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Uyghurs

February 15, 2024

Not to be confused with Yugurs.

The Uyghurs,[note 2] alternatively spelled Uighurs,[27][28][29] Uygurs or Uigurs, are a Turkic ethnic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the general region of Central and East Asia. The Uyghurs are recognized as the titular nationality of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in Northwest China. They are one of China's 55 officially recognized ethnic minorities.[30] The Uyghurs are recognized by the Chinese government as a regional minority and the titular people of Xinjiang.

Uyghurs
  • ئۇيغۇرلار
  • Уйғурлар
  • Uyghurlar
A Uyghur man in Kashgar
Total population
c. 13.5 million[note 1]
Regions with significant populations
China
(mainly in Xinjiang)		11.8 million[1]
Kazakhstan223,100 (2009)[2][3]
Pakistan200,000 (2010)[4]
Turkey100,000–300,000[5]
Kyrgyzstan60,210 (2021)[6]
Uzbekistan48,500 (2019)[7]
United States8,905 (per US Census Bureau 2015)[8] – 15,000 (per ETGE estimate 2021)[9]
Saudi Arabia8,730 (2018)[10]
Australia5,000–10,000[11]
Russia3,696 (2010)[12]
India~3,500[13]
Turkmenistan~3,000[14]
Afghanistan2,000[15]
Japan2,000 (2021)[16]
Sweden2,000 (2019)[17]
Canada~1,555 (2016)[18]
Germany~750 (2013)[19]
Finland327 (2021)[20]
Mongolia258 (2000)[21]
Ukraine197 (2001)[22]
Languages
Religion
Predominantly Sunni Islam
Related ethnic groups
Uzbeks[23] and other Turkic peoples; Tajiks[24]
Uyghurs
Uyghur name
Uyghurئۇيغۇرلار‎
Transcriptions
Latin YëziqiUyghurlar
Siril YëziqiУйғурлар
Uyghur IPA[ujɣurˈlɑr]
Chinese name
Simplified Chinese维吾尔
Traditional Chinese維吾爾
This article contains Uyghur text. Without proper rendering support, you may see unjoined letters or other symbols instead of Uyghur script.

The Uyghurs have traditionally inhabited a series of oases scattered across the Taklamakan Desert within the Tarim Basin. These oases have historically existed as independent states or were controlled by many civilizations including China, the Mongols, the Tibetans and various Turkic polities. The Uyghurs gradually started to become Islamized in the 10th century, and most Uyghurs identified as Muslims by the 16th century. Islam has since played an important role in Uyghur culture and identity.

An estimated 80% of Xinjiang's Uyghurs still live in the Tarim Basin.[31] The rest of Xinjiang's Uyghurs mostly live in Ürümqi, the capital city of Xinjiang, which is located in the historical region of Dzungaria. The largest community of Uyghurs living outside of Xinjiang are the Taoyuan Uyghurs of north-central Hunan's Taoyuan County.[32] Significant diasporic communities of Uyghurs exist in other Turkic countries such as Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Turkey.[33] Smaller communities live in Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Australia, Russia and Sweden.[34]

Since 2014,[35][36] the Chinese government has been accused by various organizations, such as Human Rights Watch[37] of subjecting Uyghurs living in Xinjiang to widespread human rights abuses, including forced sterilization[38][39] and forced labor,[40][41][42] in what has been described as genocide. Scholars estimate that at least one million Uyghurs have been arbitrarily detained in the Xinjiang internment camps since 2017;[43][44][45] Chinese government officials claim that these camps, created under CCP general secretary Xi Jinping's administration, serve the goals of ensuring adherence to Chinese Communist Party (CCP) ideology, preventing separatism, fighting terrorism, and providing vocational training to Uyghurs.[46] Various scholars, human rights organizations and governments consider abuses perpetrated against the Uyghurs to amount to crimes against humanity, or even genocide.

Etymology

In the Uyghur language, the ethnonym is written ئۇيغۇر in Arabic script, Уйғур in Uyghur Cyrillic and Uyghur or Uygur (as the standard Chinese romanization, GB 3304–1991) in Latin;[47] they are all pronounced as [ʔʊjˈʁʊːr].[48][49] In Chinese, this is transcribed into characters as 维吾尔 / 維吾爾, which is romanized in pinyin as Wéiwú'ěr.

In English, the name is officially spelled Uyghur by the Xinjiang government[50] but also appears as Uighur,[51] Uigur[51] and Uygur (these reflect the various Cyrillic spellings Уиғур, Уигур and Уйгур). The name is usually pronounced in English as /ˈwiːɡʊər, -ɡər/ WEE-goor, -⁠gər (and is thus preceded by the indefinite article "a"),[51][52][53][27] although some Uyghurs advocate the use of a more native pronunciation /ˌuːiˈɡʊər/ OO-ee-GOOR instead (which, in contrast, calls for the article "an").[25][26][54]

The term's original meaning is unclear. Old Turkic inscriptions record the word uyɣur[55] (Old Turkic: 𐰆𐰖𐰍𐰆𐰺); an example is found on the Sudzi inscription, "I am khan ata of Yaglaqar, came from the Uigur land." (Old Turkic: Uyγur jerinte Yaγlaqar qan ata keltim).[56] It is transcribed into Tang annals as 回纥 / 回紇 (Mandarin: Huíhé, but probably *[ɣuɒiɣət] in Middle Chinese).[57] It was used as the name of one of the Turkic polities formed in the interim between the First and Second Göktürk Khaganates (AD 630–684).[58] The Old History of the Five Dynasties records that in 788 or 809, the Chinese acceded to a Uyghur request and emended their transcription to 回鹘 / 回鶻 (Mandarin: Huíhú, but [ɣuɒiɣuət] in Middle Chinese).[59][60]

Modern etymological explanations for the name Uyghur range from derivation from the verb "follow, accommodate oneself"[51] and adjective "non-rebellious" (i.e., from Turkic uy/uð-) to the verb meaning "wake, rouse or stir" (i.e., from Turkic oðğur-). None of these is thought to be satisfactory because the sound shift of /ð/ and /ḏ/ to /j/ does not appear to be in place by this time.[59] The etymology therefore cannot be conclusively determined and its referent is also difficult to fix. The "Huihe" and "Huihu" seem to be a political rather than a tribal designation[61] or it may be one group among several others collectively known as the Toquz Oghuz.[62] The name fell out of use in the 15th century, but was reintroduced in the early 20th century[48][49] by the Soviet Bolsheviks to replace the previous terms Turk and Turki.[63][note 3] The name is currently used to refer to the settled Turkic urban dwellers and farmers of the Tarim Basin who follow traditional Central Asian sedentary practices, distinguishable from the nomadic Turkic populations in Central Asia.

The earliest record of a Uyghur tribe appears in accounts from the Northern Wei (4th–6th century A.D.), wherein they were named 袁紇 Yuanhe (< MC ZS *ɦʉɐn-ɦət) and derived from a confederation named 高车 / 高車 (lit. "High Carts"), read as Gāochē in Mandarin Chinese but originally with the reconstructed Middle Chinese pronunciation *[kɑutɕʰĭa], later known as the Tiele (铁勒 / 鐵勒, Tiělè).[65][66][67] Gāochē in turn has been connected to the Uyghur Qangqil (قاڭقىل or Қаңқил).[68]

Identity

 
A Uyghur girde naan baker
Uyghur blacksmiths at work. Yengisar, Xinjiang, China. Yengisar is famous for the quality of its knives.
 
Uyghur man in traditional clothing, playing a tambur, a traditional Uyghur instrument.

Throughout its history, the term Uyghur has had an increasingly expansive definition. Initially signifying only a small coalition of Tiele tribes in northern China, Mongolia and the Altai Mountains, it later denoted citizenship in the Uyghur Khaganate. Finally, it was expanded into an ethnicity whose ancestry originates with the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate in the year 842, causing Uyghur migration from Mongolia into the Tarim Basin. The Uyghurs who moved to the Tarim Basin mixed with the local Tocharians, and converted to the Tocharian religion, and adopted their culture of oasis agriculture.[69][70] The fluid definition of Uyghur and the diverse ancestry of modern Uyghurs create confusion as to what constitutes true Uyghur ethnography and ethnogenesis. Contemporary scholars consider modern Uyghurs to be the descendants of a number of peoples, including the ancient Uyghurs of Mongolia migrating into the Tarim Basin after the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate, Iranic Saka tribes and other Indo-European peoples inhabiting the Tarim Basin before the arrival of the Turkic Uyghurs.[71]

Uyghur activists identify with the Tarim mummies, remains of an ancient people inhabiting the region, but research into the genetics of ancient Tarim mummies and their links with modern Uyghurs remains problematic, both to Chinese government officials concerned with ethnic separatism and to Uyghur activists concerned the research could affect their indigenous claim.[72]

A genomic study published in 2021 found that these early mummies had high levels of Ancient North Eurasian ancestry (ANE, about 72%), with smaller admixture from Ancient Northeast Asians (ANA, about 28%), but no detectable Western Steppe-related ancestry.[73][74] They formed a genetically isolated local population that "adopted neighbouring pastoralist and agriculturalist practices, which allowed them to settle and thrive along the shifting riverine oases of the Taklamakan Desert."[75] These mummified individuals were long suspected to have been "Proto-Tocharian-speaking pastoralists", ancestors of the Tocharians, but the authors of this study found no genetic connection with Indo-European-speaking migrants, particularly the Afanasievo or BMAC cultures.[76]

Origin of modern nomenclature

The Uighurs are the people whom old Russian travelers called "Sart" (a name they used for sedentary, Turkish-speaking Central Asians in general), while Western travelers called them Turki, in recognition of their language. The Chinese used to call them "Ch'an-t'ou" ('Turbaned Heads') but this term has been dropped, being considered derogatory, and the Chinese, using their own pronunciation, now called them Weiwuerh. As a matter of fact there was for centuries no 'national' name for them; people identified themselves with the oasis they came from, such as Kashgar or Turfan.

— Owen Lattimore, "Return to China's Northern Frontier." The Geographical Journal, Vol. 139, No. 2, June 1973[77]

The term "Uyghur" was not used to refer to a specific existing ethnicity in the 19th century: it referred to an 'ancient people'. A late-19th-century encyclopedia entitled The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia said "the Uigur are the most ancient of Turkish tribes and formerly inhabited a part of Chinese Tartary (Xinjiang), now occupied by a mixed population of Turk, Mongol and Kalmuck".[78] Before 1921/1934,[clarification needed] Western writers called the Turkic-speaking Muslims of the oases "Turki" and the Turkic Muslims who had migrated from the Tarim Basin to Ili, Ürümqi and Dzungaria in the northern portion of Xinjiang during the Qing dynasty were known as "Taranchi", meaning "farmer". The Russians and other foreigners referred to them as "Sart",[79] "Turk" or "Turki".[80][note 3] In the early 20th century they identified themselves by different names to different peoples and in response to different inquiries: they called themselves Sarts in front of Kazakhs and Kyrgyz while they called themselves "Chantou" if asked about their identity after first identifying as a Muslim.[81][82] The term "Chantou" (纏頭; Ch'an-t'ou, meaning "Rag head" or "Turban Head") was used to refer to the Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang,[83][84] including by Hui (Tungan) people.[85] These groups of peoples often identify themselves by their originating oasis instead of an ethnicity;[86] for example those from Kashgar may refer to themselves as Kashgarliq or Kashgari, while those from Hotan identity themselves as "Hotani".[82][87] Other Central Asians once called all the inhabitants of Xinjiang's Southern oases Kashgari,[88] a term still used in some regions of Pakistan.[89] The Turkic people also used "Musulman", which means "Muslim", to describe themselves.[87][90][91]

 
A possible Tocharian or Sogdian monk (left) with an East Asian Buddhist monk (right). A fresco from the Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves, dated to the 9th or 10th century (Kara-Khoja Kingdom).

Rian Thum explored the concepts of identity among the ancestors of the modern Uyghurs in Altishahr (the native Uyghur name for Eastern Turkestan or Southern Xinjiang) before the adoption of the name "Uyghur" in the 1930s, referring to them by the name "Altishahri" in his article Modular History: Identity Maintenance before Uyghur Nationalism. Thum indicated that Altishahri Turkis did have a sense that they were a distinctive group separate from the Turkic Andijanis to their west, the nomadic Turkic Kirghiz, the nomadic Mongol Qalmaq and the Han Chinese Khitay before they became known as Uyghurs. There was no single name used for their identity; various native names Altishahris used for identify were Altishahrlik (Altishahr person), yerlik (local), Turki and Musulmān (Muslim); the term Musulmān in this situation did not signify religious connotations, because the Altishahris exclude other Muslim peoples like the Kirghiz while identifying themselves as Musulmān.[92][93] Dr. Laura J Newby says the sedentary Altishahri Turkic people considered themselves separate from other Turkic Muslims since at least the 19th century.[94]

The name "Uyghur" reappeared after the Soviet Union took the 9th-century ethnonym from the Uyghur Khaganate, then reapplied it to all non-nomadic Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang.[95] It followed western European orientalists like Julius Klaproth in the 19th century who revived the name and spread the use of the term to local Turkic intellectuals[96] and a 19th-century proposal from Russian historians that modern-day Uyghurs were descended from the Kingdom of Qocho and Kara-Khanid Khanate formed after the dissolution of the Uyghur Khaganate.[97] Historians generally agree that the adoption of the term "Uyghur" is based on a decision from a 1921 conference in Tashkent, attended by Turkic Muslims from the Tarim Basin (Xinjiang).[95][98][99][100] There, "Uyghur" was chosen by them as the name of their ethnicity, although they themselves note that they were not to be confused with the Uyghur Empire of medieval history.[79][101] According to Linda Benson, the Soviets and their client Sheng Shicai intended to foster a Uyghur nationality to divide the Muslim population of Xinjiang, whereas the various Turkic Muslim peoples preferred to identify themselves as "Turki", "East Turkestani" or "Muslim".[79]

On the other hand, the ruling regime of China at that time, the Kuomintang, grouped all Muslims, including the Turkic-speaking people of Xinjiang, into the "Hui nationality".[102][103] The Qing dynasty and the Kuomintang generally referred to the sedentary oasis-dwelling Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang as "turban-headed Hui" to differentiate them from other predominantly Muslim ethnicities in China.[79][104][note 4] In the 1930s, foreigners travelers in Xinjiang such as George W. Hunter, Peter Fleming, Ella Maillart and Sven Hedin, referred to the Turkic Muslims of the region as "Turki" in their books. Use of the term Uyghur was unknown in Xinjiang until 1934. The area governor, Sheng Shicai, came to power, adopting the Soviet ethnographic classification instead of the Kuomintang's and became the first to promulgate the official use of the term "Uyghur" to describe the Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang.[79][97][106] "Uyghur" replaced "rag-head".[107]

Sheng Shicai's introduction of the "Uighur" name for the Turkic people of Xinjiang was criticized and rejected by Turki intellectuals such as Pan-Turkist Jadids and East Turkestan independence activists Muhammad Amin Bughra (Mehmet Emin) and Masud Sabri. They demanded the names "Türk" or "Türki" be used instead as the ethnonyms for their people. Masud Sabri viewed the Hui people as Muslim Han Chinese and separate from his people,[108] while Bughrain criticized Sheng for his designation of Turkic Muslims into different ethnicities which could sow disunion among Turkic Muslims.[109][110] After the Communist victory, the Chinese Communist Party under Chairman Mao Zedong continued the Soviet classification, using the term "Uyghur" to describe the modern ethnicity.[79]

In current usage, Uyghur refers to settled Turkic-speaking urban dwellers and farmers of the Tarim Basin and Ili who follow traditional Central Asian sedentary practices, as distinguished from nomadic Turkic populations in Central Asia. However, Chinese government agents[clarification needed] designate as "Uyghur" certain peoples with significantly divergent histories and ancestries from the main group. These include the Lopliks of Ruoqiang County and the Dolan people, thought to be closer to the Oirat Mongols and the Kyrgyz.[111][112] The use of the term Uyghur led to anachronisms when describing the history of the people.[113] In one of his books, the term Uyghur was deliberately not used by James Millward.[114]

Another ethnicity, the Western Yugur of Gansu, identify themselves as the "Yellow Uyghur" (Sarïq Uyghur).[115] Some scholars say the Yugurs' culture, language and religion are closer to the original culture of the original Uyghur Karakorum state than is the culture of the modern Uyghur people of Xinjiang.[116] Linguist and ethnographer S. Robert Ramsey argues for inclusion of both the Eastern and Western Yugur and the Salar as sub-groups of the Uyghur based on similar historical roots for the Yugur and on perceived linguistic similarities for the Salar.[117]

"Turkistani" is used as an alternate ethnonym by some Uyghurs.[118] For example, the Uyghur diaspora in Arabia, adopted the identity "Turkistani". Some Uyghurs in Saudi Arabia adopted the Arabic nisba of their home city, such as "Al-Kashgari" from Kashgar. Saudi-born Uyghur Hamza Kashgari's family originated from Kashgar.[119][120]

Population

 
Uyghur hunter in Kashgar

The Uyghur population within China generally remains centered in Xinjiang region with some smaller subpopulations elsewhere in the country, such as in Taoyuan County where an estimated 5,000–10,000 live.[121][122]

The size of the Uyghur population, particularly in China, has been the subject of dispute. Chinese authorities place the Uyghur population within the Xinjiang region to be just over 12 million, comprising approximately half of the total regional population.[123][124] As early as 2003, however, some Uyghur groups wrote that their population was being vastly undercounted by Chinese authorities, claiming that their population actually exceeded 20 million.[125] Population disputes have continued into the present, with some activists and groups such as the World Uyghur Congress and Uyghur American Association claiming that the Uyghur population ranges between 20 and 30 million.[126][127][128][129] Some have even claimed that the real number of Uyghurs is actually 35 million.[130][131] Scholars, however, have generally rejected these claims, with Professor Dru C. Gladney writing in the 2004 book Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland that there is "scant evidence" to support Uyghur claims that their population within China exceeds 20 million.[132]

