Nahuatl

Nahuatl (English: /ˈnɑːwɑːtəl/ NAH-wah-təl;^[5] Nahuatl pronunciation: [ˈnaːwat͡ɬ] ^ⓘ),^{[cn 1]} Aztec, or Mexicano^[8] is a language or, by some definitions, a group of languages of the Uto-Aztecan language family. Varieties of Nahuatl are spoken by about 1.7 million Nahua peoples, most of whom live mainly in Central Mexico and have smaller populations in the United States.

Nahuatl
Aztec, Mexicano
Nawatlahtolli, mexikatlahtolli,^[1] mexkatl, mexikanoh, masewaltlahtol
Nahua man from the Florentine Codex. The speech scrolls indicate speech or song.
Native to	Mexico
Region	Mexico: Puebla Veracruz Hidalgo Guerrero San Luis Potosí State of Mexico Nuevo León Mexico City Morelos Tlaxcala Jalisco Tamaulipas Oaxaca Michoacán Durango Chihuahua Communities in: US El Salvador Nicaragua Guatemala Honduras Costa Rica Canada
Ethnicity	Nahua peoples
Native speakers	1.7 million in Mexico (2020 census)^[2]
Language family	Uto-Aztecan Southern Uto-Aztecan Nahuan Nahuatl
Early form	Proto-Nahuan
Dialects	Western Peripheral Nahuatl Eastern Peripheral Nahuatl Huasteca Nahuatl Central Nahuatl languages
Writing system	Latin Aztec script (up to 16th century)
Official status
Official language in	Mexico (through the General Law of Linguistic Rights of Indigenous Peoples)^[3]
Regulated by	Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas^[4]
Language codes
ISO 639-2	nah
ISO 639-3	nhe Huasteca Nahuatl For other varieties, see Nahuan languages
Glottolog	azte1234  Aztec
Pre-contact (green) and current (red) extent of Nahuatl as a dominant language in Mexico
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Nahuatl has been spoken in central Mexico since at least the seventh century CE.^[9] It was the language of the Aztec/Mexica, who dominated what is now central Mexico during the Late Postclassic period of Mesoamerican history. During the centuries preceding the Spanish and Tlaxcalan conquest of the Aztec Empire, the Aztecs had expanded to incorporate a large part of central Mexico. Their influence caused the variety of Nahuatl spoken by the residents of Tenochtitlan to become a prestige language in Mesoamerica.

After the conquest, when Spanish colonists and missionaries introduced the Latin alphabet, Nahuatl also became a literary language. Many chronicles, grammars, works of poetry, administrative documents and codices were written in it during the 16th and 17th centuries.^[10] This early literary language based on the Tenochtitlan variety has been labeled Classical Nahuatl. It is among the most studied and best-documented Indigenous languages of the Americas.^[11]

Today, Nahuan languages are spoken in scattered communities, mostly in rural areas throughout central Mexico and along the coastline. There are considerable differences among varieties, and some are not mutually intelligible. Huasteca Nahuatl, with over one million speakers, is the most-spoken variety. All varieties have been subject to varying degrees of influence from Spanish. No modern Nahuan languages are identical to Classical Nahuatl, but those spoken in and around the Valley of Mexico are generally more closely related to it than those on the periphery.^[12] Under Mexico's General Law of Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Peoples, promulgated in 2003,^[13] Nahuatl and the other 63 indigenous languages of Mexico are recognized as lenguas nacionales ('national languages') in the regions where they are spoken. They are given the same status as Spanish within their respective regions.^{[cn 2]}

Nahuan languages exhibit a complex morphology, or system of word formation, characterized by polysynthesis and agglutination. This means that morphemes – words or fragments of words that each contain their own separate meaning – are often strung together to make longer complex words.

Through a very long period of development alongside other indigenous Mesoamerican languages, they have absorbed many influences, coming to form part of the Mesoamerican language area. Many words from Nahuatl were absorbed into Spanish and, from there, were diffused into hundreds of other languages in the region. Most of these loanwords denote things indigenous to central Mexico, which the Spanish heard mentioned for the first time by their Nahuatl names. English has also absorbed words of Nahuatl origin, including avocado, chayote, chili, chipotle, chocolate, atlatl, coyote, peyote, axolotl and tomato.

Classification

Main article: Nahuan languages

 

Tree diagram of the relation between the Nahuan languages and the rest of the Uto-Aztecan language family, based on the internal classification of Nahuan given by Terrence Kaufman (2001)

As a language label, the term Nahuatl encompasses a group of closely related languages or divergent dialects within the Nahuan branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family. The Mexican Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas (National Institute of Indigenous Languages) recognizes 30 individual varieties within the "language group" labeled Nahuatl. The Ethnologue recognizes 28 varieties with separate ISO codes. Sometimes Nahuatl is also applied to the Pipil language (Nawat) of El Salvador and Nicaragua. Regardless of whether Nahuatl is considered to refer to a dialect continuum or a group of separate languages, the varieties form a single branch within the Uto-Aztecan family, descended from a single Proto-Nahuan language. Within Mexico, the question of whether to consider individual varieties to be languages or dialects of a single language is highly political.^[14]

In the past, the branch of Uto-Aztecan to which Nahuatl belongs has been called Aztecan. From the 1990s onward, the alternative designation Nahuan has been frequently used instead, especially in Spanish-language publications. The Nahuan (Aztecan) branch of Uto-Aztecan is widely accepted as having two divisions: General Aztec and Pochutec.^[15]

General Aztec encompasses the Nahuatl and Pipil languages.^{[cn 3]} Pochutec is a scantily attested language, which became extinct in the 20th century,^[16][17] and which Campbell and Langacker classify as being outside general Aztec. Other researchers have argued that Pochutec should be considered a divergent variant of the western periphery.^[18]

Nahuatl denotes at least Classical Nahuatl, together with related modern languages spoken in Mexico. The inclusion of Pipil in this group is debated among linguists. Lyle Campbell (1997) classified Pipil as separate from the Nahuatl branch within general Aztecan, whereas dialectologists such as Una Canger, Karen Dakin, Yolanda Lastra, and Terrence Kaufman have preferred to include Pipil within the General Aztecan branch, citing close historical ties with the eastern peripheral dialects of General Aztec.^[19]

Current subclassification of Nahuatl rests on research by Canger (1980), Canger (1988) and Lastra de Suárez (1986). Canger introduced the scheme of a Central grouping and two Peripheral groups, and Lastra confirmed this notion, differing in some details. Canger & Dakin (1985) demonstrated a basic split between Eastern and Western branches of Nahuan, considered to reflect the oldest division of the proto-Nahuan speech community. Canger originally considered the central dialect area to be an innovative subarea within the Western branch, but in 2011, she suggested that it arose as an urban koiné language with features from both Western and Eastern dialect areas. Canger (1988) tentatively included dialects of La Huasteca in the Central group, while Lastra de Suárez (1986) places them in the Eastern Periphery, which was followed by Kaufman (2001).

Terminology

The terminology used to describe varieties of spoken Nahuatl is inconsistently applied. Many terms are used with multiple denotations, or a single dialect grouping goes under several names. Sometimes, older terms are substituted with newer ones or with the speakers' own name for their specific variety. The word Nahuatl is itself a Nahuatl word, probably derived from the word nāhuatlahtōlli [naːwat͡ɬaʔˈtoːliˀ] ('clear language'). The language was formerly called Aztec because it was spoken by the Central Mexican peoples known as Aztecs (Nahuatl pronunciation: [asˈteːkaḁ]). During the period of the Aztec empire centered in Mexico-Tenochtitlan the language came to be identified with the politically dominant mēxihcah [meːˈʃiʔkaḁ] ethnic group, and consequently the Nahuatl language was often described as mēxihcacopa [meːʃiʔkaˈkopaˀ] (literally 'in the manner of Mexicas')^[20] or mēxihcatlahtolli 'Mexica language'. Now, the term Aztec is rarely used for modern Nahuan languages, but linguists' traditional name of Aztecan for the branch of Uto-Aztecan that comprises Nahuatl, Pipil, and Pochutec is still in use (although some linguists prefer Nahuan). Since 1978, the term General Aztec has been adopted by linguists to refer to the languages of the Aztecan branch excluding the Pochutec language.^[21]

The speakers of Nahuatl themselves often refer to their language as either Mexicano^[22] or some word derived from mācēhualli, the Nahuatl word for 'commoner'. One example of the latter is the Nahuatl spoken in Tetelcingo, Morelos, whose speakers call their language mösiehuali.^[23] The Pipil people of El Salvador do not call their own language Pipil, as most linguists do, but rather nāwat.^[24] The Nahuas of Durango call their language Mexicanero.^[25] Speakers of Nahuatl of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec call their language mela'tajtol ('the straight language').^[26] Some speech communities use Nahuatl as the name for their language, although it seems to be a recent innovation. Linguists commonly identify localized dialects of Nahuatl by adding as a qualifier the name of the village or area where that variety is spoken.^[27]

History

Main article: History of Nahuatl

Pre-Columbian period

On the issue of geographic origin, the consensus of linguists during the 20th century was that the Uto-Aztecan language family originated in the southwestern United States.^[28] Evidence from archaeology and ethnohistory supports the thesis of a southward diffusion across the North American continent, specifically that speakers of early Nahuan languages migrated from Aridoamerica into central Mexico in several waves. But recently, the traditional assessment has been challenged by Jane H. Hill, who proposes instead that the Uto-Aztecan language family originated in central Mexico and spread northwards at a very early date.^[29] This hypothesis and the analyses of data that it rests upon have received serious criticism.^[30][31]

The proposed migration of speakers of the Proto-Nahuan language into the Mesoamerican region has been placed at sometime around AD 500, towards the end of the Early Classic period in Mesoamerican chronology.^[32][33][34] Before reaching the Mexican Plateau, pre-Nahuan groups probably spent a period of time in contact with the Corachol languages Cora and Huichol of northwestern Mexico (which are also Uto-Aztecan).^[35]

The major political and cultural center of Mesoamerica in the Early Classic period was Teotihuacan. The identity of the language(s) spoken by Teotihuacan's founders has long been debated, with the relationship of Nahuatl to Teotihuacan being prominent in that enquiry.^[36] While in the 19th and early 20th centuries it was presumed that Teotihuacan had been founded by speakers of Nahuatl, later linguistic and archaeological research tended to disconfirm this view. Instead, the timing of the Nahuatl influx was seen to coincide more closely with Teotihuacan's fall than its rise, and other candidates such as Totonacan identified as more likely.^[37] But recently, evidence from Mayan epigraphy of possible Nahuatl loanwords in Mayan languages has been interpreted as demonstrating that other Mesoamerican languages may have been borrowing words from Proto-Nahuan (or its early descendants) significantly earlier than previously thought, bolstering the possibility of a significant Nahuatl presence at Teotihuacan.^[38]

In Mesoamerica the Mayan, Oto-Manguean and Mixe–Zoque languages had coexisted for millennia. This had given rise to the Mesoamerican language area (language area refers to a set of language traits have become common among the area's languages by diffusion and not by evolution within a set of languages belonging to a common genetic subgrouping). After the Nahuas migrated into the Mesoamerican cultural zone, their language too adopted some of the traits defining the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area.^[39] Examples of such adopted traits are the use of relational nouns, the appearance of calques, or loan translations, and a form of possessive construction typical of Mesoamerican languages.

