony, its most beautiful by-product was "Hindustani" which later gave us the Hindi and Urdu languages.
  51. ^ Zahur-ud-Din (1985). Development of Urdu Language and Literature in the Jammu Region. Gulshan Publishers. p. 13. The beginning of the language, now known as Urdu, should therefore, be placed in this period of the earlier Hindu Muslim contact in the Sindh and Punjab areas that took place in early quarter of the 8th century A.D.
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  193. ^ a b c Ahmad, Aijaz (2002). Lineages of the Present: Ideology and Politics in Contemporary South Asia. Verso. p. 113. ISBN 9781859843581. On this there are far more reliable statistics than those on population. Farhang-e-Asafiya is by general agreement the most reliable Urdu dictionary. It was compiled in the late nineteenth century by an Indian scholar little exposed to British or Orientalist scholarship. The lexicographer in question, Syed Ahmed Dehlavi, had no desire to sunder Urdu's relationship with Farsi, as is evident even from the title of his dictionary. He estimates that roughly 75 per cent of the total stock of 55,000 Urdu words that he compiled in his dictionary are derived from Sanskrit and Prakrit, and that the entire stock of the base words of the language, without exception, are derived from these sources. What distinguishes Urdu from a great many other Indian languauges ... is that it draws almost a quarter of its vocabulary from language communities to the west of India, such as Farsi, Turkish, and Tajik. Most of the little it takes from Arabic has not come directly but through Farsi.
  194. ^ a b Dalmia, Vasudha (31 July 2017). Hindu Pasts: Women, Religion, Histories. SUNY Press. p. 310. ISBN 9781438468075. On the issue of vocabulary, Ahmad goes on to cite Syed Ahmad Dehlavi as he set about to compile the Farhang-e-Asafiya, an Urdu dictionary, in the late nineteenth century. Syed Ahmad 'had no desire to sunder Urdu's relationship with Farsi, as is evident from the title of his dictionary. He estimates that roughly 75 percent of the total stock of 55.000 Urdu words that he compiled in his dictionary are derived from Sanskrit and Prakrit, and that the entire stock of the base words of the language, without exception, are from these sources' (2000: 112–13). As Ahmad points out, Syed Ahmad, as a member of Delhi's aristocratic elite, had a clear bias towards Persian and Arabic. His estimate of the percentage of Prakitic words in Urdu should therefore be considered more conservative than not. The actual proportion of Prakitic words in everyday language would clearly be much higher.
  195. ^ a b c Taj, Afroz (1997). "About Hindi-Urdu". University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. from the original on 15 August 2009. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
  196. ^ "Urdu's origin: it's not a "camp language"". dawn.com. 17 December 2011. from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 5 July 2015. Urdu nouns and adjective can have a variety of origins, such as Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Pushtu and even Portuguese, but ninety-nine per cent of Urdu verbs have their roots in Sanskrit/Prakrit. So it is an Indo-Aryan language which is a branch of Indo-Iranian family, which in turn is a branch of Indo-European family of languages. According to Dr Gian Chand Jain, Indo-Aryan languages had three phases of evolution beginning around 1,500 BC and passing through the stages of Vedic Sanskrit, classical Sanskrit and Pali. They developed into Prakrit and Apbhransh, which served as the basis for the formation of later local dialects.
  197. ^ India Perspectives, Volume 8. PTI for the Ministry of External Affairs. 1995. p. 23. All verbs in Urdu are of Sanskrit origin. According to lexicographers, only about 25 percent words in Urdu diction have Persian or Arabic origin.
  198. ^ Versteegh, Kees; Versteegh, C. H. M. (1997). The Arabic Language. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231111522. ... of the Qufdn; many Arabic loanwords in the indigenous languages, as in Urdu and Indonesian, were introduced mainly through the medium of Persian.
  199. ^ Khan, Iqtidar Husain (1989). Studies in Contrastive Analysis. The Department of Linguistics of Aligarh Muslim University. p. 5. It is estimated that almost 25% of the Urdu vocabulary consists of words which are of Persian and Arabic origin.
  200. ^ American Universities Field Staff (1966). Reports Service: South Asia series. American Universities Field Staff. p. 43. The Urdu vocabulary is about 30% Persian.
  201. ^ Naim, C. M. (1999), Ambiguities of Heritage: Fictions and Polemics, City Press, p. 87, ISBN 978-969-8380-19-9
  202. ^ Das, Sisir Kumar (2005). History of Indian Literature: 1911–1956, struggle for freedom : triumph and tragedy. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 9788172017989. Professor Gopi Chand Narang points out that the trends towards Persianization in Urdu is not a new phenomenon. It started with the Delhi school of poets in the eighteenth century in the name of standardization (meyar-bandi). It further tilted towards Arabo-Persian influences, writes Narang, with the rise of Iqbal. 'The diction of Faiz Ahmad Faiz who came into prominence after the death of Iqbal is also marked by Persianization; so it is the diction of N.M. Rashid, who popularised free verse in Urdu poetry. Rashid's language is clearly marked by fresh Iranian influences as compared to another trend-setter, Meeraji. Meeraji is on the other extreme because he used Hindized Urdu.'
  203. ^ Shackle, C. (1 January 1990). Hindi and Urdu Since 1800: A Common Reader. Heritage Publishers. ISBN 9788170261629.
  204. ^ Kaye, Alan S. (30 June 1997). Phonologies of Asia and Africa: (including the Caucasus). Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9781575060194.
  205. ^ Patel, Aakar (6 January 2013). "Kids have it right: boundaries of Urdu and Hindi are blurred". Firstpost. Retrieved 9 November 2019.
  206. ^ Gangan, Surendra (30 November 2011). "In Pakistan, Hindi flows smoothly into Urdu". DNA India. Retrieved 9 November 2019. That Bollywood and Hindi television daily soaps are a hit in Pakistan is no news. So, it's hardly surprising that the Urdu-speaking population picks up and uses Hindi, even the tapori lingo, in its everyday interaction. "The trend became popular a few years ago after Hindi films were officially allowed to be released in Pakistan," said Rafia Taj, head of the mass communication department, University of Karachi. "I don't think it's a threat to our language, as it is bound to happen in the globalisation era. It is anytime better than the attack of western slangs on our language," she added.
  207. ^ Clyne, Michael (24 May 2012). Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-088814-0.
  208. ^ Jain, Danesh; Cardona, George (26 July 2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. p. 294. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9.
  209. ^ Paul Teyssier: História da Língua Portuguesa, S. 94. Lisbon 1987
  210. ^ Peter Austin (1 September 2008). One thousand languages: living, endangered, and lost. University of California Press. pp. 120–. ISBN 978-0-520-25560-9. from the original on 9 May 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
  211. ^ InpaperMagazine (13 November 2011). "Language: Urdu and the borrowed words". dawn.com. from the original on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 29 March 2015.
  212. ^ John R. Perry, "Lexical Areas and Semantic Fields of Arabic" in Éva Ágnes Csató, Eva Agnes Csato, Bo Isaksson, Carina Jahani, Linguistic convergence and areal diffusion: case studies from Iranian, Semitic and Turkic, Routledge, 2005. pg 97: "It is generally understood that the bulk of the Arabic vocabulary in the central, contiguous Iranian, Turkic and Indic languages was originally borrowed into literary Persian between the ninth and thirteenth centuries"
  213. ^ María Isabel Maldonado García; Mustafa Yapici (2014). (PDF). Journal of Pakistan Vision. 15 (1): 193–122. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2015.
  214. ^ Colin P. Masica, The Indo-Aryan languages. Cambridge Language Surveys (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). 466,
  215. ^ Khan, Sajjad, Waqas Anwar, Usama Bajwa, and Xuan Wang. "Template Based Affix Stemmer for a Morphologically Rich Language." International Arab Journal of Information Technology (IAJIT) 12, no. 2 (2015).
  216. ^ Aijazuddin Ahmad (2009). Geography of the South Asian Subcontinent: A Critical Approach. Concept Publishing Company. pp. 120–. ISBN 978-81-8069-568-1. The very word Urdu came into being as the original Lashkari dialect, in other words, the language of the army.
  217. ^ "About Urdu". Afroz Taj (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill). from the original on 15 August 2009. Retrieved 26 February 2008.
  218. ^ India: The Last Handwritten Newspaper in the World · Global Voices 1 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Globalvoices.org (26 March 2012). Retrieved on 12 July 2013.
  219. ^ Pandey, Anshuman (13 December 2007). "Proposal to Encode the Kaithi Script in ISO/IEC 10646" (PDF). Unicode. Retrieved 16 October 2020. Kaithi was used for writing Urdu in the law courts of Bihar when it replaced Perso-Arabic as the official script during the 1880s. The majority of extant legal documents from Bihar from the British period are in Urdu written in Kaithi. There is a substantial number of such manuscripts, specimens of which are given in Figure 21, Figure 22, and Figure 23.
  220. ^ King, Christopher Rolland (1999). One Language, Two Scripts: The Hindi Movement in Nineteenth Century North India. Oxford University Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-19-565112-6.
  221. ^ Ashraf, Ali (1982). The Muslim Elite. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. p. 80. The court language however was Urdu in 'Kaithi' script in spite of the use of English as the official language.
  222. ^ Varma, K. K.; Lal, Manohar (1997). Social Realities in Bihar. Novelty & Company. p. 347. The language of learning and administration in Bihar before the East India Company was Persian, and later it was replaced by English. The court language, however, continued to be Urdu written in Kaithi script.
  223. ^ ghose, sagarika. "Urdu Bharti: नौकरी के लिए भटक रहे हैं 4 हजार उर्दू शिक्षक, कोर्ट कोर्ट खेल रही है सरकार." Navbharat Times (in Hindi). Retrieved 13 September 2020.
  224. ^ Ahmad, Rizwan (2011). "Urdu in Devanagari: Shifting orthographic practices and Muslim identity in Delhi". Language in Society. Cambridge University Press. 40 (3): 259–284. doi:10.1017/S0047404511000182. hdl:10576/10736. JSTOR 23011824. S2CID 55975387.
  225. ^ "বিদ্রোহী কবি নজরুল ; একটি বুলেট কিংবা কবিতার উপাখ্যান" (in Bengali). 1 June 2014.
  226. ^ Islam, Rafiqul (1969). নজরুল নির্দেশিকা (in Bengali).
  227. ^ Khan, Azahar Uddin (1956). বাংলা সাহিত্যে নজরুল [Nazrul in Bengali literature] (in Bengali).
  228. ^ Muhammad Shahabuddin Sabu; Nazir Uddin, eds. (2021). বাংলা-ঢাকাইয়া সোব্বাসী ডিক্সেনারি (বাংলা - ঢাকাইয়া সোব্বাসী অভিধান) (in Bengali). Bangla Bazar, Dhaka: Takiya Mohammad Publications.
  229. ^ "বাংলা-ঢাকাইয়া সোব্বাসী অভিধানের মোড়ক উন্মোচন" [Unveiling of 'Bangla-Dhakaiya Sobbasi' Dictionary]. Samakal (in Bengali). 17 January 2021.

Sources

  • Kachru, Yamuna (2006). Hindi. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 90-272-3812-X.
  • Masica, Colin (1991). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2.
  • Ohala, Manjari (1999). "Hindi". In International Phonetic Association (ed.). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: a Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge University Press. pp. 100–103. ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0.

Further reading

  • Henry Blochmann (1877). English and Urdu dictionary, romanized (8 ed.). CALCUTTA: Printed at the Baptist mission press for the Calcutta school-book society. p. 215. Retrieved 6 July 2011.the University of Michigan
  • John Dowson (1908). A grammar of the Urdū or Hindūstānī language (3 ed.). LONDON: K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., ltd. p. 264. Retrieved 6 July 2011.the University of Michigan
  • John Dowson (1872). A grammar of the Urdū or Hindūstānī language. LONDON: Trübner & Co. p. 264. Retrieved 6 July 2011.Oxford University
  • John Thompson Platts (1874). A grammar of the Hindūstānī or Urdū language. LONDON: W.H. Allen. p. 399. Retrieved 6 July 2011.Oxford University
  • John Thompson Platts (1892). A grammar of the Hindūstānī or Urdū language. LONDON: W.H. Allen. p. 399. Retrieved 6 July 2011.the New York Public Library
  • John Thompson Platts (1884). A dictionary of Urdū, classical Hindī, and English (reprint ed.). LONDON: H. Milford. p. 1259. Retrieved 6 July 2011.Oxford University
  • Alam, Muzaffar. 1998. "The Pursuit of Persian: Language in Mughal Politics." In Modern Asian Studies, vol. 32, no. 2. (May 1998), pp. 317–349.
  • Asher, R. E. (Ed.). 1994. The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics. Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-035943-4.
  • Azad, Muhammad Husain. 2001 [1907]. Aab-e hayat (Lahore: Naval Kishor Gais Printing Works) 1907 [in Urdu]; (Delhi: Oxford University Press) 2001. [In English translation]
  • Azim, Anwar. 1975. Urdu a victim of cultural genocide. In Z. Imam (Ed.), Muslims in India (p. 259).
  • Bhatia, Tej K. 1996. Colloquial Hindi: The Complete Course for Beginners. London, UK & New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-11087-4 (Book), 0415110882 (Cassettes), 0415110890 (Book & Cassette Course)
  • Bhatia, Tej K. and Koul Ashok. 2000. "Colloquial Urdu: The Complete Course for Beginners." London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-13540-0 (Book); ISBN 0-415-13541-9 (cassette); ISBN 0-415-13542-7 (book and casseettes course)
  • Chatterji, Suniti K. 1960. Indo-Aryan and Hindi (rev. 2nd ed.). Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay.
  • Dua, Hans R. 1992. "Hindi-Urdu as a pluricentric language". In M. G. Clyne (Ed.), Pluricentric languages: Differing norms in different nations. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-012855-1.
  • Dua, Hans R. 1994a. Hindustani. In Asher, 1994; pp. 1554.
  • Dua, Hans R. 1994b. Urdu. In Asher, 1994; pp. 4863–4864.
  • Durrani, Attash, Dr. 2008. Pakistani Urdu.Islamabad: National Language Authority, Pakistan.