Population in Xinjiang

Area 1953 Census 1964 Census 1982 Census 1990 Census 2000 Census 2010 Census Ref.
Total PCT. Total PCT. Total PCT. Total PCT. Total PCT. Total PCT.
Ürümqi 28,786 19.11% 56,345 9.99% 121,561 10.97% 266,342 12.79% 387,878 12.46% [133]
Karamay Not applicable 23,730 14.54% 30,895 15.09% 37,245 13.78% 44,866 11.47% [134]
Turpan 139,391 89.93% 170,512 75.61% 294,039 71.14% 351,523 74.13% 385,546 70.01% 429,527 68.96% [135]
Hami 33,312 41.12% 42,435 22.95% 75,557 20.01% 84,790 20.70% 90,624 18.42% 101,713 17.77% [136]
Changji 18,784 7.67% 23,794 5.29% 44,944 3.93% 52,394 4.12% 58,984 3.92% 63,606 4.45% [137]
Bortala 8,723 21.54% 18,432 15.53% 38,428 13.39% 53,145 12.53% 59,106 13.32% [138]
Bayingolin 121,212 75.79% 153,737 46.07% 264,592 35.03% 310,384 36.99% 345,595 32.70% 406,942 31.83% [139]
Kizilsu Not applicable 122,148 68.42% 196,500 66.31% 241,859 64.36 281,306 63.98% 339,926 64.68% [140]
Ili 568,109 23.99% 667,202 26.87%
Aksu 697,604 98.17% 778,920 80.44% 1,158,659 76.23% 1,342,138 79.07% 1,540,633 71.93% 1,799,512 75.90% [141]
Kashgar 1,567,069 96.99% 1,671,336 93.63% 2,093,152 87.92% 2,606,775 91.32% 3,042,942 89.35% 3,606,779 90.64% [142]
Hotan 717,277 99.20% 774,286 96.52% 1,124,331 96.58% 1,356,251 96.84% 1,621,215 96.43% 1,938,316 96.22% [143]
Tacheng 36,437 6.16% 36,804 4.12% 38,476 3.16% [144]
Altay 3,622 3.73% 6,471 3.09% 10,255 2.19% 10,688 2.09% 10,068 1.79% 8,703 1.44% [145]
Shihezi Not applicable Not applicable 7,064 1.20% 7,574 1.99%
Aral Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable 9,481 5.78%
Tumxuk Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable 91,472 67.39%
Wujiaqu Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable 223 0.23%
Ref. [146] [147] –

Genetics

A study of mitochondrial DNA (2004) (therefore the matrilineal genetic contribution) found the frequency of Western Eurasian-specific haplogroup in Uyghurs to be 42.6% and East Asian haplogroup to be 57.4%.[148][149] Uyghurs in Kazakhstan on the other hand were shown to have 55% European/Western Eurasian maternal mtDNA.[149]

A study based on paternal DNA (2005) shows West Eurasian haplogroups (J and R) in Uyghurs make up 65% to 70% and East Asian haplogroups (C, N, D and O) 30% to 35%.[150]

 
Uyghur schoolchildren in Kashgar (2011)

One study by Xu et al. (2008), using samples from Hetian (Hotan) only, found Uyghurs have about an average of 60% European or West Asian (Western Eurasian) ancestry and about 40% East Asian or Siberian ancestry (Eastern Eurasian). From the same area, it is found that the proportion of Uyghur individuals with European/West Asian ancestry ranges individually from 40.3% to 84.3% while their East Asian/Siberian ancestry ranges individually from 15.7% to 59.7%.[151] Further study by the same team showed an average of slightly greater European/West Asian component at 52% (ranging individually from 44.9% to 63.1%) in the Uyghur population in southern Xinjiang but only 47% (ranging individually from 30% to 55%) in the northern Uyghur population.[152]

A different study by Li et al. (2009) used a larger sample of individuals from a wider area and found a higher East Asian component of about 70% on average, while the European/West Asian component was about 30%. Overall, Uyghur show relative more similarity to "Western East Asians" than to "Eastern East Asians". The authors also cite anthropologic studies which also estimate about 30% "Western proportions", which are in agreement with their genetic results.[153]

 
Genetic distance between different Eurasian populations and frequency of West- and East-Eurasian components.[154]

A study (2013) based on autosomal DNA shows that average Uyghurs are closest to other Turkic people in Central Asia and China as well as various Chinese populations. The analysis of the diversity of cytochrome B further suggests Uyghurs are closer to Chinese and Siberian populations than to various Caucasoid groups in West Asia or Europe. However, there is significant genetic distance between the Xinjiang's southern Uyghurs and Chinese population, but not between the northern Uyghurs and Chinese.[155]

A Study (2016) of Uyghur males living in southern Xinjiang used high-resolution 26 Y-STR loci system high-resolution to infer the genetic relationships between the Uyghur population and European and Asian populations. The results showed the Uyghur population of southern Xinjiang exhibited a genetic admixture of Eastern Asian and European populations but with slightly closer relationship with European populations than to Eastern Asian populations.[156]

An extensive genome study in 2017 analyzed 951 samples of Uyghurs from 14 geographical subpopulations in Xinjiang and observed a southwest and northeast differentiation in the population, partially caused by the Tianshan Mountains which form a natural barrier, with gene flows from the east and west. The study identifies four major ancestral components that may have arisen from two earlier admixed groups: one West-Eurasian component, associated with European ancestry (25–37%), one South Asian ancestry component (12–20%), and two East-Eurasian components with Siberian (15–17%) and East Asian ancestries (29–47%). In total, Uyghurs on average range from 44 to 64% Siberian/East Asian, 33.2% European, and 17.9% South Asian. Western Xinjiang shows more West Eurasian components than East Asian. It suggests at least two major waves of admixture, one ~3,750 years ago coinciding with the age range of the mummies with European feature found in Xinjiang, and another occurring around 750 years ago.[157]

A 2018 study of 206 Uyghur samples from Xinjiang, using the ancestry-informative SNP (AISNP) analysis, found that the average genetic ancestry of Uyghurs is 63.7% East Asian-related and 36.3% European-related.[158]

History

Main article: History of the Uyghur people
 
Uyghur princes from Cave 9 of the Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves, Xinjiang, China, 8th–9th century AD, wall painting

The history of the Uyghur people, as with the ethnic origin of the people, is a matter of contention.[159] Uyghur historians viewed the Uyghurs as the original inhabitants of Xinjiang with a long history. Uyghur politician and historian Muhammad Amin Bughra wrote in his book A History of East Turkestan, stressing the Turkic aspects of his people, that the Turks have a continuous 9000-year-old history, while historian Turghun Almas incorporated discoveries of Tarim mummies to conclude that Uyghurs have over 6400 years of continuous history,[160] and the World Uyghur Congress claimed a 4,000-year history in East Turkestan.[161] However, the official Chinese view, as documented in the white paper History and Development of Xinjiang, asserts that the Uyghur ethnic group formed after the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840, when the local residents of the Tarim Basin and its surrounding areas were merged with migrants from the khaganate.[162] The name "Uyghur" reappeared after the Soviet Union took the 9th-century ethnonym from the Uyghur Khaganate, then reapplied it to all non-nomadic Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang.[163] Many contemporary western scholars, however, do not consider the modern Uyghurs to be of direct linear descent from the old Uyghur Khaganate of Mongolia. Rather, they consider them to be descendants of a number of peoples, one of them the ancient Uyghurs.[71][164][165][166]

Early history

Discovery of well-preserved Tarim mummies of a people European in appearance indicates the migration of a European-looking people into the Tarim area at the beginning of the Bronze Age around 1800 BC. These people may have been of Tocharian origin, and some have suggested them to be the Yuezhi mentioned in ancient Chinese texts.[167][168] The Tocharians are thought to have developed from the Indo-European speaking Afanasevo culture of Southern Siberia (c. 3500–2500 BC).[169] A study published in 2021 showed that the earliest Tarim Basin cultures had high levels of Ancient North Eurasian ancestry, with smaller admixture from Northeast Asians.[170] Uyghur activist Turgun Almas claimed that Tarim mummies were Uyghurs because the earliest Uyghurs practiced shamanism and the buried mummies' orientation suggests that they had been shamanists; meanwhile, Qurban Wäli claimed words written in Kharosthi and Sogdian scripts as "Uyghur" rather than Sogdian words absorbed into Uyghur according to other linguists.[171]

Later migrations brought peoples from the west and northwest to the Xinjiang region, probably speakers of various Iranian languages such as the Saka tribes, who were closely related to the European Scythians and descended from the earlier Andronovo culture,[172] and who may have been present in the Khotan and Kashgar area in the first millennium BC, as well as the Sogdians who formed networks of trading communities across the Tarim Basin from the 4th century AD.[173] There may also be an Indian component as the founding legend of Khotan suggests that the city was founded by Indians from ancient Taxila during the reign of Ashoka.[174][175] Other people in the region mentioned in ancient Chinese texts include the Dingling as well as the Xiongnu who fought for supremacy in the region against the Chinese for several hundred years. Some Uyghur nationalists also claimed descent from the Xiongnu (according to the Chinese historical text the Book of Wei, the founder of the Uyghurs was descended from a Xiongnu ruler),[59] but the view is contested by modern Chinese scholars.[160]

The Yuezhi were driven away by the Xiongnu but founded the Kushan Empire, which exerted some influence in the Tarim Basin, where Kharosthi texts have been found in Loulan, Niya and Khotan. Loulan and Khotan were some of the many city-states that existed in the Xinjiang region during the Han Dynasty; others include Kucha, Turfan, Karasahr and Kashgar. These kingdoms in the Tarim Basin came under the control of China during the Han and Tang dynasties. During the Tang dynasty they were conquered and placed under the control of the Protectorate General to Pacify the West, and the Indo-European cultures of these kingdoms never recovered from Tang rule after thousands of their inhabitants were killed during the conquest.[176] The settled population of these cities later merged with the incoming Turkic people, including the Uyghurs of Uyghur Khaganate, to form the modern Uyghurs. The Indo-European Tocharian language later disappeared as the urban population switched to a Turkic language such as the Old Uyghur language.[177]

The early Turkic peoples descended from agricultural communities in Northeast Asia who moved westwards into Mongolia in the late 3rd millennium BC, where they adopted a pastoral lifestyle.[178][179][180][181][182] By the early 1st millennium BC, these peoples had become equestrian nomads.[178] In subsequent centuries, the steppe populations of Central Asia appear to have been progressively Turkified by East Asian nomadic Turks, moving out of Mongolia.[183][184]

Uyghur Khaganate (8th–9th centuries)

Main articles: Uyghur Khaganate and Toquz Oghuz
 
Bögü Qaghan, the third Khagan of the Uyghur Khaganate, in a suit of armour; 8th century Manichean manuscript (MIK III 4979)

The Uyghurs of the Uyghur Khaganate were part of a Turkic confederation called the Tiele,[185] who lived in the valleys south of Lake Baikal and around the Yenisei River. They overthrew the First Turkic Khaganate and established the Uyghur Khaganate.

The Uyghur Khaganate lasted from 744 to 840.[71] It was administered from the imperial capital Ordu-Baliq, one of the biggest ancient cities built in Mongolia. In 840, following a famine and civil war, the Uyghur Khaganate was overrun by the Yenisei Kirghiz, another Turkic people. As a result, the majority of tribal groups formerly under Uyghur control dispersed and moved out of Mongolia.

Uyghur kingdoms (9th–11th centuries)

 
Uyghur Khaganate in geopolitical context c. 820 AD

The Uyghurs who founded the Uyghur Khaganate dispersed after the fall of the Khaganate, to live among the Karluks and to places such as Jimsar, Turpan and Gansu.[186][note 5] These Uyghurs soon founded two kingdoms and the easternmost state was the Ganzhou Kingdom (870–1036) which ruled parts of Xinjiang, with its capital near present-day Zhangye, Gansu, China. The modern Yugurs are believed to be descendants of these Uyghurs. Ganzhou was absorbed by the Western Xia in 1036.

The second Uyghur kingdom, the Kingdom of Qocho ruled a larger section of Xinjiang, also known as Uyghuristan in its later period, was founded in the Turpan area with its capital in Qocho (modern Gaochang) and Beshbalik. The Kingdom of Qocho lasted from the ninth to the fourteenth century and proved to be longer-lasting than any power in the region, before or since.[71] The Uyghurs were originally Tengrists, shamanists, and Manichaean, but converted to Buddhism during this period. Qocho accepted the Qara Khitai as its overlord in the 1130s, and in 1209 submitted voluntarily to the rising Mongol Empire. The Uyghurs of Kingdom of Qocho were allowed significant autonomy and played an important role as civil servants to the Mongol Empire, but was finally destroyed by the Chagatai Khanate by the end of the 14th century.[71][188]

Islamization

Main article: Turkic settlement of the Tarim Basin

In the tenth century, the Karluks, Yagmas, Chigils and other Turkic tribes founded the Kara-Khanid Khanate in Semirechye, Western Tian Shan, and Kashgaria and later conquered Transoxiana. The Karakhanid rulers were likely to be Yaghmas who were associated with the Toquz Oghuz and some historians therefore see this as a link between the Karakhanid and the Uyghurs of the Uyghur Khaganate, although this connection is disputed by others.[189]

The Karakhanids converted to Islam in the tenth century beginning with Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan, the first Turkic dynasty to do so.[190] Modern Uyghurs see the Muslim Karakhanids as an important part of their history; however, Islamization of the people of the Tarim Basin was a gradual process. The Indo-Iranian Saka Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan was conquered by the Turkic Muslim Karakhanids from Kashgar in the early 11th century, but Uyghur Qocho remained mainly Buddhist until the 15th century, and the conversion of the Uyghur people to Islam was not completed until the 17th century.

 
Chagatai Khanate (Moghulistan) in 1490

The 12th and 13th century saw the domination by non-Muslim powers: first the Kara-Khitans in the 12th century, followed by the Mongols in the 13th century. After the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, Transoxiana and Kashgar became the domain of his second son, Chagatai Khan. The Chagatai Khanate split into two in the 1340s, and the area of the Chagatai Khanate where the modern Uyghurs live became part of Moghulistan, which meant "land of the Mongols". In the 14th century, a Chagatayid khan Tughluq Temür converted to Islam, Genghisid Mongol nobilities also followed him to convert to Islam.[191] His son Khizr Khoja conquered Qocho and Turfan (the core of Uyghuristan) in the 1390s, and the Uyghurs there became largely Muslim by the beginning of the 16th century.[189] After being converted to Islam, the descendants of the previously Buddhist Uyghurs in Turfan failed to retain memory of their ancestral legacy and falsely believed that the "infidel Kalmuks" (Dzungars) were the ones who built Buddhist structures in their area.[192]

From the late 14th through 17th centuries, the Xinjiang region became further subdivided into Moghulistan in the north, Altishahr (Kashgar and the Tarim Basin), and the Turfan area, each often ruled separately by competing Chagatayid descendants, the Dughlats, and later the Khojas.[189]

Islam was also spread by the Sufis, and branches of its Naqshbandi order were the Khojas who seized control of political and military affairs in the Tarim Basin and Turfan in the 17th century. The Khojas however split into two rival factions, the Aqtaghlik ("White Mountainers") Khojas (also called the Afaqiyya) and the Qarataghlik ("Black Mountainers") Khojas (also called the Ishaqiyya). The legacy of the Khojas lasted until the 19th century. The Qarataghlik Khojas seized power in Yarkand where the Chagatai Khans ruled in the Yarkent Khanate, forcing the Aqtaghlik Afaqi Khoja into exile.

Qing rule

 
Uyghur General Khojis (−1781), governor of Us-Turfan, who later resided at the Qing court in Beijing. Painting by a European Jesuit artist at the Chinese court in 1775.[193]

In the 17th century, the Buddhist Dzungar Khanate grew in power in Dzungaria. The Dzungar conquest of Altishahr ended the last independent Chagatai Khanate, the Yarkent Khanate, after the Aqtaghlik Afaq Khoja sought aid from the 5th Dalai Lama and his Dzungar Buddhist followers to help him in his struggle against the Qarataghlik Khojas. The Aqtaghlik Khojas in the Tarim Basin then became vassals to the Dzungars.