A language which was the ancestor of Pochutec split from Proto-Nahuan (or Proto-Aztecan) possibly as early as AD 400, arriving in Mesoamerica a few centuries earlier than the bulk of speakers of Nahuan languages.^[9] Some Nahuan groups migrated south along the Central American isthmus, reaching as far as Nicaragua. The critically endangered Pipil language of El Salvador is the only living descendant of the variety of Nahuatl once spoken south of present-day Mexico.^[40]

Beginning in the 7th century, Nahuan speakers rose to power in central Mexico. The people of the Toltec culture of Tula, which was active in central Mexico around the 10th century, are thought to have been Nahuatl speakers. By the 11th century, Nahuatl speakers were dominant in the Valley of Mexico and far beyond, with settlements including Azcapotzalco, Colhuacan and Cholula rising to prominence. Nahua migrations into the region from the north continued into the Postclassic period. One of the last of these migrations to arrive in the Valley of Mexico settled on an island in the Lake Texcoco and proceeded to subjugate the surrounding tribes. This group was the Mexica, who over the course of the next three centuries founded an empire named Tenochtitlan. Their political and linguistic influence came to extend into Central America and Nahuatl became a lingua franca among merchants and elites in Mesoamerica, e.g., among the Maya Kʼicheʼ people.^[41] As Tenochtitlan grew to become the largest urban center in Central America and one of the largest in the world at the time,^[42] it attracted speakers of Nahuatl from diverse areas giving birth to an urban form of Nahuatl with traits from many dialects. This urbanized variety of Tenochtitlan is what came to be known as Classical Nahuatl as documented in colonial times.^[43]

Colonial period

With the arrival of the Spanish in 1519, Nahuatl was displaced as the dominant regional language, but remained important in Nahua communities under Spanish rule. There is extensive colonial-era documentation in Nahuatl for Tlaxcala, Cuernavaca, Culhuacan, Coyoacan, Toluca and other locations in the Valley of Mexico and beyond. Starting in the 1970s, scholars of Mesoamerican ethnohistory have analyzed local-level texts in Nahuatl and other indigenous languages to gain insight into cultural change in the colonial era via linguistic changes, known at present as the New Philology.^[44] A number of these texts have been translated and published in part or in their entirety. The types of documentation include censuses, especially a very early set from the Cuernavaca region,^[45][46] town council records from Tlaxcala,^[47] and testaments of individual Nahuas.^[48]

Since the Spanish made alliances with first the Nahuatl speakers from Tlaxcala and later with the conquered Mexica of Tenochtitlan (Aztecs), the Nahuatl continued spreading throughout Mesoamerica in the decades after the conquest. Spanish expeditions with thousands of Nahua soldiers marched north and south to conquer new territories. Society of Jesus missions in northern Mexico and the Southwestern United States often included a barrio of Tlaxcaltec soldiers who remained to guard the mission.^[49] For example, some fourteen years after the northeastern city of Saltillo was founded in 1577, a Tlaxcaltec community was resettled in a separate nearby village, San Esteban de Nueva Tlaxcala, to cultivate the land and aid colonization efforts that had stalled in the face of local hostility to the Spanish settlement.^[50] As for the conquest of modern-day Central America, Pedro de Alvarado conquered Guatemala with the help of tens of thousands of Tlaxcaltec allies, who then settled outside of modern-day Antigua Guatemala.^[51]

 

Page of Book IV from the Florentine Codex. The text is in Nahuatl written in the Latin alphabet.

As a part of their missionary efforts, members of various religious orders (principally Franciscan and Dominican friars and Jesuits) introduced the Latin alphabet to the Nahuas. Within the first twenty years after the Spanish arrival, texts were being prepared in the Nahuatl language written in Latin characters.^[52] Simultaneously, schools were founded, such as the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco in 1536, which taught both indigenous and classical European languages to both Native Americans and priests. Missionary grammarians undertook the writing of grammars, also called artes, of indigenous languages for use by priests. The first Nahuatl grammar, written by Andrés de Olmos, was published in 1547 – three years before the first French grammar. By 1645, four more had been published, authored respectively by Alonso de Molina (1571), Antonio del Rincón (1595),^[53] Diego de Galdo Guzmán (1642), and Horacio Carochi (1645).^[54] Carochi's is today considered the most important of the colonial-era grammars of Nahuatl.^[55] Carochi has been particularly important for scholars working in the New Philology, such that there is a 2001 English translation of Carochi's 1645 grammar by James Lockhart.^[56] Through contact with Spanish the Nahuatl language adopted many loan words, and as bilingualism intensified, changes in the grammatical structure of Nahuatl followed.^[57]

 

Text about the language by Fray Joseph de Carranza, second half of the 18th century (click to read)

In 1570, King Philip II of Spain decreed that Nahuatl should become the official language of the colonies of New Spain to facilitate communication between the Spanish and natives of the colonies.^[58] This led to Spanish missionaries teaching Nahuatl to Amerindians living as far south as Honduras and El Salvador. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Classical Nahuatl was used as a literary language, and a large corpus of texts from that period exists today. They include histories, chronicles, poetry, theatrical works, Christian canonical works, ethnographic descriptions, and administrative documents. The Spanish permitted a great deal of autonomy in the local administration of indigenous towns during this period, and in many Nahuatl-speaking towns the language was the de facto administrative language both in writing and speech. A large body of Nahuatl literature was composed during this period, including the Florentine Codex, a twelve-volume compendium of Aztec culture compiled by Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún; Crónica Mexicayotl, a chronicle of the royal lineage of Tenochtitlan by Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc; Cantares Mexicanos, a collection of songs in Nahuatl; a Nahuatl-Spanish/Spanish-Nahuatl dictionary compiled by Alonso de Molina; and the Huei tlamahuiçoltica, a description in Nahuatl of the apparition of Our Lady of Guadalupe.^[59]

Grammars and dictionaries of indigenous languages were composed throughout the colonial period, but their quality was highest in the initial period.^[60] The friars found that learning all the indigenous languages was impossible in practice, so they concentrated on Nahuatl. For a time, the linguistic situation in Mesoamerica remained relatively stable, but in 1696, Charles II of Spain issued a decree banning the use of any language other than Spanish throughout the Spanish Empire. In 1770, another decree, calling for the elimination of the indigenous languages, did away with Classical Nahuatl as a literary language.^[58] Until Mexican Independence in 1821, the Spanish courts admitted Nahuatl testimony and documentation as evidence in lawsuits, with court translators rendering it in Spanish.^[61]

Modern period

Throughout the modern period the situation of indigenous languages has grown increasingly precarious in Mexico, and the numbers of speakers of virtually all indigenous languages have dwindled. Although the absolute number of Nahuatl speakers has actually risen over the past century, indigenous populations have become increasingly marginalized in Mexican society. In 1895, Nahuatl was spoken by over 5% of the population. By 2000, this proportion had fallen to 1.49%. Given the process of marginalization combined with the trend of migration to urban areas and to the United States, some linguists are warning of impending language death.^[62] At present Nahuatl is mostly spoken in rural areas by an impoverished class of indigenous subsistence agriculturists. According to the Mexican national statistics institute, INEGI, 51% of Nahuatl speakers are involved in the farming sector and 6 in 10 receive no wages or less than the minimum wage.^[63]

From the early 20th century to at least the mid-1980s, educational policies in Mexico focused on the Hispanicization (castellanización) of indigenous communities, teaching only Spanish and discouraging the use of indigenous languages.^[64] As a result, today there is no group of Nahuatl speakers having attained general literacy in Nahuatl,^[65] while their literacy rate in Spanish also remains much lower than the national average.^[66] Even so, Nahuatl is still spoken by well over a million people, of whom around 10% are monolingual. The survival of Nahuatl as a whole is not imminently endangered, but the survival of certain dialects is, and some dialects have already become extinct within the last few decades of the 20th century.^[67]

The 1990s saw the onset of a radical change in official Mexican government policies towards indigenous and linguistic rights. Developments of accords in the international rights arena^{[cn 4]} combined with domestic pressures (such as social and political agitation by the Zapatista Army of National Liberation and indigenous social movements) led to legislative reforms and the creation of decentralized government agencies like the National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples (CDI) and the Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas (INALI) with responsibilities for the promotion and protection of indigenous communities and languages.^[68]

In particular, the federal Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas ['General Law on the Language Rights of the Indigenous Peoples', promulgated 13 March 2003] recognizes all the country's indigenous languages, including Nahuatl, as national languages and gives indigenous people the right to use them in all spheres of public and private life. In Article 11, it grants access to compulsory, bilingual and intercultural education.^[69] Nonetheless, progress towards institutionalizing Nahuatl and securing linguistic rights for its speakers has been slow.^[57]

Demography and distribution

Main articles: Nahuan languages and Nahua peoples

Nahuatl speakers over 5 years of age in the ten states with most speakers (2000 census data). Absolute and relative numbers. Percentages given are in comparison to the total population of the corresponding state. INEGI (2005:4)

Region	Totals	Percentages
Federal District	37,450	0.44%
Guerrero	136,681	4.44%
Hidalgo	221,684	9.92%
State of Mexico	55,802	0.43%
Morelos	18,656	1.20%
Oaxaca	10,979	0.32%
Puebla	416,968	8.21%
San Luis Potosí	138,523	6.02%
Tlaxcala	23,737	2.47%
Veracruz	338,324	4.90%
Rest of Mexico	50,132	0.10%
Total:	1,448,937	1.49%

 

Map showing the areas of Mexico where Nahuatl is spoken today

Today, a spectrum of Nahuan languages are spoken in scattered areas stretching from the northern state of Durango to Tabasco in the southeast. Pipil,^[24] the southernmost Nahuan language, is spoken in El Salvador by a small number of speakers. According to IRIN-International, the Nawat Language Recovery Initiative project, there are no reliable figures for the contemporary numbers of speakers of Pipil. Numbers may range anywhere from "perhaps a few hundred people, perhaps only a few dozen".^[70]

According to the 2000 census by INEGI, Nahuatl is spoken by an estimated 1.45 million people, some 198,000 (14.9%) of whom are monolingual.^[71] There are many more female than male monolinguals, and women represent nearly two-thirds of the total number. The states of Guerrero and Hidalgo have the highest rates of monolingual Nahuatl speakers relative to the total Nahuatl speaking population, at 24.2% and 22.6%, respectively. For most other states the percentage of monolinguals among the speakers is less than 5%. This means that in most states more than 95% of the Nahuatl speaking population are bilingual in Spanish.^[72]

The largest concentrations of Nahuatl speakers are found in the states of Puebla, Veracruz, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí, and Guerrero. Significant populations are also found in the State of Mexico, Morelos, and the Federal District, with smaller communities in Michoacán and Durango. Nahuatl became extinct in the states of Jalisco and Colima during the 20th century. As a result of internal migration within the country, Nahuatl speaking communities exist in all states in Mexico. The modern influx of Mexican workers and families into the United States has resulted in the establishment of a few small Nahuatl speaking communities in the U.S., particularly in California, New York, Texas, New Mexico and Arizona.^[73]