  • Gumperz, John J. (1982). Discourse Strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
  • Hassan, Nazir and Omkar N. Koul 1980. Urdu Phonetic Reader. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.
  • Syed Maqsud Jamil (16 June 2006). "The Literary Heritage of Urdu". Daily Star.
  • Kelkar, A. R. 1968. Studies in Hindi-Urdu: Introduction and word phonology. Poona: Deccan College.
  • Khan, M. H. 1969. Urdu. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 5). The Hague: Mouton.
  • King, Christopher R. (1994). One Language, Two Scripts: The Hindi Movement in Nineteenth Century North India. Bombay: Oxford University Press.
  • Koul, Ashok K. (2008). Urdu Script and Vocabulary. Delhi: Indian Institute of Language Studies.
  • Koul, Omkar N. (1994). Hindi Phonetic Reader. Delhi: Indian Institute of Language Studies.
  • Koul, Omkar N. (2008). (PDF). Springfield: Dunwoody Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 August 2017. Retrieved 23 November 2019.
  • Narang, G. C.; Becker, D. A. (1971). "Aspiration and nasalization in the generative phonology of Hindi-Urdu". Language. 47 (3): 646–767. doi:10.2307/412381. JSTOR 412381.
  • Ohala, M. 1972. Topics in Hindi-Urdu phonology. (PhD dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles).
  • "A Desertful of Roses", a site about Ghalib's Urdu ghazals by Dr. Frances W. Pritchett, Professor of Modern Indic Languages at Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
  • Phukan, Shantanu (2000). "The Rustic Beloved: Ecology of Hindi in a Persianate World". The Annual of Urdu Studies. 15 (5): 1–30. hdl:1793/18139.
  • The Comparative study of Urdu and Khowar. Badshah Munir Bukhari National Language Authority Pakistan 2003.
  • Rai, Amrit. 1984. A house divided: The origin and development of Hindi-Hindustani. Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-561643-X.
  • Snell, Rupert Teach yourself Hindi: A complete guide for beginners. Lincolnwood, IL: NTC
  • King, Robert D. (2001). "The poisonous potency of script: Hindi and Urdu" (PDF). International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 2001 (150): 43–59. doi:10.1515/ijsl.2001.035.
  • Ramkrishna Mukherjee (2018). Understanding Social Dynamics in South Asia: Essays in Memory of Ramkrishna Mukherjee. Springer. pp. 221–. ISBN 9789811303876.
  • Economic and Political Weekly. Sameeksha Trust. 1996.

External links

  • Urdu at Curlie
  • .
  • Type in Urdu
  • ترتیب وڈیزائننگ ایم پی خان اردولشکری زبان
  • The Urdu Latin alphabet by Adnaan Mahmood
  • Haruf-e-Tana by Punya Pranava Pasumarty
  • shanurdu By Maqbool Jahangir
  • Urdu Language History and Development By editorji Magazine

March 12, 2023
urdu, ʊər, رد, urdū, indo, aryan, language, spoken, chiefly, south, asia, national, language, lingua, franca, pakistan, where, also, official, language, alongside, english, india, eighth, schedule, language, whose, status, cultural, heritage, recognized, const. Urdu ˈ ʊer d uː ا رد و ALA LC Urdu is an Indo Aryan language spoken chiefly in South Asia 11 12 It is the national language and lingua franca of Pakistan where it is also an official language alongside English 13 In India Urdu is an Eighth Schedule language whose status and cultural heritage is recognized by the Constitution of India 14 15 it also has an official status in several Indian states note 1 13 In Nepal Urdu is a registered regional dialect 16 UrduStandard Urduاردو Urdu written in the Nastaliq calligraphic handPronunciation ˈʊrduː listen Native toSouth AsiaRegionPakistanIndia Hindustani Belt amp Deccan EthnicityUrdu speaking people 1 SpeakersNative 70 million 2011 2018 2 L2 160 millionTotal 230 million 2 Language familyIndo European Indo IranianIndo AryanCentral ZoneWestern HindiHindustani 3 UrduEarly formsShauraseni Prakrit Apabhraṃsa Old Hindi Hindustani RekhtaDialectsRekhta Dhakaiya Deccani Judeo UrduWriting systemPerso Arabic Urdu alphabet Urdu Braille Roman Urdu unofficial Hebrew Judeo Urdu historical Signed formsIndo Pakistani Sign Language Signed Urdu 4 Official statusOfficial language in Pakistan national official India state additional official 5 Jammu and Kashmir National Capital Territory of Delhi Bihar Uttar Pradesh Jharkhand Andhra Pradesh 6 7 Telangana 8 9 West BengalRecognised minoritylanguage in South Africa protected language 10 Regulated byNational Language Promotion Department Pakistan National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language India Language codesISO 639 1 span class plainlinks ur span ISO 639 2 span class plainlinks urd span ISO 639 3 a href https iso639 3 sil org code urd class extiw title iso639 3 urd urd a Glottologurdu1245Linguasphere59 AAF qMap of the India and Pakistan showing Areas where Urdu is either official or co official Areas where Urdu is neither official nor co officialThis article contains IPA phonetic symbols Without proper rendering support you may see question marks boxes or other symbols instead of Unicode characters For an introductory guide on IPA symbols see Help IPA Urdu has been described as a Persianised register of the Hindustani language 17 18 Urdu and Hindi share a common Sanskrit and Prakrit derived vocabulary base phonology syntax and grammar making them mutually intelligible during colloquial communication 19 20 While formal Urdu draws literary political and technical vocabulary from Persian 21 formal Hindi draws these aspects from Sanskrit consequently the two languages mutual intelligibility effectively decreases as the factor of formality increases In 1837 Urdu became an official language of the British East India Company replacing Persian across northern India during Company rule Persian had until this point served as the court language of various Indo Islamic empires 22 Religious social and political factors arose during the European colonial period that advocated a distinction between Urdu and Hindi leading to the Hindi Urdu controversy 23 Urdu became a literary language in the 18th century and two similar standard forms came into existence in Delhi and Lucknow Since the partition of India in 1947 a third standard has arisen in the Pakistani city of Karachi 24 25 Deccani an older form used in Deccan became a court language of the Deccan sultanates by the 16th century 26 25 According to 2022 estimates by Ethnologue Urdu is the 10th most widely spoken language in the world with 230 million total speakers including those who speak it as a second language 2 additional citation s needed Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Origins 2 2 Other historical names 2 3 Colonial period 2 4 Post Partition 3 Demographics and geographic distribution 3 1 Pakistan 3 2 India 3 3 Elsewhere 4 Cultural identity 4 1 Colonial India 4 2 Pakistan 5 Official status 5 1 Pakistan 5 2 India 6 Dialects 6 1 Code switching 7 Comparison with Modern Standard Hindi 8 Urdu speakers by country 9 Phonology 9 1 Consonants 9 2 Vowels 10 Vocabulary 11 Formality 12 Writing system 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 15 1 Sources 16 Further reading 17 External linksEtymologyThe name Urdu was first used by the poet Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi around 1780 for Hindustani language 27 28 even though he himself also used Hindavi term in his poetry to define the language 29 Ordu means army in the Turkic languages In late 18th century it was known as Zaban e Urdu e Mualla زبان ا ر د و م ع ل ی means language of the exalted camp 30 31 32 Earlier it was known as Hindvi Hindi and Hindustani 28 33 HistoryMain article History of Hindustani Urdu like Hindi is a form of Hindustani 34 35 36 Some linguists have suggested that the earliest forms of Urdu evolved from the medieval 6th to 13th century Apabhraṃsa register of the preceding Shauraseni language a Middle Indo Aryan language that is also the ancestor of other modern Indo Aryan languages 37 38 Origins In the Delhi region of India the native language was Khariboli whose earliest form is known as Old Hindi or Hindavi 39 40 41 42 It belongs to the Western Hindi group of the Central Indo Aryan languages 43 44 The contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures during the period of Islamic conquests in the Indian subcontinent 12th to 16th centuries led to the development of Hindustani as a product of a composite Ganga Jamuni tehzeeb 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 excessive citations In cities such as Delhi the Indian language Old Hindi began to acquire many Persian loanwords and continued to be called Hindi and later also Hindustani 41 33 53 28 43 An early literary tradition of Hindavi was founded by Amir Khusrau in the late 13th century 54 55 56 57 After the conquest of the Deccan and a subsequent immigration of noble Muslim families into the south a form of the language flourished in medieval India as a vehicle of poetry especially under the Bahmanids 58 and is known as Dakhini which contains loanwords from Telugu and Marathi 59 60 61 From the 13th century until the end of the 18th century the language now known as Urdu was called Hindi 28 Hindavi Hindustani 33 Dehlavi 62 Dihlawi 63 Lahori 62 and Lashkari 64 The Delhi Sultanate established Persian as its official language in India a policy continued by the Mughal Empire which extended over most of northern South Asia from the 16th to 18th centuries and cemented Persian influence on Hindustani 65 53 Opening pages of the Urdu divan of Ghalib 1821 According to the Navadirul Alfaz by Khan i Arzu the Zaban e Urdu e Shahi language of the Imperial Camp had attained special importance in the time of Alamgir 66 By the end of the reign of Aurangzeb in the early 1700s the common language around Delhi began to be referred to as Zaban e Urdu 31 a name derived from the Turkic word ordu army or orda and is said to have arisen as the language of the camp or Zaban i Ordu means Language of High camps 30 or natively Lashkari Zaban means Language of Army 67 It is recorded that Aurangzeb spoke in Hindvi which was most likely Persianized as there are substantial evidence that Hindvi was written in the Persian script in this period 68 During this time period Urdu was referred to as Moors which simply meant Muslim 69 by European writers 70 John Ovington wrote in 1689 71 The language of the Moors is different from that of the ancient original inhabitants of India but is oblig d to these Gentiles for its characters For though the Moors dialect is peculiar to themselves yet it is destitute of Letters to express it and therefore in all their Writings in their Mother Tongue they borrow their letters from the Heathens or from the Persians or other Nations In 1715 a complete literary Diwan in Rekhta was written by Nawab Sadruddin Khan 72 An Urdu Persian dictionary was written by Khan i Arzu in 1751 in the reign of Ahmad Shah Bahadur 73 The name Urdu was first introduced by the poet Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi around 1780 27 28 As a literary language Urdu took shape in courtly elite settings 74 75 While Urdu retained the grammar and core Indo Aryan vocabulary of the local Indian dialect Khariboli it adopted the Nastaleeq writing system 43 76 which was developed as a style of Persian calligraphy 77 Other historical names Throughout the history of the language Urdu has been referred to by several other names Hindi Hindavi Rekhta Urdu e Muallah Dakhini Moors and Dehlavi In 1773 the Swiss French soldier Antoine Polier notes that the English liked to use the name Moors for Urdu 78 I have a deep knowledge je possede a fond of the common tongue of India called Moors by the English and Ourdouzebain by the natives of the land Several works of Sufi writers like Ashraf Jahangir Semnani used similar names for the Urdu language Shah Abdul Qadir Raipuri was the first person who translated The Quran into Urdu 79 During Shahjahan s time the Capital was relocated to Delhi and named Shahjahanabad and the Bazar of the town was named Urdu e Muallah 80 81 In the Akbar era the word Rekhta was used to describe Urdu for the first time It was originally a Persian word that meant to create a mixture Amir Khusrau was the first person to use the same word for Poetry citation needed Colonial period Before the standardization of Urdu into colonial administration British officers often referred to the language as Moors or Moorish jargon John Gilchrist was the first in British India to begin a systematic study on Urdu and began to use the term Hindustani what the majority of Europeans called Moors authoring the book The Strangers s East Indian Guide to the Hindoostanee or Grand Popular Language of India improperly Called Moors 82 Urdu was then promoted in colonial India by British policies to counter the previous emphasis on Persian 83 In colonial India ordinary Muslims and Hindus alike spoke the same language in the United Provinces in the nineteenth century namely Hindustani whether called by that name or whether called Hindi Urdu or one of the regional dialects such as Braj or Awadhi 84 Elites from Muslim communities as well as a minority of Hindu elites such as Munshis of Hindu origin 85 wrote the language in the Perso Arabic script in courts and government offices though Hindus continued to employ the Devanagari script in certain literary and religious contexts 84 76 86 Through the late 19th century people did not view Urdu and Hindi as being two distinct languages though in urban areas the standardized Hindustani language was increasingly being referred to as Urdu and written in the Perso Arabic script 87 Urdu and English replaced Persian as the official languages in northern parts of India in 1837 88 In colonial Indian Islamic schools Muslims were taught Persian and Arabic as the languages of Indo Islamic civilization the British in order to promote literacy among Indian Muslims and attract them to attend government schools started to teach Urdu written in the Perso Arabic script in these governmental educational institutions and after this time Urdu began to be seen by Indian Muslims as a symbol of their religious identity 84 Hindus in northwestern India under the Arya Samaj agitated against the sole use of the Perso Arabic script and argued that the language should be written in the native Devanagari script 89 which triggered a backlash against the use of Hindi written in Devanagari by the Anjuman e Islamia of Lahore 89 Hindi in the Devanagari script and Urdu written in the Perso Arabic script established a sectarian divide of Urdu for Muslims and Hindi for Hindus a divide that was formalized with the partition of colonial India into the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan after independence though there are Hindu poets who continue to write in Urdu including Gopi Chand Narang and Gulzar 90 91 Post Partition Urdu had been used as a literary medium for colonial Indian writers from the Bombay Presidency Bengal Orissa Province and Tamil Nadu clarification needed as well 92 In 1973 Urdu was recognized as the sole national language of Pakistan although English and regional languages were also granted official recognition 93 Following the 1979 Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and subsequent arrival of millions of Afghan refugees who have lived in Pakistan for many decades many Afghans including those who moved back to Afghanistan 94 have also become fluent in Hindi Urdu an occurrence aided by exposure to the Indian media chiefly Hindi Urdu Bollywood films and songs 95 96 97 There have been attempts to purge Urdu