The expansion of the Dzungars into Khalkha Mongol territory in Mongolia brought them into direct conflict with Qing China in the late 17th century, and in the process also brought Chinese presence back into the region a thousand years after Tang China lost control of the Western Regions.[194]

 
Minaret of Turpan ruler Emin Khoja, built by his son and successor Suleiman in 1777 in the memory of his father (tallest minaret in China)

The Dzungar–Qing War lasted a decade. During the Dzungar conflict, two Aqtaghlik brothers, the so-called "Younger Khoja" (Chinese: 霍集佔), also known as Khwāja-i Jahān, and his sibling, the Elder Khoja (Chinese: 波羅尼都), also known as Burhān al-Dīn, after being appointed as vassals in the Tarim Basin by the Dzungars, first joined the Qing and rebelled against Dzungar rule until the final Qing victory over the Dzungars, then they rebelled against the Qing in the Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas (1757–1759), an action which prompted the invasion and conquest of the Tarim Basin by the Qing in 1759. The Uyghurs of Turfan and Hami such as Emin Khoja were allies of the Qing in this conflict, and these Uyghurs also helped the Qing rule the Altishahr Uyghurs in the Tarim Basin.[195][196]

The final campaign against the Dzungars in the 1750s ended with the Dzungar genocide. The Qing "final solution" of genocide to solve the problem of the Dzungar Mongols created a land devoid of Dzungars, which was followed by the Qing sponsored settlement of millions of other people in Dzungaria.[197][198] In northern Xinjiang, the Qing brought in Han, Hui, Uyghur, Xibe, Daurs, Solons, Turkic Muslim Taranchis and Kazakh colonists, with one third of Xinjiang's total population consisting of Hui and Han in the northern area, while around two thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin.[199] In Dzungaria, the Qing established new cities like Ürümqi and Yining.[200] The Dzungarian basin itself is now inhabited by many Kazakhs.[201] The Qing therefore unified Xinjiang and changed its demographic composition as well.[202]: 71  The crushing of the Buddhist Dzungars by the Qing led to the empowerment of the Muslim Begs in southern Xinjiang, migration of Muslim Taranchis to northern Xinjiang, and increasing Turkic Muslim power, with Turkic Muslim culture and identity was tolerated or even promoted by the Qing.[202]: 76  It was therefore argued by Henry Schwarz that "the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory for Islam".[202]: 72 

In Beijing, a community of Uyghurs was clustered around the mosque near the Forbidden City, having moved to Beijing in the 18th century.[203]

The Ush rebellion in 1765 by Uyghurs against the Manchus occurred after several incidents of misrule and abuse that had caused considerable anger and resentment.[204][205][206] The Manchu Emperor ordered that the Uyghur rebel town be massacred, and the men were executed and the women and children enslaved.[207]

Yettishar

During the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877), Andijani Uzbeks from the Khanate of Kokand under Buzurg Khan and Yaqub Beg expelled Qing officials from parts of southern Xinjiang and founded an independent Kashgarian kingdom called Yettishar ("Country of Seven Cities"). Under the leadership of Yaqub Beg, it included Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, Aksu, Kucha, Korla, and Turpan.[citation needed] Large Qing dynasty forces under Chinese General Zuo Zongtang attacked Yettishar in 1876.

Qing reconquest

After this invasion, the two regions of Dzungaria, which had been known as the Dzungar region or the Northern marches of the Tian Shan,[212][213] and the Tarim Basin, which had been known as "Muslim land" or southern marches of the Tian Shan,[214] were reorganized into a province named Xinjiang, meaning "New Territory".[215][216]

First East Turkestan Republic

In 1912, the Qing Dynasty was replaced by the Republic of China. By 1920, Pan-Turkic Jadidists had become a challenge to Chinese warlord Yang Zengxin, who controlled Xinjiang. Uyghurs staged several uprisings against Chinese rule. In 1931, the Kumul Rebellion erupted, leading to the establishment of an independent government in Khotan in 1932,[217] which later led to the creation of the First East Turkestan Republic, officially known as the Turkish Islamic Republic of East Turkestan. Uyghurs joined with Uzbeks, Kazakhs, and Kyrgyz and successfully declared their independence on 12 November 1933.[218] The First East Turkestan Republic was a short-lived attempt at independence around the areas encompassing Kashgar, Yarkent, and Khotan, and it was attacked during the Qumul Rebellion by a Chinese Muslim army under General Ma Zhancang and Ma Fuyuan and fell following the Battle of Kashgar (1934). The Soviets backed Chinese warlord Sheng Shicai's rule over East Turkestan/Xinjiang from 1934 to 1943. In April 1937, remnants of the First East Turkestan Republic launched an uprising known as the Islamic Rebellion in Xinjiang and briefly established an independent government, controlling areas from Atush, Kashgar, Yarkent, and even parts of Khotan, before it was crushed in October 1937, following Soviet intervention.[219] Sheng Shicai purged 50,000 to 100,000 people, mostly Uyghurs, following this uprising.[219]

Second East Turkestan Republic

The oppressive reign of Sheng Shicai fueled discontent by Uyghur and other Turkic peoples of the region, and Sheng expelled Soviet advisors following U.S. support for the Kuomintang of the Republic of China.[220] This led the Soviets to capitalize on the Uyghur and other Turkic people's discontent in the region, culminating in their support of the Ili Rebellion in October 1944. The Ili Rebellion resulted in the establishment of the Second East Turkestan Republic on 12 November 1944, in the three districts of what is now the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture.[221] Several pro-KMT Uyghurs like Isa Yusuf Alptekin, Memet Emin Bugra, and Mesut Sabri opposed the Second East Turkestan Republic and supported the Republic of China.[222][223][224] In the summer of 1949, the Soviets purged the thirty top leaders of the Second East Turkestan Republic[225] and its five top officials died in a mysterious plane crash on 27 August 1949.[226] On 13 October 1949, the People's Liberation Army entered the region and the East Turkestan National Army was merged into the PLA's 5th Army Corps, leading to the official end of the Second East Turkestan Republic on 22 December 1949.[227][228][229]

Contemporary era

Further information: Xinjiang conflict
Historical population
YearPop.±% p.a.
1990[230]7,214,431—    
20008,405,416+1.54%
201010,069,346+1.82%
Figures from Chinese Census
 
Ethnolinguistic map of Xinjiang in 1967
 
Map showing the distribution of ethnicities in Xinjiang according to census figures from 2000, the prefectures with Uyghur majorities are in blue.

Mao declared the founding of the People's Republic of China on 1 October 1949. He turned the Second East Turkistan Republic into the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, and appointed Saifuddin Azizi as the region's first Communist Party governor. Many Republican loyalists fled into exile in Turkey and Western countries. The name Xinjiang was changed to Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, where Uyghurs are the largest ethnicity, mostly concentrated in the south-western Xinjiang.[231]

The Xinjiang conflict is an ongoing separatist conflict in China's far-west province of Xinjiang, whose northern region is known as Dzungaria and whose southern region (the Tarim Basin) is known as East Turkestan. Uyghur separatists and independence movements claim that the Second East Turkestan Republic was illegally incorporated by China in 1949 and has since been under Chinese occupation. Uyghur identity remains fragmented, as some support a Pan-Islamic vision, exemplified by the East Turkestan Islamic Movement, while others support a Pan-Turkic vision, such as the East Turkestan Liberation Organization. A third group would like an East Turkestan state, such as the East Turkestan independence movement. While the East Turkistan Government in Exile strives for the restoration of East Turkistan's independence as a secular pluralistic Republic that guarantees freedom and civil liberties for all people. As a result, "[n]o Uyghur or East Turkestan group speaks for all Uyghurs, although it might claim to", and Uyghurs in each of these camps have committed violence against other Uyghurs who they think are too assimilated to Chinese or Russian society or are not religious enough.[232] Mindful not to take sides, Uyghur "leaders" such as Rebiya Kadeer mainly tried to garner international support for the "rights and interests of the Uyghurs", including the right to demonstrate, although the Chinese government has accused her of orchestrating the deadly July 2009 Ürümqi riots.[233]

Eric Enno Tamm's 2011 book states that, "Authorities have censored Uyghur writers and 'lavished funds' on official histories that depict Chinese territorial expansion into ethnic borderlands as 'unifications (tongyi), never as conquests (zhengfu) or annexations (tunbing)' "[234]

Human rights abuses against Uyghurs in Xinjiang

Main articles: Xinjiang internment camps and Uyghur genocide

In 2014, the Chinese government announced a "people's war on terror". Since then, Uyghurs in Xinjiang have been affected by extensive controls and restrictions which the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Chinese government has imposed upon their religious, cultural, economic and social lives.[235][236][237][238] In order to forcibly assimilate them, the government has arbitrarily detained more than an estimated one million Uyghurs in internment camps.[239][240] Human Rights Watch says that the camps have been used to indoctrinate Uyghurs and other Muslims since 2017.[241][242]

Leaked Chinese government operating procedures state that the main feature of the camps is to ensure adherence to CCP ideology, with the inmates being continuously held captive in the camps for a minimum of 12 months depending on their performance on Chinese ideology tests.[243] The New York Times has reported inmates are required to "sing hymns praising the Chinese Communist Party and write 'self-criticism' essays," and that prisoners are also subjected to physical and verbal abuse by prison guards.[244] Chinese officials have sometimes assigned to monitor the families of current inmates, and women have been detained due to actions by their sons or husbands.[244]

Other policies have included forced labor,[245][246] suppression of Uyghur religious practices,[247] political indoctrination,[248] severe ill-treatment,[249] forced sterilization,[250] forced contraception,[251][252] and forced abortion.[253][254] Experts estimate that, since 2017, some sixteen thousand mosques have been razed or damaged,[255] and hundreds of thousands of children have been forcibly separated from their parents and sent to boarding schools.[256][257] Chinese government statistics reported that from 2015 to 2018, birth rates in the mostly Uyghur regions of Hotan and Kashgar fell by more than 60%,[250] compared to a decrease by 9.69% in the whole country.[258]

 
Protesters in Amsterdam with the Flag of East Turkestan

The policies have drawn widespread condemnation, with some characterizing them as a genocide. In an assessment by the UN Human Rights Office, the United Nations (UN) stated that China's policies and actions in the Xinjiang region may be crimes against humanity, although it did not use the term genocide.[259][260] The United States[261] and legislatures in several countries have described the policies as a genocide. The Chinese government denies having committed human rights abuses in Xinjiang.[262][263]

Uyghurs of Taoyuan, Hunan

Around 5,000 Uyghurs live around Taoyuan County and other parts of Changde in Hunan province.[264][265] They are descended from Hala Bashi, a Uyghur leader from Turpan (Kingdom of Qocho), and his Uyghur soldiers sent to Hunan by the Ming Emperor in the 14th century to crush the Miao rebels during the Miao Rebellions in the Ming Dynasty.[32][266] The 1982 census recorded 4,000 Uyghurs in Hunan.[267] They have genealogies which survive 600 years later to the present day. Genealogy keeping is a Han Chinese custom which the Hunan Uyghurs adopted. These Uyghurs were given the surname Jian by the Emperor.[268] There is some confusion as to whether they practice Islam or not. Some say that they have assimilated with the Han and do not practice Islam anymore and only their genealogies indicate their Uyghur ancestry.[269] Chinese news sources report that they are Muslim.[32]

The Uyghur troops led by Hala were ordered by the Ming Emperor to crush Miao rebellions and were given titles by him. Jian is the predominant surname among the Uyghur in Changde, Hunan. Another group of Uyghur have the surname Sai. Hui and Uyghur have intermarried in the Hunan area. The Hui are descendants of Arabs and Han Chinese who intermarried and they share the Islamic religion with the Uyghur in Hunan. It is reported that they now number around 10,000 people. The Uyghurs in Changde are not very religious and eat pork. Older Uyghurs disapprove of this, especially elders at the mosques in Changde and they seek to draw them back to Islamic customs.[270]

In addition to eating pork, the Uyghurs of Changde Hunan practice other Han Chinese customs, like ancestor worship at graves. Some Uyghurs from Xinjiang visit the Hunan Uyghurs out of curiosity or interest. Also, the Uyghurs of Hunan do not speak the Uyghur language, instead, they speak Chinese[clarification needed] as their native language and Arabic for religious reasons at the mosque.[270]

Culture

Religion

 
A Uyghur mosque in Khotan

The ancient Uyghurs believed in many local deities. These practices gave rise to shamanism and Tengrism. Uyghurs also practiced aspects of Zoroastrianism such as fire altars, and adopted Manichaeism as a state religion for the Uyghur Khaganate,[271] possibly in 762 or 763. Ancient Uyghurs also practiced Buddhism after they moved to Qocho, and some believed in Church of the East.[272][273][274][275]

People in the Western Tarim Basin region began their conversion to Islam early in the Kara-Khanid Khanate period.[190] Some pre-Islamic practices continued under Muslim rule; for example, while the Quran dictated many rules on marriage and divorce, other pre-Islamic principles based on Zoroastrianism also helped shape the laws of the land.[276] There had been Christian conversions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but these were suppressed by the First East Turkestan Republic government agents.[277][278][279] Because of persecution, the churches were destroyed and the believers were scattered.[280] According to the national census, 0.5% or 1,142 Uyghurs in Kazakhstan were Christians in 2009.[281]

Modern Uyghurs are primarily Muslim and they are the second-largest predominantly Muslim ethnicity in China after the Hui.[282] The majority of modern Uyghurs are Sunnis, although additional conflicts exist between Sufi and non-Sufi religious orders.[282] While modern Uyghurs consider Islam to be part of their identity, religious observance varies between different regions. In general, Muslims in the southern region, Kashgar in particular, are more conservative. For example, women wearing the veil (a piece of cloth covering the head completely) are more common in Kashgar than some other cities.[283] The veil, however, has been banned in some cities since 2014 after it became more popular.[284]

There is also a general split between the Uyghurs and the Hui Muslims in Xinjiang and they normally worship in different mosques.[285] The Chinese government discourages religious worship among the Uyghurs,[286] and there is evidence of thousands of Uyghur mosques including historic ones being destroyed.[287] According to a 2020 report by the Australian Strategic Policy Institute, since 2017, Chinese authorities have destroyed or damaged 16,000 mosques in Xinjiang.[288][289]

In the early 21st century, a new trend of Islam, Salafism, emerged in Xinjiang, mostly among the Turkic population including Uyghurs, although there are Hui Salafis. These Salafis tend to demonstrate pan-Islamism and abandoned nationalism in favor of a desired caliphate to rule Xinjiang in the event of independence from China.[290][291] Many Uyghur Salafis have allied themselves with the Turkistan Islamic Party in response to growing repression of Uyghurs by China.[292]

Language

Main article: Uyghur language
 
Map of language families in Xinjiang

The ancient people of the Tarim Basin originally spoke different languages, such as Tocharian, Saka (Khotanese), and Gandhari. The Turkic people who moved into the region in the 9th century brought with them their languages, which slowly supplanted the original tongues of the local inhabitants. In the 11th century, Mahmud al-Kashgari noted that the Uyghurs (of Qocho) spoke a pure Turkic language, but they also still spoke another language among themselves and had two different scripts. He also noted that the people of Khotan did not know Turkic well and had their own language and script (Khotanese).[293] Writers of the Karakhanid period, Al-Kashgari and Yusuf Balasagun, referred to their Turkic language as Khāqāniyya (meaning royal) or the "language of Kashgar" or simply Turkic.[294][295]

The modern Uyghur language is classified under the Karluk branch of the Turkic language family. It is closely related to Äynu, Lop, Ili Turki and Chagatay (the East Karluk languages) and slightly less closely to Uzbek (which is West Karluk). The Uyghur language is an agglutinative language and has a subject-object-verb word order. It has vowel harmony like other Turkic languages and has noun and verb cases but lacks distinction of gender forms.[296]

Modern Uyghurs have adopted a number of scripts for their language. The Arabic script, known as the Chagatay alphabet, was adopted along with Islam. This alphabet is known as Kona Yëziq (old script). Political changes in the 20th century led to numerous reforms of the scripts, for example the Cyrillic-based Uyghur Cyrillic alphabet, a Latin Uyghur New Script and later a reformed Uyghur Arabic alphabet, which represents all vowels, unlike Kona Yëziq. A new Latin version, the Uyghur Latin alphabet, was also devised in the 21st century.

In the 1990s, many Uyghurs in parts of Xinjiang could not speak Mandarin Chinese.[297]

Literature

Main article: Uyghur literature
 
Leaf from an Uyghur-Manichaean version of the Arzhang.

The literary works of the ancient Uyghurs were mostly translations of Buddhist and Manichaean religious texts,[298] but there were also narrative, poetic and epic works apparently original to the Uyghurs. However it is the literature of the Kara-Khanid period that is considered by modern Uyghurs to be the important part of their literary traditions. Amongst these are Islamic religious texts and histories of Turkic peoples, and important works surviving from that era are Kutadgu Bilig, "Wisdom of Royal Glory" by Yusuf Khass Hajib (1069–70), Mahmud al-Kashgari's Dīwānu l-Luġat al-Turk, "A Dictionary of Turkic Dialects" (1072) and Ehmed Yükneki's Etebetulheqayiq. Modern Uyghur religious literature includes the Taẕkirah, biographies of Islamic religious figures and saints.[299][92][300] The Turki language Tadhkirah i Khwajagan was written by M. Sadiq Kashghari.[301] Between the 1600s and 1900s many Turki-language tazkirah manuscripts devoted to stories of local sultans, martyrs and saints were written.[302] Perhaps the most famous and best-loved pieces of modern Uyghur literature are Abdurehim Ötkür's Iz, Oyghanghan Zimin, Zordun Sabir's Anayurt and Ziya Samedi's novels Mayimkhan and Mystery of the years.[citation needed]

Exiled Uyghur writers and poets, such as Muyesser Abdul'ehed, use literature to highlight the issues facing their community.[303]

Music

 
Uyghur Meshrep musicians in Yarkand
 
Uyghur folk music with modern influence
An example of modern Uyghur music
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Muqam is the classical musical style. The 12 Muqams are the national oral epic of the Uyghurs. The muqam system was developed among the Uyghur in northwestern China and Central Asia over approximately the last 1500 years from the Arabic maqamat modal system that has led to many musical genres among peoples of Eurasia and North Africa. Uyghurs have local muqam systems named after the oasis towns of Xinjiang, such as Dolan, Ili, Kumul and Turpan. The most fully developed at this point is the Western Tarim region's 12 muqams, which are now a large canon of music and songs recorded by the traditional performers Turdi Akhun and Omar Akhun among others in the 1950s and edited into a more systematic system. Although the folk performers probably improvized their songs, as in Turkish taksim performances, the present institutional canon is performed as fixed compositions by ensembles.

