East Asia

For other uses, see East Asia (disambiguation).

East Asia is a region of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms.^[7][8] The modern states of East Asia include China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan.^[2][3][4][5] Hong Kong and Macau, two small coastal cities located in the south of China, are autonomous regions under Chinese sovereignty. The economies of Japan, South Korea, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau are some of the world's largest and most prosperous economies.^[9] East Asia borders Siberia and the Russian Far East to the north, Southeast Asia to the south, South Asia to the southwest, and Central Asia to the west. To the east is the Pacific Ocean and to the southeast is Micronesia (a Pacific Ocean island group that is classified as part of Oceania).

East Asia

Area	11,840,000 km^2 (4,570,000 sq mi) (3rd)
Population	1.6 billion (2023; 4th)
Population density	141.9 km^2 (54.8 sq mi)
GDP (PPP)	$44.7 trillion (2023)^[1]
GDP (nominal)	$24.8 trillion (2023)^[1]
GDP per capita	$15,000 (nominal)^[1]
Demonym	East Asian
Countries	6 countries^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]  China  Japan  Mongolia  North Korea  South Korea  Taiwan^[1]
Dependencies	2 autonomous dependencies  Hong Kong (China)  Macau (China)
Languages	Chinese Japanese Korean Mongolian Tibetan Others
Time zones	UTC+7, UTC+8 & UTC+9
Largest cities	List of urban areas:^[6] Beijing Busan Chengdu Daegu Guangzhou Hangzhou Hong Kong Kaoshiung Macau Nagoya Nanjing Osaka Seoul Shanghai Shenzhen Taipei Tokyo Yokohama
UN M49 code	030 – Eastern Asia 142 – Asia 001 – World

East Asia
Chinese name
Simplified Chinese	东亚/东亚细亚
Traditional Chinese	東亞/東亞細亞
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Dōngyǎ/Dōngyà or Dōng Yǎxìyǎ/Dōng Yàxìyà Wade–Giles Tung^1-ya^3 Wu Romanization ton^平 ia^去 Gan Romanization Tung1 nga3 Hakka Romanization dung^24 a^31 Yue: Cantonese Jyutping dung1 aa3 Southern Min Hokkien POJ Tang-a
Tibetan name
Tibetan	ཨེ་ཤ་ཡ་ཤར་མ་
Korean name
Hangul	동아시아/동아세아/동아
Hanja	東아시아/東亞細亞/東亞
Transcriptions Revised Romanization Dong Asia/Dong Asea/Dong A
Mongolian name
Mongolian Cyrillic	Зүүн Ази ᠵᠡᠭᠦᠨ ᠠᠽᠢ
Transcriptions SASM/GNC Dzuun Azi
Japanese name
Kana	ひがしアジア/とうあ
Kyūjitai	東亞細亞/東亞
Shinjitai	東亜細亜（東アジア）/東亜
Transcriptions Revised Hepburn Higashi Ajia/Tō-A Kunrei-shiki Higasi Azia/Tou-A
Uyghur name
Uyghur	شەرقىي ئاسىي‎
Transcriptions Latin Yëziqi sherqiy asiy

East Asia, especially Chinese civilization, is regarded as one of the earliest cradles of civilization. Other ancient civilizations in East Asia that still exist as independent countries in the present day include the Japanese, Korean and Mongolian civilizations. Various other civilizations existed as independent polities in East Asia in the past but have since been absorbed into neighbouring civilizations in the present day, such as Tibet, Baiyue, Khitan, Manchuria, Ryukyu (Okinawa) and Ainu, among many others. Taiwan has a relatively young history in the region after the prehistoric era; originally, it was a major site of Austronesian civilization prior to colonisation by European colonial powers and China from the 17th century onward. For thousands of years, China was the leading civilization in the region, exerting influence on its neighbours.^[10][11][12] Historically, societies in East Asia have fallen within the Chinese sphere of influence, and East Asian vocabularies and scripts are often derived from Classical Chinese and Chinese script. The Chinese calendar serves as the root from which many other East Asian calendars are derived.

Major religions in East Asia include Buddhism (mostly Mahayana),^[13] Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism, Taoism,^[14] ancestral worship, and Chinese folk religion in Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, Shinto in Japan, and Christianity, and Musok in Korea.^[15][16][17] Tengerism and Tibetan Buddhism are prevalent among Mongols and Tibetans while other religions such as Shamanism are widespread among the indigenous populations of northeastern China such as the Manchus.^[18] Major languages in East Asia include Mandarin Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. Major ethnic groups of East Asia include the Han (mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan), Yamato (Japan) and Koreans (North Korea, South Korea). Mongols, although not as populous as the previous three ethnic groups, constitute the majority of Mongolia's population. There are 76 officially-recognized minority or indigenous ethnic groups in East Asia; 55 native to mainland China (including Hui, Manchus, Chinese Mongols, Tibetans, Uyghurs and Zhuang in the frontier regions), 16 native to the island of Taiwan (collectively known as Taiwanese indigenous peoples), one native to the major Japanese island of Hokkaido (the Ainu) and four native to Mongolia (Turkic peoples). Ryukyuan people are an unrecognized ethnic group indigenous to the Ryukyu Islands in southern Japan, which stretch from Kyushu Island (Japan) to Taiwan. There are also several unrecognized indigenous ethnic groups in mainland China and Taiwan.

East Asian people comprise around 1.7 billion people, making up about 33% of the population in Continental Asia and 20% of the global population.^{[19][20][21][needs update]} The region is home to major world metropolises such as Beijing, Hong Kong, Osaka, Seoul, Shanghai, Shenzhen, Taipei and Tokyo. Although the coastal and riparian areas of the region form one of the world's most populated places, the population in Mongolia and Western China, both landlocked areas, is very sparsely distributed, with Mongolia having the lowest population density of a sovereign state. The overall population density of the region is 133 inhabitants per square kilometre (340/sq mi), about three times the world average of 45/km² (120/sq mi).^{[when?][citation needed]}

History

Main article: History of East Asia

China was the first region settled in East Asia and was undoubtedly the core of East Asian civilization from where other parts of East Asia were formed.^[22] The various other regions in East Asia were selective in the Chinese influences they adopted into their local customs. Historian Ping-ti Ho famously labeled Chinese civilization as the "Cradle of Eastern Civilization", in parallel with the "Cradle of Middle Eastern Civilization" along the Fertile Crescent encompassing Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt^[23] as well as the Cradle of Western Civilization encompassing Ancient Greece^[a] and Ancient Rome.^[b]

 

Map showing the boundary of the 13th century Mongol Empire compared to today's Mongols

 

The Qing conquest of the Ming and expansion of the empire

 

Colonies and influence zones in East Asia and Oceania, circa 1914

Chinese civilization existed for about 1,500 years before other East Asian civilizations emerged into history, Imperial China would exert much of its cultural, economic, technological, and political muscle onto its neighbours.^{[39][40][41][42]} Succeeding Chinese dynasties exerted enormous influence across East Asia culturally, economically, politically and militarily for over two millennia.^[42][43][44] The Imperial Chinese tributary system shaped much of East Asia's history for over two millennia due to Imperial China's economic and cultural influence over the region, and thus played a huge role in the history of East Asia in particular.^[45][46][41] Imperial China's cultural preeminence not only led the country to become East Asia's first literate nation in the entire region, it also supplied Japan and Korea with Chinese loanwords and linguistic influences rooted in their writing systems.^[47]