of native Prakrit and Sanskrit words and Hindi of Persian loanwords new vocabulary draws primarily from Persian and Arabic for Urdu and from Sanskrit for Hindi 98 99 English has exerted a heavy influence on both as a co official language 100 According to Bruce 2021 Urdu has adapted English words since the eighteenth century 101 A movement towards the hyper Persianisation of an Urdu emerged in Pakistan since its independence in 1947 which is as artificial as the hyper Sanskritised Hindi that has emerged in India 102 hyper Persianisation of Urdu was prompted in part by the increasing Sanskritisation of Hindi 103 page needed However the style of Urdu spoken on a day to day basis in Pakistan is akin to neutral Hindustani that serves as the lingua franca of the northern Indian subcontinent 104 105 Since at least 1977 106 some commentators such as journalist Khushwant Singh have characterized Urdu as a dying language though others such as Indian poet and writer Gulzar who is popular in both countries and both language communities but writes only in Urdu script and has difficulties reading Devanagari so he lets others transcribe his work have disagreed with this assessment and state that Urdu is the most alive language and moving ahead with times in India 107 108 109 106 110 111 112 This phenomenon pertains to the decrease in relative and absolute numbers of native Urdu speakers as opposed to speakers of other languages 113 114 declining advanced knowledge of Urdu s Perso Arabic script Urdu vocabulary and grammar 113 115 the role of translation and transliteration of literature from and into Urdu 113 the shifting cultural image of Urdu and socio economic status associated with Urdu speakers which negatively impacts especially their employment opportunities in both countries 115 113 the de jure legal status and de facto political status of Urdu 115 how much Urdu is used as language of instruction and chosen by students in higher education 115 113 114 112 and how the maintenance and development of Urdu is financially and institutionally supported by governments and NGOs 115 113 In India although Urdu is not and never was used exclusively by Muslims and Hindi never exclusively by Hindus 112 116 the ongoing Hindi Urdu controversy and modern cultural association of each language with the two religions has led to fewer Hindus using Urdu 112 116 In the 20th century Indian Muslims initially more or less gradually collectively embraced Urdu 116 for example post independence Muslim politics of Bihar saw a mobilization around the Urdu language as tool of empowerment for minorities especially coming from weaker socio economic backgrounds 113 but in the early 21st century an increasing percentage of Indian Muslims began switching to Hindi due to socio economic factors such as Urdu being abandoned as the language of instruction in much of India 114 113 and having limited employment opportunities compared to Hindi English and regional languages 112 The number of Urdu speakers in India fell 1 5 between 2001 and 2011 then 5 08 million Urdu speakers especially in the most Urdu speaking states of Uttar Pradesh c 8 to 5 and Bihar c 11 5 to 8 5 even though the number of Muslims in these two states grew in the same period 114 Although Urdu is still very prominent in early 21st century Indian pop culture ranging from Bollywood 111 to social media knowledge of the Urdu script and the publication of books in Urdu have steadily declined while policies of the Indian government do not actively support the preservation of Urdu in professional and official spaces 113 In part because the Pakistani government proclaimed Urdu the national language at Partition the Indian state and some religious nationalists began to regard Urdu as a foreign language to be viewed with suspicion 110 Urdu advocates in India disagree whether it should be allowed to write Urdu in the Devanagari and Latin script Roman Urdu to allow its survival 112 117 or whether this will only hasten its demise and that the language can only be preserved if expressed in the Perso Arabic script 113 For Pakistan Willoughby amp Aftab 2020 argued that Urdu originally had the image of a refined elite language of the Enlightenment progress and emancipation which contributed to the success of the independence movement 115 But after the 1947 Partition when it was chosen as the national language of Pakistan to unite all inhabitants with one linguistic identity it faced serious competition primarily from Bengali spoken by 56 of the total population mostly in East Pakistan until that attained independence in 1971 as Bangladesh and after 1971 from English Both pro independence elites that formed the leadership of the Muslim League in Pakistan and the Hindu dominated Congress Party in India had been educated in English during the British colonial period and continued to operate in English and send their children to English medium schools as they continued dominate both countries post Partition politics 115 Although the Anglicized elite in Pakistan has made attempts at Urduisation of education with varying degrees of success no successful attempts were ever made to Urduise politics the legal system the army or the economy all of which remained solidly Anglophone 115 Even the regime of general Zia ul Haq 1977 1988 who came from a middle class Urdu speaking family and initially fervently supported a rapid and complete Urduisation of Pakistani society earning him the honorary title of the Patron of Urdu in 1981 failed to make significant achievements and by 1987 had abandoned most of his efforts in favor of pro English policies 115 Since the 1960s the Urdu lobby and eventually the Urdu language itself in Pakistan has been associated with religious Islamism and political national conservatism and eventually the lower and lower middle classes alongside regional languages such as Punjabi Sindhi and Balochi while English has been associated with the internationally oriented secular and progressive left and eventually the upper and upper middle classes 115 Despite these governmental attempts at Urduisation the position and prestige of English only grew stronger in the meantime 115 Demographics and geographic distributionSee also Languages of Pakistan and Languages of India Geographical distribution of Urdu in India and Pakistan There are over 100 million native speakers of Urdu in India and Pakistan together there were 50 8 million Urdu speakers in India 4 34 of the total population as per the 2011 census 118 119 approximately 16 million in Pakistan in 2006 120 There are several hundred thousand in the United Kingdom Saudi Arabia United States and Bangladesh 2 However Hindustani of which Urdu is one variety is spoken much more widely forming the third most commonly spoken language in the world after Mandarin and English 121 The syntax grammar morphology and the core vocabulary of Urdu and Hindi are essentially identical thus linguists usually count them as one single language while some contend that they are considered as two different languages for socio political reasons 122 Owing to interaction with other languages Urdu has become localized wherever it is spoken including in Pakistan Urdu in Pakistan has undergone changes and has incorporated and borrowed many words from regional languages thus allowing speakers of the language in Pakistan to distinguish themselves more easily and giving the language a decidedly Pakistani flavor Similarly the Urdu spoken in India can also be distinguished into many dialects such as the Standard Urdu of Lucknow and Delhi as well as the Dakhni Deccan of South India 24 59 Because of Urdu s similarity to Hindi speakers of the two languages can easily understand one another if both sides refrain from using literary vocabulary 19 Pakistan The proportion of people with Urdu as their mother tongue in each Pakistani District as of the 2017 Pakistan Census Although Urdu is widely spoken and understood throughout all of Pakistan 123 only 7 of Pakistan s population spoke Urdu as their native language around 1992 124 Most of the nearly three million Afghan refugees of different ethnic origins such as Pashtun Tajik Uzbek Hazarvi and Turkmen who stayed in Pakistan for over twenty five years have also become fluent in Urdu 97 Muhajirs since 1947 have historically formed the majority population in the city of Karachi however 125 Many newspapers are published in Urdu in Pakistan including the Daily Jang Nawa i Waqt and Millat No region in Pakistan uses Urdu as its mother tongue though it is spoken as the first language of Muslim migrants known as Muhajirs in Pakistan who left India after independence in 1947 126 Other communities most notably the Punjabi elite of Pakistan have adopted Urdu as a mother tongue and identify with both an Urdu speaker as well as Punjabi identity 127 128 Urdu was chosen as a symbol of unity for the new state of Pakistan in 1947 because it had already served as a lingua franca among Muslims in north and northwest British India It is written spoken and used in all provinces territories of Pakistan and together with English as the main languages of instruction 129 although the people from differing provinces may have different native languages 130 Urdu is taught as a compulsory subject up to higher secondary school in both English and Urdu medium school systems which has produced millions of second language Urdu speakers among people whose native language is one of the other languages of Pakistan which in turn has led to the absorption of vocabulary from various regional Pakistani languages 131 while some Urdu vocabularies has also been assimilated by Pakistan s regional languages 132 Some who are from a non Urdu background now can read and write only Urdu With such a large number of people s speaking Urdu the language has acquired a peculiar Pakistani flavor further distinguishing it from the Urdu spoken by native speakers resulting in more diversity within the language 133 clarification needed India In India Urdu is spoken in places where there are large Muslim minorities or cities that were bases for Muslim empires in the past These include parts of Uttar Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Bihar Telangana Andhra Pradesh Maharashtra Marathwada and Konkanis Karnataka and cities such as Hyderabad Lucknow Delhi Malerkotla Bareilly Meerut Saharanpur Muzaffarnagar Roorkee Deoband Moradabad Azamgarh Bijnor Najibabad Rampur Aligarh Allahabad Gorakhpur Agra Firozabad Kanpur Badaun Bhopal Hyderabad Aurangabad 16 Bangalore Kolkata Mysore Patna Darbhanga Gaya Madhubani Samastipur Siwan Saharsa Supaul Muzaffarpur Nalanda Munger Bhagalpur Araria Gulbarga Parbhani Nanded Malegaon Bidar Ajmer and Ahmedabad 134 In a very significant amount among the nearly 800 districts of India there is a small Urdu speaking minority at least In Araria district Bihar there is a plurality of Urdu speakers and near plurality in Hyderabad district Telangana 43 35 Telugu speakers and 43 24 Urdu speakers Some Indian schools teach Urdu as a first language and have their own syllabi and exams India s Bollywood industry frequently employs the use of Urdu especially in songs 135 page needed India has more than 3 000 Urdu publications including 405 daily Urdu newspapers 136 137 Newspapers such as Neshat News Urdu Sahara Urdu Daily Salar Hindustan Express Daily Pasban Siasat Daily The Munsif Daily and Inqilab are published and distributed in Bangalore Malegaon Mysore Hyderabad and Mumbai 138 Elsewhere A trilingual signboard in Arabic English and Urdu in the UAE The Urdu sentence is not a direct translation of the English Your beautiful city invites you to preserve it It says apne shahar ki Khubsurtii ko barqarar rakhie or Please preserve the beauty of your city Outside South Asia it is spoken by large numbers of migrant South Asian workers in the major urban centres of the Persian Gulf countries Urdu is also spoken by large numbers of immigrants and their children in the major urban centres of the United Kingdom the United States Canada Germany New Zealand Norway and Australia 139 Along with Arabic Urdu is among the immigrant languages with the most speakers in Catalonia 140 Cultural identityFurther information Hindi Urdu controversy Colonial India Religious and social atmospheres in early nineteenth century India played a significant role in the development of the Urdu register Hindi became the distinct register spoken by those who sought to construct a Hindu identity in the face of colonial rule 23 As Hindi separated from Hindustani to create a distinct spiritual identity Urdu was employed to create a definitive Islamic identity for the Muslim population in India 141 Urdu s use was not confined only to northern India it had been used as a literary medium for Indian writers from the Bombay Presidency Bengal Orissa Province and Tamil Nadu as well 142 As Urdu and Hindi became means of religious and social construction for Muslims and Hindus respectively each register developed its own script According to Islamic tradition Arabic the language spoken by the prophet Muhammad and uttered in the revelation of the Qur an holds spiritual significance and power 143 Because Urdu was intentioned as means of unification for Muslims in Northern India and later Pakistan it adopted a modified Perso Arabic script 144 23 Pakistan Urdu continued its role in developing a Pakistani identity as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan was established with the intent to construct a homeland for the south Asian Muslims of the northwest Several languages and dialects spoken throughout the regions of Pakistan produced an imminent need for a uniting language Urdu was chosen as a symbol of unity for the new state of Pakistan in 1947 because it had already served as a lingua franca among Muslims in north and northwest British India citation needed Urdu is also seen as a repertory for the cultural and social heritage of Pakistan 145 While Urdu and Islam together played important roles in developing the national identity of Pakistan disputes in the 1950s particularly those in East Pakistan where Bengali was the dominant language challenged the idea of Urdu as a national symbol and its practicality as the lingua franca The significance of Urdu as a national symbol was downplayed by these disputes when English and Bengali were also accepted as official languages in the former East Pakistan now Bangladesh 146 Official statusPakistan Urdu is the sole national and one of the two official languages of Pakistan along with English 93 It is spoken and understood throughout the country whereas the state by state languages languages spoken throughout various regions are the provincial languages although only 7 57 of Pakistanis speak Urdu as their first language 147 Its official status has meant that Urdu is understood and spoken widely throughout Pakistan as a second or third language It is used in education literature office and court business 148 although in practice English is used instead of Urdu in the higher echelons of government 149 Article 251 1 of the Pakistani Constitution mandates that Urdu be implemented as the sole language of government though English continues to be the most widely used language at the higher echelons of Pakistani government 150 India A multilingual New Delhi railway station board The Urdu and Hindi texts both read as nai dilli Urdu is also one of the officially recognised languages in India and also has the status of