The Uyghur Muqam of Xinjiang has been designated by UNESCO as part of the Intangible Heritage of Humanity.[304]

Amannisa Khan, sometimes called Amanni Shahan (1526–1560), is credited with collecting and thereby preserving the Twelve Muqam.[305] Russian scholar Pantusov writes that the Uyghurs manufactured their own musical instruments, they had 62 different kinds of musical instruments, and in every Uyghur home there used to be an instrument called a "duttar".

Uzbek composer Shakhida Shaimardanova uses themes from Uyghur folk music in her compositions.[306]

Dance

Sanam is a popular folk dance among the Uyghur people.[307] It is commonly danced by people at weddings, festive occasions, and parties.[308] The dance may be performed with singing and musical accompaniment. Sama is a form of group dance for Newruz (New Year) and other festivals.[308] Other dances include the Dolan dances, Shadiyane, and Nazirkom.[309] Some dances may alternate between singing and dancing, and Uyghur hand-drums called dap are commonly used as accompaniment for Uyghur dances.

Art

 
Wall painting at Bezeklik caves in Flaming Mountains, Turpan Depression.
 
Xinjiang carpet factory

During the late-19th and early-20th centuries, scientific and archaeological expeditions to the region of Xinjiang's Silk Road discovered numerous cave temples, monastery ruins, and wall paintings, as well as miniatures, books, and documents. There are 77 rock-cut caves at the site. Most have rectangular spaces with round arch ceilings often divided into four sections, each with a mural of Buddha. The effect is of an entire ceiling covered with hundreds of Buddha murals. Some ceilings are painted with a large Buddha surrounded by other figures, including Indians, Persians and Europeans. The quality of the murals vary with some being artistically naïve while others are masterpieces of religious art.[310]

Education

Historically, the education level of Old Uyghur people was higher than the other ethnicities around them. The Buddhist Uyghurs of Qocho became the civil servants of Mongol Empire and Old Uyghur Buddhists enjoyed a high status in the Mongol empire. They also introduced the written script for the Mongolian language. In the Islamic era, education was provided by the mosques and madrassas. During the Qing era, Chinese Confucian schools were also set up in Xinjiang[311] and in the late 19th century Christian missionary schools.[312]

In the late nineteenth and early 20th century, schools were often located in mosques and madrassas. Mosques ran informal schools, known as mektep or maktab, attached to the mosques,[313] The maktab provided most of the education and its curriculum was primarily religious and oral.[314] Boys and girls might be taught in separate schools, some of which offered modern secular subjects in the early 20th century.[311][312][315] In madrasas, poetry, logic, Arabic grammar and Islamic law were taught.[316] In the early 20th century, the Jadidists Turkic Muslims from Russia spread new ideas on education[317][318][319][320] and popularized the identity of "Turkestani".[321]

In more recent times, religious education is highly restricted in Xinjiang and the Chinese authority had sought to eradicate any religious school they considered illegal.[322][323] Although Islamic private schools (Sino-Arabic schools (中阿學校)) have been supported and permitted by the Chinese government among Hui Muslim areas since the 1980s, this policy does not extend to schools in Xinjiang due to fear of separatism.[324][325][326]

Beginning in the early 20th century, secular education became more widespread. Early in the communist era, Uyghurs had a choice of two separate secular school systems, one conducted in their own language and one offering instructions only in Chinese.[327] Many Uyghurs linked the preservation of their cultural and religious identity with the language of instruction in schools and therefore preferred the Uyghur language school.[312][328] However, from the mid-1980s onward, the Chinese government began to reduce teaching in Uyghur and starting mid-1990s also began to merge some schools from the two systems. By 2002, Xinjiang University, originally a bilingual institution, had ceased offering courses in the Uyghur language. From 2004 onward, the government policy has been that classes should be conducted in Chinese as much as possible and in some selected regions, instruction in Chinese began in the first grade.[329] A special senior-secondary boarding school program for Uyghurs, the Xinjiang Class, with course work conducted entirely in Chinese was also established in 2000.[330] Many schools have also moved toward using mainly Chinese in the 2010s, with teaching in the Uyghur language limited to only a few hours a week.[331] The level of educational attainment among Uyghurs is generally lower than that of the Han Chinese; this may be due to the cost of education, the lack of proficiency in the Chinese language (now the main medium of instruction) among many Uyghurs, and poorer employment prospects for Uyghur graduates due to job discrimination in favor of Han Chinese.[332][333] Uyghurs in China, unlike the Hui and Salar who are also mostly Muslim, generally do not oppose coeducation,[334] however girls may be withdrawn from school earlier than boys.[312]

Traditional medicine

Uyghur traditional medicine is known as Unani (طب یونانی), as historically used in the Mughal Empire.[335] Sir Percy Sykes described the medicine as "based on the ancient Greek theory" and mentioned how ailments and sicknesses were treated in Through Deserts and Oases of Central Asia.[336] Today, traditional medicine can still be found at street stands. Similar to other traditional medicine, diagnosis is usually made through checking the pulse, symptoms and disease history and then the pharmacist pounds up different dried herbs, making personalized medicines according to the prescription. Modern Uyghur medical hospitals adopted modern medical science and medicine and applied evidence-based pharmaceutical technology to traditional medicines. Historically, Uyghur medical knowledge has contributed to Chinese medicine in terms of medical treatments, medicinal materials and ingredients and symptom detection.[337]

Cuisine

Main article: Uyghur cuisine
 
Uyghur polu (پولۇ, полу)

Uyghur food shows both Central Asian and Chinese elements. A typical Uyghur dish is polu (or pilaf), a dish found throughout Central Asia. In a common version of the Uyghur polu, carrots and mutton (or chicken) are first fried in oil with onions, then rice and water are added and the whole dish is steamed. Raisins and dried apricots may also be added. Kawaplar (Uyghur: Каваплар) or chuanr (i.e., kebabs or grilled meat) are also found here. Another common Uyghur dish is leghmen (لەغمەن, ләғмән), a noodle dish with a stir-fried topping (säy, from Chinese cai, 菜) usually made from mutton and vegetables, such as tomatoes, onions, green bell peppers, chili peppers and cabbage. This dish is likely to have originated from the Chinese lamian, but its flavor and preparation method are distinctively Uyghur.[338]

Uyghur food (Uyghur Yemekliri, Уйғур Йәмәклири) is characterized by mutton, beef, camel (solely bactrian), chicken, goose, carrots, tomatoes, onions, peppers, eggplant, celery, various dairy foods and fruits.

A Uyghur-style breakfast consists of tea with home-baked bread, hardened yogurt, olives, honey, raisins and almonds. Uyghurs like to treat guests with tea, naan and fruit before the main dishes are ready.

Sangza (ساڭزا, Саңза) are crispy fried wheat flour dough twists, a holiday specialty. Samsa (سامسا, Самса) are lamb pies baked in a special brick oven. Youtazi is steamed multi-layer bread. Göshnan (گۆشنان, Гөшнан) are pan-grilled lamb pies. Pamirdin (Памирдин) are baked pies stuffed with lamb, carrots and onions. Shorpa is lamb soup (شۇرپا, Шорпа). Other dishes include Toghach (Тоғач) (a type of tandoor bread) and Tunurkawab (Тунуркаваб). Girde (Гирде) is also a very popular bagel-like bread with a hard and crispy crust that is soft inside.

A cake sold by Uyghurs is the traditional Uyghur nut cake.[339][340][341]

Clothing

 
Doppa Maker, traditional Uyghur hats, Kashgar

Chapan, a coat, and doppa, a type of hat for men, is commonly worn by Uyghurs. Another type of headwear, salwa telpek (salwa tälpäk, салва тәлпәк), is also worn by Uyghurs.[342]

In the early 20th century, face covering veils with velvet caps trimmed with otter fur were worn in the streets by Turki women in public in Xinjiang as witnessed by the adventurer Ahmad Kamal in the 1930s.[343] Travelers of the period Sir Percy Sykes and Ella Sykes wrote that in Kashghar women went into the bazar "transacting business with their veils thrown back" but mullahs tried to enforce veil wearing and were "in the habit of beating those who show their face in the Great Bazar".[344] In that period, belonging to different social statuses meant a difference in how rigorously the veil was worn.[345]

 
Uyghur man having his head shaved in a bazaar. Shaving of head is now seen mostly among the older generations.
 
Uyghur girl in clothing made of fabric with design distinctive to the Uyghurs

Muslim Turkestani men traditionally cut all the hair off their head.[346] Sir Aurel Stein observed that the "Turki Muhammadan, accustomed to shelter this shaven head under a substantial fur-cap when the temperature is so low as it was just then".[347] No hair cutting for men took place on the ajuz ayyam, days of the year that were considered inauspicious.[348]

Traditional handicrafts

Yengisar is famous for manufacturing Uyghur handcrafted knives.[349][350][351] The Uyghur word for knife is pichaq (پىچاق, пичақ) and the word for knifemaking (cutler) is pichaqchiliq (پىچاقچىلىقى, пичақчилиқ).[352] Uyghur artisan craftsmen in Yengisar are known for their knife manufacture. Uyghur men carry such knives as part of their culture to demonstrate the masculinity of the wearer,[353] but it has also led to ethnic tension.[354][355] Limitations were placed on knife vending due to concerns over terrorism and violent assaults.[356]

Livelihood

 
Uyghur women on their way to work in Kashgar, 2011

Most Uyghurs are agriculturists.[citation needed] Cultivating crops in an arid region has made the Uyghurs excel in irrigation techniques. This includes the construction and maintenance of underground channels called karez that brings water from the mountains to their fields. A few of the well-known agricultural goods include apples (especially from Ghulja), sweet melons (from Hami), and grapes from Turpan. However, many Uyghurs are also employed in the mining, manufacturing, cotton, and petrochemical industries. Local handicrafts like rug-weaving and jade-carving are also important to the cottage industry of the Uyghurs.[357]

Some Uyghurs have been given jobs through Chinese government affirmative action programs.[358] Uyghurs may also have difficulty receiving non-interest loans (per Islamic beliefs).[359] The general lack of Uyghur proficiency in Mandarin Chinese also creates a barrier to access private and public sector jobs.[360]

Names

Since the arrival of Islam, most Uyghurs have used "Arabic names", but traditional Uyghur names and names of other origin are still used by some.[361] After the establishment of the Soviet Union, many Uyghurs who studied in Soviet Central Asia added Russian suffixes to Russify their surnames.[362] Names from Russia and Europe are used in Qaramay and Ürümqi by part of the population of city-dwelling Uyghurs. Others use names with hard-to-understand etymologies, with the majority dating from the Islamic era and being of Arabic or Persian derivation.[363] Some pre-Islamic Uyghur names are preserved in Turpan and Qumul.[361] The government has banned some two dozen Islamic names.[286]

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ The size of the Uyghur population is disputed between Chinese authorities and Uyghur sources. The § Population section of this article further discusses this dispute.
  2. ^
    .
  3. ^ a b The term Turk was a generic label used by members of many ethnicities in Soviet Central Asia. Often the deciding factor for classifying individuals belonging to Turkic nationalities in the Soviet censuses was less what the people called themselves by nationality than what language they claimed as their native tongue. Thus, people who called themselves "Turk" but spoke Uzbek were classified in Soviet censuses as Uzbek by nationality.[64]
  4. ^ This contrasts to the Hui people, called Huihui or "Hui" (Muslim) by the Chinese and the Salar people, called "Sala Hui" (Salar Muslims) by the Chinese. Use of the term "Chan Tou Hui" was considered a demeaning slur.[105]
  5. ^ "Soon the great chief Julumohe and the Kirghiz gathered a hundred thousand riders to attack the Uyghur city; they killed the Kaghan, executed Jueluowu, and burnt the royal camp. All the tribes were scattered – its ministers Sazhi and Pang Tele with fifteen clans fled to the Karluks, the remaining multitude went to Tibet and Anxi." (Chinese: 俄而渠長句錄莫賀與黠戛斯合騎十萬攻回鶻城，殺可汗，誅掘羅勿，焚其牙，諸部潰其相馺職與厖特勒十五部奔葛邏祿，殘眾入吐蕃、安西。)[187]

