fbpx
Wikipedia

Chinese Civil War

The Chinese Civil War was fought between the Kuomintang-led government of the Republic of China and forces of the Chinese Communist Party, armed conflict continuing intermittently from 1 August 1927 until 7 December 1949, and ending with Communist control of mainland China.

Chinese Civil War
Part of the interwar period, the Cold War (from 1947) and the Cross-Strait conflict (from 1949)

Clockwise from top: communist troops at the Battle of Siping; Muslim soldiers of the NRA; Mao Zedong in the 1930s; Chiang Kai-shek inspecting soldiers; CCP general Su Yu inspecting the troops shortly before the Menglianggu campaign
Date
Location
Mainland China (including Hainan) and its coast, China–Burma border
Result

Communist victory on the mainland and then diplomatic field in 1971, Taiwan Strait stalemate.

Territorial
changes
  • Chinese Communist Party control of Mainland China, including Hainan
  • People's Republic of China established in Mainland China
  • Government of the Republic of China evacuated to the island of Taiwan
  • Belligerents

    1927–1937:
    Republic of China

    1927–1937:
    Chinese Communist Party

    Fujian People's Government (1933–1934)

    Supported by:

    1946–1949:
    Republic of China

    Supported by:

    1946–1949:
    Chinese Communist Party

    Supported by:

    1949–present:
    Republic of China

    Supported by:

    1949–present:
    People's Republic of China

    Supported by:
    Commanders and leaders
    Chiang Kai-shek
    (Director-General of the Kuomintang)
    Mao Zedong
    (Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party)
    Strength
    2 million (regular)
    2.3 million (militia) (June 1946)[2][3][4]
    1.2 million (regular)
    2.6 million (militia) (July 1945)[3][5]
    Casualties and losses
    c. 1.5 million (1948–1949)[6][4] 260,000 killed
    190,000 missing
    850,000 wounded (1945–1949)[7][6]
    • Above one estimate 1945–1949 set for combatants, with overall up to 6 million (including civilians)[6]
    • Early phase, 1928–1937: c. 7 million (including civilians)[8]
    • Concluding phase, 1945–1949: c. 2.5 million (including civilians)[9]
    Chinese Civil War
    Traditional Chinese國共內戰
    Simplified Chinese国共内战
    Literal meaningKuomintang-Communist Civil War
    Transcriptions
    Standard Mandarin
    Hanyu PinyinGuó-Gòng Nèizhàn
    Wu
    Romanizationkoh-gon-ne-tsoe
    Yue: Cantonese
    Jyutpinggwok3 gung6 noi6 zin3
    Southern Min
    Hokkien POJkok-kiōng lāi-chiàn

    The war is generally divided into two phases with an interlude: from August 1927 to 1937, the KMT-CCP Alliance collapsed during the Northern Expedition, and the Nationalists controlled most of China. From 1937 to 1945, hostilities were mostly put on hold as the Second United Front fought the Japanese invasion of China with eventual help from the Allies of World War II, but even then co-operation between the KMT and CCP was minimal and armed clashes between them were common. Exacerbating the divisions within China further was that a puppet government, sponsored by Japan and nominally led by Wang Jingwei, was set up to nominally govern the parts of China under Japanese occupation.

    The civil war resumed as soon as it became apparent that the Japanese defeat was imminent, and the CCP gained the upper hand in the second phase of the war from 1945 to 1949, generally referred to as the Chinese Communist Revolution.

    The Communists gained control of mainland China and established the People's Republic of China in 1949, forcing the leadership of the Republic of China to retreat to the island of Taiwan.[10] Starting in the 1950s, a lasting political and military standoff between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait has ensued, with the ROC in Taiwan and the PRC in mainland China both officially claiming to be the legitimate government of all China. After the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis, both tacitly ceased fire in 1979; however, no armistice or peace treaty has ever been signed.[11]

    Background

    Following the collapse of the Qing dynasty and the 1911 Revolution, Sun Yat-sen assumed the presidency of the newly formed Republic of China, and was shortly thereafter succeeded by Yuan Shikai.[12][page needed] Yuan was frustrated in a short-lived attempt to restore monarchy in China, and China fell into power struggle after his death in 1916.

    The Kuomintang (KMT), led by Sun Yat-sen, created a new government in Guangzhou to rival the warlords who ruled over large swathes of China and prevented the formation of a solid central government.[13] After Sun's efforts to obtain aid from Western countries were ignored, he turned to the Soviet Union. In 1923, Sun and Soviet representative Adolph Joffe in Shanghai pledged Soviet assistance to China's unification in the Sun–Joffe Manifesto, a declaration of cooperation among the Comintern, KMT, and CCP.[14] Comintern agent Mikhail Borodin arrived in 1923 to aid in the reorganization and consolidation of both the CCP and the KMT along the lines of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The CCP, which was initially a study group, and the KMT jointly formed the First United Front.[13][14]

    In 1923, Sun sent Chiang Kai-shek, one of his lieutenants, for several months of military and political study in Moscow.[15] Chiang then became the head of the Whampoa Military Academy that trained the next generation of military leaders. The Soviets provided the academy with teaching material, organization, and equipment, including munitions.[15] They also provided education in many of the techniques for mass mobilization. With this aid, Sun raised a dedicated "army of the party," with which he hoped to defeat the warlords militarily. CCP members were also present in the academy, and many of them became instructors, including Zhou Enlai, who was made a political instructor.[16]

    Communist members were allowed to join the KMT on an individual basis.[14] The CCP itself was still small at the time, having a membership of 300 in 1922 and only 1,500 by 1925.[17] As of 1923, the KMT had 50,000 members.[17]

    However, after Sun died in 1925, the KMT split into left- and right-wing movements. KMT members worried that the Soviets were trying to destroy the KMT from inside using the CCP. The CCP then began movements in opposition of the Northern Expedition, passing a resolution against it at a party meeting.

    Then, in March 1927, the KMT held its second party meeting where the Soviets helped pass resolutions against the Expedition and curbing Chiang's power. Soon, the KMT would be clearly divided.

    Throughout this time the Soviet Union sent money and spies to support the Chinese Communist Party. Without their support, the communist party likely would have failed. This is evidenced by documents showing of other communist parties in China at the time, one with as many as 10,000 members, but which all failed without support from the Soviet Union.[18]

    Shanghai Massacre and Northern Expedition

    In early 1927, the KMT-CCP rivalry led to a split in the revolutionary ranks. The CCP and the left wing of the KMT decided to move the seat of the KMT government from Guangzhou to Wuhan, where communist influence was strong.[17] However, Chiang and Li Zongren, whose armies defeated the warlord Sun Chuanfang, moved eastward toward Jiangxi. The leftists rejected Chiang's demand to eliminate Communist influence within KMT and Chiang denounced them for betraying Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People by taking orders from the Soviet Union. According to Mao Zedong, Chiang's tolerance of the CCP in the KMT camp decreased as his power increased.[19]

    On 7 April, Chiang and several other KMT leaders held a meeting, during which they proposed that Communist activities were socially and economically disruptive and had to be undone for the Nationalist revolution to proceed. On 12 April, in Shanghai, many Communist members in the KMT were purged[13] through hundreds of arrests and executions[20] on the orders of General Bai Chongxi. The CCP referred to this as the 12 April Incident, the White Terror or Shanghai Massacre.[21] This incident widened the rift between Chiang and Wang Jingwei, the leader of the left wing faction of the KMT who controlled the city of Wuhan.

    Eventually, the left wing of the KMT also expelled CCP members from the Wuhan government, which in turn was toppled by Chiang Kai-shek. The KMT resumed its campaign against warlords and captured Beijing in June 1928.[22] Soon, most of eastern China was under the control of the Nanjing central government, which received prompt international recognition as the sole legitimate government of China. The KMT government announced, in conformity with Sun Yat-sen, the formula for the three stages of revolution: military unification, political tutelage, and constitutional democracy.[23]

    Communist insurgency (1927–1937)

    Communist insurgency (1927–1937)
    Second National Revolutionary War (Mainland China)
    Traditional Chinese第二次國內革命戰爭
    Simplified Chinese第二次国内革命战争
    Transcriptions
    Standard Mandarin
    Hanyu PinyinDìèrcì Guónèi Gémìng Zhànzhēng

    On 1 August 1927, the Communist Party launched an uprising in Nanchang against the Nationalist government in Wuhan. This conflict led to the creation of the Red Army.[1][24] On 4 August, the main forces of the Red Army left Nanchang and headed southwards for an assault on Guangdong. Nationalist forces quickly reoccupied Nanchang while the remaining members of the CCP in Nanchang went into hiding.[1] A CCP meeting on 7 August confirmed the objective of the party was to seize the political power by force, but the CCP was quickly suppressed the next day on 8 August by the Nationalist government in Wuhan led by Wang Jingwei. On 14 August, Chiang Kai-shek announced his temporary retirement, as the Wuhan faction and Nanjing faction of the Kuomintang were allied once again with common goal of suppressing the Communist Party after the earlier split.[citation needed]

    Attempts were later made by the CCP to take the cities of Changsha, Shantou and Guangzhou. The Red Army consisting of mutinous former National Revolutionary Army (NRA) soldiers as well as armed peasants established control over several areas in southern China.[24] KMT forces continued to attempt to suppress the rebellions.[24] Then, in September, Wang Jingwei was forced out of Wuhan. September also saw an unsuccessful armed rural insurrection, known as the Autumn Harvest Uprising, led by Mao Zedong.[25] Borodin then returned to the USSR in October via Mongolia. In November, Chiang Kai-shek went to Shanghai and invited Wang to join him. On 11 December, the CCP started the Guangzhou Uprising, establishing a soviet there the next day, but lost the city by 13 December to a counter-attack under the orders of General Zhang Fakui. On 16 December, Wang Jingwei fled to France. There were now three capitals in China: the internationally recognized republic capital in Beijing, the CCP and left-wing KMT at Wuhan and the right-wing KMT regime at Nanjing, which would remain the KMT capital for the next decade.[26][27]

    This marked the beginning of a ten-year armed struggle, known in mainland China as the "Ten-Year Civil War" (十年内战) which ended with the Xi'an Incident when Chiang Kai-shek was forced to form the Second United Front against invading forces from the Empire of Japan. In 1930 the Central Plains War broke out as an internal conflict of the KMT. It was launched by Feng Yuxiang, Yan Xishan and Wang Jingwei. The attention was turned to root out remaining pockets of Communist activity in a series of five encirclement campaigns.[28] The first and second campaigns failed and the third was aborted due to the Mukden Incident. The fourth campaign (1932–1933) achieved some early successes, but Chiang's armies were badly mauled when they tried to penetrate into the heart of Mao's Soviet Chinese Republic. During these campaigns, KMT columns struck swiftly into Communist areas, but were easily engulfed by the vast countryside and were not able to consolidate their foothold.