Under Emperor Wu of Han, the Han dynasty made China the regional power in East Asia, projecting much of its imperial power on its neighbours.^[42][48] Han China hosted the largest unified population in East Asia, the most literate and urbanised as well as being the most economically developed, as well as the most technologically and culturally advanced civilization in the region at the time.^[49][50] Cultural and religious interaction between the Chinese and other regional East Asian dynasties and kingdoms occurred. China's impact and influence on Korea began with the Han dynasty's northeastern expansion in 108 BC when the Han Chinese conquered the northern part of the Korean peninsula and established a province called Lelang. Chinese influences were transmitted and soon took root in Korea through the inclusion of the Chinese writing system, monetary system, rice culture, philosophical schools of thought, and Confucian political institutions.^[51] Jomon society in ancient Japan incorporated wet-rice cultivation and metallurgy through its contact with Korea. Starting from the fourth century AD, Japan incorporated the Chinese writing system which evolved into Kanji by the fifth century AD and has become a significant part of the Japanese writing system.^[52] Utilizing the Chinese writing system allowed the Japanese to conduct their daily activities, maintain historical records and give form to various ideas, thoughts, and philosophies.^[53] During the Tang dynasty, China exerted its greatest influence on East Asia as various aspects of Chinese culture spread to Japan and Korea.^[54][55] The establishment of the medieval Tang dynasty rekindled the impetus of Chinese expansionism across the geopolitical confines of East Asia. Similar to its Han predecessor, Tang China reasserted itself as the center of East Asian geopolitical influence during the early medieval period which spearheaded and marked another golden age in Chinese history.^[56] During the Tang dynasty, China exerted its greatest influence on East Asia as various aspects of Chinese culture spread to Japan and Korea.^[54][55] In addition, Tang China also managed to maintain control over northern Vietnam and Korea.^[57]

As full-fledged medieval East Asian states were established, Korea by the fourth century AD and Japan by the seventh century AD, Japan and Korea actively began to incorporate Chinese influences such as Confucianism, the use of written Han characters, Chinese style architecture, state institutions, political philosophies, religion, urban planning, and various scientific and technological methods into their culture and society through direct contacts with Tang China and succeeding Chinese dynasties.^[54][55][58] Drawing inspiration from the Tang political system, Prince Naka no oe launched the Taika Reform in 645 AD where he radically transformed Japan's political bureaucracy into a more centralised bureaucratic empire.^[59] The Japanese also adopted Mahayana Buddhism, Chinese style architecture, and the imperial court's rituals and ceremonies, including the orchestral music and state dances had Tang influences. Written Chinese gained prestige and aspects of Tang culture such as poetry, calligraphy, and landscape painting became widespread.^[59] During the Nara period, Japan began to aggressively import Chinese culture and styles of government which included Confucian protocol that served as a foundation for Japanese culture as well as political and social philosophy.^[60][61] The Japanese also created laws adopted from the Chinese legal system that was used to govern in addition to the kimono, which was inspired from the Chinese robe (hanfu) during the eighth century AD.^[62] For many centuries, most notably from the 7th to the 14th centuries, China stood as East Asia's most advanced civilization and foremost military and economic power, exerting its influence as the transmission of advanced Chinese cultural practices and ways of thinking greatly shaped the region up until the nineteenth century.^{[63][64][65][66]}

As East Asia's connections with Europe and the Western world strengthened during the late nineteenth century, China's power began to decline.^[39][67] By the mid-nineteenth century, the weakening Qing dynasty became fraught with political corruption, obstacles and stagnation that was incapable of rejuvenating itself as a world power in contrast to the industrializing Imperial European colonial powers and a rapidly modernizing Japan.^[68][69] The U.S. Commodore Matthew C. Perry would open Japan to Western ways, and the country would expand in earnest after the 1860s.^[70][71][72] Around the same time, Japan with its rush to modernity transformed itself from an isolated feudal samurai state into East Asia's first industrialised nation in the modern era.^[73][74][71] The modern and militarily powerful Japan would galvanise its position in the Orient as East Asia's greatest power with a global mission poised to advance to lead the entire world.^[73][75] By the early 1900s, the Japanese empire succeeded in asserting itself as East Asia's most dominant power.^[75] With its newly found international status, Japan would begin to challenge the European colonial powers and inextricably took on a more active geopolitical position in East Asia and world affairs at large.^[76] Flexing its nascent political and military might, Japan soundly defeated the stagnant Qing dynasty during the First Sino-Japanese War as well as vanquishing imperial rival Russia in 1905; the first major military victory in the modern era of an East Asian power over a European one.^{[77][78][79][80][70]} Its hegemony was the heart of an empire that would include Taiwan and Korea.^[73] During World War II, Japanese expansionism with its imperialist aspirations through the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere would incorporate Korea, Taiwan, much of eastern China and Manchuria, Hong Kong, and Southeast Asia under its control establishing itself as a maritime colonial power in East Asia.^[81] After a century of exploitation by the European and Japanese colonialists, post-colonial East Asia saw the defeat and occupation of Japan by the victorious Allies as well as the division of China and Korea during the Cold War. The Korean peninsula became independent but then it was divided into two rival states, while Taiwan became the main territory of de facto state Republic of China after the latter lost Mainland China to the People's Republic of China in the Chinese Civil War. During the latter half of the twentieth century, the region would see the post war economic miracle of Japan, which ushered in three decades of unprecedented growth, only to experience an economic slowdown during the 1990s, but nonetheless Japan continues to remain a global economic power. East Asia would also see the economic rise of Hong Kong, South Korea, and Taiwan, in addition to the respective handovers of Hong Kong and Macau near the turn of the twentieth century. The onset of the 21st-century in East Asia led to the integration of Mainland China into the global economy through its entry in the World Trade Organization while also enhancing its emerging international status as a potential world power reinforced with its aim of restoring its historical established significance and enduring international prominence in the world economy.^{[2][82][83][84][85][86][87][88][89]} Despite the absence of armed conflicts in East Asia for decades, the stability of the region remains delicate due to the presence of North Korea's nuclear program and Chinese geopolitical encroachment and provocations occurring in Taiwanese waters. These tensions have emerged from the contentious relationship between Mainland China and Taiwan, as the former seeks to reunify with Mainland China while the latter strives to maintain its sovereign independence and preserve the prevailing geopolitical order.

Definitions

 

Three sets of possible boundaries for the Central Asia region that overlap with conceptions of East Asia

In common usage, the term "East Asia" typically refers to a region including Greater China, Japan, Korea and Mongolia.^{[83][90][91][92][93][94][95][96][97][98]}

China, Japan, and Korea represent the three core countries and civilizations of traditional East Asia - as they once shared a common written language, culture, as well as sharing Confucian philosophical tenets and the Confucian societal value system once instituted by Imperial China.^{[99][100][101][102][103]} Other usages define Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Japan, North Korea, South Korea and Taiwan as countries that constitute East Asia based on their geographic proximity as well as historical and modern cultural and economic ties, particularly with Japan and Korea having strong cultural influences that originated from China.^{[99][103][104][105][106][107]} Some scholars include Vietnam as part of East Asia as it has been considered part of the greater Chinese sphere of influence. Though Confucianism continues to play an important role in Vietnamese culture, Chinese characters are no longer used in its written language and many scholarly organizations classify Vietnam as a Southeast Asian country.^{[108][109][110]} Mongolia is geographically north of Mainland China yet Confucianism and the Chinese writing system and culture had limited impact on Mongolian society. Thus, Mongolia is sometimes grouped with Central Asian countries such as Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan.^[108][109] Xinjiang (East Turkestan) and Tibet are sometimes seen as part of Central Asia.^{[111][112][113]}

Broader and looser definitions by international agencies and organisations such as the World Bank refer to East Asia as the "three major Northeast Asian economies, i.e. Mainland China, Japan, and South Korea", as well as Mongolia, North Korea, the Russian Far East, and Siberia.^[114] The Council on Foreign Relations includes the Russia Far East, Mongolia, and Nepal.^[115] The World Bank also acknowledges the roles of Chinese special administrative regions Hong Kong and Macau, as well as Taiwan, a country with limited recognition. The Economic Research Institute for Northeast Asia defines the region as "China, Japan, the Koreas, Nepal, Mongolia, and eastern regions of the Russian Federation".^[116]

 

The countries of East Asia also form the core of Northeast Asia, which itself is a broader region.