Phonology

Nahuan languages are defined as a subgroup of Uto-Aztecan by having undergone a number of shared changes from the Uto-Aztecan protolanguage (PUA). The table below shows the phonemic inventory of Classical Nahuatl as an example of a typical Nahuan language. In some dialects, the /t͡ɬ/ phoneme, which was common in Classical Nahuatl, has changed into either /t/, as in Isthmus Nahuatl, Mexicanero and Pipil, or into /l/, as in Michoacán Nahuatl.^[74] Many dialects no longer distinguish between short and long vowels. Some have introduced completely new vowel qualities to compensate, as is the case for Tetelcingo Nahuatl.^[23] Others have developed a pitch accent, such as Nahuatl of Oapan, Guerrero.^[75] Many modern dialects have also borrowed phonemes from Spanish, such as /β, d, ɡ, ɸ/.^[76]

Phonemes

Classical Nahuatl Consonants Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal central lateral plain labialized Nasal m n Plosive p t k kʷ ʔ Affricate ts tɬ tʃ Continuant s l ʃ (h)* Semivowel j w Classical Nahuatl Vowels Front Central Back long short long short long short Close iː i oː~uː o~u Mid eː e Open aː a

• * The glottal phoneme, called the saltillo, occurs only after vowels. In many modern dialects it is realized as a [h], but in others, as in Classical Nahuatl, it is a glottal stop [ʔ].^[77]

In many Nahuatl dialects vowel length contrast is vague, and in others it has become lost entirely. The dialect of Tetelcingo (nhg) developed the vowel length into a difference in quality:^[78]

	Long vowels				Short vowels
Classical Nahuatl	/iː/	/eː/	/aː/	/oː/	/i/	/e/	/a/	/o/
Tetelcingo dialect	/i/	/i̯e/	/ɔ/	/u/	/ɪ/	/e/	/a/	/o/

Allophony

Most varieties have relatively simple patterns of sound alternation (allophony). In many dialects, the voiced consonants are devoiced in word-final position and in consonant clusters: /j/ devoices to a palato-alveolar sibilant /ʃ/,^[79] /w/ devoices to a glottal fricative [h] or to a labialized velar approximant [ʍ], and /l/ devoices to a fricative [ɬ]. In some dialects, the first consonant in almost any consonant cluster becomes [h]. Some dialects have productive lenition of voiceless consonants into their voiced counterparts between vowels. The nasals are normally assimilated to the place of articulation of a following consonant. The voiceless alveolar lateral affricate [t͡ɬ] is assimilated after /l/ and pronounced [l].^[80]

Phonotactics

Classical Nahuatl and most of the modern varieties have fairly simple phonological systems. They allow only syllables with maximally one initial and one final consonant.^[81] Consonant clusters occur only word-medially and over syllable boundaries. Some morphemes have two alternating forms: one with a vowel i to prevent consonant clusters and one without it. For example, the absolutive suffix has the variant forms -tli (used after consonants) and -tl (used after vowels).^[82] Some modern varieties, however, have formed complex clusters from vowel loss. Others have contracted syllable sequences, causing accents to shift or vowels to become long.^{[cn 5]}

Stress

Most Nahuatl dialects have stress on the penultimate syllable of a word. In Mexicanero from Durango, many unstressed syllables have disappeared from words, and the placement of syllable stress has become phonemic.^[83]

Morphology and syntax

For details, see Classical Nahuatl grammar.

The Nahuatl languages are agglutinative, polysynthetic languages that make extensive use of compounding, incorporation and derivation. That is, they can add many different prefixes and suffixes to a root until very long words are formed, and a single word can constitute an entire sentence.^[84]

The following verb shows how the verb is marked for subject, patient, object, and indirect object:

ni-

I-

mits-

you-

teː-

someone-

tla-

something-

makiː

give

-lti

-CAUS

-s

-FUT

ni- mits- teː- tla- makiː -lti -s

I- you- someone- something- give -CAUS -FUT

"I shall make somebody give something to you"^{[cn 6]} (Classical Nahuatl)

Nouns

The Nahuatl noun has a relatively complex structure. The only obligatory inflections are for number (singular and plural) and possession (whether the noun is possessed, as is indicated by a prefix meaning 'my', 'your', etc.). Nahuatl has neither case nor gender, but Classical Nahuatl and some modern dialects distinguish between animate and inanimate nouns. In Classical Nahuatl the animacy distinction manifested with respect to pluralization, as only animate nouns could take a plural form, and all inanimate nouns were uncountable (as the words bread and money are uncountable in English). Now, many speakers do not maintain this distinction and all nouns may take the plural inflection.^[85] One dialect, that of the Eastern Huasteca, has a distinction between two different plural suffixes for animate and inanimate nouns.^[86]

In most varieties of Nahuatl, nouns in the unpossessed singular form generally take an absolutive suffix. The most common forms of the absolutive are -tl after vowels, -tli after consonants other than l, and -li after l. Nouns that take the plural usually form the plural by adding one of the plural absolutive suffixes -tin or -meh, but some plural forms are irregular or formed by reduplication. Some nouns have competing plural forms.^[87]

Singular noun: kojo coyote -tl -ABS kojo -tl coyote -ABS "coyote" (Classical Nahuatl)

Plural animate noun: kojo coyote -meʔ -PL kojo -meʔ coyote -PL "coyotes" (Classical Nahuatl)

Plural animate noun with reduplication:

/koː~kojo-ʔ/

PL~coyote-PL

/koː~kojo-ʔ/

PL~coyote-PL

"coyotes" (Classical Nahuatl)

Nahuatl distinguishes between possessed and unpossessed forms of nouns. The absolutive suffix is not used on possessed nouns. In all dialects, possessed nouns take a prefix agreeing with number and person of its possessor. Possessed plural nouns take the ending -/waːn/.^[88]

Absolutive noun: kal house -li -ABS kal -li house -ABS "house" (Classical Nahuatl)

Possessed noun: no- my- kal house no- kal my- house "my house" (Classical Nahuatl)

Possessed plural:

no-

my-

kal

house

-waːn

-PL

no- kal -waːn

my- house -PL

"my houses" (Classical Nahuatl)

Nahuatl does not have grammatical case but uses what is sometimes called a relational noun to describe spatial (and other) relations. These morphemes cannot appear alone but must occur after a noun or a possessive prefix. They are also often called postpositions^[89] or locative suffixes.^[90] In some ways these locative constructions resemble and can be thought of as locative case constructions. Most modern dialects have incorporated prepositions from Spanish that are competing with or that have completely replaced relational nouns.^[91]

Uses of relational noun/postposition/locative -pan with a possessive prefix: no-pan my-in/on no-pan my-in/on "in/on me" (Classical Nahuatl) iː-pan its-in/on iː-pan its-in/on "in/on it" (Classical Nahuatl) iː-pan its-in kal-li house-ABS iː-pan kal-li its-in house-ABS "in the house" (Classical Nahuatl)

Use with a preceding noun stem: kal-pan house-in kal-pan house-in "in the house" (Classical Nahuatl)

Noun compounds are commonly formed by combining two or more nominal stems or combining a nominal stem with an adjectival or verbal stem.^[92]

Pronouns

Nahuatl generally distinguishes three persons, both in the singular and plural numbers. In at least one modern dialect, the Isthmus-Mecayapan variety, there has come to be a distinction between inclusive (I/we and you) and exclusive (we but not you) forms of the first person plural:^[26]

First person plural pronoun in Classical Nahuatl: tehwaːntin "we"

First person plural pronouns in Isthmus-Mecayapan Nahuat: nejamēn ([nehameːn]) "We, but not you" (= me & them) tejamēn ([tehameːn]) "We along with you" (= me & you & them)^[93]

Much more common is an honorific/non-honorific distinction, usually applied to second and third persons but not first.

Non-honorific forms: tehwaːtl "you sg." amehwaːntin "you pl." yehwatl "he/she/it"

Honorific forms tehwaːtzin "you sg. honorific" amehwaːntzitzin "you pl. honorific" yehwaːtzin "he/she honorific"

Numerals

Nahuatl has a vigesimal (base-20) numbering system. The base values are cempoalli (1 × 20), centzontli (1 × 400), cenxiquipilli (1 × 8,000), cempoalxiquipilli (1 × 20 × 8,000 = 160,000), centzonxiquipilli (1 × 400 × 8,000 = 3,200,000) and cempoaltzonxiquipilli (1 × 20 × 400 × 8,000 = 64,000,000). The ce(n/m) prefix at the beginning means 'one' (as in 'one hundred' and 'one thousand') and is replaced with the corresponding number to get the names of other multiples of the power. For example, ome (2) × poalli (20) = ompoalli (40), ome (2) × tzontli (400) = ontzontli (800). The -li in poalli (and xiquipilli) and the -tli in tzontli are grammatical noun suffixes that are appended only at the end of the word; thus poalli, tzontli and xiquipilli compound together as poaltzonxiquipilli.

Verbs

The Nahuatl verb is quite complex and inflects for many grammatical categories. The verb is composed of a root, prefixes, and suffixes. The prefixes indicate the person of the subject, and person and number of the object and indirect object, whereas the suffixes indicate tense, aspect, mood and subject number.^[94]

Most Nahuatl dialects distinguish three tenses: present, past, and future, and two aspects: perfective and imperfective. Some varieties add progressive or habitual aspects. Many dialects distinguish at least the indicative and imperative moods, and some also have optative and vetative/prohibitive moods.

Most Nahuatl varieties have a number of ways to alter the valency of a verb. Classical Nahuatl had a passive voice (also sometimes defined as an impersonal voice^[95]), but this is not found in most modern varieties. However the applicative and causative voices are found in many modern dialects.^[96] Many Nahuatl varieties also allow forming verbal compounds with two or more verbal roots.^[97]

The following verbal form has two verbal roots and is inflected for causative voice and both a direct and indirect object:

ni-

I-

kin-

them-

tla-

something-

kwa-

eat-

ltiː-

CAUS-

s-

FUT-

neki

want

ni- kin- tla- kwa- ltiː- s- neki

I- them- something- eat- CAUS- FUT- want

"I want to feed them" (Classical Nahuatl)

Some Nahuatl varieties, notably Classical Nahuatl, can inflect the verb to show the direction of the verbal action going away from or towards the speaker. Some also have specific inflectional categories showing purpose and direction and such complex notions as "to go in order to" or "to come in order to", "go, do and return", "do while going", "do while coming", "do upon arrival", or "go around doing".^[97][98]

Classical Nahuatl and many modern dialects have grammaticalised ways to express politeness towards addressees or even towards people or things that are being mentioned, by using special verb forms and special "honorific suffixes".^[99]

Familiar verbal form: ti-mo-tlaːlo-a you-yourself-run-PRS ti-mo-tlaːlo-a you-yourself-run-PRS "you run" (Classical Nahuatl)

Honorific verbal form: ti-mo-tlaːlo-tsino-a you-yourself-run-HON-PRS ti-mo-tlaːlo-tsino-a you-yourself-run-HON-PRS "You run" (said with respect) (Classical Nahuatl)