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February 15, 2024
uyghurs, confused, with, yugurs, note, alternatively, spelled, uighurs, uygurs, uigurs, turkic, ethnic, group, originating, from, culturally, affiliated, with, general, region, central, east, asia, recognized, titular, nationality, xinjiang, uyghur, autonomous. Not to be confused with Yugurs The Uyghurs note 2 alternatively spelled Uighurs 27 28 29 Uygurs or Uigurs are a Turkic ethnic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the general region of Central and East Asia The Uyghurs are recognized as the titular nationality of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in Northwest China They are one of China s 55 officially recognized ethnic minorities 30 The Uyghurs are recognized by the Chinese government as a regional minority and the titular people of Xinjiang UyghursئۇيغۇرلارUjgurlarUyghurlarA Uyghur man in KashgarTotal populationc 13 5 million note 1 Regions with significant populationsChina mainly in Xinjiang 11 8 million 1 Kazakhstan223 100 2009 2 3 Pakistan200 000 2010 4 Turkey100 000 300 000 5 Kyrgyzstan60 210 2021 6 Uzbekistan48 500 2019 7 United States8 905 per US Census Bureau 2015 8 15 000 per ETGE estimate 2021 9 Saudi Arabia8 730 2018 10 Australia5 000 10 000 11 Russia3 696 2010 12 India 3 500 13 Turkmenistan 3 000 14 Afghanistan2 000 15 Japan2 000 2021 16 Sweden2 000 2019 17 Canada 1 555 2016 18 Germany 750 2013 19 Finland327 2021 20 Mongolia258 2000 21 Ukraine197 2001 22 LanguagesUyghurAynu Mandarin RussianReligionPredominantly Sunni IslamRelated ethnic groupsUzbeks 23 and other Turkic peoples Tajiks 24 UyghursUyghur nameUyghurئۇيغۇرلار TranscriptionsLatin YeziqiUyghurlarSiril YeziqiUjgurlarUyghur IPA ujɣurˈlɑr Chinese nameSimplified Chinese维吾尔Traditional Chinese維吾爾TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinWeiwu erWade GilesWei2 wu2 erh3IPA we ɪ u a ɚ This article contains Uyghur text Without proper rendering support you may see unjoined letters or other symbols instead of Uyghur script The Uyghurs have traditionally inhabited a series of oases scattered across the Taklamakan Desert within the Tarim Basin These oases have historically existed as independent states or were controlled by many civilizations including China the Mongols the Tibetans and various Turkic polities The Uyghurs gradually started to become Islamized in the 10th century and most Uyghurs identified as Muslims by the 16th century Islam has since played an important role in Uyghur culture and identity An estimated 80 of Xinjiang s Uyghurs still live in the Tarim Basin 31 The rest of Xinjiang s Uyghurs mostly live in Urumqi the capital city of Xinjiang which is located in the historical region of Dzungaria The largest community of Uyghurs living outside of Xinjiang are the Taoyuan Uyghurs of north central Hunan s Taoyuan County 32 Significant diasporic communities of Uyghurs exist in other Turkic countries such as Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Uzbekistan and Turkey 33 Smaller communities live in Saudi Arabia Jordan Australia Russia and Sweden 34 Since 2014 35 36 the Chinese government has been accused by various organizations such as Human Rights Watch 37 of subjecting Uyghurs living in Xinjiang to widespread human rights abuses including forced sterilization 38 39 and forced labor 40 41 42 in what has been described as genocide Scholars estimate that at least one million Uyghurs have been arbitrarily detained in the Xinjiang internment camps since 2017 43 44 45 Chinese government officials claim that these camps created under CCP general secretary Xi Jinping s administration serve the goals of ensuring adherence to Chinese Communist Party CCP ideology preventing separatism fighting terrorism and providing vocational training to Uyghurs 46 Various scholars human rights organizations and governments consider abuses perpetrated against the Uyghurs to amount to crimes against humanity or even genocide Contents 1 Etymology 2 Identity 2 1 Origin of modern nomenclature 3 Population 3 1 Population in Xinjiang 3 2 Genetics 4 History 4 1 Early history 4 2 Uyghur Khaganate 8th 9th centuries 4 3 Uyghur kingdoms 9th 11th centuries 4 4 Islamization 4 5 Qing rule 4 6 Yettishar 4 7 Qing reconquest 4 8 First East Turkestan Republic 4 9 Second East Turkestan Republic 4 10 Contemporary era 4 10 1 Human rights abuses against Uyghurs in Xinjiang 5 Uyghurs of Taoyuan Hunan 6 Culture 6 1 Religion 6 2 Language 6 3 Literature 6 4 Music 6 5 Dance 6 6 Art 6 7 Education 6 8 Traditional medicine 6 9 Cuisine 6 10 Clothing 6 11 Traditional handicrafts 6 12 Livelihood 6 13 Names 7 See also 8 Explanatory notes 9 References 9 1 Citations 9 2 General and cited sources 10 Further reading 11 External linksEtymologyIn the Uyghur language the ethnonym is written ئۇيغۇر in Arabic script Ujgur in Uyghur Cyrillic and Uyghur or Uygur as the standard Chinese romanization GB 3304 1991 in Latin 47 they are all pronounced as ʔʊjˈʁʊːr 48 49 In Chinese this is transcribed into characters as 维吾尔 維吾爾 which is romanized in pinyin as Weiwu er In English the name is officially spelled Uyghur by the Xinjiang government 50 but also appears as Uighur 51 Uigur 51 and Uygur these reflect the various Cyrillic spellings Uigur Uigur and Ujgur The name is usually pronounced in English as ˈ w iː ɡ ʊer ɡ er WEE goor ger and is thus preceded by the indefinite article a 51 52 53 27 although some Uyghurs advocate the use of a more native pronunciation ˌ uː i ˈ ɡ ʊer OO ee GOOR instead which in contrast calls for the article an 25 26 54 The term s original meaning is unclear Old Turkic inscriptions record the word uyɣur 55 Old Turkic 𐰆𐰖𐰍𐰆𐰺 an example is found on the Sudzi inscription I am khan ata of Yaglaqar came from the Uigur land Old Turkic Uygur jerinte Yaglaqar qan ata keltim 56 It is transcribed into Tang annals as 回纥 回紇 Mandarin Huihe but probably ɣuɒiɣet in Middle Chinese 57 It was used as the name of one of the Turkic polities formed in the interim between the First and Second Gokturk Khaganates AD 630 684 58 The Old History of the Five Dynasties records that in 788 or 809 the Chinese acceded to a Uyghur request and emended their transcription to 回鹘 回鶻 Mandarin Huihu but ɣuɒiɣuet in Middle Chinese 59 60 Modern etymological explanations for the name Uyghur range from derivation from the verb follow accommodate oneself 51 and adjective non rebellious i e from Turkic uy ud to the verb meaning wake rouse or stir i e from Turkic odgur None of these is thought to be satisfactory because the sound shift of d and ḏ to j does not appear to be in place by this time 59 The etymology therefore cannot be conclusively determined and its referent is also difficult to fix The Huihe and Huihu seem to be a political rather than a tribal designation 61 or it may be one group among several others collectively known as the Toquz Oghuz 62 The name fell out of use in the 15th century but was reintroduced in the early 20th century 48 49 by the Soviet Bolsheviks to replace the previous terms Turk and Turki 63 note 3 The name is currently used to refer to the settled Turkic urban dwellers and farmers of the Tarim Basin who follow traditional Central Asian sedentary practices distinguishable from the nomadic Turkic populations in Central Asia The earliest record of a Uyghur tribe appears in accounts from the Northern Wei 4th 6th century A D wherein they were named 袁紇 Yuanhe lt MC ZS ɦʉɐn ɦet and derived from a confederation named 高车 高車 lit High Carts read as Gaoche in Mandarin Chinese but originally with the reconstructed Middle Chinese pronunciation kɑutɕʰĭa later known as the Tiele 铁勒 鐵勒 Tiele 65 66 67 Gaoche in turn has been connected to the Uyghur Qangqil قاڭقىل or Қankil 68 Identity nbsp A Uyghur girde naan baker source source source source source source Uyghur blacksmiths at work Yengisar Xinjiang China Yengisar is famous for the quality of its knives nbsp Uyghur man in traditional clothing playing a tambur a traditional Uyghur instrument Throughout its history the term Uyghur has had an increasingly expansive definition Initially signifying only a small coalition of Tiele tribes in northern China Mongolia and the Altai Mountains it later denoted citizenship in the Uyghur Khaganate Finally it was expanded into an ethnicity whose ancestry originates with the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate in the year 842 causing Uyghur migration from Mongolia into the Tarim Basin The Uyghurs who moved to the Tarim Basin mixed with the local Tocharians and converted to the Tocharian religion and adopted their culture of oasis agriculture 69 70 The fluid definition of Uyghur and the diverse ancestry of modern Uyghurs create confusion as to what constitutes true Uyghur ethnography and ethnogenesis Contemporary scholars consider modern Uyghurs to be the descendants of a number of peoples including the ancient Uyghurs of Mongolia migrating into the Tarim Basin after the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate Iranic Saka tribes and other Indo European peoples inhabiting the Tarim Basin before the arrival of the Turkic Uyghurs 71 Uyghur activists identify with the Tarim mummies remains of an ancient people inhabiting the region but research into the genetics of ancient Tarim mummies and their links with modern Uyghurs remains problematic both to Chinese government officials concerned with ethnic separatism and to Uyghur activists concerned the research could affect their indigenous claim 72 A genomic study published in 2021 found that these early mummies had high levels of Ancient North Eurasian ancestry ANE about 72 with smaller admixture from Ancient Northeast Asians ANA about 28 but no detectable Western Steppe related ancestry 73 74 They formed a genetically isolated local population that adopted neighbouring pastoralist and agriculturalist practices which allowed them to settle and thrive along the shifting riverine oases of the Taklamakan Desert 75 These mummified individuals were long suspected to have been Proto Tocharian speaking pastoralists ancestors of the Tocharians but the authors of this study found no genetic connection with Indo European speaking migrants particularly the Afanasievo or BMAC cultures 76 Origin of modern nomenclature The Uighurs are the people whom old Russian travelers called Sart a name they used for sedentary Turkish speaking Central Asians in general while Western travelers called them Turki in recognition of their language The Chinese used to call them Ch an t ou Turbaned Heads but this term has been dropped being considered derogatory and the Chinese using their own pronunciation now called them Weiwuerh As a matter of fact there was for centuries no national name for them people identified themselves with the oasis they came from such as Kashgar or Turfan Owen Lattimore Return to China s Northern Frontier The Geographical Journal Vol 139 No 2 June 1973 77 The term Uyghur was not used to refer to a specific existing ethnicity in the 19th century it referred to an ancient people A late 19th century encyclopedia entitled The Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia said the Uigur are the most ancient of Turkish tribes and formerly inhabited a part of Chinese Tartary Xinjiang now occupied by a mixed population of Turk Mongol and Kalmuck 78 Before 1921 1934 clarification needed Western writers called the Turkic speaking Muslims of the oases Turki and the Turkic Muslims who had migrated from the Tarim Basin to Ili Urumqi and Dzungaria in the northern portion of Xinjiang during the Qing dynasty were known as Taranchi meaning farmer The Russians and other foreigners referred to them as Sart 79 Turk or Turki 80 note 3 In the early 20th century they identified themselves by different names to different peoples and in response to different inquiries they called themselves Sarts in front of Kazakhs and Kyrgyz while they called themselves Chantou if asked about their identity after first identifying as a Muslim 81 82 The term Chantou 纏頭 Ch an t ou meaning Rag head or Turban Head was used to refer to the Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang 83 84 including by Hui Tungan people 85 These groups of peoples often identify themselves by their originating oasis instead of an ethnicity 86 for example those from Kashgar may refer to themselves as Kashgarliq or Kashgari while those from Hotan identity themselves as Hotani 82 87 Other Central Asians once called all the inhabitants of Xinjiang s Southern oases Kashgari 88 a term still used in some regions of Pakistan 89 The Turkic people also used Musulman which means Muslim to describe themselves 87 90 91 nbsp A possible Tocharian or Sogdian monk left with an East Asian Buddhist monk right A fresco from the Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves dated to the 9th or 10th century Kara Khoja Kingdom Rian Thum explored the concepts of identity among the ancestors of the modern Uyghurs in Altishahr the native Uyghur name for Eastern Turkestan or Southern Xinjiang before the adoption of the name Uyghur in the 1930s referring to them by the name Altishahri in his article Modular History Identity Maintenance before Uyghur Nationalism Thum indicated that Altishahri Turkis did have a sense that they were a distinctive group separate from the Turkic Andijanis to their west the nomadic Turkic Kirghiz the nomadic Mongol Qalmaq and the Han Chinese Khitay before they became known as Uyghurs There was no single name used for their identity various native names Altishahris used for identify were Altishahrlik Altishahr person yerlik local Turki and Musulman Muslim the term Musulman in this situation did not signify religious connotations because the Altishahris exclude other Muslim peoples like the Kirghiz while identifying themselves as Musulman 92 93 Dr Laura J Newby says the sedentary Altishahri Turkic people considered themselves separate from other Turkic Muslims since at least the 19th century 94 The name Uyghur reappeared after the Soviet Union took the 9th century ethnonym from the Uyghur Khaganate then reapplied it to all non nomadic Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang 95 It followed western European orientalists like Julius Klaproth in the 19th century who revived the name and spread the use of the term to local Turkic intellectuals 96 and a 19th century proposal from Russian historians that modern day Uyghurs were descended from the Kingdom of Qocho and Kara Khanid Khanate formed after the dissolution of the Uyghur Khaganate 97 Historians generally agree that the adoption of the term Uyghur is based on a decision from a 1921 conference in Tashkent attended by Turkic Muslims from the Tarim Basin Xinjiang 95 98 99 100 There Uyghur was chosen by them as the name of their ethnicity although they themselves note that they were not to be confused with the Uyghur Empire of medieval history 79 101 According to Linda Benson the Soviets and their client Sheng Shicai intended to foster a Uyghur nationality to divide the Muslim population of Xinjiang whereas the various Turkic Muslim peoples preferred to identify themselves as Turki East Turkestani or Muslim 79 On the other hand the ruling regime of China at that time the Kuomintang grouped all Muslims including the Turkic speaking people of Xinjiang into the Hui nationality 102 103 The Qing dynasty and the Kuomintang generally referred to the sedentary oasis dwelling Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang as turban headed Hui to differentiate them from other predominantly Muslim ethnicities in China 79 104 note 4 In the 1930s foreigners travelers in Xinjiang such as George W Hunter Peter Fleming Ella Maillart and Sven Hedin referred to the Turkic Muslims of the region as Turki in their books Use of the term Uyghur was unknown in Xinjiang until 1934 The area governor Sheng Shicai came to power adopting the Soviet ethnographic classification instead of the Kuomintang s and became the first to promulgate the official use of the term Uyghur to describe the Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang 79 97 106 Uyghur replaced rag head 107 Sheng Shicai s introduction of the Uighur name for the Turkic people of Xinjiang was criticized and rejected by Turki intellectuals such as Pan Turkist Jadids and East Turkestan independence activists Muhammad Amin Bughra Mehmet Emin and Masud Sabri They demanded the names Turk or Turki be used instead as the ethnonyms for their people Masud Sabri viewed the Hui people as Muslim Han Chinese and separate from his people 108 while Bughrain criticized Sheng for his designation of Turkic Muslims into different ethnicities which could sow disunion among Turkic Muslims 109 110 After the Communist victory the Chinese Communist Party under Chairman Mao Zedong continued the Soviet classification using the term Uyghur to describe the modern ethnicity 79 In current usage Uyghur refers to settled Turkic speaking urban dwellers and farmers of the Tarim Basin and Ili who follow traditional Central Asian sedentary practices as distinguished from nomadic Turkic populations in Central Asia However Chinese government agents clarification needed designate as Uyghur certain peoples with significantly divergent histories and ancestries from the main group These include the Lopliks of Ruoqiang County and the Dolan people thought to be closer to the Oirat Mongols and the Kyrgyz 111 112 The use of the term Uyghur led to anachronisms when describing the history of the people 113 In one of his books the term Uyghur was deliberately not used by James Millward 114 Another ethnicity the Western Yugur of Gansu identify themselves as the Yellow Uyghur Sariq Uyghur 115 Some scholars say the Yugurs culture language and religion are closer to the original culture of the original Uyghur Karakorum state than is the culture of the modern Uyghur people of Xinjiang 116 Linguist and ethnographer S Robert Ramsey argues for inclusion of both the Eastern and Western Yugur and the Salar as sub groups of the Uyghur based on similar historical roots for the Yugur and on perceived linguistic similarities for the Salar 117 Turkistani is used as an alternate ethnonym by some Uyghurs 118 For example the Uyghur diaspora in Arabia adopted the identity Turkistani Some Uyghurs in Saudi Arabia adopted the Arabic nisba of their home city such as Al Kashgari from Kashgar Saudi born Uyghur Hamza Kashgari s family originated from Kashgar 119 120 Population nbsp Uyghur hunter in KashgarThe Uyghur population within China generally remains centered in Xinjiang region with some smaller subpopulations elsewhere in the country such as in Taoyuan County where an estimated 5 000 10 000 live 121 122 The size of the Uyghur population particularly in China has been the subject of dispute Chinese authorities place the Uyghur population within the Xinjiang region to be just over 12 million comprising approximately half of the total regional population 123 124 As early as 2003 however some Uyghur groups wrote that their population was being vastly undercounted by Chinese authorities claiming that their population actually exceeded 20 million 125 Population disputes have continued into the present with some activists and groups such as the World Uyghur Congress and Uyghur American Association claiming that the Uyghur population ranges between 20 and 30 million 126 127 128 129 Some have even claimed that the real number of Uyghurs is actually 35 million 130 131 Scholars however have generally rejected these claims with Professor Dru C Gladney writing in the 2004 book Xinjiang China s Muslim Borderland that there is scant evidence to support Uyghur claims that their population within China exceeds 20 million 132 Population in Xinjiang Area 1953 Census 1964 Census 1982 Census 1990 Census 2000 Census 2010 Census Ref Total PCT Total PCT Total PCT Total PCT Total PCT Total PCT Urumqi 28 786 19 11 56 345 9 99 121 561 10 97 266 342 12 79 387 878 12 46 133 Karamay Not applicable 23 730 14 54 30 895 15 09 37 245 13 78 44 866 11 47 134 Turpan 139 391 89 93 170 512 75 61 294 039 71 14 351 523 74 13 385 546 70 01 429 527 68 96 135 Hami 33 312 41 12 42 435 22 95 75 557 20 01 84 790 20 70 90 624 18 42 101 713 17 77 136 Changji 18 784 7 67 23 794 5 29 44 944 3 93 52 394 4 12 58 984 3 92 63 606 4 45 137 Bortala 8 723 21 54 18 432 15 53 38 428 13 39 53 145 12 53 59 106 13 32 138 Bayingolin 121 212 75 79 153 737 46 07 264 592 35 03 310 384 36 99 345 595 32 70 406 942 31 83 139 Kizilsu Not applicable 122 148 68 42 196 500 66 31 241 859 64 36 281 306 63 98 339 926 64 68 140 Ili 568 109 23 99 667 202 26 87 Aksu 697 604 98 17 778 920 80 44 1 158 659 76 23 1 342 138 79 07 1 540 633 71 93 1 799 512 75 90 141 Kashgar 1 567 069 