 

East Asia map of Köppen climate classification

 

The list of geographic regions presents the composition of geographical regions used by the Statistics Division in its publications and databases.^[117] UNSD geoscheme for Asia based on statistic convenience rather than implying any assumption regarding political or other affiliation of countries or territories:^[118]

  North Asia

  Central Asia

  Western Asia

  South Asia

  East Asia

  Southeast Asia

The UNSD definition of East Asia is based on statistical convenience,^[118] but others commonly use the same definition of Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, Taiwan, and Japan.^[7][119]

Certain Japanese islands are associated with Oceania due to non-continental geology, distance from mainland Asia or biogeographical similarities with Micronesia.^[120][121] Some groups, such as the World Health Organization, categorize China, Japan and Korea with Australia and the rest of Oceania. The World Health Organization label this region the "Western Pacific", with East Asia not being used in their concept of major world regions. Their definition of this region further includes Mongolia and the adjacent area of Cambodia, as well as the countries of the South East Asia Archipelago (excluding East Timor and Indonesia).^[122]

Alternative definitions

In business and economics, "East Asia" is sometimes used to refer to the geographical area covering ten Southeast Asian countries in ASEAN, Greater China, Japan and Korea. However, in this context, the term "Far East" is used by the Europeans to cover ASEAN countries and the countries in East Asia. However, being a Eurocentric term, Far East describes the region's geographical position in relation to Europe rather than its location within Asia. Alternatively, the term "Asia Pacific Region" is often used in describing East Asia, Southeast Asia as well as Oceania.^{[citation needed]} On rare occasion, the term is also sometimes taken to include India and other South Asian countries not within the bounds of the Pacific, although the term Indo-Pacific is more commonly used for such a definition.^[123]

Observers preferring a broader definition of "East Asia" often use the term Northeast Asia to refer to China, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan, with Southeast Asia covering the ten ASEAN countries. This usage, which is seen in economic and diplomatic discussions, is at odds with the historical meanings of both "East Asia" and "Northeast Asia".^{[124][125][126]} The Council on Foreign Relations of the United States defines Northeast Asia as Japan and Korea.^[115]

Economy

Main article: Economy of East Asia

Customs territory	GDP nominal billions of USD (2023)^[1]	GDP nominal per capita USD (2023)^[1]	GDP PPP billions of USD (2023)^[1]	GDP PPP per capita USD (2023)^[1]
People's Republic of China	17,700,899	12,541	32,897,929	23,309
Hong Kong^[c]	385,546	51,168	548,999	72,861
Macau^[d]	38,480	54,296	69,565	98,157
Japan	4,230,862	33,950	6,495,214	52,120
Mongolia	18,782	5,348	52,989	15,088
North Korea	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
South Korea	1,709,232	33,147	2,924,189	56,709
Taiwan^[e]	751,930	32,339	1,685,358	72,485
East Asia	$24,835,731	$15,068	$44,674,243	$27,104

Territorial and regional data

China, North Korea, South Korea and Taiwan are all unrecognised by at least one other East Asian state because of severe ongoing political tensions in the region, specifically the division of Korea and the political status of Taiwan.

Etymology

Flag	Common Name		Official name		ISO 3166 Country Codes^[127]
	Exonym	Endonym	Exonym	Endonym	ISO Short Name	Alpha-2 Code	Alpha-3 Code	Numeric
	China	中国	People's Republic of China	中华人民共和国	China	CN	CHN	156
	Hong Kong	香港	Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China	中華人民共和國香港特別行政區	Hong Kong	HK	HKG	344
	Macau	澳門	Macao Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China	中華人民共和國澳門特別行政區	Macao	MO	MAC	446
	Japan	日本	Japan	日本国	Japan	JP	JPN	392
	Mongolia	Монгол улс / ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ	Mongolia	Монгол Улс (ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ)	Mongolia	MN	MNG	496
	North Korea	조선	Democratic People's Republic of Korea	조선민주주의인민공화국	Korea (the Democratic People's Republic of)	KP	PRK	408
	South Korea	한국	Republic of Korea	대한민국	Korea (the Republic of)	KR	KOR	410
	Taiwan^[f]	臺灣 / 台灣	Republic of China	中華民國	Taiwan^[127]	TW	TWN	158

Demographics

 

Population pyramid of East Asia in 2023

 

Historical distribution map of linguistic groups in China

State/Territory	Area km^2	Population in thousands (2023)^[128]^[129]	% of East Asia	% of World	Population density per km^2	HDI^[130]	Capital/Administrative Centre
China	9,640,011^[g]	1,425,671^[h]	85.76%	17.72%	138	0.768	Beijing
Hong Kong	1,104	7,492	0.45%	0.093%	6,390	0.952	Hong Kong
Macau	30	704	0.042%	0.0087%	18,662	0.922	Macao
Japan	377,930	123,295	7.42%	1.53%	337	0.925	Tokyo
Mongolia	1,564,100	3,447	0.2%	0.042%	2	0.739	Ulaanbaatar
North Korea	120,538	26,161	1.57%	0.33%	198	0.733^[citation needed]	Pyongyang^[i]
South Korea	100,210	51,784	3.11%	0.64%	500	0.925	Seoul
Taiwan	36,197	23,923	1.44%	0.297%	639	0.926	Taipei^[j]
East Asia	11,840,000	1,662,477	100%	20.66%	141	0.861 (very high)

Ethnic groups

Main articles: East Asian people and Ethnic groups of East Asia

Ethnicity	Native name	Population	Language(s)	Writing system(s)	Major states/territories*	Traditional attire
Han/Chinese	漢族 or 汉族	1,313,345,856^[134]	Chinese (Mandarin, Min, Wu, Yue, Jin, Gan, Hakka, Xiang, Huizhou, Pinghua, etc.)	Simplified Han characters, Traditional Han characters
Yamato/Japanese	大和民族	125,117,000^[135]	Japanese	Han characters (Kanji), Katakana, Hiragana
Korean	조선민족 (朝鮮民族) 한민족 (韓民族)	84,790,105^[136]^[137]^[138]	Korean	Hangul, Han characters (Hanja)
Bai	白族	2,091,543^[139]	Bai, Southwestern Mandarin	Simplified Han characters, Latin script
Hui	回族	11,377,914^[139]	Northwestern Mandarin, other Chinese Dialects, Huihui language, etc.	Simplified Han characters^[k]
Mongols	Монголчууд ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯᠴᠤᠳ Монгол/ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ	8,942,528	Mongolian	Mongol script, Cyrillic script
Zhuang	壮族/Bouxcuengh	19,568,546^[139]	Zhuang, Southwestern Mandarin, etc.	Simplified Han characters, Latin script
Uyghurs	维吾尔族/ئۇيغۇر	11,774,538^[139]	Uyghur	Arabic alphabet, Latin script	^[l]
Manchus	满族/ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ	10,423,303^[139]	Northeastern Mandarin, Manchu language	Simplified Han characters, Mongol script
Hmong/Miao	苗族/Ghaob Xongb/Hmub/Mongb	11,067,929^[139]	Hmong/Miao, Southwestern Mandarin	Latin script, Simplified Han characters
Tibetans	藏族/བོད་པ་	7,060,731^[139]	Tibetan, Rgyal Rong, Rgu, etc.	Tibetan script
Yi	彝族/ꆈꌠ	9,830,327^[139]	Various Loloish, Southwestern Mandarin	Yi script, Simplified Han characters
Tujia	土家族	9,587,732^[139]	Northern Tujia, Southern Tujia	Simplified Han characters
Kam	侗族/Gaeml	3,495,993^[139]	Gaeml	Simplified Han characters, Latin script
Tu	土族/Monguor	289,565	Tu, Northwestern Mandarin	Simplified Han characters
Daur	达斡尔族/ᠳᠠᠭᠤᠷ	131,992	Daur, Northeastern Mandarin	Mongol script, Simplified Han characters
Indigenous Taiwanese Peoples	臺灣原住民/ 高山族/ Yincomin/ Kasetaivang/ Inanuwayan	533,600	Austronesian languages (Amis, Yami), etc.	Latin script, Traditional Han characters
Ryukyuan	琉球民族	1,900,000	Japanese Ryukyuan	Han characters (Kanji), Katakana, Hiragana
Ainu	アイヌ/ Aynu/ Айну	200,000	Japanese Ainu^[140]	Han characters (Kanji), Katakana, Hiragana

• Note: The order of states/territories follows the population ranking of each ethnicity, within East Asia only.