    Finally, in late 1934, Chiang launched a fifth campaign that involved the systematic encirclement of the Jiangxi Soviet region with fortified blockhouses.[29] The blockhouse strategy was devised and implemented in part by newly hired Nazi advisors.[30] Unlike previous campaigns in which they penetrated deeply in a single strike, this time the KMT troops patiently built blockhouses, each separated by about eight kilometres (five miles), to surround the Communist areas and cut off their supplies and food sources.[29]

    In October 1934 the CCP took advantage of gaps in the ring of blockhouses (manned by the forces of a warlord ally of Chiang Kai-shek's, rather than regular KMT troops) and broke out of the encirclement. The warlord armies were reluctant to challenge Communist forces for fear of losing their own men and did not pursue the CCP with much fervor. In addition, the main KMT forces were preoccupied with annihilating Zhang Guotao's army, which was much larger than Mao's. The massive military retreat of Communist forces lasted a year and covered what Mao estimated as 12,500 km (25,000 Li); it became known as the Long March.[31]

    This military retreat was undertaken by the Chinese Communist Party, led by Mao Zedong, to evade the pursuit or attack of the Kuomintang army. It consisted of a series of marches, during which numerous Communist armies in the south escaped to the north and west. Over the course of the march from Jiangxi the First Front Army, led by an inexperienced military commission, was on the brink of annihilation by Chiang Kai-Shek's troops as their stronghold was in Jiangxi. The Communists, under the command of Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, "escaped in a circling retreat to the west and north, which reportedly traversed over 9,000 kilometers over 370 days." The route passed through some of the most difficult terrain of western China by traveling west, and then northwards towards Shaanxi. "In November 1935, shortly after settling in northern Shaanxi, Mao officially took over Zhou Enlai's leading position in the Red Army. Following a major reshuffling of official roles, Mao became the chairman of the Military Commission, with Zhou and Deng Xiaoping as vice-chairmen." This marked Mao's position as the pre-eminent leader of the Party, with Zhou in second position to him.[citation needed]

    The march ended when the CCP reached the interior of Shaanxi. Zhang Guotao's army, which took a different route through northwest China, was largely destroyed by the forces of Chiang Kai-shek and his Chinese Muslim allies, the Ma clique. Along the way, the Communist army confiscated property and weapons from local warlords and landlords, while recruiting peasants and the poor, solidifying its appeal to the masses. Of the 90,000–100,000 people who began the Long March from the Soviet Chinese Republic, only around 7,000–8,000 made it to Shaanxi.[32] The remnants of Zhang's forces eventually joined Mao in Shaanxi, but with his army destroyed, Zhang, even as a founding member of the CCP, was never able to challenge Mao's authority. Essentially, the great retreat made Mao the undisputed leader of the Chinese Communist Party.

    The Kuomintang used Khampa troops—who were former bandits—to battle the Communist Red Army as it advanced and to undermine local warlords who often refused to fight Communist forces to conserve their own strength. The KMT enlisted 300 "Khampa bandits" into its Consolatory Commission military in Sichuan, where they were part of the effort of the central government to penetrate and destabilize local Han warlords such as Liu Wenhui. The government was seeking to exert full control over frontier areas against the warlords. Liu had refused to battle the Communists in order to conserve his army. The Consolatory Commission forces were used to battle the Red Army, but they were defeated when their religious leader was captured by the Communists.[33]

    In 1936, Zhou Enlai and Zhang Xueliang grew closer, with Zhou even suggesting that he join the CCP. However, this was turned down by the Comintern in the USSR. Later on, Zhou persuaded Zhang and Yang Hucheng, another warlord, to instigate the Xi'an Incident. Chiang was placed under house arrest and forced to stop his attacks on the Red Army, instead focusing on the Japanese threat.

    Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)

     
    The leaders of the Chinese Communist Party (L-R) Zhou Enlai, Mao Zedong, and Zhu De

    During Japan's invasion and occupation of Manchuria, Chiang Kai-shek saw the CCP as the greater threat. Chiang refused to ally with the CCP, preferring to unite China by eliminating the warlord and CCP forces first. He believed his forces were too weak to face the Japanese Imperial Army; only after unification could the KMT mobilize against Japan. He ignored the Chinese people's discontent and anger at the KMT policy of compromise with the Japanese, instead ordering KMT generals Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng to suppress the CCP. However, their provincial forces suffered significant casualties in battles with the Red Army.[34]

    On 12 December 1936, the disgruntled Zhang and Yang conspired to kidnap Chiang and force him into a truce with the CCP. The incident became known as the Xi'an Incident.[35] Both parties suspended fighting to form a Second United Front to focus their energies and fight the Japanese.[35] In 1937, Japan launched its full-scale invasion of China and its well-equipped troops overran KMT defenders in northern and coastal China.

    The alliance of CCP and KMT was in name only.[36] Unlike the KMT forces, CCP troops shunned conventional warfare and instead waged guerrilla warfare against the Japanese. The level of actual cooperation and coordination between the CCP and KMT during World War II was minimal.[36] In the midst of the Second United Front, the CCP and the KMT were still vying for territorial advantage in "Free China" (i.e., areas not occupied by the Japanese or ruled by Japanese puppet governments such as Manchukuo and the Reorganized National Government of China).[36]

    The situation came to a head in late 1940 and early 1941 when clashes between Communist and KMT forces intensified. Chiang demanded in December 1940 that the CCP's New Fourth Army evacuate Anhui and Jiangsu Provinces, due to its provocation and harassment of KMT forces in this area. Under intense pressure, the New Fourth Army commanders complied. The following year they were ambushed by KMT forces during their evacuation, which led to several thousand deaths.[37] It also ended the Second United Front, formed earlier to fight the Japanese.[37]

    As clashes between the CCP and KMT intensified, countries such as the United States and the Soviet Union attempted to prevent a disastrous civil war. After the New Fourth Army incident, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt sent special envoy Lauchlin Currie to talk with Chiang Kai-shek and KMT party leaders to express their concern regarding the hostility between the two parties, with Currie stating that the only ones to benefit from a civil war would be the Japanese. The Soviet Union, allied more closely with the CCP, sent an imperative telegram to Mao in 1941, warning that civil war would also make the situation easier for the Japanese military. Due to the international community's efforts, there was a temporary and superficial peace. Chiang criticized the CCP in 1943 with the propaganda piece China's Destiny, which questioned the CCP's power after the war, while the CCP strongly opposed Chiang's leadership and referred to his regime as fascist in an attempt to generate a negative public image. Both leaders knew that a deadly battle had begun between themselves.[38]

    In general, developments in the Second Sino-Japanese War were to the advantage of the CCP, as its guerrilla war tactics had won them popular support within the Japanese-occupied areas. However, the KMT had to defend the country against the main Japanese campaigns, since it was the legal Chinese government, a factor which proved costly to Chiang Kai-shek and his troops. Japan launched its last major offensive against the KMT, Operation Ichi-Go, in 1944, which resulted in the severe weakening of Chiang's forces.[39] The CCP also suffered fewer losses through its guerrilla tactics. By the end of the war, the Red Army had grown to more than 1.3 million members, with a separate militia of over 2.6 million. About one hundred million people lived in CCP-controlled zones.

    Immediate post-war clashes (1945–1946)

     
    Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong met in Chongqing in 1945.

    Under the terms of the Japanese unconditional surrender dictated by the Allies, Japanese troops were to surrender to KMT troops but not to the CCP, which was present in some of the occupied areas.[40] In Manchuria, however, where the KMT had no forces, the Japanese surrendered to the Soviet Union. Chiang Kai-shek reminded Japanese troops to remain at their posts to receive the KMT, but Communist forces soon began taking surrenders from the Japanese and fighting those who resisted.[40] General Wedemeyer of the United States Army became alarmed at these developments and wanted seven American divisions to be sent to China, but General Marshall replied that it should not be given priority over Japan and Korea.[41]

    The first post-war peace negotiation, attended by both Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong, was in Chongqing from 28 August to 10 October 1945. Chiang entered the meeting at an advantage because he had recently signed a friendly treaty with the Soviet Union while the Communists were still forcing the Japanese to surrender in some places. Mao was accompanied by American ambassador Patrick J. Hurley, who was devoted to Chiang but also wanted to ensure Mao's safety in light of the past history between the two Chinese leaders.[42] It concluded with the signing of the Double Tenth Agreement.[43] Both sides stressed the importance of a peaceful reconstruction, but the conference did not produce any concrete results.[43] Battles between the two sides continued even as peace negotiations were in progress, until the agreement was reached in January 1946. However, large campaigns and full-scale confrontations between the CCP and Chiang's troops were temporarily avoided.