Reduplication

Many varieties of Nahuatl have productive reduplication. By reduplicating the first syllable of a root a new word is formed. In nouns this is often used to form plurals, e.g. /tlaːkatl/ 'man' → /tlaːtlaːkah/ 'men', but also in some varieties to form diminutives, honorifics, or for derivations.^[100] In verbs reduplication is often used to form a reiterative meaning (i.e. expressing repetition), for example in Nahuatl of Tezcoco:

• /wetsi/ 'he/she falls'
• /we:-wetsi/ 'he/she falls several times'
• /weʔ-wetsi-ʔ/ 'they fall (many people)'^[101]

Syntax

Some linguists have argued that Nahuatl displays the properties of a non-configurational language, meaning that word order in Nahuatl is basically free.^[102][103] Nahuatl allows all possible orderings of the three basic sentence constituents. It is prolifically a pro-drop language: it allows sentences with omission of all noun phrases or independent pronouns, not just of noun phrases or pronouns whose function is the sentence subject. In most varieties independent pronouns are used only for emphasis. It allows certain kinds of syntactically discontinuous expressions.^[103]

Michel Launey argues that Classical Nahuatl had a verb-initial basic word order with extensive freedom for variation, which was then used to encode pragmatic functions such as focus and topicality.^[104] The same has been argued for some contemporary varieties.^[103]

newal

I

no-nobia

my-fiancée

newal no-nobia

I my-fiancée

"My fiancée" (and not anyone else's) (Michoacán Nahual)^[105]

It has been argued, most prominently by the linguist Michel Launey, that Classical Nahuatl syntax is best characterised by "omnipredicativity", meaning that any noun or verb in the language is in fact a full predicative sentence.^[106] A radical interpretation of Nahuatl syntactic typology, this nonetheless seems to account for some of the language's peculiarities, for example, why nouns must also carry the same agreement prefixes as verbs, and why predicates do not require any noun phrases to function as their arguments. For example, the verbal form tzahtzi means 'he/she/it shouts', and with the second person prefix titzahtzi it means 'you shout'. Nouns are inflected in the same way: the noun conētl means not just 'child', but also 'it is a child', and ticonētl means 'you are a child'. This prompts the omnipredicative interpretation, which posits that all nouns are also predicates. According to this interpretation, a phrase such as tzahtzi in conētl should not be interpreted as meaning just 'the child screams' but, rather, 'it screams, (the one that) is a child'.^[107]

Contact phenomena

Nearly 500 years of intense contact between speakers of Nahuatl and speakers of Spanish, combined with the minority status of Nahuatl and the higher prestige associated with Spanish has caused many changes in modern Nahuatl varieties, with large numbers of words borrowed from Spanish into Nahuatl, and the introduction of new syntactic constructions and grammatical categories.^[108]

For example, a construction like the following, with several borrowed words and particles, is common in many modern varieties (Spanish loanwords in boldface):

pero

but

āmo

not

tēchentenderoa

they-us-understand-PL

lo

that

que

which

tlen

what

tictoah

we-it-say

en

in

mexicano.^{[cn 7]}

Nahuatl

pero āmo tēchentenderoa lo que tlen tictoah en mexicano.^{[cn 7]}

but not they-us-understand-PL that which what we-it-say in Nahuatl

"But they don't understand what we say in Nahuatl" (Malinche Nahuatl)^[109]

In some modern dialects basic word order has become a fixed subject–verb–object, probably under influence from Spanish.^[110] Other changes in the syntax of modern Nahuatl include the use of Spanish prepositions instead of native postpositions or relational nouns and the reinterpretation of original postpositions/relational nouns into prepositions.^{[76][108][111]} In the following example, from Michoacán Nahual, the postposition -ka meaning 'with' appears used as a preposition, with no preceding object:

ti-ya

you-go

ti-k-wika

you-it-carry

ka

with

tel

you

ti-ya ti-k-wika ka tel

you-go you-it-carry with you

"are you going to carry it with you?" (Michoacán Nahual)^[105]

In this example from Mexicanero Nahuatl, of Durango, the original postposition/relational noun -pin 'in/on' is used as a preposition. Also, porque, a conjunction borrowed from Spanish, occurs in the sentence.

amo

not

wel

can

kalaki-yá

he-enter-PAST

pin

in

kal

house

porke

because

ʣakwa-tiká

it-closed-was

im

the

pwerta

door

amo wel kalaki-yá pin kal porke ʣakwa-tiká im pwerta

not can he-enter-PAST in house because it-closed-was the door

"He couldn't enter the house because the door was closed" (Mexicanero Nahuat)^[112]

Many dialects have also undergone a degree of simplification of their morphology that has caused some scholars to consider them to have ceased to be polysynthetic.^[113]

Vocabulary

See also: Words of Nahuatl origin and Nahuatlismo

 

The Aztecs called (red) tomatoes xitōmatl, whereas the green tomatillo was called tōmatl; the latter is the source for the English word tomato.

Many Nahuatl words have been borrowed into the Spanish language, most of which are terms designating things indigenous to the Americas. Some of these loans are restricted to Mexican or Central American Spanish, but others have entered all the varieties of Spanish in the world. A number of them, such as chocolate, tomato and avocado have made their way into many other languages via Spanish.^[114]

For instance, in English, two of the most prominent are undoubtedly chocolate^{[cn 8]} and tomato (from Nahuatl tōmatl). Other common words are coyote (from Nahuatl coyōtl), avocado (from Nahuatl āhuacatl) and chile or chili (from Nahuatl chilli). The word chicle is also derived from Nahuatl tzictli 'sticky stuff, chicle'. Some other English words from Nahuatl are: Aztec (from aztēcatl); cacao (from Nahuatl cacahuatl 'shell, rind');^[115] ocelot (from ocēlotl).^[116] In Mexico many words for common everyday concepts attest to the close contact between Spanish and Nahuatl – so many in fact that entire dictionaries of mexicanismos (words particular to Mexican Spanish) have been published tracing Nahuatl etymologies, as well as Spanish words with origins in other indigenous languages. Many well known toponyms also come from Nahuatl, including Mexico (from the Nahuatl word for the Aztec capital Mēxihco) and Guatemala (from the word Cuauhtēmallān).^{[cn 9]}

Writing and literature

Writing

Main article: Nahuatl orthography

See also: Aztec writing and Aztec codices

 

The place names Mapachtepec ('Raccoon Hill'), Mazatlan ('Deer Place') and Huitztlan ('Thorn Place') written in the Aztec writing system, from the Codex Mendoza

Traditionally, Pre-Columbian Aztec writing has not been considered a true writing system, since it did not represent the full vocabulary of a spoken language in the way that the writing systems of the Old World or the Maya Script did. Therefore, generally Aztec writing was not meant to be read, but to be told. The elaborate codices were essentially pictographic aids for memorizing texts, which include genealogies, astronomical information, and tribute lists. Three kinds of signs were used in the system: pictures used as mnemonics (which do not represent particular words), logograms which represent whole words (instead of phonemes or syllables), and logograms used only for their sound values (i.e. used according to the rebus principle).^[117]

However, epigrapher Alfonso Lacadena has argued that by the eve of the Spanish invasion, one school of Nahua scribes, those of Tetzcoco, had developed a fully syllabic script which could represent spoken language phonetically in the same way that the Maya script did.^[118] Some other epigraphers have questioned the claim, arguing that although the syllabicity was clearly extant in some early colonial manuscripts (hardly any pre-Columbian manuscripts have survived), this could be interpreted as a local innovation inspired by Spanish literacy rather than a continuation of a pre-Columbian practice.^[119]

The Spanish introduced the Latin script, which was used to record a large body of Aztec prose, poetry and mundane documentation such as testaments, administrative documents, legal letters, etc. In a matter of decades pictorial writing was completely replaced with the Latin alphabet.^[120] No standardized Latin orthography has been developed for Nahuatl, and no general consensus has arisen for the representation of many sounds in Nahuatl that are lacking in Spanish, such as long vowels and the glottal stop.^[121] The orthography most accurately representing the phonemes of Nahuatl was developed in the 17th century by the Jesuit Horacio Carochi, building on the insights of another Jesuit, Antonio del Rincon.^[122] Carochi's orthography used two different diacritics: a macron to represent long vowels and a grave for the saltillo, and sometimes an acute accent for short vowels.^[123] This orthography did not achieve a wide following outside of the Jesuit community.^[124][125]

 

Illustrated alphabet of the Nahuatl, Aztec or Mexicano language

When Nahuatl became the subject of focused linguistic studies in the 20th century, linguists acknowledged the need to represent all the phonemes of the language. Several practical orthographies were developed to transcribe the language, many using the Americanist transcription system. With the establishment of Mexico's Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas in 2004, new attempts to create standardized orthographies for the different dialects were resumed; however to this day there is no single official orthography for Nahuatl.^[121] Apart from dialectal differences, major issues in transcribing Nahuatl include:

• whether to follow Spanish orthographic practice and write /k/ with c and qu, /kʷ/ with cu and uc, /s/ with c and z, or s, and /w/ with hu and uh, or u.^[121]
• how to write the saltillo phoneme (in some dialects pronounced as a glottal stop [ʔ] and in others as an [h]), which has been spelled with j, h, ꞌ (apostrophe), or a grave accent on the preceding vowel, but which traditionally has often been omitted in writing.^[121]
• whether and how to represent vowel length, e.g. by double vowels or by the use of macrons.^[121]

In 2018, Nahua peoples from 16 states in the country began collaborating with INALI creating a new modern orthography called Yankwiktlahkwilolli,^[126] designed to be the standardized orthography of Nahuatl in the coming years.^[127][128] The modern writing has much greater use in the modern variants than in the classic variant, since the texts, documents and literary works of the time usually use the Jesuit one.^[129]

Classical Nahuatl Orthographies

Phoneme	IPA	Orthography
		Traditional orthography^[130]	Normalization (Michel Launey)^[131]
a	[a], [aː]	a e sometimes in the sequence /iya/	a, ā
e	[e], [eː]	e ie or ye sometimes i sometimes if in contact with /y/	e, ē
i	[i], [iː]	i, y, or j	i, ī
o	[o], [oː]	o u or v often for /o:/, especially in front of m and p	o, ō
p	[p]	p	p
t	[t]	t	t
k	[k]	qu (before i and e) c (in all other cases)	qu (before i and e) c (in all other cases)
c	[ts]	tz tç (seldom)	tz
č	[tʃ]	ch	ch
λ	[tɬ]	tl	tl
kw	[kʷ]	cu qu in front of a, cu, uc, cuh, or c at the end of a syllable	cu (before vowels) uc (in all other cases)
m	[m]	m n often before p or m	m
n	[n]	n ◌~ sometimes after a vowel Often omitted before /y/, /w/, and word finally.	n
s	[s]	z, ç c before /i/ and /e/	c (before e and i) z (in all other cases)
š	[ʃ]	x s sometimes in front of [oː]	x
y	[j]	i, y, j Usually omitted between /i/ and a vowel	y
w	[w]	u, v, rarely hu uh is used at the end of a syllable /w/ is often omitted between the vowels /o/ and /a/	hu (before vowels) uh (in all other cases)
l	[l]	l lh often at the end of a syllable	l
ll	[lː]	ll, l	ll
ʼ	[ʔ], [h]	h between vowels or occasionally at the end of a word Otherwise usually not written or sporadically indicated by ◌̀	◌̀ (on the preceding vowel within word) ◌̂ (on the preceding vowel at the end of a word)