East Asian culture

Main article: Culture of East Asia

Main category: East Asian culture

Overview

The culture of East Asia has largely been influenced by China, as it was the civilization that had the most dominant influence in the region throughout the ages that ultimately laid the foundation for East Asian civilization.^[141] The vast knowledge and ingenuity of Chinese civilization and the classics of Chinese literature and culture were seen as the foundations for a civilized life in East Asia. Imperial China served as a vehicle through which the adoption of Confucian ethical philosophy, Chinese calendar system, political and legal systems, architectural style, diet, terminology, institutions, religious beliefs, imperial examinations that emphasised a knowledge of Chinese classics, political philosophy and cultural value systems, as well as historically sharing a common writing system reflected in the histories of Japan and Korea.^{[142][42][143][144][145][146][147][148][103]} The Imperial Chinese tributary system was the bedrock of network of trade and foreign relations between China and its East Asian tributaries, which helped to shape much of East Asian affairs during the ancient and medieval eras. Through the tributary system, the various dynasties of Imperial China facilitated frequent economic and cultural exchange that influenced the cultures of Japan and Korea and drew them into a Chinese international order.^[149] The Imperial Chinese tributary system shaped much of East Asia's foreign policy and trade for over two millennia due to Imperial China's economic and cultural dominance over the region, and thus played a huge role in the history of East Asia in particular.^[46][149] The relationship between China and its cultural influence on East Asia has been compared to the historical influence of Greco-Roman civilization on Europe and the Western World.^{[146][144][149][142]}

Religions

Main article: East Asian religions

<div style="border:solid transparent;background-color: initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;

Religion in East Asia (2020)^[150]

  Folk Religion (52.10%)

  Buddhism (19.65%)

  No Religion (19.62%)

  Christianity (5.56%)

  Islam (1.57%)

  Other (1.44%)

Religion	Native name	Creator/Current Leader	Founded Time	Main Denomination	Major book	Type	Est. Followers	Ethnic groups	States/territories
Chinese folk religion	中國民間信仰 or 中国民间信仰	Spontaneous formation	Prehistoric period	Salvationist, Wuism, Nuo	Chinese classics, Huangdi Sijing, precious scrolls, etc.	Prehistoric, pantheism, and polytheism	~900,000,000^[151]^[152]	Han, Hmong, Qiang, Tujia (worship of the same ancestor-gods)
Taoism	道教	All religions originating in East Asia have been heavily influenced by Taoism and the Tao Te Ching.^[14] Zhang Daoling, was considered the founder of Taoism by Taoists. He founded Zhengyi, the earliest denomination of Taoism. Zhang Daoling reformed the Chinese folk religion from Sichuan, into a real, organised, and regulated religion, in 125 AD. Wang Chongyang founded the Quanzhen Denomination. Tale says Wang Chongyang met two Gods, Lü Dongbin and Han Zhongli, during Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in 1159. He then get started to study Taoism himself. Three years later, he finished his studying, and founded Quanzhen. The new leader of Zhengyi need to be the son or paternal nephew of the previous leader, confirmed by the court of Zhengyi, in Mount Longhu, Jiangxi. Also beginning from the Song dynasty, the leaders of Zhengyi get started to be confirmed and titled by the Emperor of China. In 1949, the 63rd leader, Zhang Enfu, fled to Taiwan with Chiang Kai-shek, leader of the Kuomintang, died in 1969 in Taipei. The Kuomintang Authority titled his cousin Zhang Yuanxian as the 64th leader, while the Court of Zhengyi back in Jiangxi argued that the oracle already foreseen the leadership will end at the 63rd generation. Zhang Yuanxian died in 2008, only left a daughter as heir. Meanwhile, the Kuomintang Authority did not confirmed the next leader. On the other hand, in Mainland China, Zhang Enfu's second daughter's son, Lu Jintao, changes his surname to Zhang, and get in charge of the Court of Zhengyi currently. For the leader of Quanzhen, the last (18th) leader (1335-1362) was Wanyan Deming, titled by the Emperor of Yuan dynasty. Wanyan Deming was a Jurchen Taoist, the Wanyan family was the imperial house of Jin dynasty. There is no official leader of Quanzhen after Wanyan Deming anymore.^[citation needed]	125 AD Eastern Han dynasty^[citation needed]	Zhengyi, Quanzhen	Tao Te Ching	Pantheism, polytheism	~20,000,000^[152]	Han, Zhuang, Hmong, Yao, Qiang, Tujia
East Asian Buddhism/Chinese Buddhism	漢傳佛教 or 汉传佛教	The Emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty, Liu Zhuang, made a dream about the Buddha occasionally, then sent people to the Western Regions to Introduce Buddhism to the Capital, Chang'an, in 67 AD. In 384 AD, during the Eastern Jin dynasty, Indian Mālānanda introduced the Chinese Buddhism to Baekje. In 552 AD, King Seong of Baekje offered Buddhism to the Emperor Kinmei of Japan.^[citation needed]	67 AD Eastern Han dynasty	Mahayana	Diamond Sutra	Non-God, Dualism.	~300,000,000	Han, Koreans, Yamato
Tibetan Buddhism	藏传佛教/བོད་བརྒྱུད་ནང་བསྟན།	Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche, Prince of the Ancient Xang Xung Kingdom.	1800 years ago	Mahayana, Bon	Anuttarayoga Tantra	Non-God	~10,000,000	Tibetans, Manchus, Mongols
Shamanism^[m]	萨满教 or Бөө мөргөл	Spontaneous formation	Prehistoric period		N/A	Prehistoric, polytheism, and pantheism	N/A	Manchus, Mongols, Oroqens
Shinto	神道	Spontaneous formation	Yayoi period^[153]	Shinto sects	Kojiki, Nihon Shoki	Prehistoric, pantheism, and polytheism	N/A	Yamato
Musok/Muism	신도 or 무교	Spontaneous formation	900 years ago^[citation needed]	Musok sects	N/A	Prehistoric, pantheism, and polytheism	N/A	Koreans
Ryukyuan religion	琉球神道 or ニライカナイ信仰	Spontaneous formation	N/A	N/A	N/A	Prehistoric, pantheism, and polytheism	N/A	Ryukyuans	( )