additional official language in the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh Uttar Pradesh Bihar Jharkhand West Bengal Telangana and the national capital territory Delhi 151 152 Also as one of the five official languages of Jammu and Kashmir 153 In the former Jammu and Kashmir state section 145 of the Kashmir Constitution stated The official language of the State shall be Urdu but the English language shall unless the Legislature by law otherwise provides continue to be used for all the official purposes of the State for which it was being used immediately before the commencement of the Constitution 154 India established the governmental Bureau for the Promotion of Urdu in 1969 although the Central Hindi Directorate was established earlier in 1960 and the promotion of Hindi is better funded and more advanced 155 while the status of Urdu has been undermined by the promotion of Hindi 156 Private Indian organisations such as the Anjuman e Tariqqi Urdu Deeni Talimi Council and Urdu Mushafiz Dasta promote the use and preservation of Urdu with the Anjuman successfully launching a campaign that reintroduced Urdu as an official language of Bihar in the 1970s 155 DialectsUrdu has a few recognised dialects including Dakhni Dhakaiya Rekhta and Modern Vernacular Urdu based on the Khariboli dialect of the Delhi region Dakhni also known as Dakani Deccani Desia Mirgan is spoken in Deccan region of southern India It is distinct by its mixture of vocabulary from Marathi and Konkani as well as some vocabulary from Arabic Persian and Chagatai that are not found in the standard dialect of Urdu Dakhini is widely spoken in all parts of Maharashtra Telangana Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka Urdu is read and written as in other parts of India A number of daily newspapers and several monthly magazines in Urdu are published in these states citation needed Dhakaiya Urdu is a dialect native to the city of Old Dhaka in Bangladesh dating back to the Mughal era However its popularity even amongst native speakers has been gradually declining since the Bengali Language Movement in the 20th century It is not officially recognised by the Government of Bangladesh The Urdu spoken by Stranded Pakistanis in Bangladesh is different from this dialect citation needed Code switching Many bilingual or multi lingual Urdu speakers being familiar with both Urdu and English display code switching referred to as Urdish in certain localities and between certain social groups On 14 August 2015 the Government of Pakistan launched the Ilm Pakistan movement with a uniform curriculum in Urdish Ahsan Iqbal Federal Minister of Pakistan said Now the government is working on a new curriculum to provide a new medium to the students which will be the combination of both Urdu and English and will name it Urdish 157 158 159 Comparison with Modern Standard Hindi Urdu and Hindi on a road sign in India The Urdu version is a direct transliteration of the English the Hindi is a part transliteration parcel and rail and part translation karyalay and arakshan kendra Further information Hindi Urdu controversy Hindustani phonology and Hindustani grammar Standard Urdu is often compared with Standard Hindi 160 Both Urdu and Hindi which are considered standard registers of the same language Hindustani or Hindi Urdu share a core vocabulary and grammar 161 18 19 162 Apart from religious associations the differences are largely restricted to the standard forms Standard Urdu is conventionally written in the Nastaliq style of the Persian alphabet and relies heavily on Persian and Arabic as a source for technical and literary vocabulary 163 whereas Standard Hindi is conventionally written in Devanagari and draws on Sanskrit 164 However both share a core vocabulary of native Sanskrit and Prakrit derived words and a significant amount of Arabic and Persian loanwords with a consensus of linguists considering them to be two standardised forms of the same language 165 166 and consider the differences to be sociolinguistic 167 a few classify them separately 168 The two languages are often considered to be a single language Hindustani or Hindi Urdu on a dialect continuum ranging from Persianised to Sanskritised vocabulary 156 Old Urdu dictionaries also contain most of the Sanskrit words now present in Hindi 169 170 Mutual intelligibility decreases in literary and specialized contexts that rely on academic or technical vocabulary In a longer conversation differences in formal vocabulary and pronunciation of some Urdu phonemes are noticeable though many native Hindi speakers also pronounce these phonemes 171 At a phonological level speakers of both languages are frequently aware of the Perso Arabic or Sanskrit origins of their word choice which affects the pronunciation of those words 172 Urdu speakers will often insert vowels to break up consonant clusters found in words of Sanskritic origin but will pronounce them correctly in Arabic and Persian loanwords 173 As a result of religious nationalism since the partition of British India and continued communal tensions native speakers of both Hindi and Urdu frequently assert that they are distinct languages The grammar of Hindi and Urdu is shared 161 174 though formal Urdu makes more use of the Persian e izafat grammatical construct as in Hammam e Qadimi or Nishan e Haider than does Hindi Urdu speakers by countrySome of this section s listed sources may not be reliable Please help this article by looking for better more reliable sources Unreliable citations may be challenged or deleted July 2020 Learn how and when to remove this template message The following table shows the number of Urdu speakers in some countries Country Population Native language speakers Native speakers and second language speakers India 1 296 834 042 175 50 772 631 176 3 9 12 151 715 176 0 9 Pakistan 207 862 518 177 30 000 000 1 14 4 164 000 000 2 77 Saudi Arabia 33 091 113 178 757 000 citation needed 2 3 Nepal 29 717 587 179 691 546 180 2 3 United Kingdom 65 105 246 181 269 000 2 0 4 United States 329 256 465 182 397 502 183 0 1 United Arab Emirates 9 890 400 300 000 3 0 1 500 000 15 1 Bangladesh 159 453 001 184 250 000 185 0 1 Canada 35 881 659 186 243 090 187 0 6 PhonologyMain article Hindustani phonology Consonants Consonant phonemes of Urdu 188 Labial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Uvular GlottalNasal m م n ن ŋ ن Plosive Affricate voiceless p پ t ت ʈ ٹ tʃ چ k ک q قvoiceless aspirated pʰ پھ tʰ تھ ʈʰ ٹھ tʃʰ چھ kʰ کھvoiced b ب d د ɖ ڈ dʒ ج ɡ گvoiced aspirated bʰ بھ dʰ دھ ɖʰ ڈھ dʒʰ جھ gʰ گھFlap Trill plain r ر ɽ ڑvoiced aspirated ɽʱ ڑھFricative voiceless f ف s س ʃ ش x خ ɦ ہvoiced ʋ و z ز ʒ ژ ɣ غApproximant l ل j یNotesMarginal and non universal phonemes are in parentheses ɣ is post velar 189 Vowels Urdu vowels 190 191 188 Front Central Backshort long short long short longClose oral ɪ iː ʊ uːnasal ɪ ĩː ʊ ũːClose mid oral eː e oːnasal ẽː e oːOpen mid oral ɛ ɛː ɔːnasal ɛ ː ɔ ːOpen oral aeː aːnasal ae ː aːNotesThis table contains a list of phones not phonemes In particular ɛ is an allophone of e near h and the short nasal vowels aren t phonemic either Marginal and non universal vowels are in parentheses VocabularyMain article Hindi Urdu vocabulary Further information Hindustani etymologySyed Ahmed Dehlavi a 19th century lexicographer who compiled the Farhang e Asifiya 192 Urdu dictionary estimated that 75 of Urdu words have their etymological roots in Sanskrit and Prakrit 193 194 195 and approximately 99 of Urdu verbs have their roots in Sanskrit and Prakrit 196 197 Urdu has borrowed words from Persian and to a lesser extent Arabic through Persian 198 to the extent of about 25 193 194 195 199 to 30 of Urdu s vocabulary 200 A table illustrated by the linguist Afroz Taj of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill likewise illustrates the amount of Persian loanwords to native Sanskrit derived words in literary Urdu as comprising a 1 3 ratio 195 The phrase zuban e Urdu e muʿalla the language of the exalted camp written in Nastaʿliq script 201 The trend towards Persianisation started in the 18th century by the Delhi school of Urdu poets though other writers such as Meeraji wrote in a Sanskritised form of the language 202 There has been a move towards hyper Persianisation in Pakistan since 1947 which has been adopted by much of the country s writers 203 as such some Urdu texts can be composed of 70 Perso Arabic loanwords just as some Persian texts can have 70 Arabic vocabulary 204 Some Pakistani Urdu speakers have incorporated Hindi vocabulary into their speech as a result of exposure to Indian entertainment 205 206 In India Urdu has not diverged from Hindi as much as it has in Pakistan 207 Most borrowed words in Urdu are nouns and adjectives 208 Many of the words of Arabic origin have been adopted through Persian 193 and have different pronunciations and nuances of meaning and usage than they do in Arabic There are also a smaller number of borrowings from Portuguese Some examples for Portuguese words borrowed into Urdu are chabi chave key girja igreja church kamra camara room qamiz camisa shirt 209 Although the word Urdu is derived from the Turkic word ordu army or orda from which English horde is also derived 210 Turkic borrowings in Urdu are minimal 211 and Urdu is also not genetically related to the Turkic languages Urdu words originating from Chagatai and Arabic were borrowed through Persian and hence are Persianised versions of the original words For instance the Arabic ta marbuta ة changes to he ه or te ت 212 note 2 Nevertheless contrary to popular belief Urdu did not borrow from the Turkish language but from Chagatai a Turkic language from Central Asia Urdu and Turkish both borrowed from Arabic and Persian hence the similarity in pronunciation of many Urdu and Turkish words 213 Formality Lashkari Zaban title in Naskh script Urdu in its less formalized register has been referred to as a rek h tah ریختہ reːxtaː meaning rough mixture The more formal register of Urdu is sometimes referred to as zaban i Urdu yi muʿalla زبان ا رد وئے معل ى zebaːn eː ʊrdu eː moellaː the Language of the Exalted Camp referring to the Imperial army 214 or in approximate local translation Lashkari Zaban لشکری زبان leʃkeɾi zɑ bɑ n 215 or simply just Lashkari 216 The etymology of the word used in Urdu for the most part decides how polite or refined one s speech is For example Urdu speakers would distinguish between پانی pani and آب ab both meaning water the former is used colloquially and has older Sanskrit origins whereas the latter is used formally and poetically being of Persian origin citation needed If a word is of Persian or Arabic origin the level of speech is considered to be more formal and grander Similarly if Persian or Arabic grammar constructs such as the izafat are used in Urdu the level of speech is also considered more formal and grander If a word is inherited from Sanskrit the level of speech is considered more colloquial and personal 217 Writing systemMain articles Urdu alphabet and Urdu braille Further information Hindustani orthography The Urdu Nastaʿliq alphabet with names in the Devanagari and Latin alphabets Urdu is written right to left in an extension of the Persian alphabet which is itself an extension of the Arabic alphabet Urdu is associated with the Nastaʿliq style of Persian calligraphy whereas Arabic is generally written in the Naskh or Ruq ah styles Nasta liq is notoriously difficult to typeset so Urdu newspapers were hand written by masters of calligraphy known as katib or khush nawis until the late 1980s One handwritten Urdu newspaper The Musalman is still published daily in Chennai 218 A highly Persianised and technical form of Urdu was the lingua franca of the law courts of the British administration in Bengal and the North West Provinces amp Oudh Until the late 19th century all proceedings and court transactions in this register of Urdu were written officially in the Persian script In 1880 Sir Ashley Eden the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal in colonial India abolished the use of the Persian alphabet in the law courts of Bengal and ordered the exclusive use of Kaithi a popular script used for both Urdu and Hindi in the Bihar Province the court language was Urdu written in the Kaithi script 219 220 221 222 Kaithi s association with Urdu and Hindi was ultimately eliminated by the political contest between these languages and their scripts in which the Persian script was definitively linked to Urdu 223 An English Urdu bilingual sign at the archaeological site of Sirkap near Taxila The Urdu says right to left دو سروں والے عقاب کی شبيہ والا مندر dō sarōn wale u qab ki shabih wala mandir The temple with the image of the eagle with two heads More recently in India Urdu speakers have adopted Devanagari for publishing Urdu periodicals and have innovated new strategies to mark Urdu in Devanagari as distinct from Hindi in Devanagari Such publishers have introduced new orthographic features into Devanagari for the purpose of representing the Perso Arabic etymology of Urdu words One example is the use of अ Devanagari a with vowel signs to mimic contexts of ع ain in violation of Hindi orthographic rules For Urdu publishers the use of Devanagari gives them a greater audience whereas the orthographic changes help them preserve a distinct identity of Urdu 224 Some poets from Bengal namely Qazi Nazrul Islam have historically used the Bengali script to write Urdu poetry like Prem Nagar Ka Thikana Karle and Mera Beti Ki Khela as well as bilingual Bengali Urdu poems like Alga Koro Go Khopar Badhon Juboker Chholona and Mera Dil Betab Kiya 225 226 227 Dhakaiya Urdu is a colloquial non standard dialect of Urdu which was typically not written However organisations seeking to preserve the dialect have begun transcribing the dialect in the Bengali script note 3 228 229 Part of a series on Constitutionally recognised languages of IndiaCategory22 Official Languages of the Indian RepublicAssamese Bengali Bodo Dogri Gujarati Hindi Kannada Kashmiri Konkani Maithili Malayalam Marathi Meitei Manipuri Nepali Odia Punjabi Sanskrit Santali Sindhi Tamil Telugu UrduRelatedEighth Schedule to the Constitution of India Official Languages Commission Classical Languages of India List of languages by number of native speakers in India Asia portal India portal Language portal Politics portal This article contains Urdu text Without proper rendering support you may see unjoined letters running left to right or other symbols instead of Urdu script See alsoList of Urdu language poets List of Urdu language writers Urdu speaking people Urdu movement Persian and Urdu States of India by Urdu speakers Urdu in the United Kingdom Uddin and Begum Hindustani Romanisation Urdu poetry Urdu Digest Khariboli Urdu Informatics Urdu Wikipedia Urdu keyboard Glossary of the British Raj Persian language in the Indian subcontinentNotes Urdu has some form of official status in the Indian states of Bihar Jharkhand Telangana Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal as well as the national capital territory of Delhi and the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir 13 An example can be seen in the word need in Urdu Urdu uses the Persian version ضرورت rather than the original Arabic ضرورة See John T Platts A dictionary of Urdu classical Hindi and English 1884 Page 749 Urdu and Hindi use Persian pronunciation in their loanwords rather than that of Arabic for instance rather