Literature

Main article: Mesoamerican literature

Among the indigenous languages of the Americas, the extensive corpus of surviving literature in Nahuatl dating as far back as the 16th century may be considered unique.^[132] Nahuatl literature encompasses a diverse array of genres and styles, the documents themselves composed under many different circumstances. Preconquest Nahua had a distinction between tlahtolli 'speech' and second cuicatl 'song', akin to the distinction between "prose" and "poetry".^[133][134]

Nahuatl tlahtolli prose has been preserved in different forms. Annals and chronicles recount history, normally written from the perspective of a particular altepetl (locally based polity) and often combining mythical accounts with real events. Important works in this genre include those from Chalco written by Chimalpahin, from Tlaxcala by Diego Muñoz Camargo, from Mexico-Tenochtitlan by Fernando Alvarado Tezozomoc and those of Texcoco by Fernando Alva Ixtlilxochitl. Many annals recount history year-by-year and are normally written by anonymous authors. These works are sometimes evidently based on pre-Columbian pictorial year counts that existed, such as the Cuauhtitlan annals and the Anales de Tlatelolco. Purely mythological narratives are also found, like the "Legend of the Five Suns", the Aztec creation myth recounted in Codex Chimalpopoca.^[135]

One of the most important works of prose written in Nahuatl is the twelve-volume compilation generally known as the Florentine Codex, authored in the mid-16th century by the Franciscan missionary Bernardino de Sahagún and a number of Nahua speakers.^[136] With this work Sahagún bestowed an enormous ethnographic description of the Nahua, written in side-by-side translations of Nahuatl and Spanish and illustrated throughout by color plates drawn by indigenous painters. Its volumes cover a diverse range of topics: Aztec history, material culture, social organization, religious and ceremonial life, rhetorical style and metaphors. The twelfth volume provides an indigenous perspective on the conquest. Sahagún also made a point of trying to document the richness of the Nahuatl language, stating:

This work is like a dragnet to bring to light all the words of this language with their exact and metaphorical meanings, and all their ways of speaking, and most of their practices good and evil.^[137]

Nahuatl poetry is principally preserved in two sources: the Cantares Mexicanos and the Romances de los señores de Nueva España, both collections of Aztec songs written down in the 16th and 17th centuries. Some songs may have been preserved through oral tradition from pre-conquest times until the time of their writing, for example the songs attributed to the poet-king of Texcoco, Nezahualcoyotl. Karttunen & Lockhart (1980) identify more than four distinct styles of songs, e.g. the icnocuicatl ('sad song'), the xopancuicatl ('song of spring'), melahuaccuicatl ('plain song') and yaocuicatl ('song of war'), each with distinct stylistic traits. Aztec poetry makes rich use of metaphoric imagery and themes and are lamentation of the brevity of human existence, the celebration of valiant warriors who die in battle, and the appreciation of the beauty of life.^[138]

Stylistics

The Aztecs distinguished between at least two social registers of language: the language of commoners (macehuallahtolli) and the language of the nobility (tecpillahtolli). The latter was marked by the use of a distinct rhetorical style. Since literacy was confined mainly to these higher social classes, most of the existing prose and poetical documents were written in this style. An important feature of this high rhetorical style of formal oratory was the use of parallelism,^[139] whereby the orator structured their speech in couplets consisting of two parallel phrases. For example:

• ye maca timiquican
• 'May we not die'
• ye maca tipolihuican
• 'May we not perish'^[140]

Another kind of parallelism used is referred to by modern linguists as difrasismo, in which two phrases are symbolically combined to give a metaphorical reading. Classical Nahuatl was rich in such diphrasal metaphors, many of which are explicated by Sahagún in the Florentine Codex and by Andrés de Olmos in his Arte.^[141] Such difrasismos include:^[142]

• in xochitl, in cuicatl
• 'The flower, the song' – meaning 'poetry'
• in cuitlapilli, in atlapalli
• 'the tail, the wing' – meaning 'the common people'
• in toptli, in petlacalli
• 'the chest, the box' – meaning 'something secret'
• in yollohtli, in eztli
• 'the heart, the blood' – meaning 'cacao'
• in iztlactli, in tencualactli
• 'the drool, the spittle' – meaning 'lies'

Sample text

The sample text below is an excerpt from a statement issued in Nahuatl by Emiliano Zapata in 1918 to convince the Nahua towns in the area of Tlaxcala to join the Revolution against the regime of Venustiano Carranza.^[143] The orthography employed in the letter is improvised, and does not distinguish long vowels and only sporadically marks saltillo (with both ⟨h⟩ and acute accent).^[144]

Tlanahuatil Panoloani An Altepeme de non-cate itech nin tlalpan de netehuiloya den tlanahuatiani Arenas. Axcan cuan nonques tlalticpacchanéhque de non-altepeme tlami quitzetzeloa neca tliltic amo cuali nemiliz Carrancista, noyolo pahpaqui ihuan itech nin mahuiztica, intoca netehuiloanime-tlatzintlaneca, ihuan nanmechtitlanilia ze páhpaquilizticatlápaloli ihuan ica nochi noyolo niquinyolehua nonques altepeme aquihque cate qui chihuazque netehuiliztle ipampa meláhqui tlanahuatil ihuan amo nen motenecahuilia quitlahtlaczazque in anmocualinemiliz. tiquintlahpaloa nonques netehuiloanime tlen mocuepan ican nin yolopaquilizticatequi, ihuan quixnamiqui in nexicoaliztle ipan non-huei tehuile tlen aic hueliti tlami nian aic tlamiz zeme ica nitlamiliz in tliltic oquichtlanahuatiani, de neca moxicoani, teca mocaya de non-zemihcac teixcuepa tlen itoca Venustiano Carranza que quimahuizquixtia in netehuiliztle ihuan quipinahtia to tlalticpac-nantzi "Mexico" zeme quimahuizpolóhtica.

Message to be passed around To the towns that are located in the area that fought under General Arenas. Now, that the dwellers of this earth, of those towns, finish shaking out that black, evil life of the Carrancismo my heart is very happy and with the dignity in the name of those who fight in the ranks, and to you all I send a happy greeting and with all of my heart I invite those towns, those who are there, to join the fight for a righteous mandate to not vainly issue statements, to not allow to be done away with your good way of life. We salute those fighters who turn towards this joyous labour and confront the greed in this great war, which can never end, nor will ever end until the end of the black tyrant of that glutton, who mocks and always cheat people and whose name is Venustiano Carranza, who takes the glory out of war and who shames our motherland, Mexico completely dishonouring it.

See also

• Vocabulario manual de las lenguas castellana y mexicana (a Spanish-Nahuatl dictionary)
• Vocabulario trilingüe (dictionary of Spanish, Latin, and Nahuatl)

Notes

Content notes

1. The Classical Nahuatl word nāhuatl (noun stem nāhua, + absolutive -tl ) is thought to mean "a good, clear sound".^[6] This language name has several spellings, among them náhuatl (the standard spelling in the Spanish language),^[7] Naoatl, Nauatl, Nahuatl, and Nawatl. In a back-formation from the name of the language, the ethnic group of Nahuatl speakers are called Nahua.
2. By the provisions of Article IV: Las lenguas indígenas...y el español son lenguas nacionales...y tienen la misma validez en su territorio, localización y contexto en que se hablen. ("The indigenous languages ... and Spanish are national languages ... and have the same validity in their territory, location and context in which they are spoken.")
3. "General Aztec is a generally accepted term referring to the most shallow common stage, reconstructed for all present-day Nahuatl varieties; it does not include the Pochutec dialect Campbell & Langacker (1978)." Canger (2000:385(Note 4))
4. Such as the 1996 adoption at a world linguistics conference in Barcelona of the Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights, a declaration which "became a general reference point for the evolution and discussion of linguistic rights in Mexico" Pellicer, Cifuentes & Herrera (2006:132)
5. Sischo (1979:312) and Canger (2000) for a brief description of these phenomena in Nahual of Michoacán and Durango respectively
6. All examples given in this section and these subsections are from Suárez (1983:61–63) unless otherwise noted. Glosses have been standardized.
7. The words pero, entender, lo que, and en are all from Spanish. The use of the suffix -oa on a Spanish infinitive like entender, enabling the use of other Nahuatl verbal affixes, is standard. The sequence lo que tlen combines Spanish lo que 'what' with Nahuatl tlen (also meaning 'what') to mean (what else) 'what'. en is a preposition and heads a prepositional phrase; traditionally Nahuatl had postpositions or relational nouns rather than prepositions. The stem mexihka, related to the name mexihko, 'Mexico', is of Nahuatl origin, but the suffix -ano is from Spanish, and it is probable that the whole word mexicano is a re-borrowing from Spanish back into Nahuatl.
8. While there is no real doubt that the word chocolate comes from Nahuatl, the commonly given Nahuatl etymology /ʃokolaːtl/ 'bitter water' no longer seems to be tenable. Dakin & Wichmann (2000) suggest the correct etymology to be /tʃikolaːtl/ – a word found in several modern Nahuatl dialects.
9. The Mexica used the word for the Kaqchikel capital Iximche in central Guatemala, but the word was extended to the entire zone in colonial times; see Carmack (1981:143).