96 99 1 671 336 93 63 2 093 152 87 92 2 606 775 91 32 3 042 942 89 35 3 606 779 90 64 142 Hotan 717 277 99 20 774 286 96 52 1 124 331 96 58 1 356 251 96 84 1 621 215 96 43 1 938 316 96 22 143 Tacheng 36 437 6 16 36 804 4 12 38 476 3 16 144 Altay 3 622 3 73 6 471 3 09 10 255 2 19 10 688 2 09 10 068 1 79 8 703 1 44 145 Shihezi Not applicable Not applicable 7 064 1 20 7 574 1 99 Aral Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable 9 481 5 78 Tumxuk Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable 91 472 67 39 Wujiaqu Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable 223 0 23 Ref 146 147 Genetics A study of mitochondrial DNA 2004 therefore the matrilineal genetic contribution found the frequency of Western Eurasian specific haplogroup in Uyghurs to be 42 6 and East Asian haplogroup to be 57 4 148 149 Uyghurs in Kazakhstan on the other hand were shown to have 55 European Western Eurasian maternal mtDNA 149 A study based on paternal DNA 2005 shows West Eurasian haplogroups J and R in Uyghurs make up 65 to 70 and East Asian haplogroups C N D and O 30 to 35 150 nbsp Uyghur schoolchildren in Kashgar 2011 One study by Xu et al 2008 using samples from Hetian Hotan only found Uyghurs have about an average of 60 European or West Asian Western Eurasian ancestry and about 40 East Asian or Siberian ancestry Eastern Eurasian From the same area it is found that the proportion of Uyghur individuals with European West Asian ancestry ranges individually from 40 3 to 84 3 while their East Asian Siberian ancestry ranges individually from 15 7 to 59 7 151 Further study by the same team showed an average of slightly greater European West Asian component at 52 ranging individually from 44 9 to 63 1 in the Uyghur population in southern Xinjiang but only 47 ranging individually from 30 to 55 in the northern Uyghur population 152 A different study by Li et al 2009 used a larger sample of individuals from a wider area and found a higher East Asian component of about 70 on average while the European West Asian component was about 30 Overall Uyghur show relative more similarity to Western East Asians than to Eastern East Asians The authors also cite anthropologic studies which also estimate about 30 Western proportions which are in agreement with their genetic results 153 nbsp Genetic distance between different Eurasian populations and frequency of West and East Eurasian components 154 A study 2013 based on autosomal DNA shows that average Uyghurs are closest to other Turkic people in Central Asia and China as well as various Chinese populations The analysis of the diversity of cytochrome B further suggests Uyghurs are closer to Chinese and Siberian populations than to various Caucasoid groups in West Asia or Europe However there is significant genetic distance between the Xinjiang s southern Uyghurs and Chinese population but not between the northern Uyghurs and Chinese 155 A Study 2016 of Uyghur males living in southern Xinjiang used high resolution 26 Y STR loci system high resolution to infer the genetic relationships between the Uyghur population and European and Asian populations The results showed the Uyghur population of southern Xinjiang exhibited a genetic admixture of Eastern Asian and European populations but with slightly closer relationship with European populations than to Eastern Asian populations 156 An extensive genome study in 2017 analyzed 951 samples of Uyghurs from 14 geographical subpopulations in Xinjiang and observed a southwest and northeast differentiation in the population partially caused by the Tianshan Mountains which form a natural barrier with gene flows from the east and west The study identifies four major ancestral components that may have arisen from two earlier admixed groups one West Eurasian component associated with European ancestry 25 37 one South Asian ancestry component 12 20 and two East Eurasian components with Siberian 15 17 and East Asian ancestries 29 47 In total Uyghurs on average range from 44 to 64 Siberian East Asian 33 2 European and 17 9 South Asian Western Xinjiang shows more West Eurasian components than East Asian It suggests at least two major waves of admixture one 3 750 years ago coinciding with the age range of the mummies with European feature found in Xinjiang and another occurring around 750 years ago 157 A 2018 study of 206 Uyghur samples from Xinjiang using the ancestry informative SNP AISNP analysis found that the average genetic ancestry of Uyghurs is 63 7 East Asian related and 36 3 European related 158 HistoryMain article History of the Uyghur people nbsp Uyghur princes from Cave 9 of the Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves Xinjiang China 8th 9th century AD wall paintingThe history of the Uyghur people as with the ethnic origin of the people is a matter of contention 159 Uyghur historians viewed the Uyghurs as the original inhabitants of Xinjiang with a long history Uyghur politician and historian Muhammad Amin Bughra wrote in his book A History of East Turkestan stressing the Turkic aspects of his people that the Turks have a continuous 9000 year old history while historian Turghun Almas incorporated discoveries of Tarim mummies to conclude that Uyghurs have over 6400 years of continuous history 160 and the World Uyghur Congress claimed a 4 000 year history in East Turkestan 161 However the official Chinese view as documented in the white paper History and Development of Xinjiang asserts that the Uyghur ethnic group formed after the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840 when the local residents of the Tarim Basin and its surrounding areas were merged with migrants from the khaganate 162 The name Uyghur reappeared after the Soviet Union took the 9th century ethnonym from the Uyghur Khaganate then reapplied it to all non nomadic Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang 163 Many contemporary western scholars however do not consider the modern Uyghurs to be of direct linear descent from the old Uyghur Khaganate of Mongolia Rather they consider them to be descendants of a number of peoples one of them the ancient Uyghurs 71 164 165 166 Early history Discovery of well preserved Tarim mummies of a people European in appearance indicates the migration of a European looking people into the Tarim area at the beginning of the Bronze Age around 1800 BC These people may have been of Tocharian origin and some have suggested them to be the Yuezhi mentioned in ancient Chinese texts 167 168 The Tocharians are thought to have developed from the Indo European speaking Afanasevo culture of Southern Siberia c 3500 2500 BC 169 A study published in 2021 showed that the earliest Tarim Basin cultures had high levels of Ancient North Eurasian ancestry with smaller admixture from Northeast Asians 170 Uyghur activist Turgun Almas claimed that Tarim mummies were Uyghurs because the earliest Uyghurs practiced shamanism and the buried mummies orientation suggests that they had been shamanists meanwhile Qurban Wali claimed words written in Kharosthi and Sogdian scripts as Uyghur rather than Sogdian words absorbed into Uyghur according to other linguists 171 Later migrations brought peoples from the west and northwest to the Xinjiang region probably speakers of various Iranian languages such as the Saka tribes who were closely related to the European Scythians and descended from the earlier Andronovo culture 172 and who may have been present in the Khotan and Kashgar area in the first millennium BC as well as the Sogdians who formed networks of trading communities across the Tarim Basin from the 4th century AD 173 There may also be an Indian component as the founding legend of Khotan suggests that the city was founded by Indians from ancient Taxila during the reign of Ashoka 174 175 Other people in the region mentioned in ancient Chinese texts include the Dingling as well as the Xiongnu who fought for supremacy in the region against the Chinese for several hundred years Some Uyghur nationalists also claimed descent from the Xiongnu according to the Chinese historical text the Book of Wei the founder of the Uyghurs was descended from a Xiongnu ruler 59 but the view is contested by modern Chinese scholars 160 The Yuezhi were driven away by the Xiongnu but founded the Kushan Empire which exerted some influence in the Tarim Basin where Kharosthi texts have been found in Loulan Niya and Khotan Loulan and Khotan were some of the many city states that existed in the Xinjiang region during the Han Dynasty others include Kucha Turfan Karasahr and Kashgar These kingdoms in the Tarim Basin came under the control of China during the Han and Tang dynasties During the Tang dynasty they were conquered and placed under the control of the Protectorate General to Pacify the West and the Indo European cultures of these kingdoms never recovered from Tang rule after thousands of their inhabitants were killed during the conquest 176 The settled population of these cities later merged with the incoming Turkic people including the Uyghurs of Uyghur Khaganate to form the modern Uyghurs The Indo European Tocharian language later disappeared as the urban population switched to a Turkic language such as the Old Uyghur language 177 The early Turkic peoples descended from agricultural communities in Northeast Asia who moved westwards into Mongolia in the late 3rd millennium BC where they adopted a pastoral lifestyle 178 179 180 181 182 By the early 1st millennium BC these peoples had become equestrian nomads 178 In subsequent centuries the steppe populations of Central Asia appear to have been progressively Turkified by East Asian nomadic Turks moving out of Mongolia 183 184 Uyghur Khaganate 8th 9th centuries Main articles Uyghur Khaganate and Toquz Oghuz nbsp Bogu Qaghan the third Khagan of the Uyghur Khaganate in a suit of armour 8th century Manichean manuscript MIK III 4979 The Uyghurs of the Uyghur Khaganate were part of a Turkic confederation called the Tiele 185 who lived in the valleys south of Lake Baikal and around the Yenisei River They overthrew the First Turkic Khaganate and established the Uyghur Khaganate The Uyghur Khaganate lasted from 744 to 840 71 It was administered from the imperial capital Ordu Baliq one of the biggest ancient cities built in Mongolia In 840 following a famine and civil war the Uyghur Khaganate was overrun by the Yenisei Kirghiz another Turkic people As a result the majority of tribal groups formerly under Uyghur control dispersed and moved out of Mongolia Uyghur kingdoms 9th 11th centuries nbsp Uyghur Khaganate in geopolitical context c 820 ADThe Uyghurs who founded the Uyghur Khaganate dispersed after the fall of the Khaganate to live among the Karluks and to places such as Jimsar Turpan and Gansu 186 note 5 These Uyghurs soon founded two kingdoms and the easternmost state was the Ganzhou Kingdom 870 1036 which ruled parts of Xinjiang with its capital near present day Zhangye Gansu China The modern Yugurs are believed to be descendants of these Uyghurs Ganzhou was absorbed by the Western Xia in 1036 The second Uyghur kingdom the Kingdom of Qocho ruled a larger section of Xinjiang also known as Uyghuristan in its later period was founded in the Turpan area with its capital in Qocho modern Gaochang and Beshbalik The Kingdom of Qocho lasted from the ninth to the fourteenth century and proved to be longer lasting than any power in the region before or since 71 The Uyghurs were originally Tengrists shamanists and Manichaean but converted to Buddhism during this period Qocho accepted the Qara Khitai as its overlord in the 1130s and in 1209 submitted voluntarily to the rising Mongol Empire The Uyghurs of Kingdom of Qocho were allowed significant autonomy and played an important role as civil servants to the Mongol Empire but was finally destroyed by the Chagatai Khanate by the end of the 14th century 71 188 Islamization Main article Turkic settlement of the Tarim Basin In the tenth century the Karluks Yagmas Chigils and other Turkic tribes founded the Kara Khanid Khanate in Semirechye Western Tian Shan and Kashgaria and later conquered Transoxiana The Karakhanid rulers were likely to be Yaghmas who were associated with the Toquz Oghuz and some historians therefore see this as a link between the Karakhanid and the Uyghurs of the Uyghur Khaganate although this connection is disputed by others 189 The Karakhanids converted to Islam in the tenth century beginning with Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan the first Turkic dynasty to do so 190 Modern Uyghurs see the Muslim Karakhanids as an important part of their history however Islamization of the people of the Tarim Basin was a gradual process The Indo Iranian Saka Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan was conquered by the Turkic Muslim Karakhanids from Kashgar in the early 11th century but Uyghur Qocho remained mainly Buddhist until the 15th century and the conversion of the Uyghur people to Islam was not completed until the 17th century nbsp Chagatai Khanate Moghulistan in 1490The 12th and 13th century saw the domination by non Muslim powers first the Kara Khitans in the 12th century followed by the Mongols in the 13th century After the death of Genghis Khan in 1227 Transoxiana and Kashgar became the domain of his second son Chagatai Khan The Chagatai Khanate split into two in the 1340s and the area of the Chagatai Khanate where the modern Uyghurs live became part of Moghulistan which meant land of the Mongols In the 14th century a Chagatayid khan Tughluq Temur converted to Islam Genghisid Mongol nobilities also followed him to convert to Islam 191 His son Khizr Khoja conquered Qocho and Turfan the core of Uyghuristan in the 1390s and the Uyghurs there became largely Muslim by the beginning of the 16th century 189 After being converted to Islam the descendants of the previously Buddhist Uyghurs in Turfan failed to retain memory of their ancestral legacy and falsely believed that the infidel Kalmuks Dzungars were the ones who built Buddhist structures in their area 192 From the late 14th through 17th centuries the Xinjiang region became further subdivided into Moghulistan in the north Altishahr Kashgar and the Tarim Basin and the Turfan area each often ruled separately by competing Chagatayid descendants the Dughlats and later the Khojas 189 Islam was also spread by the Sufis and branches of its Naqshbandi order were the Khojas who seized control of political and military affairs in the Tarim Basin and Turfan in the 17th century The Khojas however split into two rival factions the Aqtaghlik White Mountainers Khojas also called the Afaqiyya and the Qarataghlik Black Mountainers Khojas also called the Ishaqiyya The legacy of the Khojas lasted until the 19th century The Qarataghlik Khojas seized power in Yarkand where the Chagatai Khans ruled in the Yarkent Khanate forcing the Aqtaghlik Afaqi Khoja into exile Qing rule nbsp Uyghur General Khojis 1781 governor of Us Turfan who later resided at the Qing court in Beijing Painting by a European Jesuit artist at the Chinese court in 1775 193 In the 17th century the Buddhist Dzungar Khanate grew in power in Dzungaria The Dzungar conquest of Altishahr ended the last independent Chagatai Khanate the Yarkent Khanate after the Aqtaghlik Afaq Khoja sought aid from the 5th Dalai Lama and his Dzungar Buddhist followers to help him in his struggle against the Qarataghlik Khojas The Aqtaghlik Khojas in the Tarim Basin then became vassals to the Dzungars The expansion of the Dzungars into Khalkha Mongol territory in Mongolia brought them into direct conflict with Qing China in the late 17th century and in the process also brought Chinese presence back into the region a thousand years after Tang China lost control of the Western Regions 194 nbsp Minaret of Turpan ruler Emin Khoja built by his son and successor Suleiman in 1777 in the memory of his father tallest minaret in China The Dzungar Qing War lasted a decade During the Dzungar conflict two Aqtaghlik brothers the so called Younger Khoja Chinese 霍集佔 also known as Khwaja i Jahan and his sibling the Elder Khoja Chinese 波羅尼都 also known as Burhan al Din after being appointed as vassals in the Tarim Basin by the Dzungars first joined the Qing and rebelled against Dzungar rule until the final Qing victory over the Dzungars then they rebelled against the Qing in the Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas 1757 1759 an action which prompted the invasion and conquest of the Tarim Basin by the Qing in 1759 The Uyghurs of Turfan and Hami such as Emin Khoja were allies of the Qing in this conflict and these Uyghurs also helped the Qing rule the Altishahr Uyghurs in the Tarim Basin 195 196 The final campaign against the Dzungars in the 1750s ended with the Dzungar genocide The Qing final solution of genocide to solve the problem of the Dzungar Mongols created a land devoid of Dzungars which was followed by the Qing sponsored settlement of millions of other people in Dzungaria 197 198 In northern Xinjiang the Qing brought in Han Hui Uyghur Xibe Daurs Solons Turkic Muslim Taranchis and Kazakh colonists with one third of Xinjiang s total population consisting of Hui and Han in the northern area while around two thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang s Tarim Basin 199 In Dzungaria the Qing established new cities like Urumqi and Yining 200 The Dzungarian basin itself is now inhabited by many Kazakhs 201 The Qing therefore unified Xinjiang and changed its demographic composition as well 202 71 The crushing of the Buddhist Dzungars by the Qing led to the empowerment of the Muslim Begs in southern Xinjiang migration of Muslim Taranchis to northern Xinjiang and increasing Turkic Muslim power with Turkic Muslim culture and identity was tolerated or even promoted by the Qing 202 76 It was therefore argued by Henry Schwarz that the Qing victory was in a certain sense a victory for Islam 202 72 In Beijing a community of Uyghurs was clustered around the mosque near the Forbidden City having moved to Beijing in the 18th century 203 The Ush rebellion in 1765 by Uyghurs against the Manchus occurred after several incidents of misrule and abuse that had caused considerable anger and resentment 204 205 206 The Manchu Emperor ordered that the Uyghur rebel town be massacred and the men were executed and the women and children enslaved 207 nbsp Uyghur chieftain from Wushi Kucha and Aksu with his wife Huang Qing Zhigong Tu 1769 208 nbsp Uyghur commoners from Wushi Kucha and Aksu Huang Qing Zhigong Tu 1769 209 nbsp Uyghur people from Hami in Anxi subprefecture Huang Qing Zhigong Tu 1769 210 nbsp Uyghur people from Ili Taleqi Chahan and Wusu Huang Qing Zhigong Tu 1769 211 Yettishar During the Dungan Revolt 1862 1877 Andijani Uzbeks from the Khanate of Kokand under Buzurg Khan and Yaqub Beg expelled Qing officials from parts of southern Xinjiang and founded an independent Kashgarian kingdom called Yettishar Country of Seven Cities Under the leadership of Yaqub Beg it included Kashgar Yarkand Khotan Aksu Kucha Korla and Turpan citation needed Large Qing dynasty forces under Chinese General Zuo Zongtang attacked Yettishar in 1876 Qing reconquest After this invasion the two regions of Dzungaria which had been known as the Dzungar region or the Northern marches of the Tian Shan 212 213 and the Tarim Basin which had been known as Muslim land or southern marches of the Tian Shan 214 were reorganized into a province named Xinjiang meaning New Territory 215 216 First East Turkestan Republic In 1912 the Qing Dynasty was replaced by the Republic of China By 1920 Pan Turkic Jadidists had become a challenge to Chinese warlord Yang Zengxin who controlled Xinjiang Uyghurs staged several uprisings against Chinese rule In 1931 the Kumul Rebellion erupted leading to the establishment of an independent government in Khotan in 1932 217 which later led to the creation of the First East Turkestan Republic officially known as the Turkish Islamic Republic of East Turkestan Uyghurs joined with Uzbeks Kazakhs and Kyrgyz and successfully declared their independence on 12 November 1933 218 The First East Turkestan Republic was a short lived attempt at independence around the areas encompassing Kashgar Yarkent and Khotan and it was attacked during the Qumul Rebellion by a Chinese Muslim army under General Ma Zhancang and Ma Fuyuan and fell following the Battle of Kashgar 1934 The Soviets backed Chinese warlord Sheng Shicai s rule over East Turkestan Xinjiang from 1934 to 1943 In April 1937 remnants of the First East Turkestan Republic launched an uprising known as the Islamic Rebellion in Xinjiang and briefly established an independent government controlling areas from Atush