     
    Shangdang Campaign, September–October 1945

    In the last month of World War II in East Asia, Soviet forces launched the huge Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation against the Japanese Kwantung Army in Manchuria and along the Chinese-Mongolian border.[44] This operation destroyed the Kwantung Army in just three weeks and left the USSR occupying all of Manchuria by the end of the war in a total power vacuum of local Chinese forces. Consequently, the 700,000 Japanese troops stationed in the region surrendered. Later in the year Chiang Kai-shek realized that he lacked the resources to prevent a CCP takeover of Manchuria following the scheduled Soviet departure.[45] He therefore made a deal with the Soviets to delay their withdrawal until he had moved enough of his best-trained men and modern material into the region. However, the Soviets refused permission for the Nationalist troops to traverse its territory and spent the extra time systematically dismantling the extensive Manchurian industrial base (worth up to $2 billion) and shipping it back to their war-ravaged country.[45] KMT troops were then airlifted by the US to occupy key cities in North China, while the countryside was already dominated by the CCP. On 15 November 1945, the KMT began a campaign to prevent the CCP from strengthening its already strong base.[46] At the same time, however, the return of the KMT also brought widespread graft and corruption, with an OSS officer remarking that the only winners were the Communists.[47]

    In the winter of 1945–46, Joseph Stalin commanded Marshal Rodion Malinovsky to give Mao Zedong most Imperial Japanese Army weapons that were captured.[48]

    Chiang Kai-shek's forces pushed as far as Chinchow (Jinzhou) by 26 November 1945, meeting with little resistance. This was followed by a Communist offensive on the Shandong Peninsula that was largely successful, as all of the peninsula, except what was controlled by the US, fell to the Communists.[46] The truce fell apart in June 1946 when full-scale war between CCP and KMT forces broke out on 26 June 1946. China then entered a state of civil war that lasted more than three years.[49]

    Resumed fighting (1946–1949)

    Background and disposition of forces

    Resumed fighting (1946–1949)
    Third National Revolutionary War (Mainland China)
    Traditional Chinese第三次國內革命戰爭
    Simplified Chinese第三次国内革命战争
    Transcriptions
    Standard Mandarin
    Hanyu PinyinDìsāncì Guónèi Gémìng Zhànzhēng
    War of Liberation (mainland China)
    Traditional Chinese解放戰爭
    Simplified Chinese解放战争
    Transcriptions
    Standard Mandarin
    Hanyu PinyinJiěfàng Zhànzhēng
    Wu
    Romanizationchia-fhon-tsan-zen
    Yue: Cantonese
    Jyutpinggaai2 fong3 zin3 zang1
    Southern Min
    Hokkien POJkái-hòng chiàn-cheng
    Anti-Communist Counter-insurgency War (Taiwan)
    Traditional Chinese反共戡亂戰爭
    Simplified Chinese反共戡乱战争
    Transcriptions
    Standard Mandarin
    Hanyu PinyinFǎngòng Kānluàn Zhànzhēng
    Chinese People's Liberation War (mainland China)
    Traditional Chinese中國人民解放戰爭
    Simplified Chinese中国人民解放战争
    Transcriptions
    Standard Mandarin
    Hanyu PinyinZhōngguó Rénmín Jiěfàng Zhànzhēng

    By the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the power of the Communist Party grew considerably. Their main force grew to 1.2 million troops, backed with additional militia of 2 million, totalling 3.2 million troops. Their "Liberated Zone" in 1945 contained 19 base areas, including one-quarter of the country's territory and one-third of its population; this included many important towns and cities. Moreover, the Soviet Union turned over all of its captured Japanese weapons and a substantial amount of their own supplies to the Communists, who received Northeastern China from the Soviets as well.[50]

    In March 1946, despite repeated requests from Chiang, the Soviet Red Army under the command of Marshal Rodion Malinovsky continued to delay pulling out of Manchuria, while Malinovsky secretly told the CCP forces to move in behind them, which led to full-scale war for the control of the Northeast. These favorable conditions also facilitated many changes inside the Communist leadership: the more radical hard-line faction who wanted a complete military take-over of China finally gained the upper hand and defeated the careful opportunists.[51] Before giving control to Communist leaders, on 27 March Soviet diplomats requested a joint venture of industrial development with the Nationalist Party in Manchuria.[52]

    Although General Marshall stated that he knew of no evidence that the CCP was being supplied by the Soviet Union, the CCP was able to utilize a large number of weapons abandoned by the Japanese, including some tanks. When large numbers of well-trained KMT troops began to defect to the Communist forces, the CCP was finally able to achieve material superiority.[53][54] The CCP's ultimate trump card was its land reform policy. This drew the massive number of landless and starving peasants in the countryside into the Communist cause.[55] This strategy enabled the CCP to access an almost unlimited supply of manpower for both combat and logistical purposes; despite suffering heavy casualties throughout many of the war's campaigns, manpower continued to grow. For example, during the Huaihai Campaign alone the CCP was able to mobilize 5,430,000 peasants to fight against the KMT forces.[56]

     
    Nationalist warplanes being prepared for an air raid on Communist bases

    After the war with the Japanese ended, Chiang Kai-shek quickly moved KMT troops to newly liberated areas to prevent Communist forces from receiving the Japanese surrender.[50] The US airlifted many KMT troops from central China to the Northeast (Manchuria). President Harry S. Truman was very clear about what he described as "using the Japanese to hold off the Communists." In his memoirs he writes:

    It was perfectly clear to us that if we told the Japanese to lay down their arms immediately and march to the seaboard, the entire country would be taken over by the Communists. We therefore had to take the unusual step of using the enemy as a garrison until we could airlift Chinese National troops to South China and send Marines to guard the seaports.

    — President Truman[57]

    Using the pretext of "receiving the Japanese surrender," business interests within the KMT government occupied most of the banks, factories and commercial properties, which had previously been seized by the Imperial Japanese Army.[50] They also conscripted troops at an accelerated pace from the civilian population and hoarded supplies, preparing for a resumption of war with the Communists. These hasty and harsh preparations caused great hardship for the residents of cities such as Shanghai, where the unemployment rate rose dramatically to 37.5%.[50]

    The US strongly supported the Kuomintang forces. About 50,000 US soldiers were sent to guard strategic sites in Hebei and Shandong in Operation Beleaguer. The US equipped and trained KMT troops, and transported Japanese and Koreans back to help KMT forces to occupy liberated zones as well as to contain Communist-controlled areas.[50] According to William Blum, American aid included substantial amounts of mostly surplus military supplies, and loans were made to the KMT.[58] Within less than two years after the Sino-Japanese War, the KMT had received $4.43 billion from the US—most of which was military aid.[50]

    Outbreak of war

    As postwar negotiations between the Nationalist government in Nanjing and the Communist Party failed, the civil war between these two parties resumed. This stage of war is referred to in mainland China and Communist historiography as the "War of Liberation" (Chinese: 解放战争; pinyin: Jiěfàng Zhànzhēng). On 20 July 1946, Chiang Kai-shek launched a large-scale assault on Communist territory in North China with 113 brigades (a total of 1.6 million troops).[50] This marked the first stage of the final phase in the Chinese Civil War.

    Knowing their disadvantages in manpower and equipment, the CCP executed a "passive defense" strategy. It avoided the strong points of the KMT army and was prepared to abandon territory in order to preserve its forces. In most cases the surrounding countryside and small towns had come under Communist influence long before the cities. The CCP also attempted to wear out the KMT forces as much as possible. This tactic seemed to be successful; after a year, the power balance became more favorable to the CCP. They wiped out 1.12 million KMT troops, while their strength grew to about two million men.[50]

     
    The PLA enters Beiping (today's Beijing) in the Pingjin Campaign.

    In March 1947 the KMT achieved a symbolic victory by seizing the CCP capital of Yan'an.[59] The Communists counterattacked soon afterwards; on 30 June 1947 CCP troops crossed the Yellow River and moved to the Dabie Mountains area, restored and developed the Central Plain. At the same time, Communist forces also began to counterattack in Northeastern China, North China and East China.[50]

    By late 1948, the CCP eventually captured the northern cities of Shenyang and Changchun and seized control of the Northeast after suffering numerous setbacks while trying to take the cities, with the decisive Liaoshen Campaign.[60] The New 1st Army, regarded as the best KMT army, was forced to surrender after the CCP conducted a brutal six-month siege of Changchun that resulted in more than 150,000 civilian deaths from starvation.[61]

     

    The capture of large KMT units provided the CCP with the tanks, heavy artillery and other combined-arms assets needed to execute offensive operations south of the Great Wall. By April 1948 the city of Luoyang fell, cutting the KMT army off from Xi'an.[62] Following a fierce battle, the CCP captured Jinan and Shandong province on 24 September 1948. The Huaihai Campaign of late 1948 and early 1949 secured east-central China for the CCP.[60] The outcome of these encounters were decisive for the military outcome of the civil war.[60]

    The Pingjin Campaign resulted in the Communist conquest of northern China. It lasted 64 days, from 21 November 1948 to 31 January 1949.[63] The PLA suffered heavy casualties while securing Zhangjiakou, Tianjin along with its port and garrison at Dagu and Beiping.[63] The CCP brought 890,000 troops from the northeast to oppose some 600,000 KMT troops.[62] There were 40,000 CCP casualties at Zhangjiakou alone. They in turn killed, wounded or captured some 520,000 KMT during the campaign.[63]

     
    The Nationalists' retreat to Taipei: after the Nationalists lost Nanjing (Nanking) they next moved to Guangzhou (Canton), then to Chongqing (Chungking), Chengdu (Chengtu) and finally, Xichang (Sichang) before arriving Taipei in 1949.