Festivals

Festival	Native Name	Other name	Calendar	Date	Gregorian date	Activity	Religious practices	Food	Major ethnicities	Major states/territories
Chinese New Year	農曆新年/农历新年 or 春節/春节	Spring Festival	Chinese	Month 1 Day 1	21 Jan–20 Feb	Family Reunion, Ancestors Worship, Tomb Sweeping, Fireworks	Worship the King of Gods	Nian gao	Han, Manchus etc.
Korean New Year	설날 or 설	Seollal	Korean	Month 1 Day 1	21 Jan–20 Feb	Ancestors Worship, Family Reunion, Tomb Sweeping	N/A	Tteokguk	Koreans
Losar or Tsagaan Sar	藏历新年/ལོ་གསར་ or 查干萨日/Цагаан сар	White Moon	Tibetan, Mongolian	Month 1 Day 1	25 Jan – 2 Mar	Family Reunion, Ancestors Worship, Tomb Sweeping, Fireworks	N/A	Chhaang or Buuz	Tibetans, Mongols, Tu etc.
New Year	元旦	Yuan Dan	Gregorian	1 Jan	1 Jan	Fireworks	N/A	N/A	N/A
Lantern Festival	元宵節 or 元宵节	Upper Yuan Festival (上元节)	Chinese	Month 1 Day 15	4 Feb – 6 Mar	Lanterns Expo, Ancestors Worship, Tomb Sweeping	Birthdate of the God of Sky-officer	Yuanxiao	Han
Daeboreum	대보름 or 정월 대보름	Great Full Moon	Korean	Month 1 Day 15	4 Feb – 6 Mar	Greeting of the moon, kite-flying, Jwibulnori, eating nuts (Bureom)	Bonfires (daljip taeugi)	Ogok-bap, namul, nuts	Korean
Hanshi Festival	寒食節 or 寒食节	Cold Food Festival	Solar term	Traditionally, on the 105th day after the Winter solstice. Revised to 1 day before the Qingming Festival by Johann Adam Schall von Bell (Chinese: 汤若望) during the Qing dynasty.	April 3–5	Ancestors Worship, Tomb Sweeping, No cooking hot meal/setting fire, Cold food only. Cuju, etc. (People used to mix this one with the Qingming Festival due to their close dates)	In Memory of a loyal Ancient named Jie Zhitui (Chinese: 介子推), ordered by the Monarch of the Jin (Chinese state), Duke Wen of Jin (Chinese: 重耳)	Cold Food, e.g. Qingtuan	Han, Koreans, Mongols
Qingming Festival	清明節 or 清明节 or Ханш нээх	Tomb Sweeping Day	Solar term	15th day after the Vernal Equinox. Just 1 day after the Hanshi Festival, but in much higher repute.	April 4-6th	Ancestors Worship, Tomb Sweeping, Excursion, Planting trees, Flying kites, Tug of war, Cuju, etc. (Almost the same with the Hanshi Festival's, due to their close dates)	Burning Hell money for deceased family members. Planting willow branches to keep ghosts away from houses.	Boiled eggs	Han, Koreans, Mongols
Dragon Boat Festival	端午節 or 端午节 or 단오	Duanwu Festival / Dano (Surit-nal)	Chinese / Korean	Month 5 Day 5		Driving poisons & plague away. (China - Dragon Boat Race, Wearing coloured lines, Hanging felon herb on the front door.) / (Korea - Washing hair with iris water, ssireum)	Worship various Gods	Zongzi / Surichwitteok (rice cake with herbs)	Han, Koreans, Yamato
Ghost Festival	中元節 or 中元节 or 백중	Mid Yuan Festival	Chinese	Month 7 Day 15		Ancestors Worship, Tomb Sweeping	Birthdate of the God of Earth-officer		Han, Koreans, Yamato
Mid-Autumn Festival	中秋節 or 中秋节	中秋祭	Chinese	Month 8 Day 15		Family Reunion, Enjoying Moon view	Worship the Moon Goddess	Mooncake	Han
Chuseok	추석 or 한가위	Hangawi	Korean	Month 8 Day 15		Family Reunion, Ancestors Worship, Tomb Sweeping, Enjoying Moon view	N/A	Songpyeon, Torantang (Taro soup)	Koreans
Tsukimi	月見 or お月見	Tsukimi or Otsukimi	Gregorian	Month 8 Day 15		Family Reunion, Enjoying Moon view	Worship the Moon	Tsukimi Dango, Sweet Potato	Yamato	^*
Double Ninth Festival	重陽節 or 重阳节	Double Positive Festival	Chinese	Month 9 Day 09		Climbing Mountain, Taking care of elderly, Wearing Cornus.	Worship various Gods		Han, Korean, Yamato	^*
Lower Yuan Festival	下元節 or 下元节	N/A	Chinese	Month 10 Day 15		Ancestors Worship, Tomb Sweeping	Birthdate of the God of Water-officer	Ciba	Han
Dongzhi Festival	冬至 or 동지 or 冬至	N/A	Gregorian	Between Dec 21 and Dec 23	Between Dec 21 and Dec 23	Ancestors Worship, Rites to dispel bad spirits	N/A	Tangyuan, Patjuk, Zenzai, Kabocha	Han, Koreans, Yamato
Small New Year	小年	Jizao (祭灶)	Chinese	Month 12 Day 23		Cleaning Houses	Worship the God of Hearth	tanggua	Han, Mongols

*Japan switched the date to the Gregorian calendar after the Meiji Restoration.
*Not always on that Gregorian date, sometimes April 4.

Collaboration

East Asian Youth Games

Main article: East Asian Youth Games

Formerly the East Asian Games, it is a multi-sport event organized by the East Asian Games Association (EAGA) and held every four years since 2019 among athletes from East Asian countries and territories of the Olympic Council of Asia (OCA), as well as the Pacific island of Guam, which is a member of the Oceania National Olympic Committees.

It is one of five Regional Games of the OCA. The others are the Central Asian Games, the Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games), the South Asian Games and the West Asian Games.

Free trade agreements

Name of agreement	Parties	Leaders at the time	Negotiation begins	Signing date	Starting time	Current status
China–South Korea FTA		Xi Jinping, Park Geun-hye	May, 2012	Jun 01, 2015	Dec 30, 2015	Enforced
China–Japan–South Korea FTA		Xi Jinping, Shinzō Abe, Park Geun-hye	Mar 26, 2013	N/A	N/A	10 round negotiation
Japan-Mongolia EPA		Shinzō Abe, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj	-	Feb 10, 2015	-	Enforced
China-Mongolia FTA		Xi Jinping, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj	N/A	N/A	N/A	Officially proposed
China-HK CEPA		Jiang Zemin, Tung Chee-hwa	-	Jun 29, 2003	-	Enforced
China-Macau CEPA		Jiang Zemin, Edmund Ho Hau-wah	-	Oct 18, 2003	-	Enforced
Hong Kong-Macau CEPA		Carrie Lam, Fernando Chui	Oct 09, 2015	N/A	N/A	Negotiating
ECFA		Hu Jintao, Ma Ying-jeou	Jan 26, 2010	Jun 29, 2010	Aug 17, 2010	Enforced
CSSTA (Based on ECFA)		Xi Jinping, Ma Ying-jeou	Mar, 2011	Jun 21, 2013	N/A	Abolished
CSGTA (Based on ECFA)		Hu Jintao, Ma Ying-jeou	Feb 22, 2011	N/A	N/A	Suspended

Military alliances

Name	Parties within the region
Sino-North Korean Mutual Aid and Cooperation Friendship Treaty
Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan
Mutual Defense Treaty Between the United States and the Republic of Korea

Major cities

Main article: Cities of East Asia

Largest population centres of East Asia ^[154]^[155]
	Rank	City name	Country	Pop.
Tokyo   Seoul	1	Tokyo	Japan	38,140,000
	2	Seoul	South Korea	25,520,000
	3	Shanghai	China	24,484,000
	4	Beijing	China	21,240,000
	5	Osaka	Japan	20,337,000
	6	Chongqing	China	13,744,000
	7	Guangzhou	China	13,070,000
	8	Tianjin	China	11,558,000
	9	Shenzhen	China	10,828,000
	10	Chengdu	China	10,104,000

•  
  Tokyo is the capital of Japan and the world's largest city, both in metropolitan population and economy.
•  
  Beijing is the capital of China. It has a history for over 3300 years.
•  
  Seoul is the capital of South Korea.
•  
  Osaka is the second-largest metropolitan area in Japan.
•  
  Guangzhou is one of the most important economic centers in southern China.
•  
  Nagoya is the third-largest metropolitan area in Japan. Nagoya is a major port city and the location of Lexus headquarters.
•  
  Kyoto was the imperial capital of Japan for eleven centuries.
•  
  Ulaanbaatar is the capital of Mongolia, with a population of 1.6 million as of 2021.
•  
  Hong Kong is one of the global financial centres and is known as a cosmopolitan metropolis.
•  
  Pyongyang is the capital of North Korea, and a major city on the Korean Peninsula.
•  
  Xi'an or Chang'an is the oldest of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China.
• Pass of the ISS over Mongolia, looking out west towards the Pacific Ocean, China, and Japan. As the video progresses, major cities along the Chinese coast and the Japanese islands on the Philippine Sea are visible. The island of Guam can be seen further down the pass into the Philippine Sea, and the pass ends just to the east of New Zealand.