Kashgar Yarkent and even parts of Khotan before it was crushed in October 1937 following Soviet intervention 219 Sheng Shicai purged 50 000 to 100 000 people mostly Uyghurs following this uprising 219 Second East Turkestan Republic The oppressive reign of Sheng Shicai fueled discontent by Uyghur and other Turkic peoples of the region and Sheng expelled Soviet advisors following U S support for the Kuomintang of the Republic of China 220 This led the Soviets to capitalize on the Uyghur and other Turkic people s discontent in the region culminating in their support of the Ili Rebellion in October 1944 The Ili Rebellion resulted in the establishment of the Second East Turkestan Republic on 12 November 1944 in the three districts of what is now the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture 221 Several pro KMT Uyghurs like Isa Yusuf Alptekin Memet Emin Bugra and Mesut Sabri opposed the Second East Turkestan Republic and supported the Republic of China 222 223 224 In the summer of 1949 the Soviets purged the thirty top leaders of the Second East Turkestan Republic 225 and its five top officials died in a mysterious plane crash on 27 August 1949 226 On 13 October 1949 the People s Liberation Army entered the region and the East Turkestan National Army was merged into the PLA s 5th Army Corps leading to the official end of the Second East Turkestan Republic on 22 December 1949 227 228 229 Contemporary era Further information Xinjiang conflict Historical populationYearPop p a 1990 230 7 214 431 20008 405 416 1 54 201010 069 346 1 82 Figures from Chinese Census nbsp Ethnolinguistic map of Xinjiang in 1967 nbsp Map showing the distribution of ethnicities in Xinjiang according to census figures from 2000 the prefectures with Uyghur majorities are in blue Mao declared the founding of the People s Republic of China on 1 October 1949 He turned the Second East Turkistan Republic into the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture and appointed Saifuddin Azizi as the region s first Communist Party governor Many Republican loyalists fled into exile in Turkey and Western countries The name Xinjiang was changed to Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region where Uyghurs are the largest ethnicity mostly concentrated in the south western Xinjiang 231 The Xinjiang conflict is an ongoing separatist conflict in China s far west province of Xinjiang whose northern region is known as Dzungaria and whose southern region the Tarim Basin is known as East Turkestan Uyghur separatists and independence movements claim that the Second East Turkestan Republic was illegally incorporated by China in 1949 and has since been under Chinese occupation Uyghur identity remains fragmented as some support a Pan Islamic vision exemplified by the East Turkestan Islamic Movement while others support a Pan Turkic vision such as the East Turkestan Liberation Organization A third group would like an East Turkestan state such as the East Turkestan independence movement While the East Turkistan Government in Exile strives for the restoration of East Turkistan s independence as a secular pluralistic Republic that guarantees freedom and civil liberties for all people As a result n o Uyghur or East Turkestan group speaks for all Uyghurs although it might claim to and Uyghurs in each of these camps have committed violence against other Uyghurs who they think are too assimilated to Chinese or Russian society or are not religious enough 232 Mindful not to take sides Uyghur leaders such as Rebiya Kadeer mainly tried to garner international support for the rights and interests of the Uyghurs including the right to demonstrate although the Chinese government has accused her of orchestrating the deadly July 2009 Urumqi riots 233 Eric Enno Tamm s 2011 book states that Authorities have censored Uyghur writers and lavished funds on official histories that depict Chinese territorial expansion into ethnic borderlands as unifications tongyi never as conquests zhengfu or annexations tunbing 234 Human rights abuses against Uyghurs in Xinjiang Main articles Xinjiang internment camps and Uyghur genocide In 2014 the Chinese government announced a people s war on terror Since then Uyghurs in Xinjiang have been affected by extensive controls and restrictions which the Chinese Communist Party CCP and the Chinese government has imposed upon their religious cultural economic and social lives 235 236 237 238 In order to forcibly assimilate them the government has arbitrarily detained more than an estimated one million Uyghurs in internment camps 239 240 Human Rights Watch says that the camps have been used to indoctrinate Uyghurs and other Muslims since 2017 241 242 Leaked Chinese government operating procedures state that the main feature of the camps is to ensure adherence to CCP ideology with the inmates being continuously held captive in the camps for a minimum of 12 months depending on their performance on Chinese ideology tests 243 The New York Times has reported inmates are required to sing hymns praising the Chinese Communist Party and write self criticism essays and that prisoners are also subjected to physical and verbal abuse by prison guards 244 Chinese officials have sometimes assigned to monitor the families of current inmates and women have been detained due to actions by their sons or husbands 244 Other policies have included forced labor 245 246 suppression of Uyghur religious practices 247 political indoctrination 248 severe ill treatment 249 forced sterilization 250 forced contraception 251 252 and forced abortion 253 254 Experts estimate that since 2017 some sixteen thousand mosques have been razed or damaged 255 and hundreds of thousands of children have been forcibly separated from their parents and sent to boarding schools 256 257 Chinese government statistics reported that from 2015 to 2018 birth rates in the mostly Uyghur regions of Hotan and Kashgar fell by more than 60 250 compared to a decrease by 9 69 in the whole country 258 nbsp Protesters in Amsterdam with the Flag of East TurkestanThe policies have drawn widespread condemnation with some characterizing them as a genocide In an assessment by the UN Human Rights Office the United Nations UN stated that China s policies and actions in the Xinjiang region may be crimes against humanity although it did not use the term genocide 259 260 The United States 261 and legislatures in several countries have described the policies as a genocide The Chinese government denies having committed human rights abuses in Xinjiang 262 263 Uyghurs of Taoyuan HunanAround 5 000 Uyghurs live around Taoyuan County and other parts of Changde in Hunan province 264 265 They are descended from Hala Bashi a Uyghur leader from Turpan Kingdom of Qocho and his Uyghur soldiers sent to Hunan by the Ming Emperor in the 14th century to crush the Miao rebels during the Miao Rebellions in the Ming Dynasty 32 266 The 1982 census recorded 4 000 Uyghurs in Hunan 267 They have genealogies which survive 600 years later to the present day Genealogy keeping is a Han Chinese custom which the Hunan Uyghurs adopted These Uyghurs were given the surname Jian by the Emperor 268 There is some confusion as to whether they practice Islam or not Some say that they have assimilated with the Han and do not practice Islam anymore and only their genealogies indicate their Uyghur ancestry 269 Chinese news sources report that they are Muslim 32 The Uyghur troops led by Hala were ordered by the Ming Emperor to crush Miao rebellions and were given titles by him Jian is the predominant surname among the Uyghur in Changde Hunan Another group of Uyghur have the surname Sai Hui and Uyghur have intermarried in the Hunan area The Hui are descendants of Arabs and Han Chinese who intermarried and they share the Islamic religion with the Uyghur in Hunan It is reported that they now number around 10 000 people The Uyghurs in Changde are not very religious and eat pork Older Uyghurs disapprove of this especially elders at the mosques in Changde and they seek to draw them back to Islamic customs 270 In addition to eating pork the Uyghurs of Changde Hunan practice other Han Chinese customs like ancestor worship at graves Some Uyghurs from Xinjiang visit the Hunan Uyghurs out of curiosity or interest Also the Uyghurs of Hunan do not speak the Uyghur language instead they speak Chinese clarification needed as their native language and Arabic for religious reasons at the mosque 270 CultureReligion nbsp A Uyghur mosque in KhotanThe ancient Uyghurs believed in many local deities These practices gave rise to shamanism and Tengrism Uyghurs also practiced aspects of Zoroastrianism such as fire altars and adopted Manichaeism as a state religion for the Uyghur Khaganate 271 possibly in 762 or 763 Ancient Uyghurs also practiced Buddhism after they moved to Qocho and some believed in Church of the East 272 273 274 275 People in the Western Tarim Basin region began their conversion to Islam early in the Kara Khanid Khanate period 190 Some pre Islamic practices continued under Muslim rule for example while the Quran dictated many rules on marriage and divorce other pre Islamic principles based on Zoroastrianism also helped shape the laws of the land 276 There had been Christian conversions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries but these were suppressed by the First East Turkestan Republic government agents 277 278 279 Because of persecution the churches were destroyed and the believers were scattered 280 According to the national census 0 5 or 1 142 Uyghurs in Kazakhstan were Christians in 2009 281 Modern Uyghurs are primarily Muslim and they are the second largest predominantly Muslim ethnicity in China after the Hui 282 The majority of modern Uyghurs are Sunnis although additional conflicts exist between Sufi and non Sufi religious orders 282 While modern Uyghurs consider Islam to be part of their identity religious observance varies between different regions In general Muslims in the southern region Kashgar in particular are more conservative For example women wearing the veil a piece of cloth covering the head completely are more common in Kashgar than some other cities 283 The veil however has been banned in some cities since 2014 after it became more popular 284 There is also a general split between the Uyghurs and the Hui Muslims in Xinjiang and they normally worship in different mosques 285 The Chinese government discourages religious worship among the Uyghurs 286 and there is evidence of thousands of Uyghur mosques including historic ones being destroyed 287 According to a 2020 report by the Australian Strategic Policy Institute since 2017 Chinese authorities have destroyed or damaged 16 000 mosques in Xinjiang 288 289 In the early 21st century a new trend of Islam Salafism emerged in Xinjiang mostly among the Turkic population including Uyghurs although there are Hui Salafis These Salafis tend to demonstrate pan Islamism and abandoned nationalism in favor of a desired caliphate to rule Xinjiang in the event of independence from China 290 291 Many Uyghur Salafis have allied themselves with the Turkistan Islamic Party in response to growing repression of Uyghurs by China 292 Language Main article Uyghur language nbsp Map of language families in XinjiangThe ancient people of the Tarim Basin originally spoke different languages such as Tocharian Saka Khotanese and Gandhari The Turkic people who moved into the region in the 9th century brought with them their languages which slowly supplanted the original tongues of the local inhabitants In the 11th century Mahmud al Kashgari noted that the Uyghurs of Qocho spoke a pure Turkic language but they also still spoke another language among themselves and had two different scripts He also noted that the people of Khotan did not know Turkic well and had their own language and script Khotanese 293 Writers of the Karakhanid period Al Kashgari and Yusuf Balasagun referred to their Turkic language as Khaqaniyya meaning royal or the language of Kashgar or simply Turkic 294 295 The modern Uyghur language is classified under the Karluk branch of the Turkic language family It is closely related to Aynu Lop Ili Turki and Chagatay the East Karluk languages and slightly less closely to Uzbek which is West Karluk The Uyghur language is an agglutinative language and has a subject object verb word order It has vowel harmony like other Turkic languages and has noun and verb cases but lacks distinction of gender forms 296 Modern Uyghurs have adopted a number of scripts for their language The Arabic script known as the Chagatay alphabet was adopted along with Islam This alphabet is known as Kona Yeziq old script Political changes in the 20th century led to numerous reforms of the scripts for example the Cyrillic based Uyghur Cyrillic alphabet a Latin Uyghur New Script and later a reformed Uyghur Arabic alphabet which represents all vowels unlike Kona Yeziq A new Latin version the Uyghur Latin alphabet was also devised in the 21st century In the 1990s many Uyghurs in parts of Xinjiang could not speak Mandarin Chinese 297 Literature Main article Uyghur literature nbsp Leaf from an Uyghur Manichaean version of the Arzhang The literary works of the ancient Uyghurs were mostly translations of Buddhist and Manichaean religious texts 298 but there were also narrative poetic and epic works apparently original to the Uyghurs However it is the literature of the Kara Khanid period that is considered by modern Uyghurs to be the important part of their literary traditions Amongst these are Islamic religious texts and histories of Turkic peoples and important works surviving from that era are Kutadgu Bilig Wisdom of Royal Glory by Yusuf Khass Hajib 1069 70 Mahmud al Kashgari s Diwanu l Luġat al Turk A Dictionary of Turkic Dialects 1072 and Ehmed Yukneki s Etebetulheqayiq Modern Uyghur religious literature includes the Taẕkirah biographies of Islamic religious figures and saints 299 92 300 The Turki language Tadhkirah i Khwajagan was written by M Sadiq Kashghari 301 Between the 1600s and 1900s many Turki language tazkirah manuscripts devoted to stories of local sultans martyrs and saints were written 302 Perhaps the most famous and best loved pieces of modern Uyghur literature are Abdurehim Otkur s Iz Oyghanghan Zimin Zordun Sabir s Anayurt and Ziya Samedi s novels Mayimkhan and Mystery of the years citation needed Exiled Uyghur writers and poets such as Muyesser Abdul ehed use literature to highlight the issues facing their community 303 Music nbsp Uyghur Meshrep musicians in Yarkand nbsp Uyghur folk music with modern influence source source An example of modern Uyghur music Problems playing this file See media help Muqam is the classical musical style The 12 Muqams are the national oral epic of the Uyghurs The muqam system was developed among the Uyghur in northwestern China and Central Asia over approximately the last 1500 years from the Arabic maqamat modal system that has led to many musical genres among peoples of Eurasia and North Africa Uyghurs have local muqam systems named after the oasis towns of Xinjiang such as Dolan Ili Kumul and Turpan The most fully developed at this point is the Western Tarim region s 12 muqams which are now a large canon of music and songs recorded by the traditional performers Turdi Akhun and Omar Akhun among others in the 1950s and edited into a more systematic system Although the folk performers probably improvized their songs as in Turkish taksim performances the present institutional canon is performed as fixed compositions by ensembles The Uyghur Muqam of Xinjiang has been designated by UNESCO as part of the Intangible Heritage of Humanity 304 Amannisa Khan sometimes called Amanni Shahan 1526 1560 is credited with collecting and thereby preserving the Twelve Muqam 305 Russian scholar Pantusov writes that the Uyghurs manufactured their own musical instruments they had 62 different kinds of musical instruments and in every Uyghur home there used to be an instrument called a duttar Uzbek composer Shakhida Shaimardanova uses themes from Uyghur folk music in her compositions 306 Dance Sanam is a popular folk dance among the Uyghur people 307 It is commonly danced by people at weddings festive occasions and parties 308 The dance may be performed with singing and musical accompaniment Sama is a form of group dance for Newruz New Year and other festivals 308 Other dances include the Dolan dances Shadiyane and Nazirkom 309 Some dances may alternate between singing and dancing and Uyghur hand drums called dap are commonly used as accompaniment for Uyghur dances Art nbsp Wall painting at Bezeklik caves in Flaming Mountains Turpan Depression nbsp Xinjiang carpet factoryDuring the late 19th and early 20th centuries scientific and archaeological expeditions to the region of Xinjiang s Silk Road discovered numerous cave temples monastery ruins and wall paintings as well as miniatures books and documents There are 77 rock cut caves at the site Most have rectangular spaces with round arch ceilings often divided into four sections each with a mural of Buddha The effect is of an entire ceiling covered with hundreds of Buddha murals Some ceilings are painted with a large Buddha surrounded by other figures including Indians Persians and Europeans The quality of the murals vary with some being artistically naive while others are masterpieces of religious art 310 Education Historically the education level of Old Uyghur people was higher than the other ethnicities around them The Buddhist Uyghurs of Qocho became the civil servants of Mongol Empire and Old Uyghur Buddhists enjoyed a high status in the Mongol empire They also introduced the written script for the Mongolian language In the Islamic era education was provided by the mosques and madrassas During the Qing era Chinese Confucian schools were also set up in Xinjiang 311 and in the late 19th century Christian missionary schools 312 In the late nineteenth and early 20th century schools were often located in mosques and madrassas Mosques ran informal schools known as mektep or maktab attached to the mosques 313 The maktab provided most of the education and its curriculum was primarily religious and oral 314 Boys and girls might be taught in separate schools some of which offered modern secular subjects in the early 20th century 311 312 315 In madrasas poetry logic Arabic grammar and Islamic law were taught 316 In the early 20th century the Jadidists Turkic Muslims from Russia spread new ideas on education 317 318 319 320 and popularized the identity of Turkestani 321 In more recent times religious education is highly restricted in Xinjiang and the Chinese authority had sought to eradicate any religious school they considered illegal 322 323 Although Islamic private schools Sino Arabic schools 中阿學校 have been supported and permitted by the Chinese government among Hui Muslim areas since the 1980s this policy does not extend to schools in Xinjiang due to fear of separatism 324 325 326 Beginning in the early 20th century secular education became more widespread Early in the communist era Uyghurs had a choice of two separate secular school systems one conducted in their own language and one offering instructions only in Chinese 327 Many Uyghurs linked the preservation of their cultural and religious identity with the language of instruction in schools and therefore preferred the Uyghur language school 312 328 However from the mid 1980s onward the Chinese government began to reduce teaching in Uyghur and starting mid 1990s also began to merge some schools from the two systems By 2002 Xinjiang University originally a bilingual institution had ceased offering courses in the Uyghur language From 2004 onward the government policy has been that classes should be conducted in Chinese as much as possible and in some selected regions instruction in Chinese began in the first grade 329 A special senior secondary boarding school program for Uyghurs the Xinjiang Class with course work conducted entirely in Chinese was also established in 2000 330 Many schools have also moved toward using mainly Chinese in the 2010s with teaching in the Uyghur language limited to only a few hours a week 331 The level of educational attainment among Uyghurs is generally lower than that of the Han Chinese this may be due to the cost of education the lack of proficiency in the Chinese language now the main medium of instruction among many Uyghurs and poorer employment prospects for Uyghur graduates due to job discrimination in favor of Han Chinese 332 333 Uyghurs in China unlike the Hui and Salar who are also mostly Muslim generally do not oppose coeducation 334 however girls