than pronouncing ض as the emphatic consonant ḍ the original sound in Arabic Urdu uses the Persian pronunciation z See John T Platts A dictionary of Urdu classical Hindi and English 1884 Page 748 Organisations like Dhakaiya Sobbasi Jaban and Dhakaiya Movement among others consistently write Dhakaiya Urdu using the Bengali script References a b Carl Skutsch 7 November 2013 Encyclopedia of the World s Minorities Taylor amp Francis pp 2234 ISBN 978 1 135 19395 9 a b c d e f Urdu at Ethnologue 25th ed 2022 Hindustani 2005 Keith Brown ed Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics 2 ed Elsevier ISBN 0 08 044299 4 Indo Pakistani Sign Language Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics Official languages specified in the Constitution of India Jagran Prakashan 29 March 2018 Urdu second official language in Andhra Pradesh Deccan Chronicles 24 March 2022 Retrieved 25 March 2022 Bill recognising Urdu as second official language passed The Hindu 23 March 2022 Retrieved 1 April 2022 Urdu is Telangana s second official language The Indian Express 16 November 2017 Retrieved 27 February 2018 Urdu is second official language in Telangana as state passes Bill The News Minute 17 November 2017 Retrieved 27 February 2018 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996 Chapter 1 Founding Provisions www gov za Retrieved 6 December 2014 Urdu language Encyclopaedia Britannica 5 December 2019 retrieved 17 October 2020 member of the Indo Aryan group within the Indo European family of languages Urdu is spoken as a first language by nearly 70 million people and as a second language by more than 100 million people predominantly in Pakistan and India It is the official state language of Pakistan and is also officially recognized or scheduled in the constitution of India Urdu n Oxford English Dictionary June 2020 retrieved 11 September 2020 An Indo Aryan language of northern South Asia now esp Pakistan closely related to Hindi but written in a modified form of the Arabic script and having many loanwords from Persian and Arabic a b c Muzaffar Sharmin Behera Pitambar 2014 Error analysis of the Urdu verb markers a comparative study on Google and Bing machine translation platforms Aligarh Journal of Linguistics 4 1 2 1 Modern Standard Urdu a register of the Hindustani language is the national language lingua franca and is one of the two official languages along with English in Pakistan and is spoken in all over the world It is also one of the 22 scheduled languages and officially recognized languages in the Constitution of India and has been conferred the status of the official language in many Indian states of Bihar Telangana Jammu and Kashmir Uttar Pradesh West Bengal and New Delhi Urdu is one of the members of the new or modern Indo Aryan language group within the Indo European family of languages Gazzola Michele Wickstrom Bengt Arne 2016 The Economics of Language Policy MIT Press pp 469 ISBN 978 0 262 03470 8 Quote The Eighth Schedule recognizes India s national languages as including the major regional languages as well as others such as Sanskrit and Urdu which contribute to India s cultural heritage The original list of fourteen languages in the Eighth Schedule at the time of the adoption of the Constitution in 1949 has now grown to twenty two Groff Cynthia 2017 The Ecology of Language in Multilingual India Voices of Women and Educators in the Himalayan Foothills Palgrave Macmillan UK pp 58 ISBN 978 1 137 51961 0 Quote As Mahapatra says It is generally believed that the significance for the Eighth Schedule lies in providing a list of languages from which Hindi is directed to draw the appropriate forms style and expressions for its enrichment Being recognized in the Constitution however has had significant relevance for a language s status and functions a b National Languages Policy Recommendation Commission PDF MOE Nepal 1994 p Appendix one Retrieved 14 March 2021 Gibson Mary 13 May 2011 Indian Angles English Verse in Colonial India from Jones to Tagore Ohio University Press ISBN 978 0821443583 Bayly s description of Hindustani roughly Hindi Urdu is helpful here he uses the term Urdu to represent the more refined and Persianised form of the common north Indian language Hindustani Empire and Information 193 Bayly more or less follows the late eighteenth century scholar Sirajuddin Ali Arzu who proposed a typology of language that ran from pure Sanskrit through popular and regional variations of Hindustani to Urdu which incorporated many loan words from Persian and Arabic His emphasis on the unity of languages reflected the view of the Sanskrit grammarians and also affirmed the linguistic unity of the north Indian ecumene What emerged was a kind of register of language types that were appropriate to different conditions But the abiding impression is of linguistic plurality running through the whole society and an easier adaptation to circumstances in both spoken and written speech 193 The more Persianized the language the more likely it was to be written in Arabic script the more Sanskritized the language the more likely it was to be written in Devanagari a b Basu Manisha 2017 The Rhetoric of Hindutva Cambridge University Press ISBN 9781107149878 Urdu like Hindi was a standardized register of the Hindustani language deriving from the Dehlavi dialect and emerged in the eighteenth century under the rule of the late Mughals a b c Gube Jan Gao Fang 2019 Education Ethnicity and Equity in the Multilingual Asian Context Springer Publishing ISBN 978 981 13 3125 1 The national language of India and Pakistan Standard Urdu is mutually intelligible with Standard Hindi because both languages share the same Indic base and are all but indistinguishable in phonology Clyne Michael 24 May 2012 Pluricentric Languages Differing Norms in Different Nations Walter de Gruyter p 385 ISBN 978 3 11 088814 0 With the consolidation of the different linguistic bases of Khari Boli there were three distinct varieties of Hindi Urdu the High Hindi with predominant Sanskrit vocabulary the High Urdu with predominant Perso Arabic vocabulary and casual or colloquial Hindustani which was commonly spoken among both the Hindus and Muslims in the provinces of north India The last phase of the emergence of Hindi and Urdu as pluricentric national varieties extends from the late 1920s till the partition of India in 1947 Kiss Tibor Alexiadou Artemis 10 March 2015 Syntax Theory and Analysis Walter de Gruyter GmbH amp Co KG p 1479 ISBN 978 3 11 036368 5 Metcalf Barbara D 2014 Islamic Revival in British India Deoband 1860 1900 Princeton University Press pp 207 ISBN 978 1 4008 5610 7 The basis of that shift was the decision made by the government in 1837 to replace Persian as court language by the various vernaculars of the country Urdu was identified as the regional vernacular in Bihar Oudh the North Western Provinces and Punjab and hence was made the language of government across upper India a b c Ahmad Rizwan 1 July 2008 Scripting a new identity The battle for Devanagari in nineteenth century India Journal of Pragmatics 40 7 1163 1183 doi 10 1016 j pragma 2007 06 005 a b Schmidt Ruth Laila 8 December 2005 Urdu An Essential Grammar Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 71319 6 Historically Urdu developed from the sub regional language of the Delhi area which became a literary language in the eighteenth century Two quite similar standard forms of the language developed in Delhi and in Lucknow in modern Uttar Pradesh Since 1947 a third form Karachi standard Urdu has evolved a b Mahapatra B P 1989 Constitutional languages Presses Universite Laval p 553 ISBN 978 2 7637 7186 1 Modern Urdu is a fairly homogenous language An older southern form Deccani Urdu is now obsolete Two varieties however must be mentioned viz the Urdu of Delhi and the Urdu of Lucknow Both are almost identical differing only in some minor points Both of these varieties are considered Standard Urdu with some minor divergences Dwyer Rachel 27 September 2006 Filming the Gods Religion and Indian Cinema Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 38070 1 a b Faruqi Shamsur Rahman 2003 Sheldon Pollock ed A Long History of Urdu Literary Culture Part 1 Literary Cultures in History Reconstructions From South Asia University of California Press p 806 ISBN 978 0 520 22821 4 a b c d e Rahman Tariq 2001 From Hindi to Urdu A Social and Political History PDF Oxford University Press pp 1 22 ISBN 978 0 19 906313 0 Archived from the original PDF on 10 October 2014 Retrieved 7 October 2014 A Historical Perspective of Urdu National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language 15 October 2022 Archived from the original on 15 October 2022 Retrieved 17 October 2022 a b Dictionary Rekhta 5 April 2022 Meaning of Urdu Rekhta dictionary Retrieved 5 April 2022 a b Clyne Michael G 1992 Pluricentric Languages Differing Norms in Different Nations Walter de Gruyter p 383 ISBN 9783110128550 Meaning of urdu e mualla in English Rekhta Dictionary Retrieved 17 October 2022 a b c Bhat M Ashraf 2017 The Changing Language Roles and Linguistic Identities of the Kashmiri Speech Community Cambridge Scholars Publishing p 72 ISBN 978 1 4438 6260 8 Although it has borrowed a large number of lexical items from Persian and some from Turkish it is a derivative of Hindvi also called early Urdu the parent of both modern Hindi and Urdu It originated as a new common language of Delhi which has been called Hindavi or Dahlavi by Amir Khusrau After the advent of the Mughals on the stage of Indian history the Hindavi language enjoyed greater space and acceptance Persian words and phrases came into vogue The Hindavi of that period was known as Rekhta or Hindustani and only later as Urdu Perfect amity and tolerance between Hindus and Muslims tended to foster Rekhta or Urdu which represented the principle of unity in diversity thus marking a feature of Indian life at its best The ordinary spoken version bazaar Urdu was almost identical to the popularly spoken version of Hindi Most prominent scholars in India hold the view that Urdu is neither a Muslim nor a Hindu language it is an outcome of a multicultural and multi religious encounter Dua Hans R 1992 Hindi Urdu is a pluricentric language In M G Clyne Ed Pluricentric languages Differing norms in different nations Berlin Mouton de Gruyter ISBN 3 11 012855 1 Kachru Yamuna 2008 Braj Kachru Yamuna Kachru S N Sridhar eds Hindi Urdu Hindustani Language in South Asia Cambridge University Press p 82 ISBN 978 0 521 78653 9 archived from the original on 24 January 2020 Qalamdaar Azad 27 December 2010 Hamari History Hamari Boli Foundation Archived from the original on 27 December 2010 Historically Hindustani developed in the post 12th century period under the impact of the incoming Afghans and Turks as a linguistic modus vivendi from the sub regional apabhramshas of north western India Its first major folk poet was the great Persian master Amir Khusrau 1253 1325 who is known to have composed dohas couplets and riddles in the newly formed speech then called Hindavi Through the medieval time this mixed speech was variously called by various speech sub groups as Hindavi Zaban e Hind Hindi Zaban e Dehli Rekhta Gujarii Dakkhani Zaban e Urdu e Mualla Zaban e Urdu or just Urdu By the late 11th century the name Hindustani was in vogue and had become the lingua franca for most of northern India A sub dialect called Khari Boli was spoken in and around the Delhi region at the start of the 13th century when the Delhi Sultanate was established Khari Boli gradually became the prestige dialect of Hindustani Hindi Urdu and became the basis of modern Standard Hindi amp Urdu Schmidt Ruth Laila 1 Brief history and geography of Urdu 1 1 History and sociocultural position The Indo Aryan Languages 3 2007 286 Malik Shahbaz Shareef Kunjahi Mir Tanha Yousafi Sanawar Chadhar Alam Lohar Abid Tamimi Anwar Masood et al Census History of Punjabi Speakers in Pakistan Mody Sujata Sudhakar 2008 Literature Language and Nation Formation The Story of a Modern Hindi Journal 1900 1920 University of California Berkeley p 7 Hindustani Rekhta and Urdu as later names of the old Hindi a k a Hindavi English Urdu Learner s Dictionary Multi Linguis 6 March 2021 ISBN 978 1 005 94089 8 History Simplified Proto Indo European gt Proto Indo Iranian gt Proto Indo Aryan gt Vedic Sanskrit gt Classical Sanskrit gt Sauraseni Prakrit gt Sauraseni Apabhramsa gt Old Hindi gt Hindustani gt Urdu a b Kesavan B S 1997 History Of Printing And Publishing in India National Book Trust India p 31 ISBN 978 81 237 2120 0 It might be useful to recall here that Old Hindi or Hindavi which was a naturally Persian mixed language in the largest measure has played this role before as we have seen for five or six centuries Sisir Kumar Das 2005 History of Indian Literature Sahitya Akademi p 142 ISBN 978 81 7201 006 5 The most important trend in the history of Hindi Urdu is the process of Persianization on the one hand and that of Sanskritization on the other Amrit Rai offers evidence to show that although the employment of Perso Arabic script for the language which was akin to Hindi Hindavi or old Hindi was the first step towards the establishment of the separate identity of Urdu it was called Hindi for a long time The final and complete change over to the new name took place after the content of the language had undergone a drastic change He further observes In the light of the literature that has come down to us for about six hundred years the development of Hindi Hindavi seems largely to substantiate the view of the basic unity of the two languages Then sometime in the first quarter of the eighteenth century the cleavage seems to have begun Rai quotes from Sadiq who points out how it became a systematic policy of poets and scholars of the eighteenth century to weed out what they called and thought vulgar words This weeding out meant the elimination along with some rough and unmusical plebian words of a large number of Hindi words for the reason that to the people brought up in Persian traditions they appeared unfamiliar and vulgar Sadiq concludes hence the paradox that this crusade against Persian tyranny instead of bringing Urdu close to the indigenous element meant in reality a wider gulf between it and the popular speech But what differentiated Urdu still more from the local dialects was a process of ceaseless importation from Persian It may seem strange that Urdu writers in rebellion against Persian should decide to draw heavily on Persian vocabulary idioms forms and sentiments Around 1875 in his word Urdu Sarf O Nahr however he presented a balanced view pointing out that attempts of the Maulavis to Persianize and of the Pandits to Sanskritize the language were not only an error but against the natural laws of linguistic growth The common man he pointed out used both Persian and Sanskrit words without any qualms a b c Taj Afroz 1997 About Hindi Urdu The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Archived from the original on 15 August 2009 Retrieved 30 June 2019 Two Languages or One hindiurduflagship org Archived from the original on 11 March 2015 Retrieved 29 March 2015 Hindi and Urdu developed from the khari boli dialect spoken in the Delhi region of northern India Farooqi M 2012 Urdu Literary Culture Vernacular Modernity in the Writing of Muhammad Hasan Askari Springer ISBN 978 1 137 02692 7 Historically speaking Urdu grew out of interaction between Hindus and Muslims