    After achieving decisive victory at Liaoshen, Huaihai and Pingjin campaigns, the CCP destroyed 144 regular and 29 irregular KMT divisions, including 1.54 million veteran KMT troops, which significantly reduced the strength of Nationalist forces.[50] Stalin initially favored a coalition government in postwar China, and tried to persuade Mao to stop the CCP from crossing the Yangtze and attacking the KMT positions south of the river.[64] Mao rejected Stalin's position and on 21 April, and began the Yangtze River Crossing Campaign. On 23 April they captured the KMT's capital, Nanjing.[31] The KMT government retreated to Canton (Guangzhou) until 15 October, Chongqing until 25 November, and then Chengdu before retreating to Taiwan on 7 December. By late 1949 the People's Liberation Army was pursuing remnants of KMT forces southwards in southern China, and only Tibet was left. A Chinese Muslim Hui cavalry regiment, the 14th Tungan Cavalry, was sent by the Chinese government to attack Mongol and Soviet positions along the border during the Pei-ta-shan Incident.[65][66]

    The Kuomintang made several last-ditch attempts to use Khampa troops against the Communists in southwest China. The Kuomintang formulated a plan in which three Khampa divisions would be assisted by the Panchen Lama to oppose the Communists.[67] Kuomintang intelligence reported that some Tibetan tusi chiefs and the Khampa Su Yonghe controlled 80,000 troops in Sichuan, Qinghai and Tibet. They hoped to use them against the Communist army.[68]

    Pushing south

     
    Mao Zedong's proclamation of the founding of the People's Republic in 1949

    On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the founding of the People's Republic of China with its capital at Beiping, which was returned to the former name Beijing. Chiang Kai-shek and approximately two million Nationalist soldiers retreated from mainland China to the island of Taiwan in December after the PLA advanced into the Sichuan province. Isolated Nationalist pockets of resistance remained in the area, but the majority of the resistance collapsed after the fall of Chengdu on 10 December 1949, with some resistance continuing in the far south.[69]

     
    Communist conquest of Hainan Island in mid 1950

    A PRC attempt to take the ROC-controlled island of Quemoy was thwarted in the Battle of Kuningtou, halting the PLA advance towards Taiwan.[70] In December 1949, Chiang proclaimed Taipei the temporary capital of the Republic of China and continued to assert his government as the sole legitimate authority in China.

    The Communists' other amphibious operations of 1950 were more successful: they led to the Communist conquest of Hainan Island in April 1950, capture of Wanshan Islands off the Guangdong coast (May–August 1950), Zhoushan Island off Zhejiang (May 1950).[71]

    Aftermath and unsolved issues (1949–present)

     
    Map of the Chinese Civil War (1946–1949, and 1950)

    Most observers expected Chiang's government to eventually fall to the imminent invasion of Taiwan by the People's Liberation Army, and the US was initially reluctant in offering full support for Chiang in their final stand. US President Harry S. Truman announced on 5 January 1950 that the United States would not engage in any dispute involving the Taiwan Strait, and that he would not intervene in the event of an attack by the PRC.[72] Truman, seeking to exploit the possibility of a Titoist-style Sino-Soviet split, announced in his United States Policy toward Formosa that the US would obey the Cairo Declaration's designation of Taiwan as Chinese territory and would not assist the Nationalists. However, the Communist leadership was not aware of this change of policy, instead becoming increasingly hostile to the US.[73] The situation quickly changed after the sudden onset of the Korean War in June 1950. This led to changing political climate in the US, and President Truman ordered the United States Seventh Fleet to sail to the Taiwan Strait as part of the containment policy against potential Communist advance.[74]

     
    "Forget not that you are in "--a rock in Quemoy Island with Chiang Kai-shek's calligraphy signifying the retaking of one's homeland

    In June 1949 the ROC declared a "closure" of all mainland China ports and its navy attempted to intercept all foreign ships. The closure was from a point north of the mouth of Min River in Fujian to the mouth of the Liao River in Liaoning.[75] Since mainland China's railroad network was underdeveloped, north–south trade depended heavily on sea lanes. ROC naval activity also caused severe hardship for mainland China fishermen.

    During the retreat of the Republic of China to Taiwan, KMT troops, who couldn't retreat to Taiwan, were left behind and allied with local bandits to fight a guerrilla war against the Communists. These KMT remnants were eliminated in the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries and the Campaigns to Suppress Bandits.[76] According to official statistics from the CCP in 1954, during the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries, at least 2.6 million people were arrested, some 1.29 million people were imprisoned, and 712,000 people were executed.[77] Most of those killed were former Kuomintang officials, businessmen, former employees of Western companies and intellectuals whose loyalty was suspect.[78]

    Winning China proper in 1950, also after Annexation of Tibet, the CCP controlled the entire mainland in late 1951 (excluding Kinmen and Matsu Islands). But a group of approximately 3,000 KMT Central soldiers retreated to Burma and continued launching guerrilla attacks into south China during the Kuomintang Islamic Insurgency in China (1950–1958) and Campaign at the China–Burma Border. Their leader, Li Mi, was paid a salary by the ROC government and given the nominal title of Governor of Yunnan. Initially, the US-supported these remnants and the Central Intelligence Agency provided them with military aid. After the Burmese government appealed to the United Nations in 1953, the US began pressuring the ROC to withdraw its loyalists. By the end of 1954 nearly 6,000 soldiers had left Burma and Li declared his army disbanded. However, thousands remained, and the ROC continued to supply and command them, even secretly supplying reinforcements at times to maintain a base close to China.

    After the ROC complained to the United Nations against the Soviet Union for violating the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance to support the CCP, the UN General Assembly Resolution 505 was adopted on 1 February 1952, condemning the Soviet Union.

    In the end, the Communist military forces suffered 1.3 million combat casualties in the 1945–1949 phase of the war: 260,000 killed, 190,000 missing, and 850,000 wounded, discounting irregulars. Nationalist casualties in the same phase were recorded after the war by the PRC 5,452,700 regulars and 2,258,800 irregulars.[7]

     
    Monument in memory of the crossing of the Yangtze in Nanjing

    Taiwan Strait Tensions

    Though viewed as a military liability by the US, the ROC viewed its remaining islands in Fujian as vital for any future campaign to defeat the PRC and retake mainland China. On 3 September 1954, the First Taiwan Strait Crisis began when the PLA started shelling Kinmen and threatened to take the Dachen Islands in Zhejiang.[75] On 20 January 1955, the PLA took nearby Yijiangshan Island, with the entire ROC garrison of 720 troops killed or wounded defending the island. On 24 January of the same year, the United States Congress passed the Formosa Resolution authorizing the President to defend the ROC's offshore islands.[75] The First Taiwan Straits crisis ended in March 1955 when the PLA ceased its bombardment. The crisis was brought to a close during the Bandung conference.[75]

    The Second Taiwan Strait Crisis began on 23 August 1958 with air and naval engagements between PRC and ROC forces, leading to intense artillery bombardment of Quemoy (by the PRC) and Amoy (by the ROC), and ended on November of the same year.[75] PLA patrol boats blockaded the islands from ROC supply ships. Though the US rejected Chiang Kai-shek's proposal to bomb mainland China artillery batteries, it quickly moved to supply fighter jets and anti-aircraft missiles to the ROC. It also provided amphibious assault ships to land supplies, as a sunken ROC naval vessel was blocking the harbor. On 7 September the US escorted a convoy of ROC supply ships and the PRC refrained from firing.

    The third crisis occurred in 1995–96. The PLA responded to Taiwanese President Lee Teng-hui's visit to the United States, and the U.S. recognition of Lee as a representative of Taiwan with military exercises. PLA actions were also meant to deter Taiwanese voters from supporting Lee in the 1996 election. The U.S. deployed two aircraft carriers in response to the PLA's actions and Lee won the election. The carriers were not attacked and deescalation followed.[79]

    U.S. speaker Nancy Pelosi's visit to Taiwan in August 2022 triggered the PLA to cause military exercises across the Taiwan Strait. She originally intended to travel to Taiwan in April 2022,[80] but was delayed due to COVID-19.[81] She rescheduled the trip to August as part of a wider Asian trip. The White House was reported to have been initially divided over the appropriateness of the trip but later affirmed Pelosi's right to visit Taiwan.[82][83][84][85] As a result, the PLA announced four days of unprecedented military live-fire drills,[86] in six zones that encircle the island on the busiest international waterways and aviation routes.[87] In response to the announcement, ROC officials complained that the PLA's live-fire drills were an invasion of Taiwan's territorial space and a direct challenge to free air and sea navigation.[88]

    Political fallout

     
    Lockheed U-2 wreckage (pilot Chang Liyi) on display at the Museum in Beijing.

    On 25 October 1971, the United Nations General Assembly admitted the PRC and expelled the ROC, which had been a founding member of the United Nations and was one of the five permanent members of the Security Council. Representatives of Chiang Kai-shek refused to recognise their accreditations as representatives of China and left the assembly. Recognition for the People's Republic of China soon followed from most other member nations, including the United States.[89]

    By 1984 PRC and ROC began to de-escalate their hostilities through diplomatic relations with each other, and cross-straits trade and investment has been growing ever since. The state of war was officially declared over by the ROC in 1991.[90] Despite the end of the hostilities, the two sides have never signed any agreement or treaty to officially end the war. According to Mao Zedong, there were three ways of "staving off imperialist intervention in the short term" during the continuation of the Chinese Revolution. The first was through a rapid completion of the military takeover of the country, and through showing determination and strength against "foreign attempts at challenging the new regime along its borders." The second was by "formalising a comprehensive military alliance with the Soviet Union," which would dedicate Soviet power to directly defending China against its enemies; this aspect became extensively significant given the backdrop of the start of the Cold War. And finally the regime had to "root out its domestic opponents : the heads of secret societies, religious sects, independent unions, or tribal and ethnic organisations." By destroying the basis of domestic reaction, Mao believed a safer world for the Chinese revolution to spread in would come into existence.[91]

    Under the new ROC president Lee Teng-hui, the Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion was renounced in May 1991, thus ending the chances of the Kuomintang's quest to retake the mainland. In July 1999, Lee announced a "special diplomatic relationship". China was furious again, but the military drills were stopped by the 921 earthquakes. It was the last tense moment of this civil war.[92]

    With the election in 2000 of Democratic Progressive Party candidate Chen Shui-bian, a party other than the KMT gained the presidency for the first time in Taiwan. The new president did not share the Chinese nationalist ideology of the KMT and CCP. This led to tension between the two sides, although trade and other ties such as the 2005 Pan-Blue visit continued to increase.