See also

•  Geography portal
•  Asia portal
•  China portal
•  Hong Kong portal
•  Japan portal
•  North Korea portal
•  South Korea portal
•  Taiwan portal

• East Asia–United States relations
• East Asian Community
• East Asian languages
• China–Japan–South Korea trilateral summit
• East Asia Summit
• East Asian studies
• East Asian cultural sphere

Notes

1. See^{[24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34]}
2. ^{[35][36][37][38]}
3. Listed as "Hong Kong SAR" by IMF
4. Listed as "Macao SAR" by IMF
5. Listed as "Taiwan, Province of China" by IMF
6. From 1949 to 1971, the ROC was referred as "China" or "Nationalist China".
7. Includes all area which under PRC's government control (excluding "South Tibet" and disputed islands).^{[citation needed]}
8. A note by the United Nations: "For statistical purposes, the data for China do not include Hong Kong and Macao, Special Administrative Regions (SAR) of China, and Taiwan Province of China."^[128][129]
9. Seoul was the de jure capital of the DPRK from 1948 to 1972.
10. Taipei is the ROC's seat of government by a decree thus making it the de facto capital. There is no official capital appointed by the ROC constitution.^{[131][132][133]}
11. The Hui people also use the Arabic alphabet in the religious field.
12. The Khotons also in  .
13. almost Manchu, Mongolian