He noted that Urdu is not the language of Muslims alone although Muslims may have played a larger role in making it a literary language Hindu poets and writers could and did bring specifically Hindu cultural elements into Urdu and these were accepted King Christopher Rolland 1999 One Language Two Scripts The Hindi Movement in Nineteenth Century North India Oxford University Press p 67 ISBN 978 0 19 565112 6 Educated Muslims for the most part supporters of Urdu rejected the Hindu linguistic heritage and emphasized the joint Hindu Muslim origins of Urdu Taylor Insup Olson David R 1995 Scripts and Literacy Reading and Learning to Read Alphabets Syllabaries and Characters Springer Science amp Business Media p 299 ISBN 978 0 7923 2912 1 Urdu emerged as the language of contact between Hindu inhabitants and Muslim invaders to India in the 11th century Dhulipala Venkat 2000 The Politics of Secularism Medieval Indian Historiography and the Sufis University of Wisconsin Madison p 27 Persian became the court language and many Persian words crept into popular usage The composite culture of northern India known as the Ganga Jamuni tehzeeb was a product of the interaction between Hindu society and Islam Indian Journal of Social Work Volume 4 Tata Institute of Social Sciences 1943 p 264 more words of Sanskrit origin but 75 of the vocabulary is common It is also admitted that while this language is known as Hindustani Muslims call it Urdu and the Hindus call it Hindi Urdu is a national language that evolved through years of Hindu and Muslim cultural contact and as stated by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru is essentially an Indian language and has no place outside Women of the Indian Sub Continent Makings of a Culture Rekhta Foundation Google Arts amp Culture Retrieved 25 February 2020 The Ganga Jamuni tehzeeb is one such instance of the composite culture that marks various regions of the country Prevalent in the North particularly in the central plains it is born of the union between the Hindu and Muslim cultures Most of the temples were lined along the Ganges and the Khanqah Sufi school of thought were situated along the Yamuna river also called Jamuna Thus it came to be known as the Ganga Jamuni tehzeeb with the word tehzeeb meaning culture More than communal harmony its most beautiful by product was Hindustani which later gave us the Hindi and Urdu languages Zahur ud Din 1985 Development of Urdu Language and Literature in the Jammu Region Gulshan Publishers p 13 The beginning of the language now known as Urdu should therefore be placed in this period of the earlier Hindu Muslim contact in the Sindh and Punjab areas that took place in early quarter of the 8th century A D Jain Danesh Cardona George 2007 The Indo Aryan Languages Routledge ISBN 978 1 135 79711 9 The primary sources of non IA loans into MSH are Arabic Persian Portuguese Turkic and English Conversational registers of Hindi Urdu not to mentioned formal registers of Urdu employ large numbers of Persian and Arabic loanwords although in Sanskritised registers many of these words are replaced by tatsama forms from Sanskrit The Persian and Arabic lexical elements in Hindi result from the effects of centuries of Islamic administrative rule over much of north India in the centuries before the establishment of British rule in India Although it is conventional to differentiate among Persian and Arabic loan elements into Hindi Urdu in practice it is often difficult to separate these strands from one another The Arabic and also Turkic lexemes borrowed into Hindi frequently were mediated through Persian as a result of which a thorough intertwining of Persian and Arabic elements took place as manifest by such phenomena as hybrid compounds and compound words Moreover although the dominant trajectory of lexical borrowing was from Arabic into Persian and thence into Hindi Urdu examples can be found of words that in origin are actually Persian loanwords into both Arabic and Hindi Urdu a b Strnad Jaroslav 2013 Morphology and Syntax of Old Hindi Edition and Analysis of One Hundred Kabir vani Poems from Rajasthan Brill Academic Publishers ISBN 978 90 04 25489 3 Quite different group of nouns occurring with the ending a in the dir plural consists of words of Arabic or Persian origin borrowed by the Old Hindi with their Persian plural endings Amir Khosrow Indian poet Jaswant Lal Mehta 1980 Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India Vol 1 Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd p 10 ISBN 9788120706170 Bakshi Shiri Ram Mittra Sangh 2002 Hazart Nizam Ud Din Auliya and Hazrat Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti Criterion ISBN 9788179380222 Urdu language Encyclopaedia Britannica Culture and Circulation Literature in Motion in Early Modern India Brill 2014 ISBN 9789004264489 a b Khan Abdul Rashid 2001 The All India Muslim Educational Conference Its Contribution to the Cultural Development of Indian Muslims 1886 1947 Oxford University Press p 152 ISBN 978 0 19 579375 8 After the conquest of the Deccan Urdu received the liberal patronage of the courts of Golconda and Bijapur Consequently Urdu borrowed words from the local language of Telugu and Marathi as well as from Sanskrit Luniya Bhanwarlal Nathuram 1978 Life and Culture in Medieval India Kamal Prakashan p 311 Under the liberal patronage of the courts of Golconda and Bijapur Urdu borrowed words from the local languages like Telugu and Marathi as well as from Sanskrit but its themes were moulded on Persian models Kesavan Bellary Shamanna 1985 History of Printing and Publishing in India Origins of printing and publishing in the Hindi heartland National Book Trust p 7 ISBN 978 81 237 2120 0 The Mohammedans of the Deccan thus called their Hindustani tongue Dakhani Dakhini Gujari or Bhaka Bhakha which was a symbol of their belonging to Muslim conquering and ruling group in the Deccan and South India where overwhelming number of Hindus spoke Marathi Kannada Telugu and Tamil a b Rauf Parekh 25 August 2014 Literary Notes Common misconceptions about Urdu dawn com Archived from the original on 25 January 2015 Retrieved 29 March 2015 Urdu did not get its present name till late 18th Century and before that had had a number of different names including Hindi Hindvi Hindustani Dehlvi Lahori Dakkani and even Moors though it was born much earlier Mazhar Yusuf 1998 Sind Quarterly Volume 26 Issues 1 2 p 36 Malik Muhammad Kamran and Syed Mansoor Sarwar Named entity recognition system for postpositional languages urdu as a case study International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications 7 10 2016 141 147 First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913 1936 Brill Academic Publishers 1993 p 1024 ISBN 9789004097964 Whilst the Muhammadan rulers of India spoke Persian which enjoyed the prestige of being their court language the common language of the country continued to be Hindi derived through Prakrit from Sanskrit On this dialect of the common people was grafted the Persian language which brought a new language Urdu into existence Sir George Grierson in the Linguistic Survey of India assigns no distinct place to Urdu but treats it as an offshoot of Western Hindi Am rta Raya Amrit Rai Amr taraya 1984 A House Divided The Origin and Development of Hindi Hindavi Oxford University Press p 240 ISBN 978 0 19 561643 9 Alyssa Ayres 23 July 2009 Speaking Like a State Language and Nationalism in Pakistan Cambridge University Press p 19 ISBN 9780521519311 Language Problem in India Institute of Objective Studies 1997 p 138 ISBN 9788185220413 sir Richard Francis Burton Luis Vaz de Camoens 1881 Camoens his life and his Lusiads a commentary Volume 2 Oxford University p 573 The Moor of Camoens meaning simply Moslem was used by a past generation of Anglo Indians who called the Urdu or Hindustani dialect the Moors Henk W Wagenaar S S Parikh D F Plukker R Veldhuijzen van Zanten 1993 Allied Chambers transliterated Hindi Hindi English dictionary Allied Publishers ISBN 9788186062104 John Ovington 1994 A Voyage to Surat in the Year 1689 Asian Educational Services p 147 Zahiruddin Malik 1977 The Reign Of Muhammad Shah 1919 1748 Deutsche Morgenlandische Gesellschaft 1969 Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft Volume 119 Kommissionsverlag F Steiner p 267 Coatsworth John 2015 Global Connections Politics Exchange and Social Life in World History United States Cambridge Univ Pr p 159 ISBN 9780521761062 Tariq Rahman 2011 Urdu as the Language of Education in British India PDF Pakistan Journal of History and Culture NIHCR 32 2 1 42 a b Delacy Richard Ahmed Shahara 2005 Hindi Urdu amp Bengali Lonely Planet pp 11 12 Hindi and Urdu are generally considered to be one spoken language with two different literary traditions That means that Hindi and Urdu speakers who shop in the same markets and watch the same Bollywood films have no problems understanding each other they d both say yeh kitne kaa hay for How much is it but the written form for Hindi will be यह क तन क ह and the Urdu one will be یہ کتنے کا ہے Hindi is written from left to right in the Devanagari script and is the official language of India along with English Urdu on the other hand is written from right to left in the Nastaliq script a modified form of the Arabic script and is the national language of Pakistan It s also one of the official languages of the Indian states of Bihar and Jammu amp Kashmir Considered as one these tongues constitute the second most spoken language in the world sometimes called Hindustani In their daily lives Hindi and Urdu speakers communicate in their different languages without major problems Both Hindi and Urdu developed from Classical Sanskrit which appeared in the Indus Valley modern Pakistan and northwest India at about the start of the Common Era The first old Hindi or Apabhransha poetry was written in the year 769 AD and by the European Middle Ages it became known as Hindvi Muslim Turks invaded the Punjab in 1027 and took control of Delhi in 1193 They paved the way for the Islamic Mughal Empire which ruled northern India from the 16th century until it was defeated by the British Raj in the mid 19th century It was at this time that the language of this book began to take form a mixture of Hindvi grammar with Arabic Persian and Turkish vocabulary The Muslim speakers of Hindvi began to write in the Arabic script creating Urdu while the Hindu population incorporated the new words but continued to write in Devanagari script Holt P M Lambton Ann K S Lewis Bernard eds 1977 The Cambridge History of Islam Cambridge Cambridge University Press p 723 ISBN 0 521 29138 0 Sanjay Subrahmanyam 2017 Europe s India Words People Empires 1500 1800 Harvard University Press ISBN 9780674977556 Christine Everaert 2010 Tracing the Boundaries Between Hindi and Urdu ISBN 978 9004177314 Varma Siddheshwar 1973 G A Grierson s Linguistic Survey of India Khan Abdul Jamil 2006 Urdu Hindi An Artificial Divide African Heritage Mesopotamian Root ISBN 9780875864372 David Prochaska Edmund Burke III July 2008 Genealogies of Orientalism History Theory Politics Nebraska Paperback Rahman Tariq 2000 The Teaching of Urdu in British India PDF The Annual of Urdu Studies 15 55 Archived PDF from the original on 21 October 2014 a b c Hutchinson John Smith Anthony D 2000 Nationalism Critical Concepts in Political Science Taylor amp Francis ISBN 978 0 415 20112 4 In the nineteenth century in north India before the extension of the British system of government schools Urdu was not used in its written form as a medium of instruction in traditional Islamic schools where Muslim children were taught Persian and Arabic the traditional languages of Islam and Muslim culture It was only when the Muslim elites of north India and the British decided that Muslims were backward in education in relation to Hindus and should be encouraged to attend government schools that it was felt necessary to offer Urdu in the Persian Arabic script as an inducement to Muslims to attend the schools And it was only after the Hindi Urdu controversy developed that Urdu once disdained by Muslim elites in north India and not even taught in the Muslim religious schools in the early nineteenth century became a symbol of Muslim identity second to Islam itself A second point revealed by the Hindi Urdu controversy in north India is how symbols may be used to separate peoples who in fact share aspects of culture It is well known that ordinary Muslims and Hindus alike spoke the same language in the United Provinces in the nineteenth century namely Hindustani whether called by that name or whether called Hindi Urdu or one of the regional dialects such as Braj or Awadhi Although a variety of styles of Hindi Urdu were in use in the nineteenth century among different social classes and status groups the legal and administrative elites in courts and government offices Hindus and Muslims alike used Urdu in the Persian Arabic script Sachchidananda Sinha 1911 The Hindustan Review Volume 23 University of Wisconsin Madison p 243 McGregor Stuart 2003 The Progress of Hindi Part 1 Literary cultures in history reconstructions from South Asia p 912 ISBN 978 0 520 22821 4 in Pollock 2003 Bilal Maaz Bin 5 November 2021 Till the late 19th century people were hardly aware of Urdu and Hindi as being two distinct languages The Hindu ISSN 0971 751X Retrieved 19 December 2022 Ali Syed Ameer 1989 The Right Hon ble Syed Ameer Ali Political Writings APH Publishing p 33 ISBN 978 81 7024 247 5 a b Clyne Michael 24 May 2012 Pluricentric Languages Differing Norms in Different Nations Walter de Gruyter ISBN 978 3 11 088814 0 King Christopher Rolland 1999 One Language Two Scripts The Hindi Movement in Nineteenth Century North India Oxford University Press p 78 ISBN 978 0 19 565112 6 British language policy both resulted from and contributed to the larger political processes which eventually led to the partition of British India into India and Pakistan an outcome almost exactly paralleled by the linguistic partition of the Hindi Urdu continuum into highly Sanskritized Hindi and highly Persianized Urdu Ahmad Irfan 20 November 2017 Religion as Critique Islamic Critical Thinking from Mecca to the Marketplace UNC Press Books ISBN 978 1 4696 3510 1 There have been and are many great Hindu poets who wrote in Urdu And they learned Hinduism by readings its religious texts in Urdu Gulzar Dehlvi who nonliterary name is Anand Mohan Zutshi b 1926 is one among many examples Ahmad Aijazuddin 2009 Geography of the South Asian Subcontinent A Critical Approach Concept Publishing Company p 119 ISBN 978 81 8069 568 1 a b Raj Ali 30 April 2017 The case for Urdu as Pakistan s official language Herald Magazine Archived from the original on 28 October 2019 Retrieved 3 December 2019 Hakala Walter 2012 Languages as a Key to Understanding Afghanistan s Cultures PDF Afghanistan Multidisciplinary Perspectives Hakala Walter N 2012 Languages as a Key to Understanding Afghanistan s Cultures PDF National Geographic Retrieved 13 March 2018 In the 1980s and 90s at least three million Afghans mostly Pashtun fled to Pakistan where a substantial number spent several years being exposed to Hindi language media especially Bollywood films and songs and being educated in Urdu language schools both of which contributed to the decline of Dari even among urban Pashtuns Krishnamurthy Rajeshwari 28 June 2013 Kabul Diary Discovering the Indian connection Gateway House Indian Council