    With the election of Pro-mainland President Ma Ying-jeou (KMT) in 2008, significant warming of relations resumed between Taipei and Beijing, with high-level exchanges between the semi-official diplomatic organizations of both states such as the Chen-Chiang summit series. Although the Taiwan Strait remains a potential flash point, regular direct air links were established in 2009.[12][page needed]

    Reasons for the Communist victory

    The historian Rana Mitter concluded that the Nationalist government in 1945 had been "fundamentally destroyed by the war with Japan."[93] Mitter writes that a lack of trust in the Nationalist government developed, as it was increasingly seen as "corrupt, vindictive, and with no overall vision of what China under its rule should look like."[94]

    Historian Odd Arne Westad says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang Kai-shek and also because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened in the war against the Japanese. Meanwhile, the Communists targeted different groups, such as peasants, and brought them to their side.[95]

    Chiang wrote in his diary in June 1948: "After the fall of Kaifeng our conditions worsened and became more serious. I now realized that the main reason our nation has collapsed, time after time throughout our history, was not because of superior power used by our external enemies, but because of disintegration and rot from within."[96]

    The better-trained Communist army was also able to receive support from the USSR, which helped to counter the American aid that the Nationalists received.[94] Chen Yun said: "They did their best to help us, we were backed by the Soviet Union and North Korea."[97][98][99][100]

    Strong American support for the Nationalists was hedged with the failure of the Marshall Mission, and then stopped completely mainly because of KMT corruption[101] (such as the notorious Yangtze Development Corporation controlled by H.H. Kung and T. V. Soong's family)[102][103] and KMT's military setback in Northeast China.

    The main advantage of the Chinese Communist Party was the "extraordinary cohesion" within the top level of its leadership. These skills were not only secured from defections that came about during difficult times but also coupled with "communications and top level debates over tactics." The charismatic style of leadership of Mao Zedong created a "unity of purpose" and a "unity of command" which the KMT lacked. Apart from that the CCP had mastered the manipulation of local politics to their benefit; this was also derived from their propaganda skills that had also been decentralised successfully. By "portraying their opponents as enemies of all groups of Chinese" and itself as "defenders of the nation" and people (given the backdrop of the war with Japan).[104]

    In the Chinese Civil War after 1945, the economy in the ROC areas collapsed because of hyperinflation and the failure of price controls by the ROC government and financial reforms; the Gold Yuan devaluated sharply in late 1948[105] and resulted in the ROC government losing the support of the cities' middle classes. In the meantime, the Communists continued their relentless land reform (land redistribution) programs to win the support of the population in the countryside.

    Historians such as Jay Taylor and Robert Cowley, and Anne W. Carroll argue that the nationalists’ failure was largely caused by external reasons outside of the KMT's control, most notably, the refusal of the Truman administration to support Chiang with the withdrawal of aid, US armed embargo, the failed pursuit of a détente between the nationalists and the communists, and the USSR's consistent support of the CPC in the Chinese Civil War.[106][107][108][109]

    Atrocities

    During the war both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants deliberately killed by both sides.[110] Benjamin Valentino has estimated atrocities in the Chinese Civil War resulted in the death of between 1.8 million and 3.5 million people between 1927 and 1949.[111][better source needed][dubious ]

    Nationalist atrocities

    Over several years after the 1927 Shanghai massacre, the Kuomintang killed between 300,000 and one million people, primarily peasants, in anti-communist campaigns as part of the White Terror.[112][113] During the White Terror, the Nationalists specifically targeted women with short hair who had not been subjected to foot binding, on the presumption that such "non-traditional" women were radicals.[113] Nationalist forces cut off their breasts, shaved their heads, and displayed their mutilated bodies to intimidate the populace.[113]

    From 1946 to 1949, the Nationalists arrested, tortured, and killed political dissidents via the Sino-American Cooperative Organization.[114]

    Communist atrocities

    During the December 1930 Futian incident, the communists executed 2,000 to 3,000 members of the Futian battalion after its leaders had mutinied against Mao Zedong.[115]

    Between 1931 and 1934 in the Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet, the communist authorities engaged in a widespread campaign of violence against civilians to ensure compliance with its policies and to stop defection to the advancing KMT, including mass executions, land confiscation and forced labor.[116] According to Li Weihan, a high-ranking communist in Jiangxi at the time, in response to mass flight of civilians to KMT held areas, the local authorities authorities would "usually to send armed squads after those attempting to flee and kill them on the spot, producing numerous mass graves throughout the CSR [Chinese Soviet Republic in Jiangxi] that would later be uncovered by the KMT and its allies." Zhang Wentian, another high-ranking communist, reported that "the policy of annihilating landlords as an exploiting class had degenerated into a massacre"[117] The population of the communist controlled area fell by 700,000 from 1931 and 1935, of which a large proportion were murdered as “class enemies,” worked to death, committed suicide, or died in other circumstances attributable to the communists.[118]

    During the Siege of Changchun the People's Liberation Army implemented a military blockade on the KMT-held city of Changchun and prevented civilians from leaving the city during the blockade;[119] this blockade caused the starvation of tens[119] to 150[120] thousand civilians. The PLA continued to use siege tactics throughout Northeast China.[121]

    At the outbreak of the Chinese Civil War in 1946, Mao Zedong began to push for a return to radical policies to mobilize China against the landlord class, but protected the rights of middle peasants and specified that rich peasants were not landlords.[122] The 7 July Directive of 1946 set off eighteen months of fierce conflict in which all rich peasant and landlord property of all types was to be confiscated and redistributed to poor peasants. Party work teams went quickly from village to village and divided the population into landlords, rich, middle, poor, and landless peasants. Because the work teams did not involve villagers in the process, however, rich and middle peasants quickly returned to power. [123] The Outline Land Law of October 1947 increased the pressure.[124] Those condemned as landlords were buried alive, dismembered, strangled and shot.[125] In response to the aforementioned land reform campaign; the Kuomintang helped establish the "Huanxiang Tuan" (還鄉團), or Homecoming Legion, which was composed of landlords who sought the return of their redistributed land and property from peasants and CCP guerrillas, as well as forcibly conscripted peasants and communist POWs.[126] The Homecoming legion conducted its guerrilla warfare campaign against CCP forces and purported collaborators up until the end of the civil war in 1949.[126]