References

1. "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 2023-10-25.
2. Kort, Michael (2005). The Handbook Of East Asia. Lerner Publishing Group. p. 7. ISBN 978-0761326724.
3. "East Asia". rand.org. RAND Corporation. from the original on 2011-01-02. Retrieved 12 August 2021.
4. (PDF). auswaertiges-amt.de. German Federal Foreign Office. May 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 12 August 2021.
5. "Countries of Asia". nationsonline.org. Nations Online. from the original on 2001-07-01. Retrieved 12 August 2021.
6. "Demographia World Urban Areas" (PDF). Demographia.com. August 2023.
7. . Encarta. Microsoft. Archived from the original on 2009-11-09. Retrieved 2008-01-12. the countries and regions of Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Mongolia, South Korea, North Korea and Japan.
8. Miller, David Y. (2007). Modern East Asia: An Introductory History. Routledge. pp. xxi–xxiv. ISBN 978-0765618221.
9. "East Asia in the 21st Century | Boundless World History". courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved 2019-11-25.
10. Zaharna, R.S.; Arsenault, Amelia; Fisher, Ali (2013). Relational, Networked and Collaborative Approaches to Public Diplomacy: The Connective Mindshift (1st ed.). Routledge (published 2013-05-01). p. 93. ISBN 978-0415636070.
11. Holcombe, Charles (2017). A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-1107544895.
12. Szonyi, Michael (2017). A Companion to Chinese History. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 90. ISBN 978-1118624609.
13. Selin, Helaine (2010). Nature Across Cultures: Views of Nature and the Environment in Non-Western Cultures. Springer. p. 350. ISBN 978-9048162710.
14. Laozi; Mair, Victor H. (1998). Tao Te Ching: The Classic Book of Integrity and the Way. New York: Quality Paperback Book Club. pp. x. ISBN 9780965064750.
15. Salkind, Neil J. (2008). Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology. Sage Publications. p. 56. ISBN 978-1412916882.
16. Kim, Chongho (2003). Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. Ashgate. ISBN 9780754631859.
17. Andreas Anangguru Yewangoe, "Theologia crucis in Asia", 1987 Rodopi
18. Heissig, Walther (2000). The Religions of Mongolia. Translated by Samuel, Geoffrey. Kegan Paul International. p. 46. ISBN 9780710306852.
19. Spinosa, Ludovico (2007). Wastewater Sludge. Iwa Publishing. p. 57. ISBN 978-1843391425.
20. Wang, Yuchen; Lu Dongsheng; Chung Yeun-Jun; Xu Shuhua (2018). "Genetic structure, divergence and admixture of Han Chinese, Japanese and Korean populations". Hereditas. 155: 19. doi:10.1186/s41065-018-0057-5. PMC 5889524. PMID 29636655.
21. Wang, Yuchen; Lu, Dongsheng; Chung, Yeun-Jun; Xu, Shuhua (2018). "Genetic structure, divergence and admixture of Han Chinese, Japanese and Korean populations". Hereditas (published April 6, 2018). 155: 19. doi:10.1186/s41065-018-0057-5. PMC 5889524. PMID 29636655.
22. Walker, Hugh Dyson (2012-11-20). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4772-6517-8.
23. Holcombe, Charles (2017-01-11). A History of East Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-11873-7.
24. Maura Ellyn; Maura McGinnis (2004). Greece: A Primary Source Cultural Guide. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-8239-3999-2.
25. John E. Findling; Kimberly D. Pelle (2004). Encyclopedia of the Modern Olympic Movement. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-313-32278-5.
26. Wayne C. Thompson; Mark H. Mullin (1983). Western Europe, 1983. Stryker-Post Publications. p. 337. ISBN 9780943448114. for ancient Greece was the cradle of Western culture ...
27. Frederick Copleston (1 June 2003). History of Philosophy Volume 1: Greece and Rome. A&C Black. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-8264-6895-6. Part I Pre-Socratic Philosophy Chapter II the Cradle of Western Thought:
28. Mario Iozzo (2001). Art and History of Greece: And Mount Athos. Casa Editrice Bonechi. p. 7. ISBN 978-88-8029-435-1. The capital of Greece, one of the world's most glorious cities and the cradle of Western culture,
29. Marxiano Melotti (25 May 2011). The Plastic Venuses: Archaeological Tourism in Post-Modern Society. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 188. ISBN 978-1-4438-3028-7. In short, Greece, despite having been the cradle of Western culture, was then an "other" space separate from the West.
30. Library Journal. Vol. 97. Bowker. April 1972. p. 1588. Ancient Greece: Cradle of Western Culture (Series), disc. 6 strips with 3 discs, range: 44–60 fr., 17–18 min
31. Stanley Mayer Burstein (2002). Current Issues and the Study of Ancient History. Regina Books. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-930053-10-6. and making Egypt play the same role in African education and culture that Athens and Greece do in Western culture.
32. Murray Milner Jr. (8 January 2015). Elites: A General Model. John Wiley & Sons. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-7456-8950-0. Greece has long been considered the seedbed or cradle of Western civilization.
33. Slavica viterbiensia 003: Periodico di letterature e culture slave della Facoltà di Lingue e Letterature Straniere Moderne dell'Università della Tuscia. Gangemi Editore spa. 10 November 2011. p. 148. ISBN 978-88-492-6909-3. The Special Case of Greece The ancient Greece was a cradle of the Western culture,
34. Kim Covert (1 July 2011). Ancient Greece: Birthplace of Democracy. Capstone. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-4296-6831-6. Ancient Greece is often called the cradle of western civilization. ... Ideas from literature and science also have their roots in ancient Greece.
35. Henry Turner Inman. Rome: the cradle of western civilisation as illustrated by existing monuments. ISBN 9781177738538.
36. Michael Ed. Grant (1964). The Birth Of Western Civilisation, Greece & Rome. Thames & Hudson. Retrieved 4 January 2016 – via Amazon.co.uk.
37. HUXLEY, George; et al. "9780500040034: The Birth of Western Civilization: Greece and Rome". AbeBooks.com. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
38. "Athens. Rome. Jerusalem and Vicinity. Peninsula of Mt. Sinai.: Geographicus Rare Antique Maps". Geographicus.com. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
39. Ball, Desmond (2005). The Transformation of Security in the Asia/Pacific Region. Routledge. p. 104. ISBN 978-0714646619.
40. Walker, Hugh Dyson (2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 119.
41. Amy Chua; Jed Rubenfeld (2014). The Triple Package: How Three Unlikely Traits Explain the Rise and Fall of Cultural Groups in America. Penguin Press HC. p. 121. ISBN 978-1594205460.
42. Kang, David C. (2012). East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute. Columbia University Press. pp. 33–34. ISBN 978-0231153195.
43. Goucher, Candice; Walton, Linda (2012). World History: Journeys from Past to Present. Routledge (published September 11, 2012). p. 232. ISBN 978-0415670029.
44. Smolnikov, Sergey (2018). Great Power Conduct and Credibility in World Politics. Springer. ISBN 9783319718859.
45. Lone, Stewart (2007). Daily Lives of Civilians in Wartime Asia: From the Taiping Rebellion to the Vietnam War. Greenwood. p. 3. ISBN 978-0313336843.
46. Warren I. Cohen (2000). East Asia at the Center : Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231101082.
47. Norman, Jerry (1988). Chinese. Cambridge University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0521296533.
48. Cohen, Warren (2000). East Asia at the Center : Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World. Columbia University Press. p. 60. ISBN 978-0231101080.
49. Chua, Amy (2009). Day of Empire: How Hyperpowers Rise to Global Dominance--and Why They Fall. Anchor. p. 62. ISBN 978-1400077410.
50. Leibo, Steve (2012). East and Southeast Asia 2012. Stryker Post. p. 19. ISBN 978-1610488853.
51. Tsai, Henry (2009-02-15). Maritime Taiwan: Historical Encounters with the East and the West. Routledge. p. 3. ISBN 978-0765623287.
52. Kshetry, Gopal (2008). Foreigners in Japan: A Historical Perspective. Xlibris Corp. p. 30. ISBN 978-1425770495.
53. Kshetry, Gopal (2008). Foreigners in Japan: A Historical Perspective. Xlibris Corp. p. 31. ISBN 978-1425770495.
54. Lockard, Craig (1999). "Tang Civilization and the Chinese Centuries" (PDF). Encarta Historical Essays: 2–3.
55. Lockard, Craig (1999). "Tang Civilization and the Chinese Centuries" (PDF). Encarta Historical Essays: 7.
56. "Tang Dynasty – The Art of Asia – Chinese Dynasty Guide". archive.artsmia.org.
57. Injae, Lee; Miller, Owen; Jinhoon, Park; Hyun-Hae, Yi (15 December 2014). Korean History in Maps. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107098466 – via Google Books.
58. Fagan, Brian M. (1999). The Oxford Companion to Archaeology. Oxford University Press. p. 362. ISBN 978-0195076189.
59. Lockard, Craig (1999). "Tang Civilization and the Chinese Centuries" (PDF). Encarta Historical Essays: 8.
60. Lockard, Craig A. (2009). Societies Networks And Transitions: Volume B From 600 To 1750. Wadsworth. pp. 290–291. ISBN 978-1-4390-8540-0.
61. Embree, Ainslie; Gluck, Carol (1997). Asia in Western and World History: A Guide for Teaching. M.E. Sharpe. p. 352. ISBN 9781563242656. Japan culture tang dynasty.
62. Kshetry, Gopal (2008). Foreigners in Japan: A Historical Perspective. Xlibris Corp. p. 32. ISBN 978-1425770495.
63. Brown, John (2006). China, Japan, Korea: Culture and Customs. Createspace Independent. p. 33. ISBN 978-1419648939.
64. Lind, Jennifer (February 13, 2018). "Life in China's Asia: What Regional Hegemony Would Look Like". Foreign Affairs (March/April 2018).
65. Lockard, Craig (1999). "Tang Civilization and the Chinese Centuries" (PDF). Encarta Historical Essays.
66. Ellington, Lucien (2009). Japan. Nations in Focus. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 21. ISBN 9781598841633.
67. John M. Roberts (1997). A Short History of the World. Oxford University Press. p. 272. ISBN 0-19-511504-X.
68. Hayes, Louis D (2009). Political Systems of East Asia: China, Korea, and Japan. Greenlight. pp. xi. ISBN 978-0765617866.
69. Hayes, Louis D (2009). Political Systems of East Asia: China, Korea, and Japan. Greenlight. p. 15. ISBN 978-0765617866.
70. Tindall, George Brown; Shi, David E. (2009). America: A Narrative History (1st ed.). W. W. Norton & Company (published November 16, 2009). p. 926. ISBN 978-0393934083.
71. April, K.; Shockley, M. (2007). Diversity: New Realities in a Changing World. Palgrave Macmillan (published February 6, 2007). pp. 163. ISBN 978-0230001336.
72. Cohen, Warren (2000). East Asia at the Center : Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World. Columbia University Press. p. 286. ISBN 978-0231101080.
73. Batty, David (2005-01-17). Japan's War in Colour (documentary). TWI.
74. Asian History Module Learning. Rex Bookstore Inc. 2002. p. 186. ISBN 978-9712331244.
75. Goldman, Merie; Gordon, Andrew (2000). Diversity: New Realities in a Changing World. Harvard University Press (published August 15, 2000). p. 3. ISBN 978-0674000971.
76. Cohen, Warren (2000). East Asia at the Center : Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World. Columbia University Press. p. 273. ISBN 978-0231101080.
77. Shiping, Hua; Hu, Amelia (2014). East Asian Development Model: Twenty-first century perspectives (1st ed.). Routledge (published 2014-12-09). pp. 78–79. ISBN 978-0415737272.
78. Lee, Yong Wook; Key, Young Son (2014). China's Rise and Regional Integration in East Asia: Hegemony or community? (1st ed.). Routledge (published March 14, 2014). p. 45. ISBN 978-0313350825.
79. "Sino-Japanese War (1894–95)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 12 November 2012.