on Global Relations Retrieved 13 March 2018 Most Afghans in Kabul understand and or speak Hindi thanks to the popularity of Indian cinema in the country a b Who Can Be Pakistani thediplomat com Archived from the original on 28 October 2019 Retrieved 28 October 2019 Vanita R 2012 Gender Sex and the City Urdu Rekhti Poetry in India 1780 1870 Springer ISBN 978 1 137 01656 0 Desexualizing campaigns dovetailed with the attempt to purge Urdu of Sanskrit and Prakrit words at the same time as Hindi literateurs tried to purge Hindi of Persian and Arabic words The late nineteenth century politics of Urdu and Hindi later exacerbated by those of India and Pakistan had the unfortunate result of certain poets being excised from the canon Zecchini Laetitia 31 July 2014 Arun Kolatkar and Literary Modernism in India Moving Lines A amp C Black ISBN 9781623565589 Rahman Tariq 2014 Pakistani English PDF Quaid i Azam University Islamabad p 9 archived from the original PDF on 22 October 2014 retrieved 18 October 2014 Bruce Gregory Maxwell 2 The Arabic Element Urdu Vocabulary A Workbook for Intermediate and Advanced Students Edinburgh Edinburgh University Press 2022 pp 55 156 https doi org 10 1515 9781474467216 005 Shackle C 1990 Hindi and Urdu Since 1800 A Common Reader Heritage Publishers ISBN 9788170261629 A History of Indian Literature Struggle for freedom triumph and tragedy 1911 1956 Sahitya Akademi 1991 ISBN 9788179017982 Kachru Braj 2015 Collected Works of Braj B Kachru Volume 3 Bloomsbury Publishing ISBN 978 1 4411 3713 5 The style of Urdu even in Pakistan is changing from high Urdu to colloquial Urdu more like Hindustani which would have pleased M K Gandhi Ashmore Harry S 1961 Encyclopaedia Britannica a new survey of universal knowledge Volume 11 Encyclopaedia Britannica p 579 The everyday speech of well over 50 000 000 persons of all communities in the north of India and in West Pakistan is the expression of a common language Hindustani a b Oh Calcutta Volume 6 1977 p 15 Retrieved 1 August 2021 It is generally admitted that Urdu is a dying language What is not generally admitted is that it is a dying National language What used to be called Hindustani the spoken language of the largest number of Indians contains more elements of Urdu than Sanskrit academics tolerate but it is still the language of the people Urdu Is Alive and Moving Ahead With Times Gulzar Outlook 13 February 2006 Retrieved 20 September 2021 Gulzar 11 June 2006 Urdu is not dying Gulzar The Hindustan Times Daniyal Shoaib 1 June 2016 The death of Urdu in India is greatly exaggerated the language is actually thriving Scroll in Retrieved 19 September 2021 a b Mir Ali Husain Mir Raza 2006 Anthems of Resistance A Celebration of Progressive Urdu Poetry New Delhi Roli Books Private Limited p 118 ISBN 9789351940654 Retrieved 1 August 2021 Phrases like dying language are often used to describe the condition of Urdu in India and indicators like the number of Urdu medium schools present a litany of bad news with respect to the present conditions and future of the language a b Journal of the Faculty of Arts Volume 2 Aligarh Muslim University 1996 p 42 Retrieved 1 August 2021 Arvind Kala is not much off the mark when he says Urdu is a dying language in India but it is Hindi movie dialogues which have heightened appreciation of Urdu in India Thanks to Hindi films knowledge of Urdu is seen as a sign of sophistication among the cognoscent of the North a b c d e f Singh Khushwant 2011 Celebrating the Best of Urdu Poetry Penguin UK pp 9 10 ISBN 9789386057334 Retrieved 1 August 2021 a b c d e f g h i j Hanan Irfan 15 July 2021 The Burden of Urdu Must Be Shared LiveWire Retrieved 1 August 2021 a b c d Shoaib Daniyal 4 July 2018 Surging Hindi shrinking South Indian languages Nine charts that explain the 2011 language census Scroll in Retrieved 1 August 2021 a b c d e f g h i j k John Willoughby amp Zehra Aftab 2020 The Fall of Urdu and the Triumph of English in Pakistan A Political Economic Analysis PDF PIDE Working Papers Pakistan Institute of Development Economics Retrieved 1 August 2021 a b c Brass Paul R 2005 Language Religion and Politics in North India Cambridge Cambridge University Press p 136 ISBN 9780595343942 Retrieved 1 August 2021 The third force leading to the divergence between Hindi and Urdu was the parallel and associated development of Hindu and Muslim revivalisms and communal antagonism which had the consequence for the Hindi Urdu conflict of reinforcing the tendency to identify Urdu as the language of Muslims and Hindi as the language of Hindus Although objectively this is not entirely true even today it is undeniable historical tendency has been in this direction Many Hindus also continue to write in Urdu both in literature and in the mass media However Hindu writers in Urdu are a dying generation and Hindi and Urdu have increasingly become subjectively separate languagues identified with different religious communities Everaert Christine 2010 Tracing the Boundaries Between Hindi and Urdu Lost and Added in Translation Between 20th Century Short Stories Leiden Brill pp 77 79 ISBN 9789004177314 Retrieved 1 August 2021 Statement 1 Abstract of speakers strength of languages and mother tongues 2001 Government of India 2001 Archived from the original on 4 April 2008 Retrieved 4 October 2016 ORGI Census of India Comparative speaker s strength of Scheduled Languages 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 and 2011 PDF Government of Pakistan Population by Mother Tongue PDF Pakistan Bureau of Statistics Archived PDF from the original on 10 October 2014 Hindustani Columbia University press encyclopedia com Archived from the original on 29 July 2017 e g Gumperz 1982 20 PAKISTAN Official U S Marine Corps Archived from the original on 31 January 2022 Retrieved 5 February 2022 The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency 1992 p 264 Rieker M Ali K 26 May 2008 Gendering Urban Space in the Middle East South Asia and Africa Springer ISBN 978 0 230 61247 1 Khan M Ilyas 12 September 2015 Pakistan s confusing move to Urdu BBC News Retrieved 3 December 2019 Singh Nikky Guninder Kaur 30 November 2012 Of Sacred and Secular Desire An Anthology of Lyrical Writings from the Punjab Bloomsbury Publishing ISBN 978 0 85772 139 6 Why Punjabis in Pakistan Have Abandoned Punjabi Fair Observer 14 July 2020 EDUCATION SYSTEM PROFILES Education in Pakistan World Education Services 25 February 2020 English has been the main language of instruction at the elementary and secondary levels since colonial times It remains the predominant language of instruction in private schools but has been increasingly replaced with Urdu in public schools Punjab province for example recently announced that it will begin to use Urdu as the exclusive medium of instruction in schools beginning in 2020 Depending on the location and predominantly in rural areas regional languages are used as well particularly in elementary education The language of instruction in higher education is mostly English but some programs and institutions teach in Urdu Robina Kausar Muhammad Sarwar Muhammad Shabbir eds The History of the Urdu Language Together with Its Origin and Geographic Distribution PDF International Journal of Innovation and Research in Educational Sciences 2 1 Ahmad Aijazuddin 2009 Geography of the South Asian Subcontinent A Critical Approach Concept Publishing Company ISBN 978 81 8069 568 1 Hock Hans Henrich Bashir Elena 24 May 2016 The Languages and Linguistics of South Asia A Comprehensive Guide Walter de Gruyter GmbH amp Co KG ISBN 978 3 11 042330 3 Raj Ali 30 April 2017 The case for Urdu as Pakistan s official language Herald Magazine Archived from the original on 28 October 2019 Retrieved 28 October 2019 Urdu Archived 19 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Random House Webster s Unabridged Dictionary Beaster Jones Jayson 9 October 2014 Bollywood Sounds The Cosmopolitan Mediations of Hindi Film Song Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 999348 2 Urdu newspapers growing not dying asu thehoot org Archived from the original on 26 February 2021 Retrieved 6 September 2020 Russell Ralph 1999 Urdu in India since Independence Economic and Political Weekly 34 1 2 44 48 JSTOR 4407548 Highest Circulated amongst ABC Member Publications Jan Jun 2017 PDF Audit Bureau of Circulations Retrieved 12 September 2020 Most Pakistanis and Urdu speakers live in this Australian state SBS Your Language sbs com au Arabe y urdu aparecen entre las lenguas habituales de Catalunya creando peligro de guetos Europapress es 29 June 2009 Archived from the original on 18 January 2012 Retrieved 18 December 2011 Rahman Tariq 1997 The Urdu English Controversy in Pakistan Modern Asian Studies 31 177 207 doi 10 1017 S0026749X00016978 S2CID 144261554 via National Institute of Pakistan Studies Qu aid i Az am University Ṭamil Naḍu men Urdu g h azal ki naʼi purani simten Retrieved 13 September 2020 Schimmel Annemarie 1992 Islam an introduction Albany New York State U of New York Press ISBN 9780585088594 Ahmad Rizwan 2011 Urdu in Devanagari Shifting orthographic practices and Muslim identity in Delhi PDF Language in Society 40 3 259 284 doi 10 1017 s0047404511000182 hdl 10576 10736 S2CID 55975387 Zia Khaver 1999 A Survey of Standardisation in Urdu 4th Symposium on Multilingual Information Processing MLIT 4 Archived 6 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine Yangon Myanmar CICC Japan Urdu in Bangladesh Dawn 11 September 2002 Government of Pakistan Population by Mother Tongue PDF Pakistan Bureau of Statistics Archived from the original PDF on 17 February 2006 In the lower courts in Pakistan despite the proceedings taking place in Urdu the documents are in English whereas in the higher courts i e the High Courts and the Supreme Court both documents and proceedings are in English Rahman Tariq 2010 Language Policy Identity and Religion PDF Islamabad Quaid i Azam University p 59 Archived from the original PDF on 21 October 2014 Retrieved 18 October 2014 Hussain Faqir 14 July 2015 Language change DAWN COM Retrieved 3 December 2019 Wasey Akhtarul 16 July 2014 50th Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India July 2012 to June 2013 PDF Archived from the original PDF on 8 July 2016 Retrieved 20 October 2016 Roy Anirban 28 February 2018 Kamtapuri Rajbanshi make it to list of official languages in India Today Archived from the original on 30 March 2018 Retrieved 31 March 2018 Paliwal Devika 24 September 2020 Parliament Nod to Bill for Declaration of 5 Official Languages for J amp K Law Times Journal Retrieved 24 June 2022 The Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir PDF Archived from the original PDF on 7 May 2012 a b Clyne Michael 24 May 2012 Pluricentric Languages Differing Norms in Different Nations Walter de Gruyter p 395 ISBN 978 3 11 088814 0 a b Everaert Christine 2010 Tracing the Boundaries Between Hindi and Urdu Lost and Added in Translation Between 20th Century Short Stories BRILL p 225 ISBN 978 90 04 17731 4 Learning In Urdish Archived from the original on 17 November 2015 Retrieved 10 October 2015 Yousafzai Fawad Govt to launch Ilm Pakistan on August 14 Ahsan Archived from the original on 17 November 2015 Retrieved 10 October 2015 Mustafa Zubeida Over to Urdish Archived from the original on 17 October 2015 Retrieved 10 October 2015 Hindi and Urdu are classified as literary registers of the same language Archived from the original on 2 June 2016 a b Peter Dass Rakesh 2019 Hindi Christian Literature in Contemporary India Routledge ISBN 978 1 00 070224 8 Two forms of the same language Nagarai Hindi and Persianized Hindi Urdu had identical grammar shared common words and roots and employed different scripts Kuiper Kathleen 2010 The Culture of India Rosen Publishing ISBN 978 1 61530 149 2 Urdu is closely related to Hindi a language that originated and developed in the Indian subcontinent They share the same Indic base and are so similar in phonology and grammar that they appear to be one language Bringing Order to Linguistic Diversity Language Planning in the British Raj Language in India Archived from the original on 26 May 2008 Retrieved 20 May 2008 A Brief Hindi Urdu FAQ sikmirza Archived from the original on 2 December 2007 Retrieved 20 May 2008 Hindi Urdu Language Instruction University of California Davis Archived from the original on 3 January 2015 Retrieved 3 January 2015 Hindi at Ethnologue 25th ed 2022 Urdu and its Contribution to Secular Values South Asian Voice Archived from the original on 11 November 2007 Retrieved 26 February 2008 The Annual of Urdu studies number 11 1996 Some notes on Hindi and Urdu pp 203 208 Shakespear John 1834 A dictionary Hindustani and English Black Kingsbury Parbury and Allen archived from the original on 28 July 2017 Fallon S W 1879 A new Hindustani English dictionary with illustrations from Hindustani literature and folk lore Banaras Printed at the Medical Hall Press archived from the original on 11 October 2014 Shapiro Michael C Schiffman Harold F 2019 Language and Society in South Asia Walter de Gruyter GmbH amp Co KG p 53 ISBN 978 3 11 085763 4 Clyne Michael 24 May 2012 Pluricentric Languages Differing Norms in Different Nations Walter de Gruyter p 391 ISBN 978 3 11 088814 0 A Brief Hindi Urdu FAQ sikmirza Archived from the original on 2 December 2007 Retrieved 20 May 2008 Hoernle August Friedrich Rudolf 1880 A Grammar of the Eastern Hindi Compared with the Other Gaudian Languages Accompanied by a Language map and Table of Alphabets Trubner pp vii Hence Urdu and High Hindi are really the same language they have an identical grammar and differ merely in the vocabulary the former using as many foreign words the latter as few as possible South Asia India The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency www cia gov Archived from the original on 11 June 2008 Retrieved 22 October 2019 a b Why did the Quaid make Urdu Pakistan s state language ePaper DAWN COM epaper dawn com 25 December 2017 Retrieved 3 December 2019 South Asia Pakistan The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency www cia gov Archived from the original on 24 May 2020 Retrieved 22 October 2019 Middle East Saudi Arabia The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency www cia gov Archived from the original on 8 January 2019 Retrieved 1 November 2019 South Asia Nepal The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency www cia gov Archived from the original on 26 December 2018 Retrieved 22 October 2019 Nepal Census PDF Europe United Kingdom The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency www cia gov Archived from the original on 7 January 2019 Retrieved 1 November 2019 North America United States The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency www cia gov Archived from the original on 26 December 2018 Retrieved 1 November 2019 Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over for United States 2009 2013 South Asia Bangladesh The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency www cia gov Archived from the original on 29 December 2017 Retrieved 3 November 2019 Urdu in Bangladesh PDF North America Canada The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency www cia gov Archived from the original on 24 December 2018 Retrieved 1 November 2019 Linguistic diversity and multilingualism in Canadian homes Statistics Canada 2 August 2017 a b Urdu Phonetic Inventory PDF Center for Language Engineering Retrieved 7 