Citations

1. "Mexikatlahtolli/Nawatlahtolli (náhuatl)". Secretaría de Cultura/Sistema de Información Cultural (in Spanish). Retrieved 20 June 2022.
2. Lenguas indígenas y hablantes de 3 años y más, 2020 INEGI. Censo de Población y Vivienda 2020.
3. (PDF) (in Spanish). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 June 2008.
4. "Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas homepage".
5. Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student's Handbook, Edinburgh
6. Andrews 2003, pp. 578, 364, 398.
7. "Náhuatl" (in Spanish). rae.es. Retrieved 6 July 2012.
8. "Nahuatl Family | SIL Mexico". mexico.sil.org. Retrieved 22 February 2021.
9. Suárez (1983:149)
10. Canger 1980, p. 13.
11. Canger 2002, p. 195.
12. Canger 1988.
13. (PDF). Diario Oficial de la Federación (in Spanish). Issued by the Cámara de Diputados del H. Congreso de la Unión. 13 March 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 June 2008..
14. Pharao Hansen 2013.
15. Canger (1988:42–43), Dakin (1982:202), INALI (2008:63), Suárez (1983:149)
16. Boas 1917.
17. Knab 1980.
18. Canger & Dakin (1985:360), Dakin (2001:21–22)
19. Dakin (2001:21–22), Kaufman (2001)
20. Launey 1992, p. 116.
21. Canger 2001, p. 385.
22. Hill & Hill 1986.
23. Tuggy (1979)
24. Campbell (1985)
25. Canger 2001.
26. Wolgemuth 2002.
27. Suárez 1983, p. 20.
28. Canger (1980:12), Kaufman (2001:1)
29. Hill 2001.
30. Merrill et al. 2010.
31. Kaufman & Justeson 2009.
32. Justeson et al. 1985, p. passim.
33. Kaufman 2001, pp. 3–6, 12.
34. Kaufman & Justeson 2007.
35. Kaufman 2001, pp. 6, 12.
36. Cowgill (1992:240–242); Pasztory (1993)
37. Campbell (1997:161), Justeson et al. (1985); Kaufman (2001:3–6, 12)
38. Dakin & Wichmann (2000), Macri (2005), Macri & Looper (2003), Cowgill (2003:335), Pasztory (1993)
39. Dakin (1994); Kaufman (2001)
40. Fowler (1985:38); Kaufman (2001)
41. Carmack 1981, pp. 142–143.
42. Levy, Buddy (2008). Conquistador: Hernán Cortés, King Montezuma, and the Last Stand of the Aztecs. Bantam Books. p. 106. ISBN 978-0553384710.
43. Canger 2011.
44. Lockhart 1992.
45. Hinz 1983.
46. Cline 1993.
47. Lockhart, Berdan & Anderson 1986.
48. Cline & León-Portilla 1984.
49. Jackson 2000.
50. INAFED (Instituto Nacional para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal) (2005). . Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México (in Spanish) (online version at E-Local ed.). INAFED, Secretaría de Gobernación. Archived from the original on 20 May 2007. Retrieved 28 March 2008.. The Tlaxcaltec community remained legally separate until the 19th century.
51. Matthew 2012.
52. Lockhart (1991:12); Lockhart (1992:330–331)
53. Rincón 1885.
54. Carochi 1645.
55. Canger 1980, p. 14.
56. Carochi 2001.
57. Olko & Sullivan 2013.
58. Suárez (1983:165)
59. Suárez 1983, pp. 140–41.
60. Suárez 1983, p. 5.
61. Cline, Adams & MacLeod 2000.
62. Rolstad 2002, p. passim..
63. INEGI 2005, pp. 63–73.
64. Suárez 1983, p. 167.
65. Suárez 1983, p. 168.
66. INEGI 2005, p. 49.
67. Lastra de Suárez (1986), Rolstad (2002:passim)
68. Pellicer, Cifuentes & Herrera 2006, pp. 132–137.
69. INALI [Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas] (n.d.). . Difusión de INALI (in Spanish). INALI, Secretaría de Educación Pública. Archived from the original on 17 March 2008. Retrieved 31 March 2008.
70. IRIN 2004.
71. INEGI 2005, p. 35.
72. INEGI 2005.
73. Flores Farfán 2002, p. 229.
74. Sischo 1979, p. passim.
75. Amith 1989.
76. Flores Farfán (1999)
77. Pury-Toumi 1980.
78. Pittman, R. S. (1961). The Phonemes of Tetelcingo (Morelos) Nahuatl. In B. F. Elson & J. Comas (Eds.), A William Cameron Townsend en el vigésimoquinto aniversario del Instituto Lingüístico de Verano (pp. 643–651). Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.
79. Launey 1992, p. 16.
80. Launey 1992, p. 26.
81. Aguilar 2013, citing Andrews 2003, Bedell 2011, Brockway 1963, and Goller, Goller & Waterhouse 1974
82. Launey 1992, pp. 19–22.
83. Canger 2001, p. 29.
84. Launey 1999.
85. Hill & Hill 1980.
86. Kimball 1990.
87. Launey 1992, pp. 27–28.
88. Launey 1992, pp. 88–89.
89. Hill & Hill (1986) re Malinche Nahuatl
90. Launey (1992) Chapter 13 re classical Nahuatl
91. Suárez 1977, pp. passim.
92. Launey 1999, p. passim.
93. Wolgemuth 2002, p. 35.
94. Suárez 1983, p. 61.
95. Canger 1996.
96. Suárez 1983, p. 81.
97. Suárez (1983:62)
98. Launey 1992, pp. 207–210.
99. Suárez 1977, p. 61.
100. Launey 1992, p. 27.
101. Peralta Ramírez 1991.
102. Baker 1996, p. passim..
103. Pharao Hansen (2010)
104. Launey 1992, pp. 36–37.
105. Sischo (1979:314)
106. Launey (1994); Andrews (2003).
107. Launey (1994), Launey (1999:116–18)
108. Canger & Jensen (2007)
109. Hill & Hill 1986, p. 317.
110. Hill and Hill 1986:page#
111. Suárez 1977.
112. Canger 2001, p. 116.
113. Hill & Hill 1986, pp. 249–340.
114. Haugen 2009.
115. Dakin & Wichmann (2000)
116. Joseph P. Pickett; et al., eds. (2000). . The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-82517-4. OCLC 43499541. Archived from the original (online version) on 24 August 2007. Retrieved 7 August 2019.
117. Lockhart 1992, pp. 327–329.
118. Lacadena 2008.
119. Whittaker 2009.
120. Lockhart 1992, pp. 330–335.
121. Canger (2002:200–204)
122. Smith-Stark 2005.
123. Whorf, Karttunen & Campbell 1993.
124. McDonough 2014, p. 148.
125. Bierhorst 1985, p. xii.
126. "Tlahkwiloltlanawatilli (Normas de escritura)".
127. "Lingüistas y especialistas coinciden en la importancia de normalizar la escritura de la lengua náhuatl".
128. "Nawatl, mexkatl, mexicano (náhuatl)". 21 December 2018.
129. "Lectura del Náhuatl. Versión revisada y aumentada" (PDF).
130. Launey 1992, pp. 379–382.
131. Launey 1992, pp. 13–14.
132. Canger 2002, p. 300.
133. León-Portilla 1985, p. 12.
134. Karttunen & Lockhart 1980.
135. Bierhorst 1998.
136. "Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España por el fray Bernardino de Sahagún: el Códice Florentino – Visor – Biblioteca Digital Mundial". www.wdl.org. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
137. Sahagún 1950–1982, pp. part I:47.
138. León-Portilla 1985, pp. 12–20.
139. Bright 1990, p. passim..
140. Bright 1990, p. 440.
141. Olmos 1993.
142. Examples given are from Sahagún 1950–82, vol. VI, ff. 202V-211V
143. Text as reproduced in León-Portilla 1978:78–80
144. León-Portilla 1978.