may be withdrawn from school earlier than boys 312 Traditional medicine Uyghur traditional medicine is known as Unani طب یونانی as historically used in the Mughal Empire 335 Sir Percy Sykes described the medicine as based on the ancient Greek theory and mentioned how ailments and sicknesses were treated in Through Deserts and Oases of Central Asia 336 Today traditional medicine can still be found at street stands Similar to other traditional medicine diagnosis is usually made through checking the pulse symptoms and disease history and then the pharmacist pounds up different dried herbs making personalized medicines according to the prescription Modern Uyghur medical hospitals adopted modern medical science and medicine and applied evidence based pharmaceutical technology to traditional medicines Historically Uyghur medical knowledge has contributed to Chinese medicine in terms of medical treatments medicinal materials and ingredients and symptom detection 337 Cuisine Main article Uyghur cuisine nbsp Uyghur polu پولۇ polu Uyghur food shows both Central Asian and Chinese elements A typical Uyghur dish is polu or pilaf a dish found throughout Central Asia In a common version of the Uyghur polu carrots and mutton or chicken are first fried in oil with onions then rice and water are added and the whole dish is steamed Raisins and dried apricots may also be added Kawaplar Uyghur Kavaplar or chuanr i e kebabs or grilled meat are also found here Another common Uyghur dish is leghmen لەغمەن lәgmәn a noodle dish with a stir fried topping say from Chinese cai 菜 usually made from mutton and vegetables such as tomatoes onions green bell peppers chili peppers and cabbage This dish is likely to have originated from the Chinese lamian but its flavor and preparation method are distinctively Uyghur 338 Uyghur food Uyghur Yemekliri Ujgur Jәmәkliri is characterized by mutton beef camel solely bactrian chicken goose carrots tomatoes onions peppers eggplant celery various dairy foods and fruits A Uyghur style breakfast consists of tea with home baked bread hardened yogurt olives honey raisins and almonds Uyghurs like to treat guests with tea naan and fruit before the main dishes are ready Sangza ساڭزا Sanza are crispy fried wheat flour dough twists a holiday specialty Samsa سامسا Samsa are lamb pies baked in a special brick oven Youtazi is steamed multi layer bread Goshnan گۆشنان Goshnan are pan grilled lamb pies Pamirdin Pamirdin are baked pies stuffed with lamb carrots and onions Shorpa is lamb soup شۇرپا Shorpa Other dishes include Toghach Togach a type of tandoor bread and Tunurkawab Tunurkavab Girde Girde is also a very popular bagel like bread with a hard and crispy crust that is soft inside A cake sold by Uyghurs is the traditional Uyghur nut cake 339 340 341 Clothing nbsp Doppa Maker traditional Uyghur hats KashgarChapan a coat and doppa a type of hat for men is commonly worn by Uyghurs Another type of headwear salwa telpek salwa talpak salva tәlpәk is also worn by Uyghurs 342 In the early 20th century face covering veils with velvet caps trimmed with otter fur were worn in the streets by Turki women in public in Xinjiang as witnessed by the adventurer Ahmad Kamal in the 1930s 343 Travelers of the period Sir Percy Sykes and Ella Sykes wrote that in Kashghar women went into the bazar transacting business with their veils thrown back but mullahs tried to enforce veil wearing and were in the habit of beating those who show their face in the Great Bazar 344 In that period belonging to different social statuses meant a difference in how rigorously the veil was worn 345 nbsp Uyghur man having his head shaved in a bazaar Shaving of head is now seen mostly among the older generations nbsp Uyghur girl in clothing made of fabric with design distinctive to the UyghursMuslim Turkestani men traditionally cut all the hair off their head 346 Sir Aurel Stein observed that the Turki Muhammadan accustomed to shelter this shaven head under a substantial fur cap when the temperature is so low as it was just then 347 No hair cutting for men took place on the ajuz ayyam days of the year that were considered inauspicious 348 Traditional handicrafts Yengisar is famous for manufacturing Uyghur handcrafted knives 349 350 351 The Uyghur word for knife is pichaq پىچاق pichak and the word for knifemaking cutler is pichaqchiliq پىچاقچىلىقى pichakchilik 352 Uyghur artisan craftsmen in Yengisar are known for their knife manufacture Uyghur men carry such knives as part of their culture to demonstrate the masculinity of the wearer 353 but it has also led to ethnic tension 354 355 Limitations were placed on knife vending due to concerns over terrorism and violent assaults 356 Livelihood nbsp Uyghur women on their way to work in Kashgar 2011Most Uyghurs are agriculturists citation needed Cultivating crops in an arid region has made the Uyghurs excel in irrigation techniques This includes the construction and maintenance of underground channels called karez that brings water from the mountains to their fields A few of the well known agricultural goods include apples especially from Ghulja sweet melons from Hami and grapes from Turpan However many Uyghurs are also employed in the mining manufacturing cotton and petrochemical industries Local handicrafts like rug weaving and jade carving are also important to the cottage industry of the Uyghurs 357 Some Uyghurs have been given jobs through Chinese government affirmative action programs 358 Uyghurs may also have difficulty receiving non interest loans per Islamic beliefs 359 The general lack of Uyghur proficiency in Mandarin Chinese also creates a barrier to access private and public sector jobs 360 Names Since the arrival of Islam most Uyghurs have used Arabic names but traditional Uyghur names and names of other origin are still used by some 361 After the establishment of the Soviet Union many Uyghurs who studied in Soviet Central Asia added Russian suffixes to Russify their surnames 362 Names from Russia and Europe are used in Qaramay and Urumqi by part of the population of city dwelling Uyghurs Others use names with hard to understand etymologies with the majority dating from the Islamic era and being of Arabic or Persian derivation 363 Some pre Islamic Uyghur names are preserved in Turpan and Qumul 361 The government has banned some two dozen Islamic names 286 See alsoEretnids Hui Uyghur tension List of Uyghurs Meshrep Tibetan Muslims Uyghur genocide Uyghur timeline Uyghurs in Beijing Xinjiang conflictExplanatory notes The size of the Uyghur population is disputed between Chinese authorities and Uyghur sources The Population section of this article further discusses this dispute Uyghur ئۇيغۇرلار Ujgurlar Uyghurlar IPA ujɣurˈlɑr simplified Chinese 维吾尔 traditional Chinese 維吾爾 pinyin Weiwu er IPA we ɪ u a ɚ 25 26 For the English pronunciation see Etymology a b The term Turk was a generic label used by members of many ethnicities in Soviet Central Asia Often the deciding factor for classifying individuals belonging to Turkic nationalities in the Soviet censuses was less what the people called themselves by nationality than what language they claimed as their native tongue Thus people who called themselves Turk but spoke Uzbek were classified in Soviet censuses as Uzbek by nationality 64 This contrasts to the Hui people called Huihui or Hui Muslim by the Chinese and the Salar people called Sala Hui Salar Muslims by the Chinese Use of the term Chan Tou Hui was considered a demeaning slur 105 Soon the great chief Julumohe and the Kirghiz gathered a hundred thousand riders to attack the Uyghur city they killed the Kaghan executed Jueluowu and burnt the royal camp All the tribes were scattered its ministers Sazhi and Pang Tele with fifteen clans fled to the Karluks the remaining multitude went to Tibet and Anxi Chinese 俄而渠長句錄莫賀與黠戛斯合騎十萬攻回鶻城 殺可汗 誅掘羅勿 焚其牙 諸部潰其相馺職與厖特勒十五部奔葛邏祿 殘眾入吐蕃 安西 187 ReferencesCitations Geographic Distribution and Population of Ethnic Minorities China Statistical Yearbook 2021 Retrieved 4 February 2023 Ethnic groups of Kazakhstan in 2009 www almaty kazakhstan net Archived from the original on 10 February 2017 Retrieved 1 February 2009 Agentstvo Respubliki Kapisyu na 26 1 i sostavila 10098 6 tys 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Languages of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region 11 October 2006 Recommendation for English transcription of the word ئۇيغۇر 维吾尔 Archived from the original on 19 July 2011 Retrieved 14 June 2011 a b c d Uighur n and adj Oxford English Dictionary Oxford England Oxford University Press Jones Daniel 2011 Roach Peter Setter Jane Esling John eds Uyghur Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary 18th ed Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 15255 6 How to say Chinese names and ethnic groups BBC 9 July 2009 Retrieved 15 June 2023 Wells John C 2008 Uighur Longman Pronunciation Dictionary 3rd ed Longman ISBN 978 1 4058 8118 0 Russell Smith 2005 p 33 Sudzi inscription text at Turik Bitig Mackerras 1968 p 224 Guzel 2002 a b c Golden 1992 p 155 Jiu Wudaishi vol 138 Huihu quote 回鶻 其先匈奴之種也 後魏時 號爲鐵勒 亦名回紇 唐元和四年 本國可汗遣使上言 改爲回鶻 義取迴旋搏擊 如鶻之迅捷也 translation Huihu their ancestors had been a kind of Xiongnu In Later Wei time they were also called Tiele and also named Huihe In the fourth year of Tang dynasty s Yuanhe era 809 CE their country s Qaghan sent envoys and requested the name be changed to Huihu whose meaning is taken from a strike and return action like a swift and rapid falcon Hakan Ozoglu p 16 Russell Smith 2005 p 32 Ramsey S Robert 1987 The Languages of China Princeton Princeton University Press pp 185 6 Silver Brian D 1986 The Ethnic and Language Dimensions in Russian and Soviet Censuses in Ralph S Clem ed Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses Ithaca Cornell University Press pp 70 97 Weishu vol 103 section Gaoche text 高車 蓋古赤狄之餘種也 初號為狄歷 北方以為勑勒 諸夏以為高車 丁零 其語略與匈奴同而時有小異 或云其先匈奴之甥也 其種有狄氏 袁紇氏 斛律氏 解批氏 護骨氏 異奇斤氏 transl Gaoche probably remnant stocks of the ancient Red Di Initially they had been called Dili in the North they are considered Chile the various Xia i e Chinese consider them Gaoche Dingling Dingling with High Carts Their language and the Xiongnu s are similar though there are small differences Or one may say they were sons in law sororal nephews of their Xiongnu predecessors Their tribes are Di Yuanhe Hulu Jiepi Hugu Yiqijin Theobald Ulrich 2012 Huihe 回紇 Huihu 回鶻 Weiwur 維吾爾 Uyghurs ChinaKnowledge de An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History Literature and Art Mair 2006 pp 137 8 Rong Xinjiang 2018 Sogdian Merchants and Sogdian Culture on the Silk Road in Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity Rome China Iran and the Steppe Ca 250 750 ed Di Cosmo amp Maas p 92 of 84 95 Hong Sun Kee Wu Jianguo Kim Jae Eun Nakagoshi Nobukazu 25 December 2010 Landscape Ecology in Asian Cultures Springer p 284 ISBN 978 4 431 87799 8 p 284 The Uyghurs mixed with the Tocharian people and adopted their religion and their culture of oasis agriculture Scharlipp 1992 Soucek 2000 Li Hui Cho Kelly Kidd Judith R Kidd Kenneth K December 2009 Genetic Landscape of Eurasia and Admixture in Uyghurs The American Journal of Human Genetics 85 6 934 937 doi 10 1016 j ajhg 2009 10 024 PMC 2790568 PMID 20004770 Historical records indicate that the present Uyghurs were formed by admixture between Tocharians from the west and Orkhon Uyghurs Wugusi Huihu according to present Chinese pronunciation from the east in the 8th century CE a b c d e James A Millward amp Peter C Perdue 2004 Chapter 2 Political and Cultural History of the Xinjiang Region through the Late Nineteenth Century In S Frederick Starr ed Xinjiang China s Muslim Borderland M E Sharpe pp 40 41 ISBN 978 0 7656 1318 9 Archived from the original on 1 January 2016 Retrieved 19 October 2015 Wong Edward 19 November 2008 The Dead Tell a Tale China Doesn t Care to Listen To The New York Times Archived from the original on 21 November 2016 Zhang 2021 Using qpAdm we modelled the Tarim Basin individuals as a mixture of two ancient autochthonous Asian genetic groups the ANE represented by an Upper Palaeolithic individual from the Afontova Gora site in the upper Yenisei River region of Siberia AG3 about 72 and ancient Northeast Asians represented by Baikal EBA about 28 Supplementary Data 1E and Fig 3a Tarim EMBA2 from Beifang can also be modelled as a mixture of Tarim EMBA1 about 89 and Baikal EBA about 11 sfn error no target CITEREFZhang2021 help Nagele Kathrin Rivollat Maite Yu He Wang Ke 2022 Ancient genomic research From broad strokes to nuanced reconstructions of the past Journal of Anthropological Sciences 100 100 193 230 doi 10 4436 jass 10017 PMID 36576953 Combining genomic and proteomic evidence researchers revealed that these earliest residents in the Tarim Basin carried genetic ancestry inherited from local Upper Palaeolithic hunter gatherers carried no steppe related ancestry but consumed milk products indicating communications of persistence practices independent from genetic exchange Zhang 2021 sfn error no target CITEREFZhang2021 help Zhang 2021 Our results do not support previous hypotheses for the origin of the Tarim mummies who were argued to be Proto Tocharian speaking pastoralists descended from the Afanasievo or to have originated among the Bactria Margiana Archaeological Complex or Inner Asian Mountain Corridor cultures Instead although Tocharian may have been plausibly introduced to the Dzungarian Basin by Afanasievo migrants during the Early Bronze Age we find that the earliest Tarim Basin cultures appear to have arisen from a genetically isolated local population that adopted neighbouring pastoralist and agriculturalist practices which allowed them to settle and thrive along the shifting riverine oases of the Taklamakan Desert sfn error no target CITEREFZhang2021 help Lattimore 1973 p 237 Edward Balfour 1885 The Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia Commercial Industrial and Scientific Products of the Mineral Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms Useful Arts and Manufactures 3rd ed London B Quaritch p 952 Retrieved 28 June 2010 Original from Harvard University a b c d e f Linda Benson 1990 The Ili Rebellion the Moslem challenge to Chinese authority in Xinjiang 1944 1949 M E Sharpe p 30 ISBN 978 0 87332 509 7 Retrieved 28 June 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Archived from the original PDF on 5 July 2020 Retrieved 5 July 2020 Some Uyghur groups claim that there are upwards of 20 million Uyghur in China and nearly 50 million Muslims with little evidence to support those figures van der Made Jan 7 December 2016 Uighurs slam Chinese occupation at Paris congress Radio France Internationale Archived from the original on 29 December 2019 Retrieved 5 July 2020 Currently some 20 million Uighurs live in the western Chinese Xinjiang region About Uyghurs Uyghur American Association Archived from the original on 19 June 2020 Retrieved 5 July 2020 According to the latest Chinese census there are about 12 million Uyghurs However Uyghur sources indicate that Uyghur population in East Turkistan is about 20 30 million Mijit Fatima Ablimit Tangnur Abduxkur Guzalnur Abliz Guzalnur November 2015 Distribution of human papillomavirus HPV genotypes detected by routine pap smear in uyghur muslim women from Karasay Township Hotan Xinjiang China Journal of Medical Virology 87 11 1960 1965 doi 10 1002 jmv 24240 PMC 5033003 PMID 26081269 The Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region located in western China has a population of 20 million Uyghur the main ethnic group EAST TURKISTAN World Uyghur Congress 29 September 2016 Archived from the original on 19 May 2020 Retrieved 5 July 2020 Uyghur sources put the real population of Uyghurs around 20 million Zuberi Hena 18 June 2015 Uyghurs in China We Buried the Quran in Our Backyards Muslim Matters Archived from the original on 18 May 2020 Retrieved 5 July 2020 There are 35 million of us he says some in exile others in the land of what is known to the world as the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region This number is hotly contested and rejected by the Chinese government s official census Hudayar Salim 13 February 2017 Contemporary Colonialism the Uyghurs Versus China Intercontinental Cry Archived from the original on 30 May 2020 Retrieved 5 July 2020 According to some Uyghur activists the Uyghurs number around 35 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Annals Codification Committee of Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture ed 1994 巴音郭楞蒙古自治州志 上册 Annals of Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture Volume 1 in Chinese Beijing Contemporary China Publishing House pp 241 242 ISBN 7 80092 260 X 克孜勒苏柯尔克孜自治州史志办公室 Annals Codification Committee of Kizilsu Kyrgyz Autonomous Prefecture ed 2004 克孜勒苏柯尔克孜自治州志 上册 Annals of Kizilsu Kyrgyz Autonomous Prefecture Volume 1 in Chinese Urumqi Xinjiang People s Publishing House pp 261 263 ISBN 7 228 08891 3 阿克苏地区地方志编纂委员会 Annals Codification Committee of Aksu Prefecture ed 2008 阿克苏地区志 卷一 Annals of Aksu Prefecture Volume 1 in Chinese Urumqi Xinjiang People s Publishing House pp 289 291 ISBN 978 7 228 10775 9 喀什地区地方志编纂委员会 Annals Codification Committee of Kashgar Prefecture ed 2004 喀什地区志 上册 Annals of Kashgar Prefecture Volume 1 in Chinese Urumqi Xinjiang People s Publishing House pp 203 204 ISBN 7 228 08818 2 和田地区地方志编纂委员会 Annals Codification Committee of Hotan Prefecture ed 2011 和田地区志 上册 Annals of Hotan Prefecture Volume 1 in Chinese Urumqi Xinjiang People s Publishing House ISBN 978 7 228 13255 3 塔城地区地方志编纂委员会 Annals Codification Committee of Tacheng Prefecture ed 1997 塔城地区志 Annals of Tacheng Prefecture in Chinese Urumqi Xinjiang People s Publishing House p 154 ISBN 7 228 03947 5 阿勒泰地区地方志编纂委员会 Annals Codification Committee of Altay Prefecture ed 2004 阿勒泰地区志 Annals of Altay Prefecture in Chinese Urumqi Xinjiang People s Publishing House p 158 ISBN 7 228 08710 0 新疆维吾尔自治区人口普查办公室 Office for the Population Census of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region ed 2002 新疆维吾尔自治区2000年人口普查资料 Tabulation on the 2000 Population Census of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region in Chinese Urumqi Xinjiang People s Publishing House pp 46 50 ISBN 7 228 07554 4 新疆维吾尔自治区人民政府人口普查领导小组办公室 Office for the Population Census of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region ed 2012 新疆维吾尔自治区2010年人口普查资料 Tabulation on the 2010 Population Census of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region in Chinese Beijing China Statistics Press pp 38 39 ISBN 978 7 5037 6516 2 Yao YG Kong QP Wang CY Zhu CL Zhang YP December 2004 Different matrilineal contributions to genetic structure of ethnic groups in the silk road region in China Mol Biol Evol 21 12 2265 80 doi 10 1093 molbev msh238 PMID 15317881 a b Xu Shuhua Jin Li 12 September 2008 A Genome wide Analysis of Admixture in Uyghurs and a High Density Admixture Map for Disease Gene Discovery American Journal of Human Genetics 83 3 322 336 doi 10 1016 j ajhg 2008 08 001 PMC 2556439 PMID 18760393 Xue Yali Zerjal Tatiana Bao Weidong Zhu Suling Shu Qunfang Xu Jiujin Du Ruofu Fu Songbin Li Pu Hurles Matthew E Yang Huanming Tyler Smith Chris April 2006 Male Demography in East Asia A North South Contrast in Human Population Expansion Times Genetics 172 4 2431 2439 doi 10 1534 genetics 105 054270 PMC 1456369 PMID 16489223 Xu S Huang W Qian J Jin L April 2008 Analysis of genomic admixture in Uyghur and its implication in mapping strategy American Journal of Human Genetics 82 4 883 94 doi 10 1016 j ajhg 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Mallory J P 2015 The problem of Tocharian origins an archaeological perspective PDF Sino Platonic Papers 259 273 a b Robbeets 2017 pp 216 218 sfn error no target CITEREFRobbeets2017 help Robbeets 2020 sfn error no target CITEREFRobbeets2020 help Nelson et al 2020 sfn error no target CITEREFNelson et al 2020 help Li et al 2020 sfn error no target CITEREFLi et al 2020 help Uchiyama et al 2020 sfn error no target CITEREFUchiyama et al 2020 help Damgaard et al 2018 pp 4 5harvnb error no target CITEREFDamgaard et al 2018 help These results suggest that Turkic cultural customs were imposed by an East Asian minority elite onto central steppe nomad populations The wide distribution of the Turkic languages from Northwest China Mongolia and Siberia in the east to Turkey and Bulgaria in the west implies large scale migrations out of the homeland in Mongolia Lee amp Kuang 2017 p 197harvnb error no target CITEREFLeeKuang2017 help Both Chinese histories and modern dna studies indicate that the early 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