    See also

    References

    1. ^ a b c Li, Xiaobing (2012). China at War: An Encyclopedia. p. 295. ISBN 9781598844153.
    2. ^ Li, Xiaobing (1 June 2007). A History of the Modern Chinese Army. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-7224-8.
    3. ^ a b Hsiung, James C. (1992). China's Bitter Victory: The War With Japan, 1937–1945. New York: M. E. Sharpe publishing. ISBN 1-56324-246-X.
    4. ^ a b Sarker, Sunil Kumar (1994). The Rise and Fall of Communism. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. ISBN 9788171565153.
    5. ^ 曹, 前发. "毛泽东的独创:"兵民是胜利之本"". 中国共产党新闻网. 人民网-中国共产党新闻网.
    6. ^ a b c Lynch, Michael (2010). The Chinese Civil War 1945–49. Osprey Publishing. p. 91. ISBN 978-1-84176-671-3.
    7. ^ a b "The History of the Chinese People's Liberation Army." Beijing: People's Liberation Army Press. 1983.
    8. ^ "Twentieth Century Atlas - Death Tolls".
    9. ^ "Twentieth Century Atlas - Death Tolls".
    10. ^ Lew, Christopher R.; Leung, Pak-Wah, eds. (2013). Historical Dictionary of the Chinese Civil War. Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press, Inc. p. 3. ISBN 978-0810878730.
    11. ^ Green, Leslie C. The Contemporary Law of Armed Conflict. p. 79.
    12. ^ a b So, Alvin Y.; Lin, Nan; Poston, Dudley, eds. (July 2001). The Chinese Triangle of Mainland China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong: Comparative Institutional Analyses. Contributions in Sociology. Vol. 133. Westport, CT; London: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-30869-7. ISSN 0084-9278. OCLC 45248282.
    13. ^ a b c "Milestones: 1945–1952 - Office of the Historian". history.state.gov. Retrieved 28 October 2021.
    14. ^ a b c March, G. Patrick. Eastern Destiny: Russia in Asia and the North Pacific. [1996] (1996). Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-275-95566-4. p. 205.
    15. ^ a b H.H. Chang, Chiang Kai Shek – Asia's Man of Destiny (Doubleday, 1944; reprint 2007 ISBN 1-4067-5818-3). p. 126.
    16. ^ Ho, Alfred K. Ho, Alfred Kuo-liang. [2004] (2004). China's Reforms and Reformers. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-275-96080-3. p. 7.
    17. ^ a b c Fairbank, John King. [1994] (1994). China: A New History. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-11673-9.
    18. ^ Kuhn, Robert (2005). The man who changed China: the life and legacy of Jiang Zemin. Crown Publishers.
    19. ^ Zedong, Mao. Thompson, Roger R. [1990] (1990). Report from Xunwu. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2182-3.
    20. ^ Brune, Lester H. Dean Burns, Richard Dean Burns. [2003] (2003). Chronological History of U.S. Foreign Relations. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-93914-3.
    21. ^ Zhao, Suisheng. [2004] (2004). A Nation-state by Construction: Dynamics of Modern Chinese Nationalism. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-5001-7.
    22. ^ Guo, Xuezhi. [2002] (2002). The Ideal Chinese Political Leader: A Historical and Cultural Perspective. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-275-97259-3.
    23. ^ Theodore De Bary, William. Bloom, Irene. Chan, Wing-tsit. Adler, Joseph. Lufrano Richard. Lufrano, John. [1999] (1999). Sources of Chinese Tradition. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-10938-5. p. 328.
    24. ^ a b c Lee, Lai to. Trade Unions in China: 1949 To the Present. [1986] (1986). National University of Singapore Press. ISBN 9971-69-093-4.
    25. ^ Blasko, Dennis J. [2006] (2006). The Chinese Army Today: Tradition and Transformation for the 21st Century. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-77003-3.
    26. ^ Esherick, Joseph. (2000). Remaking the Chinese City: Modernity and National Identity, 1900–1950. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-2518-7.
    27. ^ Clark, Anne, Klein, Donald. eds. (1971). Biographic Dictionary of Chinese Communism (Harvard University Press), p. 134.
    28. ^ Lynch, Michael Lynch. Clausen, Søren. [2003] (2003). Mao. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-21577-3.
    29. ^ a b Manwaring, Max G. Joes, Anthony James. [2000] (2000). Beyond Declaring Victory and Coming Home: The Challenges of Peace and Stability operations. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-275-96768-9. p. 58.
    30. ^ Karl, Rebecca E. (2010). Mao Zedong and China in the twentieth-century world : a concise history. Durham [NC]: Duke University Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-8223-4780-4. OCLC 503828045.
    31. ^ a b Zhang, Chunhou. Vaughan, C. Edwin. [2002] (2002). Mao Zedong as Poet and Revolutionary Leader: Social and Historical Perspectives. Lexington books. ISBN 0-7391-0406-3. pp. 58, 65.
    32. ^ Bianco, Lucien. Bell, Muriel. [1971] (1971). Origins of the Chinese Revolution, 1915–1949. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0827-4. p. 68.
    33. ^ Lin, Hsiao-ting (2010). Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Kourney to the West. Routledge studies in the modern history of Asia. Vol. 67 (illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-415-58264-3. Retrieved 27 December 2011. A force of about 300 soldiers was organized and augmented by recruiting local Khampa bandits into the army. The relationship between the Consolatory Commission and Liu Wenhui seriously deteriorated in early 1936, when the Norla Hutuktu
    34. ^ Background of Xi'an Incident. Cultural China. Retrieved June 4, 2021.
    35. ^ a b Ye, Zhaoyan Ye, Berry, Michael. [2003] (2003). Nanjing 1937: A Love Story. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-12754-5.
    36. ^ a b c Buss, Claude Albert. [1972] (1972). Stanford Alumni Association. The People's Republic of China and Richard Nixon. United States.
    37. ^ a b Schoppa, R. Keith. [2000] (2000). The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-11276-9.
    38. ^ Chen, Jian. [2001] (2001). Mao's China and the Cold War. The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-807-84932-4.
    39. ^ Lary, Diana. [2007] (2007). China's Republic. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-84256-5.
    40. ^ a b Zarrow, Peter Gue. (2005). China in War and Revolution, 1895–1949. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-36447-7. p. 338.
    41. ^ Spector, Ronald H. (2007). In the ruins of empire : the Japanese surrender and the battle for postwar Asia (1st ed.). New York. pp. 38–39. ISBN 9780375509155.
    42. ^ Spector, Ronald H. (2007). In the ruins of empire : the Japanese surrender and the battle for postwar Asia (1st ed.). New York. ISBN 9780375509155.
    43. ^ a b Xu, Guangqiu. [2001] (2001). War Wings: The United States and Chinese Military Aviation, 1929–1949. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-32004-7. p. 201.
    44. ^ Bright, Richard Carl. [2007] (2007). Pain and Purpose in the Pacific: True Reports of War. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 1-4251-2544-1.
    45. ^ a b Lilley, James. China hands: nine decades of adventure, espionage, and diplomacy in Asia. PublicAffairs, New York, 2004
    46. ^ a b Jessup, John E. (1989). A Chronology of Conflict and Resolution, 1945–1985. New York: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-24308-5.
    47. ^ Spector, Ronald H. (2007). In the ruins of empire : the Japanese surrender and the battle for postwar Asia (1st ed.). New York. p. 61. ISBN 9780375509155.
    48. ^ Yang Kuisong (24 November 2011). . Sina Books. Archived from the original on 26 September 2013. Retrieved 17 May 2013.
    49. ^ Hu, Jubin. (2003). Projecting a Nation: Chinese National Cinema Before 1949. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 962-209-610-7.
    50. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Nguyễn Anh Thái (chief author); Nguyễn Quốc Hùng; Vũ Ngọc Oanh; Trần Thị Vinh; Đặng Thanh Toán; Đỗ Thanh Bình (2002). Lịch sử thế giới hiện đại (in Vietnamese). Ho Chi Minh City: Giáo Dục Publisher. pp. 320–322. 8934980082317. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)
    51. ^ Michael M Sheng, Battling Western Imperialism, Princeton University Press, 1997, pp. 132–135
    52. ^ Liu, Shiao Tang (1978). Min Kuo Ta Shih Jih Chih. Vol. 2. Taipei: Zhuan Chi Wen Shuan. p. 735.
    53. ^ The New York Times, 12 January 1947, p. 44.
    54. ^ Zeng Kelin, Zeng Kelin jianjun zishu (General Zeng Kelin Tells His Story), Liaoning renmin chubanshe, Shenyang, 1997. pp. 112–113
    55. ^ Ray Huang, cong dalishi jiaodu du Jiang Jieshi riji (Reading Chiang Kai-shek's diary from a macro-history perspective), China Times Publishing Press, Taipei, 1994, pp. 441–443
    56. ^ Lung Ying-tai, dajiang dahai 1949, Commonwealth Publishing Press, Taipei, 2009, p. 184
    57. ^ Harry S.Truman, Memoirs, Vol. Two: Years of Trial and Hope, 1946–1953 (Great Britain 1956), p. 66
    58. ^ p23, U.S. Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II, William Blum, Zed Books 2004 London.
    59. ^ Lilley, James R. China Hands: Nine Decades of Adventure, Espionage, and Diplomacy in Asia. ISBN 1-58648-136-3.
    60. ^ a b c Westad, Odd Arne. [2003] (2003). Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946–1950. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-4484-X. pp. 192–193.
    61. ^ Pomfret, John. "Red Army Starved 150,000 Chinese Civilians, Books Says" Seattle Times 2 October 2009 Accessed: 2009-10-02. Archived
    62. ^ a b Elleman, Bruce A. Modern Chinese Warfare, 1795–1989. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-21473-4.
    63. ^ a b c Finkelstein, David Michael. Ryan, Mark A. McDevitt, Michael. [2003] (2003). Chinese Warfighting: The PLA Experience Since 1949. M.E. Sharpe. China. ISBN 0-7656-1088-4. p. 63.
    64. ^ Donggil Kim, "Stalin and the Chinese Civil War." Cold War History 10.2 (2010): 185–202.
    65. ^ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 215. ISBN 0-521-25514-7. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
    66. ^ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 225. ISBN 0-521-25514-7. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
    67. ^ Hsiao-ting Lin (2010). Modern China's ethnic frontiers: a journey to the west. Vol. 67 of Routledge studies in the modern history of Asia (illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-415-58264-3. Retrieved 27 December 2011. China's far northwest.23 A simultaneous proposal suggested that, with the support of the new Panchen Lama and his entourage, at least three army divisions of anti-Communist Khampa Tibetans could be mustered in southwest China.
    68. ^ Hsiao-ting Lin (2010). Modern China's ethnic frontiers: a journey to the west. Vol. 67 of Routledge studies in the modern history of Asia (illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. xxi. ISBN 978-0-415-58264-3. Retrieved 27 December 2011. (tusi) from the Sichuan-Qinghai border; and Su Yonghe, a Khampa native-chieftain from Nagchuka on the Qinghai- Tibetan border. According to Nationalist intelligence reports, these leaders altogether commanded about 80000 irregulars.
    69. ^ Cook, Chris Cook. Stevenson, John. [2005] (2005). The Routledge Companion to World History Since 1914. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-34584-7. p. 376.
    70. ^ Qi, Bangyuan. Wang, Dewei. Wang, David Der-wei. [2003] (2003). The Last of the Whampoa Breed: Stories of the Chinese Diaspora. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-13002-3. p. 2.
    71. ^ MacFarquhar, Roderick. Fairbank, John K. Twitchett, Denis C. [1991] (1991). The Cambridge History of China. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24337-8. p. 820.
    72. ^ "Harry S Truman, "Statement on Formosa," January 5, 1950". University of Southern California. Retrieved 7 May 2017.
    73. ^ Yafeng Xia (2006). Negotiating with the Enemy: U.S.-China Talks during the Cold War, 1949-1972. Indiana University Press. p. 38. ISBN 9780253112378.
    74. ^ Bush, Richard C. (2005). Untying the Knot: Making Peace in the Taiwan Strait. Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 0-8157-1288-X
    75. ^ a b c d e Tsang, Steve Yui-Sang Tsang. The Cold War's Odd Couple: The Unintended Partnership Between the Republic of China and the UK, 1950–1958. (2006). I.B. Tauris. ISBN 1-85043-842-0. pp. 155, 115–120, 139–145
    76. ^ Yang, Kuisong (March 2008). ""Reconsidering the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries"". The China Quarterly (193): 102–121. JSTOR 20192166 – via JSTOR.
    77. ^ Guo, Xuezhi (29 August 2012). China's Security State: Philosophy, Evolution, and Politics. Cambridge University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-1-107-02323-9. Among them, 712.000 counterrevolutionaries were executed, 1.29 million were imprisoned, and 1.2 million were subject to control at various times.
    78. ^ Steven W. Mosher. China Misperceived: American Illusions and Chinese Reality. Basic Books, 1992. ISBN 0-465-09813-4 p. 73
    79. ^ Kuhn, Anthony; Feng, Emily (2 August 2022). "What 3 past Taiwan Strait crises can teach us about U.S.-China tensions today". www.npr.org. Retrieved 3 August 2022.
    80. ^ Pollard, Martin Quin (7 April 2022). "China warns U.S. against House Speaker Pelosi visiting Taiwan". Reuters. Retrieved 3 August 2022.
    81. ^ Chiacu, Doina (8 April 2022). "U.S. House Speaker Pelosi is latest U.S. official to test positive for COVID". Reuters. Retrieved 3 August 2022.
    82. ^ Mason, Jeff; Martina, Michael (1 August 2022). "White House: U.S. will not be intimidated by China; Pelosi has right to visit Taiwan". Reuters.
    83. ^ "Nancy Pelosi's plan to visit Taiwan prompts outrage from China". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022.
    84. ^ Китай-Тайвань: на тлі можливого візиту Пелосі зростає напруження [China-Taiwan: Tensions rise amid possible Pelosi visit]. BBC News Україна (in Ukrainian). from the original on 2 August 2022. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
    85. ^ Ненсі Пелосі летить на Тайвань: що потрібно знати про кризу між США і Китаєм [Nancy Pelosi flies to Taiwan: what you need to know about the crisis between the USA and China]. unian.ua (in Ukrainian). from the original on 1 August 2022. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
    86. ^ Zheng, Sarah (2 August 2022). "China Plans Four Days of Military Drills in Areas Encircling Taiwan". Bloomberg. Retrieved 3 August 2022.
    87. ^ Davidson, Helen; Ni, Vincent (3 August 2022). "China to begin series of unprecedented live-fire drills off Taiwan coast". the Guardian. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
    88. ^ Lee, Yimou (4 August 2022). "China begins 'illegitimate, irresponsible' live-fire military drills - Taiwan". Reuters. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
    89. ^ "People's Republic of China In, Taiwan Out, at U.N." The Learning Network. 25 October 2011. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
    90. ^ "Taiwan flashpoint". BBC News. Retrieved 20 October 2017.
    91. ^ Decisive Encounters By Westad, Odd Arne. Stanford University Press, 21 Mar pp. 292–297 2003 (Google Books).
    92. ^ "历次台海危机内幕及其背后大国之间的博弈(图)". Retrieved 23 May 2022.
    93. ^ Mitter, Rana (10 September 2013). Forgotten Ally: China's World War II, 1937–1945. HMH. ISBN 9780547840567.
    94. ^ a b Mitter, Rana (2020). China's good war : how World War II is shaping a new nationalism. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-674-98426-4. OCLC 1141442704.
    95. ^ Odd Arne Westad, Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750 (2012) p. 291.
    96. ^ Trei, Lisa (9 March 2005). "Hoover's new archival acquisitions shed light on Chinese history". Stanford University. Retrieved 11 July 2019.
    97. ^ "ГЛАВА 35 ГРАЖДАНСКАЯ ВОЙНА В КИТАЕ".
    98. ^ 青, 山. "苏联出兵之后中共对东北的争夺". 中国共产党新闻网. 人民网.
    99. ^ 吕, 明辉. "朝鲜支援中国东北解放战争纪实". 通化师范学院. 白山出版社.
    100. ^ 金, 东吉. "中国人民解放军中的朝鲜师回朝鲜问题新探". 香港中文大學. 中國研究服務中心.
    101. ^ Sun, Tung-hsun (1982). "Some Recent American Interpretations of Sino-American Relations of the Late 1940s: An Assessment" (PDF). Institute of European and American Studies, Academia Sinica. Retrieved 22 November 2018.
    102. ^ T.V. Soong – A Register of His Papers in the Hoover Institution Archives media.hoover.org
    103. ^ . big5.backchina.com (in Traditional Chinese). Archived from the original on 27 February 2015. Retrieved 23 November 2018.
    104. ^ For quotes see Odd Arne Westad (2003). Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946–1950. Stanford University Press. pp. 9–11. ISBN 9780804744843.
    105. ^ . Archived from the original on 2 January 2015. Retrieved 8 March 2014.
    106. ^ Taylor, Jay (2009). The Generalissimo. Harvard University Press. pp. 102–103. ISBN 9780674054714.
    107. ^ "Chiang's China". Worldif.economist.com. 1 July 2015. Retrieved 20 July 2022.
    108. ^ "China Without Tears: If Chiang Kai-Shek Hadn't Gambled in 1946". Uchronia.net. Retrieved 19 July 2022.
    109. ^ "Who Lost China? | EWTN".
    110. ^ Rummel, Rudolph (1994), Death by Government.
    111. ^ Valentino, Benjamin A. Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Cornell University Press. 8 December 2005. p. 88
    112. ^ Barnouin, Barbara and Yu Changgen. Zhou Enlai: A Political Life 25 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2006. ISBN 962-996-280-2. Retrieved 12 November 2022. p. 38
    113. ^ a b c Karl, Rebecca E. (2010). Mao Zedong and China in the twentieth-century world : a concise history. Durham [NC]: Duke University Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-8223-4780-4. OCLC 503828045.
    114. ^ Mitter, Rana (2020). China's good war : how World War II is shaping a new nationalism. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-674-98426-4. OCLC 1141442704.
    115. ^ Feigon, Lee (2002). Mao: A Reinterpretation. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee. pp. 51–53. ISBN 978-1566634588.
    116. ^ Opper, Marc (2018). "Revolution Defeated: The Collapse of the Chinese Soviet Republic". Twentieth-Century China. 43 (1): 60. doi:10.1353/tcc.2018.0003. S2CID 148775889.
    117. ^ Opper, Marc (2020). (PDF). People's Wars in China, Malaya, and Vietnam. University of Michigan Press. p. 58. doi:10.3998/mpub.11413902. ISBN 9780472131846. JSTOR 10.3998/mpub.11413902.8. S2CID 211359950. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 January 2022.
    118. ^ Halliday, Jon; Chang, Jung (30 September 2012). Mao: The Unknown Story. p. 133. ISBN 9781448156863. The Ruijin base, the seat of the first Red state, consisted of large parts of the provinces of Jiangxi and Fujian. These two provinces suffered the greatest population decrease in the whole of China from the year when the Communist state was founded, 1931, to the year after the Reds left, 1935. The population of Red Jiangxi fell by more than half a million — a drop of 20 percent. The fall in Red Fujian was comparable. Given that escapes were few, this means that altogether some 700,000 people died in the Ruijin base. A large part of these were murdered as “class enemies,” or were worked to death, or committed suicide, or died other premature deaths attributable to the regime.
    119. ^ a b Koga, Yukiko (2016). Inheritance of Loss: China, Japan, and the Political Economy of Redemption After Empire. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 022641213X.
    120. ^ . Archived from the original on 25 October 2011.
    121. ^ Lary, Diana (2015). China's Civil War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 1107054672.
    122. ^ DeMare, Brian James (2019). Land Wars: The Story of China's Agrarian Revolution. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-1503609525.
    123. ^ Tanner (2015), pp. 134–135.
    124. ^ Saich The Rise to Power of the Chinese Communist Party Outline Land Law of 1947
    125. ^ Scheidel, Walter (2017). The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century. Princeton University Press. p. 225. ISBN 978-0-691-16502-8.
    126. ^ a b Liu, Zaiyu (2002). 第二次國共戰爭時期的還鄉團 (PDF). Hong Kong: Twenty First Century Bimonthly.