Bibliography

• Aguilar, Andrés Ehecatl (2013). Phonological description of Huasteca Nahuatl from Chicontepec, Veracruz (Thesis). California State University, Northridge. p. 25. hdl:10211.2/3997.
• Amith, Jonathan D. (1989). Acento en el nahuatl de Oapan. Presentation to the Seminario de Lenguas Indígenas, Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicas-UNAM (in Spanish). México D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
• Andrews, J. Richard (2003). Introduction to Classical Nahuatl (revised ed.). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3452-9. OCLC 50090230.
• Baker, Mark C. (1996). The Polysynthesis Parameter. Oxford Studies in Comparative Syntax. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509308-7. OCLC 31045692.
• Bedell, George (2011). "The Nahuatl Language" (PDF). Language in India. 11. Retrieved 5 October 2021.
• Beller, Richard; Beller, Patricia (1979). "Huasteca Nahuatl". In Ronald Langacker (ed.). Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar 2: Modern Aztec Grammatical Sketches. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics, 56. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. pp. 199–306. ISBN 978-0-88312-072-9. OCLC 6086368.
• Brockway, Earl (1963). "The Phonemes of North Puebla Nahuatl". Anthropological Linguistics. 5 (2): 14–18. ISSN 0003-5483. JSTOR 30022406.
• Bierhorst, J. (1985). Cantares mexicanos: Songs of the Aztecs. Stanford University Press.
• Bierhorst, J. (1998). History and Mythology of the Aztecs: The Codex Chimalpopoca. University of Arizona Press. ISBN 978-0-8165-1886-9.
• Boas, Franz (1917). "El dialecto mexicano de Pochutla, Oaxaca". International Journal of American Linguistics (in Spanish). 1 (1): 9–44. doi:10.1086/463709. OCLC 56221629. S2CID 145443094.
• Bright, William (1990). "'With One Lip, with Two Lips': Parallelism in Nahuatl". Language. 66 (3): 437–452. doi:10.2307/414607. JSTOR 414607. OCLC 93070246.
• Campbell, Lyle (1985). The Pipil Language of El Salvador. Mouton Grammar Library, no. 1. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-010344-1. OCLC 13433705.
• Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics, 4. London and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509427-5. OCLC 32923907.
• Campbell, Lyle; Langacker, ronald (1978). "Proto-Aztecan vowels: Part I". International Journal of American Linguistics. 44 (2): 85–102. doi:10.1086/465526. OCLC 1753556. S2CID 143091460.
• Canger, Una (1980). Five Studies Inspired by Náhuatl Verbs in -oa. Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Copenhague, Vol. XIX. Copenhagen: The Linguistic Circle of Copenhagen; distributed by C.A. Reitzels Boghandel. ISBN 978-87-7421-254-6. OCLC 7276374.
• Canger, Una (1988). "Nahuatl dialectology: A survey and some suggestions". International Journal of American Linguistics. 54 (1): 28–72. doi:10.1086/466074. JSTOR 1265112. OCLC 1753556. S2CID 144210796.
• Canger, Una (1996). "Is there a passive in nahuatl". In Engberg-Pedersen, Elisabeth; et al. (eds.). Content, expression and structure: studies in Danish functional grammar. Amsterdam: John Benjamin's Publishing Co. pp. 1–15. ISBN 9781556193811.
• Canger, Una (2000). "Stress in Nahuatl of Durango: whose stress?". In Eugene H. Casad; Thomas L. Willett (eds.). Uto-Aztecan: Structural, Temporal, and Geographic Perspectives: Papers in Memory of Wick R. Miller by the Friends of Uto-Aztecan. Hermosillo, Sonora: Universidad de Sonora División de Humanidades y Bellas Artes, Editorial UniSon. pp. 373–386. ISBN 978-970-689-030-6. OCLC 50091799.
• Canger, Una (2001). Mexicanero de la Sierra Madre Occidental. Archivo de Lenguas Indígenas de México, No. 24 (in Spanish). México D.F.: El Colegio de México. ISBN 978-968-12-1041-0. OCLC 49212643.
• Canger, Una (2002). "An interactive dictionary and text corpus". In William Frawley; Pamela Munro; Kenneth C. Hill (eds.). Making dictionaries: Preserving Indigenous Languages of the Americas. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. pp. 195–218. ISBN 978-0-520-22995-2. OCLC 47863283.
• Canger, Una (2011). "El nauatl urbano de Tlatelolco/Tenochtitlan, resultado de convergencia entre dialectos, con un esbozo brevísimo de la historia de los dialectos". Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl: 243–258.
• Canger, Una; Dakin, Karen (1985). "An inconspicuous basic split in Nahuatl". International Journal of American Linguistics. 51 (4): 358–361. doi:10.1086/465892. S2CID 143084964.
• Canger, Una; Jensen, Anne (2007). "Grammatical borrowing in Nahuatl". In Yaron Matras; J Sakel (eds.). Grammatical Borrowing in Cross-Linguistic Perspective Empirical Approaches to Language Typology. Vol. 38. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 403–418.
• Carmack, Robert M. (1981). The Quiché Mayas of Utatlán: The Evolution of a Highland Guatemala Kingdom. Civilization of the American Indian series, no. 155. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-1546-7. OCLC 6555814.
• Carochi, Horacio (1645). Arte de la lengua mexicana con la declaracion de los adverbios della. Al Illustrisso. y Reuerendisso. Mexico: Juan Ruyz. OCLC 7483654. (in Spanish and Nahuatl languages)
• Carochi, Horacio (2001). Grammar of the Mexican Language: With an Explanation of Its Adverbs (1645), by Horacio Carochi. James Lockhart (trans., ed., and notes). Stanford and Los Angeles: Stanford University Press, UCLA Latin American Center Publications. ISBN 978-0-8047-4281-8. OCLC 46858462.
• Cline, Sarah, ed. (1993). The Book of Tributes. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications, Nahuatl Studies Series. ISBN 978-0-87903-082-7.
• Cline, Sarah; Adams, Richard E.W.; MacLeod, Murdo J., eds. (2000). "Native Peoples of Colonial Central Mexico". The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas: Volume II, Mesoamerica, Part 2. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 187–222.
• Cline, Sarah; León-Portilla, Miguel, eds. (1984). The Testaments of Culhuacan. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications. ISBN 978-0-87903-502-0.
• Cowgill, George L. (1992). "Teotihuacan Glyphs and Imagery in the Light of Some Early Colonial Texts". In Janet Catherine Berlo (ed.). Art, Ideology, and the City of Teotihuacan: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 8th and 9th October 1988. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. pp. 231–246. ISBN 978-0-88402-205-3. OCLC 25547129.
• Cowgill, George L. (2003). "Teotihuacan and Early Classic Interaction: A Perspective from Outside the Maya Region". In Geoffrey E. Braswell (ed.). The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 315–336. ISBN 978-0-292-70587-6. OCLC 49936017.
• Dakin, Karen (1982). La evolución fonológica del Protonáhuatl (in Spanish). México D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicas. ISBN 978-968-5802-92-5. OCLC 10216962.
• Dakin, Karen (1994). "El náhuatl en el yutoazteca sureño: algunas isoglosas gramaticales y fonológicas". In Carolyn MacKay; Verónica Vázquez (eds.). Investigaciones lingüísticas en Mesoamérica. Estudios sobre Lenguas Americanas, no. 1 (in Spanish). México D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicas, Seminario de Lenguas Indígenas. pp. 3–86. ISBN 978-968-36-4055-0. OCLC 34716589.
• Dakin, Karen; Wichmann, Søren (2000). (PDF). Ancient Mesoamerica. 11 (1): 55–75. doi:10.1017/S0956536100111058. OCLC 88396015. S2CID 162616811. Archived from the original (PDF online reprint) on 8 April 2008.
• Dakin, Karen (2001). "Estudios sobre el náhuatl". Avances y balances de lenguas yutoaztecas. Mexico: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, UNAM. ISBN 978-970-18-6966-6.
• Flores Farfán, José Antonio (1999). Cuatreros Somos y Toindioma Hablamos. Contactos y Conflictos entre el Náhuatl y el Español en el Sur de México (in Spanish). Tlalpán D.F.: Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social. ISBN 978-968-496-344-3. OCLC 42476969.
• Flores Farfán, José Antonio (2002). "The Use of Multimedia and the Arts in Language Revitalization, Maintenance, and Development: The Case of the Balsas Nahuas of Guerrero, Mexico". In Barbara Jane Burnaby; John Allan Reyhner (eds.). Indigenous Languages across the Community (PDF). Proceedings of the Annual Conference on Stabilizing Indigenous Languages (7th, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 11–14 May 2000). Flagstaff, AZ: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. pp. 225–236. ISBN 978-0-9670554-2-8. OCLC 95062129.
• Flores Farfán, José Antonio (2006). "Intervention in indigenous education. Culturally-sensitive materials for bilingual Nahuatl speakers". In Margarita G. Hidalgo (ed.). Mexican Indigenous Languages at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century. Contributions to the sociology of language, no. 91. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 301–324. ISBN 978-3-11-018597-3. OCLC 62090844.
• Fowler, William R. Jr. (1985). "Ethnohistoric Sources on the Pipil Nicarao: A Critical Analysis". Ethnohistory. 32 (1): 37–62. doi:10.2307/482092. JSTOR 482092. OCLC 62217753.
• Francis, Norbert (2016). "Prospects for indigenous language bilingualism in Mexico: A reassessment". Language Problems and Language Planning. 40: 269–286. doi:10.1075/lplp.40.3.04fra.pdf
• Goller, Theodore R.; Goller, Patricia L.; Waterhouse, Viola G. (1974). "The Phonemes of Orizaba Nahuatl". International Journal of American Linguistics. 40 (2): 126–131. doi:10.1086/465295. S2CID 142992381.
• Haugen, J. D. (2009). "Borrowed borrowings: Nahuatl loan words in English". Lexis: e-Journal in English Lexicology. 3: 63–106.
• Hill, J. H.; Hill, K. C. (1980). "Mixed grammar, purist grammar, and language attitudes in modern Nahuatl". Language in Society. 9 (3): 321–348. doi:10.1017/S0047404500008241. S2CID 145068130.
• Hill, Jane H. (2001). "Proto-Uto-Aztecan: A Community of Cultivators in Central Mexico?". American Anthropologist. 103 (4): 913–934. doi:10.1525/aa.2001.103.4.913. OCLC 192932283.
• Hill, Jane H.; Hill, Kenneth C. (1986). Speaking Mexicano: Dynamics of Syncretic Language in Central Mexico. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 978-0-8165-0898-3. OCLC 13126530.
• Hinz, Eike, ed. (1983). Azteckischer Zensus, Zur indianischen Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft im Marquesado um 1540: Aus dem "Libro de Tributos" (Col. Ant. Ms. 551) im Archivo Histórico. Hanover.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• INALI, [Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas] (14 January 2008). "Catálogo de las lenguas indígenas nacionales: Variantes lingüísticas de México con sus autodenominaciones y referencias geoestadísticas" (PDF online facsimile). Diario Oficial de la Federación (in Spanish). 652 (9): 22–78 (first section), 1–96 (second section), 1–112 (third section). OCLC 46461036.
• INEGI, [Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas, Geografia e Informática] (2005). (PDF). XII Censo General de Población y Vivienda 2000 (in Spanish) (Publicación única ed.). Aguascalientes, Mex.: INEGI. ISBN 978-970-13-4491-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2008. Retrieved 2 December 2008.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• IRIN, [Iniciativa para la Recuperación del Idioma Náhuat] (2004). . The Nawat Language Recovery Initiative. IRIN. Archived from the original on 20 May 2010. Retrieved 31 March 2008.
• Jackson, Robert H. (2000). From Savages to Subjects: Missions in the History of the American Southwest. Latin American Realities hardcover series. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0-7656-0597-9. OCLC 49415084.
• Justeson, John S.; Norman, William M.; Campbell, Lyle; Kaufman, Terrence (1985). The Foreign Impact on Lowland Mayan Language and Script. Middle American Research Institute Publications, no. 53. New Orleans, LA: Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University. ISBN 978-0-939238-82-8. OCLC 12444550.
• Karttunen, Frances; Lockhart, James (1980). "La estructura de la poesía nahuatl vista por sus variantes". Estudios de Cultura Nahuatl (in Spanish). 14: 15–64. ISSN 0071-1675. OCLC 1568281.
• Kaufman, Terrence; Justeson, John (2009). "Historical linguistics and pre-columbian Mesoamerica". Ancient Mesoamerica. 20 (2): 221–231. doi:10.1017/S0956536109990113. S2CID 163094506.
• Kaufman, Terrence; Justeson, John (2007). "Writing the history of the word for cacao in ancient Mesoamerica". Ancient Mesoamerica. 18 (2): 193–237. doi:10.1017/s0956536107000211. S2CID 163097273.
• Kaufman, Terrence (2001). "The history of the Nawa language group from the earliest times to the sixteenth century: some initial results" (PDF). Project for the Documentation of the Languages of Mesoamerica. Revised March 2001. Retrieved 7 October 2007.
• Kimball, G. (1990). "Noun pluralization in Eastern Huasteca Nahuatl". International Journal of American Linguistics. 56 (2): 196–216. doi:10.1086/466150. S2CID 145224238.
• Knab, Tim (1980). "When Is a Language Really Dead: The Case of Pochutec". International Journal of American Linguistics. 46 (3): 230–233. doi:10.1086/465658. OCLC 1753556. S2CID 145202849.
• Lacadena, Alfonso (2008). "Regional scribal traditions: Methodological implications for the decipherment of Nahuatl writing" (PDF). The PARI Journal. 8 (4): 1–23.
• Langacker, Ronald W (1977). Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar 1: An Overview of Uto-Aztecan Grammar. Summer Institute of Linguistics publications in linguistics, publication no. 56. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and University of Texas at Arlington. ISBN 978-0-88312-070-5. OCLC 6087919.
• Lastra de Suárez, Yolanda (1986). Las áreas dialectales del náhuatl moderno. Serie antropológica, no. 62 (in Spanish). Ciudad Universitaria, México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas. ISBN 978-968-837-744-4. OCLC 19632019.
• Launey, Michel (1979). Introduction à la langue et à la littérature aztèques, vol. 1: Grammaire. Série ethnolinguistique amérindienne (in French). Paris: L'Harmattan. ISBN 978-2-85802-107-9.
• Launey, Michel (1980). Introduction à la langue et à la littérature aztèques, vol. 2: Littérature. Série ethnolinguistique amérindienne. Paris: L'Harmattan. ISBN 978-2-85802-155-0. (in French and Nahuatl languages)
• Launey, Michel (1992). Introducción a la lengua y a la literatura náhuatl (in Spanish). México D.F.: National Autonomous University of Mexico, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas. ISBN 978-968-36-1944-0. OCLC 29376295.
• Launey, Michel (1994). Une grammaire omniprédicative: Essai sur la morphosyntaxe du nahuatl classique (in French). Paris: CNRS Editions. ISBN 978-2-271-05072-4. OCLC 30738298.
• Launey, M. (1999). "Compound nouns vs. incorporation in classical Nahuatl". STUF - Language Typology and Universals. 52 (3–4): 347–364. doi:10.1524/stuf.1999.52.34.347. S2CID 170339984.
• Launey, Michel (2011). An Introduction to Classical Nahuatl. Christopher Mackay (trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-73229-1.
• León-Portilla, Miguel (1978). Los manifiestos en náhuatl de Emiliano Zapata (in Spanish). Cuernavaca, Mex.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas. OCLC 4977935.
• León-Portilla, Miguel (1985). "Nahuatl literature". In Munro S. Edmonson (Volume ed.), with Patricia A. Andrews (ed.). Supplement to the Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol. 3: Literatures. Victoria Reifler Bricker (General ed.). Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 7–43. ISBN 978-0-292-77577-0. OCLC 11785568.
• Lockhart, James (1991). Nahuas and Spaniards: Postconquest Mexican History and Philology. UCLA Latin American studies vol. 76, Nahuatl studies series no. 3. Stanford and Los Angeles, CA: Stanford University Press and UCLA Latin American Center Publications. ISBN 978-0-8047-1953-7. OCLC 23286637.
• Lockhart, James (1992). The Nahuas After the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Central Mexico, Sixteenth Through Eighteenth Centuries. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1927-8. OCLC 24283718.
• Lockhart, James; Berdan, Frances F.; Anderson, Arthur J.O. (1986). The Tlaxcalan Actas: A Compendium of the Records of the Cabildo of Tlaxcala, 1545-1627. University of Utah Press. ISBN 978-0-874-80253-5.: Macri, Martha J. (2005). "Nahua loan words from the early classic period: Words for cacao preparation on a Río Azul ceramic vessel". Ancient Mesoamerica. 16 (2): 321–326. doi:10.1017/S0956536105050200. OCLC 87656385. S2CID 162422341.
• Macri, Martha J.; Looper, Matthew G. (2003). "Nahua in ancient Mesoamerica: Evidence from Maya inscriptions". Ancient Mesoamerica. 14 (2): 285–297. doi:10.1017/S0956536103142046. OCLC 89805456. S2CID 162601312.
• Matthew, Laura E. (2012). Memories of conquest: Becoming Mexicano in colonial Guatemala. University of North Carolina Press.
• McDonough, K. S. (2014). The Learned Ones: Nahua Intellectuals in Postconquest Mexico. University of Arizona Press.
• Merrill, W. L.; Hard, R. J.; Mabry, J. B.; Fritz, G. J.; Adams, K. R.; Roney, J. R.; Macwilliams, A. C. (2010). "Reply to Hill and Brown: Maize and Uto-Aztecan cultural history". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (11): E35–E36. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107E..35M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1000923107. PMC 2841871.
• Olmos, Fray Andrés de (1993) [1547 MS.]. Arte de la lengua mexicana: concluido en el Convento de San Andrés de Ueytlalpan, en la provincia de la Totonacapan que es en la Nueva España, el 1^o. de enero de 1547, 2 vols (Facsimile edition of original MS.) (in Spanish). Ascensión León-Portilla and Miguel León-Portilla (introd., transliteration, and notes). Madrid: Ediciones de Cultura Hispánica, Instituto de Cooperación Iberoamericana. ISBN 978-84-7232-684-2. OCLC 165270583.
• Olko, J.; Sullivan, J. (2013). "Empire, Colony, and Globalization. A Brief History of the Nahuatl Language". Colloquia Humanistica (2): 181–216.
• Pasztory, Esther (1993). "An Image Is Worth a Thousand Words: Teotihuacan and the Meanings of Style in Classic Mesoamerica". In Don Stephen Rice (ed.). Latin American horizons: a symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 11th and 12th October 1986. Washington DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Trustees for Harvard University. pp. 113–146. ISBN 978-0-88402-207-7. OCLC 25872400.
• Pellicer, Dora; Cifuentes, Bábara; Herrera, Carmen (2006). "Legislating diversity in twenty-first century Mexico". In Margarita G. Hidalgo (ed.). Mexican Indigenous Languages at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century. Contributions to the Sociology of Language, no. 91. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 127–168. ISBN 978-3-11-018597-3. OCLC 62090844.
• Peralta Ramírez, Valentin (1991). "La reduplicación en el náhuatl de Tezcoco y sus funciones sociales". Amerindia. 16: 20–36.
• Pharao Hansen, Magnus (2010). "Polysynthesis in Hueyapan Nahuatl: The Status of Noun Phrases, Basic Word Order, and Other Concerns" (PDF). Anthropological Linguistics. 52 (3): 274–299. doi:10.1353/anl.2010.0017. S2CID 145563657.
• Pharao Hansen, Magnus (2013). Nahuatl in the Plural: Dialectology and Activism in Mexico. The Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association.
• Pury-Toumi, S. D. (1980). "Le saltillo en nahuatl". Amerindia. Revue d'Ethnolinguistique Amérindienne Paris. 5: 31–45.
• Rincón, Antonio del (1885) [1595]. Arte mexicana compuesta por el padre Antonio Del Rincón de la compañia de Jesus: Dirigido al illustrissimo y reverendissimo s. Don Diego Romano obispo de Tlaxcallan, y del consejo de su magestad, &c. En Mexico en casa de Pedro, Balli. 1595 (PDF facsimile, University of Chicago Library digital collections) (in Spanish) (Reprinted 1885 under the care of Antonio Peñafiel ed.). México D.F.: Oficina tip. de la Secretaría de fomento. OCLC 162761360.
• Rolstad, Kellie (2002). "Language death in Central Mexico: The decline of Spanish-Nahuatl bilingualism and the new bilingual maintenance programs". The Bilingual Review/La revista bilingüe. 26 (1): 3–18. ISSN 0094-5366. OCLC 1084374.
• Sahagún, Bernardino de (1950–1982) [ca. 1540–85]. Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain, 13 vols. vols. I-XII. Charles E. Dibble and Arthur J.O. Anderson (eds., trans., notes and illus.) (translation of Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva España ed.). Santa Fe, NM and Salt Lake City: School of American Research and the University of Utah Press. ISBN 978-0-87480-082-1. OCLC 276351.
• Sahagún, Bernardino de (1997) [ca.1558–61]. Primeros Memoriales. The Civilization of the American Indians Series vol. 200, part 2. Thelma D. Sullivan (English trans. and paleography of Nahuatl text), with H.B. Nicholson, Arthur J.O. Anderson, Charles E. Dibble, Eloise Quiñones Keber, and Wayne Ruwet (completion, revisions, and ed.). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-2909-9. OCLC 35848992.
• Sischo, William R. (1979). "Michoacán Nahual". In Ronald W. Langacker (ed.). Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar 2: Modern Aztec Grammatical Sketches. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics, no. 56. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. pp. 307–380. ISBN 978-0-88312-072-9. OCLC 6086368.
• Smith-Stark, T. C. (2005). "Phonological description in New Spain". In Zwartjes, O.; Altman, C. (eds.). Missionary Linguistics II/Lingüística misionera II: Orthography and Phonology. Selected papers from the Second International Conference on Missionary Linguistics. Vol. 109. John Benjamins Publishing.
• Suárez, Jorge A. (1977). "La influencia del español en la estructura gramatical del náhuatl". Anuario de Letras. Revista de la Facultad de Filosofía y Letras (in Spanish). 15: 115–164. ISSN 0185-1373. OCLC 48341068.
• Suárez, Jorge A. (1983). The Mesoamerian Indian Languages. Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22834-3. OCLC 8034800.
• Sullivan, Thelma D. (1988). Wick R. Miller; Karen Dakin (eds.). Compendium of Náhuatl Grammar. Translated by Thelma D. Sullivan & Neville Stiles (English translation of Compendio de la gramática náhuatl ed.). Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. ISBN 978-0-87480-282-5. OCLC 17982711.
• Tuggy, David H. (1979). "Tetelcingo Náhuatl". In Ronald Langacker (ed.). Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar 2: Modern Aztec Grammatical Sketches. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics, no. 56. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. pp. 1–140. ISBN 978-0-88312-072-9. OCLC 6086368.
• Voegelin, Charles F.; Florence M. Voegelin; Kenneth L. Hale (1962). Typological and Comparative Grammar of Uto-Aztecan I: Phonology (Supplement to International Journal of American Linguistics, vol. 28, no. 1). Indiana University publications in anthropology and linguistics, Memoir 17. Baltimore MD: Waverly Press. OCLC 55576894.
• Whittaker, G. (2009). "The Principles of Nahuatl Writing" (PDF). Göttinger Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft. 16: 47–81.
• Whorf, Benjamin Lee; Karttunen, Frances; Campbell, Lyle (1993). "Pitch Tone and the 'Saltillo' in Modern and Ancient Nahuatl". International Journal of American Linguistics. 59 (2): 165–223. doi:10.1086/466194. OCLC 1753556. S2CID 144639961.
• Wimmer, Alexis (2006). "Dictionnaire de la langue nahuatl classique" (online version, incorporating reproductions from Dictionnaire de la langue nahuatl ou mexicaine [1885], by Rémi Siméon). Retrieved 4 February 2008. (in French and Nahuatl languages)
• Wolgemuth, Carl (2002). . Sharon Stark and Albert Bickford (online eds.) (2nd ed.). México D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. ISBN 978-968-31-0315-4. OCLC 51555383. Archived from the original (PDF online edition) on 19 April 2008.