80. "The Japanese Economy". Walk Japan. 2010-12-16.
81. Tindall, George Brown; Shi, David E. (2009). America: A Narrative History (1st ed.). W. W. Norton & Company (published November 16, 2009). p. 1147. ISBN 978-0393934083.
82. Northrup, Cynthia Clark; Bentley, Jerry H.; Eckes, Alfred E. Jr. (2004). Encyclopedia of World Trade: From Ancient Times to the Present. Routledge. p. 297. ISBN 978-0765680587.
83. Paul, Erik (2012). Neoliberal Australia and US Imperialism in East Asia. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 114. ISBN 978-1137272775.
84. Maddison, Angus (2007). Contours of the World Economy 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History. Oxford University Press. p. 379. ISBN 978-0-19-164758-1.
85. Dahlman, Carl J; Aubert, Jean-Eric. "China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st Century. WBI Development Studies. World Bank Publications". Institute of Education Sciences. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
86. "Angus Maddison. Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run. Development Centre Studies" (PDF). p. 29. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 15 September 2017.
87. India and the Knowledge Economy: Leveraging Strengths and Opportunities. World Bank. 2005-01-01. p. 131. ISBN 9780821362082.
88. Dahlman, Carl J; Aubert, Jean-Eric. China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st Century. WBI Development Studies. World Bank publications. Accessed January 30, 2008.
89. Angus Maddison. Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run 2014-10-15 at the Wayback Machine. Development Centre Studies. Accessed 2007. p.29 See the "Table 1.3. Levels of Chinese and European GDP Per Capita, 1–1700 AD" in page 29, Chinese GDP Per Capita was 450 and European GDP Per Capital was 422 in 960AD. Chinese GDP Per Capita was 600 while European was 576. During this time, Chinese per capita income rose by about a third.
90. "Introducing East Asian Peoples" (PDF). International Mission Board. September 10, 2016.
91. Gilbet Rozman (2004), Northeast asia's stunted regionalism: bilateral distrust in the shadow of globalization. Cambridge University Press, pp. 3-4
92. "Northeast Asia dominates patent filing growth." Retrieved on August 8, 2001.
93. "Paper: Economic Integration in Northeast Asia." Retrieved on August 8, 2011.
94. Spinosa, Ludovico (2007). Wastewater Sludge. Iwa Publishing. p. 57. ISBN 978-1843391425.
95. Kim, Johnny S. (2013). Solution-Focused Brief Therapy: A Multicultural Approach. Sage Publications. p. 55. ISBN 978-1452256672.
96. Shiping, Hua; Hu, Amelia (2014). East Asian Development Model: Twenty-first century perspectives (1st ed.). Routledge (published 2014-12-09). p. 3. ISBN 978-0415737272.
97. Ness, Immanuel; Bellwood, Peter (2014). The Global Prehistory of Human Migration (1st ed.). Wiley-Blackwell (published 2014-11-10). p. 217. ISBN 978-1118970591.
98. Kort, Michael (2003). The Handbook Of East Asia. 21st Century. p. 7–9. ISBN 978-0761326724.
99. Prescott, Anne (2015). East Asia in the World: An Introduction. Routledge. p. 3. ISBN 978-0765643223.
100. Ikeo, Aiko (1996). Economic Development in Twentieth-Century East Asia: The International Context. Routledge. p. 1. ISBN 978-0415149006.
101. Yoshimatsu, H. (2014). Comparing Institution-Building in East Asia: Power Politics, Governance, and Critical Junctures. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 1. ISBN 978-1137370549.
102. Kim, Mikyoung (2015). Routledge Handbook of Memory and Reconciliation in East Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415835138.
103. Hazen, Dan; Spohrer, James H. (2005). Building Area Studies Collections. Otto Harrassowitz (published 2005-12-31). p. 130. ISBN 978-3447055123.
104. Grabowski, Richard; Self, Sharmistha; Shields, William (2012). Economic Development: A Regional, Institutional, and Historical Approach (2nd ed.). Routledge (published September 25, 2012). p. 59. ISBN 978-0765633538.
105. Ng, Arden. "East Asia is the World's Largest Economy at $29.6 Trillion USD, Including 4 of the Top 25 Countries Globally". Blueback.
106. Currie, Lorenzo (2013). Through the Eyes of the Pack. Xlibris Corp. p. 163. ISBN 978-1493145171.
107. Asato, Noriko (2013). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. p. 1. ISBN 978-1598848427.
108. Prescott, Anne (2015). East Asia in the World: An Introduction. Routledge. p. 6. ISBN 978-0765643223.
109. Miller, David Y. (2007). Modern East Asia: An Introductory History. Routledge. p. xi. ISBN 978-0765618221.
110. "Central Themes for a Unit on China | Central Themes and Key Points | Asia for Educators | Columbia University". afe.easia.columbia.edu. Retrieved 2018-12-01. "Within the Pacific region, China is potentially a major economic and political force. Its relations with Japan, Korea, and its Southeast Asian neighbors, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines, will be determined by how they perceive this power will be used."
111. Cummings, Sally N. (2013). Understanding Central Asia: Politics and Contested Transformations. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-43319-3.
112. Saez, Lawrence (2012). The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC): An emerging collaboration architecture. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-67108-1.
113. Cornell, Svante E. Modernization and Regional Cooperation in Central Asia: A New Spring? (PDF). Central Asia-Caucasus Institute and the Silk Road Studies.
114. Aminian, Nathalie; Fung, K.C.; Ng, Francis. "Integration of Markets vs. Integration by Agreements" (PDF). Policy Research Working Paper. World Bank.
115. "Northeast Asia". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved August 10, 2009.
116. Economic Research Institute for Northeast Asia (1999). Japan and Russia in Northeast Asia: Partners in the 21st Century. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 248.
117. "UNSD — Methodology". unstats.un.org. Retrieved 2023-12-10.
118. "United Nations Statistics Division – Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49)". United Nations Statistics Division. 2015-05-06. Retrieved 2010-07-24.
119. "Composition of macro geographical (continental) regions, geographical sub-regions, and selected economic and other groupings". United Nations Statistics Division. 11 February 2013. Retrieved 28 May 2013.
120. Todd, Ian (1974). Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama. Angus & Robertson. p. 190. ISBN 9780207127618. Retrieved 2 February 2022. [we] can further define the word culture to mean language. Thus we have the French language part of Oceania, the Spanish part and the Japanese part. The Japanese culture groups of Oceania are the Bonin Islands, the Marcus Islands and the Volcano Islands. These three clusters, lying south and south-east of Japan, are inhabited either by Japanese or by people who have now completely fused with the Japanese race. Therefore they will not be taken into account in the proposed comparison of the policies of non - Oceanic cultures towards Oceanic peoples. On the eastern side of the Pacific are a number of Spanish language culture groups of islands. Two of them, the Galapagos and Easter Island, have been dealt with as separate chapters in this volume. Only one of the dozen or so Spanish culture island groups of Oceania has an Oceanic population — the Polynesians of Easter Island. The rest are either uninhabited or have a Spanish - Latin - American population consisting of people who migrated from the mainland. Therefore, the comparisons which follow refer almost exclusively to the English and French language cultures.
121. Udvardy, Miklos D.F. (PDF). UNESCO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 February 2022. Retrieved 7 March 2022.
122. "IMAGE: Countries and areas in WHO's Western Pacific Region" – via ResearchGate.
123. "Forget Asia-Pacific, it's Indo-Pacific now. Where is that?". 15 September 2021.
124. Christopher M. Dent (2008). East Asian regionalism. London: Routledge. pp. 1–8.
125. Charles Harvie; Fukunari Kimura; Hyun-Hoon Lee (2005). New East Asian regionalism. Cheltenham and Northamton: Edward Elgar. pp. 3–6.
126. Peter J. Katzenstein; Takashi Shiraishi (2006). Beyond Japan: the dynamics of East Asian regionalism. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. pp. 1–33.
127. "Country codes". iso.org.
128. "World Population Prospects 2022". population.un.org. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved July 17, 2022.
129. "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100" (XSLX). population.un.org ("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)"). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved July 17, 2022.
130. "| Human Development Reports". www.hdr.undp.org. January 2018. Retrieved 2018-10-14.
131. Tseng Ying-yu, Sofia Wu (4 December 2013). "Taipei is Republic of China's capital, minister said". Central News Agency. from the original on 20 September 2018. Retrieved 13 October 2021.
132. "Since the implementation of the Act Governing Principles for Editing Geographical Educational Texts (地理敎科書編審原則) in 1997, the guiding principle for all maps in geographical textbooks was that Taipei was to be marked as the capital with a label stating: "Location of the Central Government"". 4 December 2013. from the original on 1 November 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2019.
133. "2020-2021 TAIWAN at a glance". Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of China (Taiwan). 2021. from the original on 17 November 2021. Retrieved 31 December 2021.
134. . Archived from the original on 2016-10-13. Retrieved 2018-03-17.
135. 人口推計 – 平成 28年 12月 報 (PDF). stat.go.jp.
136. 주민등록 인구통계
137. "Korea North". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 8 April 2023.
138. 재외동포현황/Total number of overseas Koreans. South Korea: Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. 2021. Retrieved 1 February 2022.
139. "China Statistical Yearbook 2021".
140. Gordon, Raymond G. Jr., ed. (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the World (15th ed.). Dallas: SIL International. ISBN 978-1-55671-159-6. OCLC 224749653.
141. Lim, SK (2011-11-01). Asia Civilizations: Ancient to 1800 AD. ASIAPAC. p. 56. ISBN 978-9812295941.
142. Goscha, Christopher (2016). The Penguin History of Modern Vietnam: A History. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-1846143106.
143. Amy Chua; Jed Rubenfeld (2014). The Triple Package: How Three Unlikely Traits Explain the Rise and Fall of Cultural Groups in America. Penguin Press HC. p. 122. ISBN 978-1594205460.
144. Walker, Hugh Dyson (2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 2.
145. Lewis, Mark Edward (2012). China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Belknap Press (published April 9, 2012). p. 156. ISBN 978-0674064010.
146. Reischauer, Edwin O. (1974). "The Sinic World in Perspective". Foreign Affairs. 52 (2): 341–348. doi:10.2307/20038053. JSTOR 20038053.
147. Lim, SK (2011-11-01). Asia Civilizations: Ancient to 1800 AD. ASIAPAC. p. 89. ISBN 978-9812295941.
148. Richter, Frank-Jurgen (2002). Redesigning Asian Business: In the Aftermath of Crisis. Quorum Books. p. 15. ISBN 978-1567205251.
149. Amy Chua; Jed Rubenfeld (2014). The Triple Package: How Three Unlikely Traits Explain the Rise and Fall of Cultural Groups in America. Penguin Press HC. pp. 121–122. ISBN 978-1594205460.
150. . www.pewforum.org. 2 April 2015. Archived from the original on 2019-12-21. Retrieved 2020-10-18.
151. Wenzel-Teuber, Katharina (2012). (PDF). Religions & Christianity in Today's China. II (3): 29–54. ISSN 2192-9289. Archived from

January 19, 2024