    Further reading

    • Cheng, Victor Shiu Chiang. "Imagining China's Madrid in Manchuria: The Communist Military Strategy at the Onset of the Chinese Civil War, 1945–1946." Modern China 31.1 (2005): 72–114.
    • Chi, Hsi-sheng. Nationalist China at War: Military Defeats and Political Collapse, 1937–45 (U of Michigan Press, 1982).
    • Dreyer, Edward L. China at War 1901–1949 (Routledge, 2014).
    • Dupuy, Trevor N. The Military History of the Chinese Civil War (Franklin Watts, Inc., 1969).
    • Eastman, Lloyd E. "Who lost China? Chiang Kai-shek testifies." China Quarterly 88 (1981): 658–668.
    • Eastman, Lloyd E., et al. The Nationalist Era in China, 1927–1949 (Cambridge UP, 1991).
    • Fenby, Jonathan. Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the China He Lost (2003).
    • Ferlanti, Federica. "The New Life Movement at War: Wartime Mobilisation and State Control in Chongqing and Chengdu, 1938—1942" European Journal of East Asian Studies 11#2 (2012), pp. 187–212 online how Nationalist forces mobilized society
    • Jian, Chen. "The Myth of America's “Lost Chance” in China: A Chinese Perspective in Light of New Evidence." Diplomatic History 21.1 (1997): 77–86.
    • Lary, Diana. China's Civil War: A Social History, 1945–1949 (Cambridge UP, 2015). excerpt
    • Levine, Steven I. "A new look at American mediation in the Chinese civil war: the Marshall mission and Manchuria." Diplomatic History 3.4 (1979): 349–376.
    • Lew, Christopher R. The Third Chinese Revolutionary Civil War, 1945–49: An Analysis of Communist Strategy and Leadership (Routledge, 2009).
    • Li, Xiaobing. China at War: An Encyclopedia (ABC-CLIO, 2012).
    • Lynch, Michael. The Chinese Civil War 1945–49 (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014).
    • Mitter, Rana. "Research Note Changed by War: The Changing Historiography Of Wartime China and New Interpretations Of Modern Chinese History." Chinese Historical Review 17.1 (2010): 85–95.
    • Nasca, David S. Western Influence on the Chinese National Revolutionary Army from 1925 to 1937. (Marine Corps Command And Staff Coll Quantico Va, 2013). online
    • Pepper, Suzanne. Civil war in China: the political struggle 1945–1949 (Rowman & Littlefield, 1999).
    • Reilly, Major Thomas P. Mao Tse-Tung And Operational Art During The Chinese Civil War (Pickle Partners Publishing, 2015) online.
    • Shen, Zhihua, and Yafeng Xia. Mao and the Sino–Soviet Partnership, 1945–1959: A New History. (Lexington Books, 2015).
    • Tanner, Harold M. (2015), Where Chiang Kai-shek Lost China: The Liao-Shen Campaign, 1948, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, advanced military history. excerpt
    • Taylor, Jeremy E., and Grace C. Huang. "'Deep changes in interpretive currents'? Chiang Kai-shek studies in the post-cold war era." International Journal of Asian Studies 9.1 (2012): 99–121.
    • Taylor, Jay. The Generalissimo (Harvard University Press, 2009). biography of Chiang Kai-shek
    • van de Ven, Hans (2017). China at War: Triumph and Tragedy in the Emergence of the New China, 1937-1952. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674983502..
    • Westad, Odd Arne (2003). Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946–1950. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804744843.
    • Yick, Joseph K.S. Making Urban Revolution in China: The CCP-GMD Struggle for Beiping-Tianjin, 1945–49 (Routledge, 2015).