Further reading

Dictionaries of Classical Nahuatl

• de Molina, Fray Alonso: Vocabulario en Lengua Castellana y Mexicana y Mexicana y Castellana. [1555] Reprint: Porrúa México 1992
• Karttunen, Frances, An analytical dictionary of Náhuatl. Univ. of Oklahoma Press, Norman 1992
• Siméon, Rémi: Diccionario de la Lengua Náhuatl o Mexicana. [Paris 1885] Reprint: México 2001

Grammars of Classical Nahuatl

• Carochi, Horacio. Grammar of the Mexican Language: With an Explanation of its Adverbs (1645) Translated by James Lockhart. Stanford University Press. 2001.
• Lockhart, James: Nahuatl as written: lessons in older written Nahuatl, with copious examples and texts, Stanford 2001
• Sullivan, Thelma: Compendium of Nahuatl Grammar, Univ. of Utah Press, 1988.
• Campbell, Joe and Frances Karttunen, Foundation course in Náhuatl grammar. Austin 1989
• Launey, Michel. Introducción a la lengua y a la literatura Náhuatl. México D.F.: UNAM. 1992 (Spanish); An Introduction to Classical Nahuatl [English translation/adaptation by Christopher Mackay], 2011, Cambridge University Press.
• Andrews, J. Richard. Introduction to Classical Nahuatl University of Oklahoma Press: 2003 (revised edition)

Modern dialects

• Ronald W. Langacker (ed.): Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar 2: Modern Aztec Grammatical Sketches, Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics, 56. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington, pp. 1–140. ISBN 0-88312-072-0. OCLC 6086368. 1979. (Contains studies of Nahuatl from Michoacan, Tetelcingo, Huasteca and North Puebla)
• Canger, Una. Mexicanero de la Sierra Madre Occidental, Archivo de Lenguas Indígenas de México, No. 24. México D.F.: El Colegio de México. ISBN 968-12-1041-7. OCLC 49212643. 2001 (Spanish)
• Campbell, Lyle. The Pipil Language of El Salvador, Mouton Grammar Library (No. 1). Berlin: Mouton Publishers. 1985. ISBN 0-89925-040-8. OCLC 13433705.
• Wolgemuth, Carl. Gramática Náhuatl (melaʼtájto̱l) de los municipios de Mecayapan y Tatahuicapan de Juárez, Veracruz, 2nd edition. 2002. (in Spanish)

Miscellaneous

• The Nahua Newsletter: edited by the Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies of the Indiana University (Chief Editor Alan Sandstrom)
• Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl: special interest-yearbook of the Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas (IIH) of the Universidad Autónoma de México (UNAM), Ed.: Miguel León Portilla
• A Catalogue of Pre-1840 Nahuatl Works Held by The Lilly Library from The Indiana University Bookman No. 11. November 1973: 69–88.
• , containing recordings in Nahuatl by native speakers and transcriptions, from the Archive of Indigenous Languages of Latin America.
• Barnstone, Willis (2003). Literatures of Latin America: From Antiquity to Present. Princeton: Prentice Hall.

External links

 

Nāhuatl edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

Classical Nahuatl test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator

 

Central Huastec Nahuatl test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator

 

Central Nahuatl test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator

 

Pipil test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator

 

Orizaba Nahuatl test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator

 

Look up nahuatl in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Online Nahuatl Dictionary – Wired Humanities Projects, University of Oregon