August 2020 Kachru 2006 20 Masica 1991 110 Ohala 1999 102 Farhang e Asifiya فرہنگ آصفیہ Urdu Gah a b c Ahmad Aijaz 2002 Lineages of the Present Ideology and Politics in Contemporary South Asia Verso p 113 ISBN 9781859843581 On this there are far more reliable statistics than those on population Farhang e Asafiya is by general agreement the most reliable Urdu dictionary It was compiled in the late nineteenth century by an Indian scholar little exposed to British or Orientalist scholarship The lexicographer in question Syed Ahmed Dehlavi had no desire to sunder Urdu s relationship with Farsi as is evident even from the title of his dictionary He estimates that roughly 75 per cent of the total stock of 55 000 Urdu words that he compiled in his dictionary are derived from Sanskrit and Prakrit and that the entire stock of the base words of the language without exception are derived from these sources What distinguishes Urdu from a great many other Indian languauges is that it draws almost a quarter of its vocabulary from language communities to the west of India such as Farsi Turkish and Tajik Most of the little it takes from Arabic has not come directly but through Farsi a b Dalmia Vasudha 31 July 2017 Hindu Pasts Women Religion Histories SUNY Press p 310 ISBN 9781438468075 On the issue of vocabulary Ahmad goes on to cite Syed Ahmad Dehlavi as he set about to compile the Farhang e Asafiya an Urdu dictionary in the late nineteenth century Syed Ahmad had no desire to sunder Urdu s relationship with Farsi as is evident from the title of his dictionary He estimates that roughly 75 percent of the total stock of 55 000 Urdu words that he compiled in his dictionary are derived from Sanskrit and Prakrit and that the entire stock of the base words of the language without exception are from these sources 2000 112 13 As Ahmad points out Syed Ahmad as a member of Delhi s aristocratic elite had a clear bias towards Persian and Arabic His estimate of the percentage of Prakitic words in Urdu should therefore be considered more conservative than not The actual proportion of Prakitic words in everyday language would clearly be much higher a b c Taj Afroz 1997 About Hindi Urdu University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Archived from the original on 15 August 2009 Retrieved 27 March 2018 Urdu s origin it s not a camp language dawn com 17 December 2011 Archived from the original on 24 September 2015 Retrieved 5 July 2015 Urdu nouns and adjective can have a variety of origins such as Arabic Persian Turkish Pushtu and even Portuguese but ninety nine per cent of Urdu verbs have their roots in Sanskrit Prakrit So it is an Indo Aryan language which is a branch of Indo Iranian family which in turn is a branch of Indo European family of languages According to Dr Gian Chand Jain Indo Aryan languages had three phases of evolution beginning around 1 500 BC and passing through the stages of Vedic Sanskrit classical Sanskrit and Pali They developed into Prakrit and Apbhransh which served as the basis for the formation of later local dialects India Perspectives Volume 8 PTI for the Ministry of External Affairs 1995 p 23 All verbs in Urdu are of Sanskrit origin According to lexicographers only about 25 percent words in Urdu diction have Persian or Arabic origin Versteegh Kees Versteegh C H M 1997 The Arabic Language Columbia University Press ISBN 9780231111522 of the Qufdn many Arabic loanwords in the indigenous languages as in Urdu and Indonesian were introduced mainly through the medium of Persian Khan Iqtidar Husain 1989 Studies in Contrastive Analysis The Department of Linguistics of Aligarh Muslim University p 5 It is estimated that almost 25 of the Urdu vocabulary consists of words which are of Persian and Arabic origin American Universities Field Staff 1966 Reports Service South Asia series American Universities Field Staff p 43 The Urdu vocabulary is about 30 Persian Naim C M 1999 Ambiguities of Heritage Fictions and Polemics City Press p 87 ISBN 978 969 8380 19 9 Das Sisir Kumar 2005 History of Indian Literature 1911 1956 struggle for freedom triumph and tragedy Sahitya Akademi ISBN 9788172017989 Professor Gopi Chand Narang points out that the trends towards Persianization in Urdu is not a new phenomenon It started with the Delhi school of poets in the eighteenth century in the name of standardization meyar bandi It further tilted towards Arabo Persian influences writes Narang with the rise of Iqbal The diction of Faiz Ahmad Faiz who came into prominence after the death of Iqbal is also marked by Persianization so it is the diction of N M Rashid who popularised free verse in Urdu poetry Rashid s language is clearly marked by fresh Iranian influences as compared to another trend setter Meeraji Meeraji is on the other extreme because he used Hindized Urdu Shackle C 1 January 1990 Hindi and Urdu Since 1800 A Common Reader Heritage Publishers ISBN 9788170261629 Kaye Alan S 30 June 1997 Phonologies of Asia and Africa including the Caucasus Eisenbrauns ISBN 9781575060194 Patel Aakar 6 January 2013 Kids have it right boundaries of Urdu and Hindi are blurred Firstpost Retrieved 9 November 2019 Gangan Surendra 30 November 2011 In Pakistan Hindi flows smoothly into Urdu DNA India Retrieved 9 November 2019 That Bollywood and Hindi television daily soaps are a hit in Pakistan is no news So it s hardly surprising that the Urdu speaking population picks up and uses Hindi even the tapori lingo in its everyday interaction The trend became popular a few years ago after Hindi films were officially allowed to be released in Pakistan said Rafia Taj head of the mass communication department University of Karachi I don t think it s a threat to our language as it is bound to happen in the globalisation era It is anytime better than the attack of western slangs on our language she added Clyne Michael 24 May 2012 Pluricentric Languages Differing Norms in Different Nations Walter de Gruyter ISBN 978 3 11 088814 0 Jain Danesh Cardona George 26 July 2007 The Indo Aryan Languages Routledge p 294 ISBN 978 1 135 79711 9 Paul Teyssier Historia da Lingua Portuguesa S 94 Lisbon 1987 Peter Austin 1 September 2008 One thousand languages living endangered and lost University of California Press pp 120 ISBN 978 0 520 25560 9 Archived from the original on 9 May 2013 Retrieved 29 December 2011 InpaperMagazine 13 November 2011 Language Urdu and the borrowed words dawn com Archived from the original on 2 July 2015 Retrieved 29 March 2015 John R Perry Lexical Areas and Semantic Fields of Arabic in Eva Agnes Csato Eva Agnes Csato Bo Isaksson Carina Jahani Linguistic convergence and areal diffusion case studies from Iranian Semitic and Turkic Routledge 2005 pg 97 It is generally understood that the bulk of the Arabic vocabulary in the central contiguous Iranian Turkic and Indic languages was originally borrowed into literary Persian between the ninth and thirteenth centuries Maria Isabel Maldonado Garcia Mustafa Yapici 2014 Common Vocabulary in Urdu and Turkish Language A Case of Historical Onomasiology PDF Journal of Pakistan Vision 15 1 193 122 Archived from the original PDF on 27 September 2015 Colin P Masica The Indo Aryan languages Cambridge Language Surveys Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1993 466 Khan Sajjad Waqas Anwar Usama Bajwa and Xuan Wang Template Based Affix Stemmer for a Morphologically Rich Language International Arab Journal of Information Technology IAJIT 12 no 2 2015 Aijazuddin Ahmad 2009 Geography of the South Asian Subcontinent A Critical Approach Concept Publishing Company pp 120 ISBN 978 81 8069 568 1 The very word Urdu came into being as the original Lashkari dialect in other words the language of the army About Urdu Afroz Taj University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Archived from the original on 15 August 2009 Retrieved 26 February 2008 India The Last Handwritten Newspaper in the World Global Voices Archived 1 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine Globalvoices org 26 March 2012 Retrieved on 12 July 2013 Pandey Anshuman 13 December 2007 Proposal to Encode the Kaithi Script in ISO IEC 10646 PDF Unicode Retrieved 16 October 2020 Kaithi was used for writing Urdu in the law courts of Bihar when it replaced Perso Arabic as the official script during the 1880s The majority of extant legal documents from Bihar from the British period are in Urdu written in Kaithi There is a substantial number of such manuscripts specimens of which are given in Figure 21 Figure 22 and Figure 23 King Christopher Rolland 1999 One Language Two Scripts The Hindi Movement in Nineteenth Century North India Oxford University Press p 67 ISBN 978 0 19 565112 6 Ashraf Ali 1982 The Muslim Elite Atlantic Publishers amp Distributors p 80 The court language however was Urdu in Kaithi script in spite of the use of English as the official language Varma K K Lal Manohar 1997 Social Realities in Bihar Novelty amp Company p 347 The language of learning and administration in Bihar before the East India Company was Persian and later it was replaced by English The court language however continued to be Urdu written in Kaithi script ghose sagarika Urdu Bharti न कर क ल ए भटक रह ह 4 हज र उर द श क षक क र ट क र ट ख ल रह ह सरक र Navbharat Times in Hindi Retrieved 13 September 2020 Ahmad Rizwan 2011 Urdu in Devanagari Shifting orthographic practices and Muslim identity in Delhi Language in Society Cambridge University Press 40 3 259 284 doi 10 1017 S0047404511000182 hdl 10576 10736 JSTOR 23011824 S2CID 55975387 ব দ র হ কব নজর ল একট ব ল ট ক ব কব ত র উপ খ য ন in Bengali 1 June 2014 Islam Rafiqul 1969 নজর ল ন র দ শ ক in Bengali Khan Azahar Uddin 1956 ব ল স হ ত য নজর ল Nazrul in Bengali literature in Bengali Muhammad Shahabuddin Sabu Nazir Uddin eds 2021 ব ল ঢ ক ইয স ব ব স ড ক স ন র ব ল ঢ ক ইয স ব ব স অভ ধ ন in Bengali Bangla Bazar Dhaka Takiya Mohammad Publications ব ল ঢ ক ইয স ব ব স অভ ধ ন র ম ড ক উন ম চন Unveiling of Bangla Dhakaiya Sobbasi Dictionary Samakal in Bengali 17 January 2021 Sources Kachru Yamuna 2006 Hindi John Benjamins Publishing ISBN 90 272 3812 X Masica Colin 1991 The Indo Aryan Languages Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 29944 2 Ohala Manjari 1999 Hindi In International Phonetic Association ed Handbook of the International Phonetic Association a Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet Cambridge University Press pp 100 103 ISBN 978 0 521 63751 0 Further readingHenry Blochmann 1877 English and Urdu dictionary romanized 8 ed CALCUTTA Printed at the Baptist mission press for the Calcutta school book society p 215 Retrieved 6 July 2011 the University of Michigan John Dowson 1908 A grammar of the Urdu or Hindustani language 3 ed LONDON K Paul Trench Trubner amp Co ltd p 264 Retrieved 6 July 2011 the University of Michigan John Dowson 1872 A grammar of the Urdu or Hindustani language LONDON Trubner amp Co p 264 Retrieved 6 July 2011 Oxford University John Thompson Platts 1874 A grammar of the Hindustani or Urdu language LONDON W H Allen p 399 Retrieved 6 July 2011 Oxford University John Thompson Platts 1892 A grammar of the Hindustani or Urdu language LONDON W H Allen p 399 Retrieved 6 July 2011 the New York Public Library John Thompson Platts 1884 A dictionary of Urdu classical Hindi and English reprint ed LONDON H Milford p 1259 Retrieved 6 July 2011 Oxford University Alam Muzaffar 1998 The Pursuit of Persian Language in Mughal Politics In Modern Asian Studies vol 32 no 2 May 1998 pp 317 349 Asher R E Ed 1994 The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics Oxford Pergamon Press ISBN 0 08 035943 4 Azad Muhammad Husain 2001 1907 Aab e hayat Lahore Naval Kishor Gais Printing Works 1907 in Urdu Delhi Oxford University Press 2001 In English translation Azim Anwar 1975 Urdu a victim of cultural genocide In Z Imam Ed Muslims in India p 259 Bhatia Tej K 1996 Colloquial Hindi The Complete Course for Beginners London UK amp New York NY Routledge ISBN 0 415 11087 4 Book 0415110882 Cassettes 0415110890 Book amp Cassette Course Bhatia Tej K and Koul Ashok 2000 Colloquial Urdu The Complete Course for Beginners London Routledge ISBN 0 415 13540 0 Book ISBN 0 415 13541 9 cassette ISBN 0 415 13542 7 book and casseettes course Chatterji Suniti K 1960 Indo Aryan and Hindi rev 2nd ed Calcutta Firma K L Mukhopadhyay Dua Hans R 1992 Hindi Urdu as a pluricentric language In M G Clyne Ed Pluricentric languages Differing norms in different nations Berlin Mouton de Gruyter ISBN 3 11 012855 1 Dua Hans R 1994a Hindustani In Asher 1994 pp 1554 Dua Hans R 1994b Urdu In Asher 1994 pp 4863 4864 Durrani Attash Dr 2008 Pakistani Urdu Islamabad National Language Authority Pakistan Gumperz John J 1982 Discourse Strategies Cambridge Cambridge University Press Retrieved 24 March 2022 Hassan Nazir and Omkar N Koul 1980 Urdu Phonetic Reader Mysore Central Institute of Indian Languages Syed Maqsud Jamil 16 June 2006 The Literary Heritage of Urdu Daily Star Kelkar A R 1968 Studies in Hindi Urdu Introduction and word phonology Poona Deccan College Khan M H 1969 Urdu In T A Sebeok Ed Current trends in linguistics Vol 5 The Hague Mouton King Christopher R 1994 One Language Two Scripts The Hindi Movement in Nineteenth Century North India Bombay Oxford University Press Koul Ashok K 2008 Urdu Script and Vocabulary Delhi Indian Institute of Language Studies Koul Omkar N 1994 Hindi Phonetic Reader Delhi Indian Institute of Language Studies Koul Omkar N 2008 Modern Hindi Grammar PDF Springfield Dunwoody Press Archived from the original PDF on 28 August 2017 Retrieved 23 November 2019 Narang G C Becker D A 1971 Aspiration and nasalization in the generative phonology of Hindi Urdu Language 47 3 646 767 doi 10 2307 412381 JSTOR 412381 Ohala M 1972 Topics in Hindi Urdu phonology PhD dissertation University of California Los Angeles A Desertful of Roses a site about Ghalib s Urdu ghazals by Dr Frances W Pritchett Professor of Modern Indic Languages at Columbia University New York NY USA Phukan Shantanu 2000 The Rustic Beloved Ecology of Hindi in a Persianate World The Annual of Urdu Studies 15 5 1 30 hdl 1793 18139 The Comparative study of Urdu and Khowar Badshah Munir Bukhari National Language Authority Pakistan 2003 Rai Amrit 1984 A house divided The origin and development of Hindi Hindustani Delhi Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 561643 X Snell Rupert Teach yourself Hindi A complete guide for beginners Lincolnwood IL NTC King Robert D 2001 The poisonous potency of script Hindi and Urdu PDF International Journal of the Sociology of Language 2001 150 43 59 doi 10 1515 ijsl 2001 035 Ramkrishna Mukherjee 2018 Understanding Social Dynamics in South Asia Essays in Memory of Ramkrishna Mukherjee Springer pp 221 ISBN 9789811303876 Economic and Political Weekly Sameeksha Trust 1996 External linksUrdu at Wikipedia s sister projects Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Textbooks from Wikibooks Phrasebook from Wikivoyage Urdu Edition from Wikipedia Urdu at Curlie Directory of Urdu websites Type in Urdu Urdu Scholarship Maldonado Garcia Urdu Digital Library ترتیب وڈیزائننگ ایم پی خان اردولشکری زبان The Urdu Latin alphabet by Adnaan Mahmood Haruf e Tana by Punya Pranava Pasumarty shanurdu By Maqbool Jahangir Urdu Language History and Development By editorji Magazine Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Urdu amp oldid 1143945952, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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