    External links

    • Summary of Chinese Civil War 1946–1949
    • "Armored Car Like Oil Tanker Used by Chinese" Popular Mechanics, March 1930 article and photo of armoured train of Chinese Civil War
    • Topographic maps of China Series L500, U.S. Army Map Service, 1954–

    chinese, civil, this, article, about, military, conflict, between, chinese, communists, nationalists, social, political, changes, chinese, communist, revolution, other, uses, disambiguation, fought, between, kuomintang, government, republic, china, forces, chi. This article is about the military conflict between the Chinese Communists and Nationalists For social and political changes see Chinese Communist Revolution For other uses see Chinese Civil War disambiguation The Chinese Civil War was fought between the Kuomintang led government of the Republic of China and forces of the Chinese Communist Party armed conflict continuing intermittently from 1 August 1927 until 7 December 1949 and ending with Communist control of mainland China Chinese Civil WarPart of the interwar period the Cold War from 1947 and the Cross Strait conflict from 1949 Clockwise from top communist troops at the Battle of Siping Muslim soldiers of the NRA Mao Zedong in the 1930s Chiang Kai shek inspecting soldiers CCP general Su Yu inspecting the troops shortly before the Menglianggu campaignDate1 August 1927 1 26 December 1936 First phase 9 years 4 months 3 weeks and 4 days 10 August 1945 7 December 1949 Second phase de facto 4 years 3 months 3 weeks and 6 days 7 December 1949 present de jure 73 years 2 months 1 week and 6 days LocationMainland China including Hainan and its coast China Burma borderResultCommunist victory on the mainland and then diplomatic field in 1971 Taiwan Strait stalemate Major combat ended but no armistice or peace treaty signed The Kuomintang Islamic insurgency against the People s Republic of China s rule continued in the provinces of Gansu Qinghai Ningxia Xinjiang Yunnan until 1958 Unretreated KMT forces left in Mainland China destroyed in the campaigns Counterrevolutionaries purged in Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries De facto existence of Two Chinas Beginning of the Cross Strait conflictTerritorialchangesChinese Communist Party control of Mainland China including Hainan People s Republic of China established in Mainland China Government of the Republic of China evacuated to the island of TaiwanBelligerents1927 1937 Republic of China Kuomintang National Revolutionary Army1927 1937 Chinese Communist Party Chinese Workers and Peasants Red Army Chinese Soviet Republic 1931 1937 Jiangxi Fujian Soviet 1931 1934 Fujian People s Government 1933 1934 Supported by Soviet Union Communist International1946 1949 Republic of China Kuomintang Republic of China Armed ForcesSupported by United States1946 1949 Chinese Communist Party Pre PLA troops and militia Inner Mongolian People s Republic 1945 1945 People s Liberation ArmySupported by Soviet Union1949 present Republic of China Republic of China Armed ForcesSupported by United States1949 present People s Republic of China Chinese Communist Party People s Liberation ArmySupported by Soviet Union until 1961 Commanders and leadersChiang Kai shek Director General of the Kuomintang Other leaders Bai ChongxiChen ChengLi ZongrenYan XishanHe YingqinHu ZongnanGu ZhutongWei LihuangDu Yuming Sun Li jenFu Zuoyi Liu ZhiXue YueWang YaowuTang EnboHuang Baitao Zhang Lingfu Zhang XueliangFeng Yuxiang until 1930 Mao Zedong Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party Other leaders Zhu DePeng DehuaiZhou EnlaiLin BiaoLiu BochengHe LongChen YiLuo RonghuanXu XiangqianNie RongzhenYe JianyingDeng XiaopingSu YuChen GengWang JiaxiangYe Ting Bo Gu Li DeZhang Guotao until 1936 Strength2 million regular 2 3 million militia June 1946 2 3 4 1 2 million regular 2 6 million militia July 1945 3 5 Casualties and lossesc 1 5 million 1948 1949 6 4 260 000 killed190 000 missing850 000 wounded 1945 1949 7 6 Above one estimate 1945 1949 set for combatants with overall up to 6 million including civilians 6 Early phase 1928 1937 c 7 million including civilians 8 Concluding phase 1945 1949 c 2 5 million including civilians 9 Chinese Civil WarTraditional Chinese國共內戰Simplified Chinese国共内战Literal meaningKuomintang Communist Civil WarTranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinGuo Gong NeizhanWuRomanizationkoh gon ne tsoeYue CantoneseJyutpinggwok3 gung6 noi6 zin3Southern MinHokkien POJkok kiōng lai chianThe war is generally divided into two phases with an interlude from August 1927 to 1937 the KMT CCP Alliance collapsed during the Northern Expedition and the Nationalists controlled most of China From 1937 to 1945 hostilities were mostly put on hold as the Second United Front fought the Japanese invasion of China with eventual help from the Allies of World War II but even then co operation between the KMT and CCP was minimal and armed clashes between them were common Exacerbating the divisions within China further was that a puppet government sponsored by Japan and nominally led by Wang Jingwei was set up to nominally govern the parts of China under Japanese occupation The civil war resumed as soon as it became apparent that the Japanese defeat was imminent and the CCP gained the upper hand in the second phase of the war from 1945 to 1949 generally referred to as the Chinese Communist Revolution The Communists gained control of mainland China and established the People s Republic of China in 1949 forcing the leadership of the Republic of China to retreat to the island of Taiwan 10 Starting in the 1950s a lasting political and military standoff between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait has ensued with the ROC in Taiwan and the PRC in mainland China both officially claiming to be the legitimate government of all China After the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis both tacitly ceased fire in 1979 however no armistice or peace treaty has ever been signed 11 Contents 1 Background 1 1 Shanghai Massacre and Northern Expedition 2 Communist insurgency 1927 1937 3 Second Sino Japanese War 1937 1945 4 Immediate post war clashes 1945 1946 5 Resumed fighting 1946 1949 5 1 Background and disposition of forces 5 2 Outbreak of war 5 3 Pushing south 6 Aftermath and unsolved issues 1949 present 6 1 Taiwan Strait Tensions 6 2 Political fallout 7 Reasons for the Communist victory 8 Atrocities 8 1 Nationalist atrocities 8 2 Communist atrocities 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External linksBackground EditFollowing the collapse of the Qing dynasty and the 1911 Revolution Sun Yat sen assumed the presidency of the newly formed Republic of China and was shortly thereafter succeeded by Yuan Shikai 12 page needed Yuan was frustrated in a short lived attempt to restore monarchy in China and China fell into power struggle after his death in 1916 The Kuomintang KMT led by Sun Yat sen created a new government in Guangzhou to rival the warlords who ruled over large swathes of China and prevented the formation of a solid central government 13 After Sun s efforts to obtain aid from Western countries were ignored he turned to the Soviet Union In 1923 Sun and Soviet representative Adolph Joffe in Shanghai pledged Soviet assistance to China s unification in the Sun Joffe Manifesto a declaration of cooperation among the Comintern KMT and CCP 14 Comintern agent Mikhail Borodin arrived in 1923 to aid in the reorganization and consolidation of both the CCP and the KMT along the lines of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union The CCP which was initially a study group and the KMT jointly formed the First United Front 13 14 In 1923 Sun sent Chiang Kai shek one of his lieutenants for several months of military and political study in Moscow 15 Chiang then became the head of the Whampoa Military Academy that trained the next generation of military leaders The Soviets provided the academy with teaching material organization and equipment including munitions 15 They also provided education in many of the techniques for mass mobilization With this aid Sun raised a dedicated army of the party with which he hoped to defeat the warlords militarily CCP members were also present in the academy and many of them became instructors including Zhou Enlai who was made a political instructor 16 Communist members were allowed to join the KMT on an individual basis 14 The CCP itself was still small at the time having a membership of 300 in 1922 and only 1 500 by 1925 17 As of 1923 the KMT had 50 000 members 17 However after Sun died in 1925 the KMT split into left and right wing movements KMT members worried that the Soviets were trying to destroy the KMT from inside using the CCP The CCP then began movements in opposition of the Northern Expedition passing a resolution against it at a party meeting Then in March 1927 the KMT held its second party meeting where the Soviets helped pass resolutions against the Expedition and curbing Chiang s power Soon the KMT would be clearly divided Throughout this time the Soviet Union sent money and spies to support the Chinese Communist Party Without their support the communist party likely would have failed This is evidenced by documents showing of other communist parties in China at the time one with as many as 10 000 members but which all failed without support from the Soviet Union 18 Shanghai Massacre and Northern Expedition Edit In early 1927 the KMT CCP rivalry led to a split in the revolutionary ranks The CCP and the left wing of the KMT decided to move the seat of the KMT government from Guangzhou to Wuhan where communist influence was strong 17 However Chiang and Li Zongren whose armies defeated the warlord Sun Chuanfang moved eastward toward Jiangxi The leftists rejected Chiang s demand to eliminate Communist influence within KMT and Chiang denounced them for betraying Sun Yat sen s Three Principles of the People by taking orders from the Soviet Union According to Mao Zedong Chiang s tolerance of the CCP in the KMT camp decreased as his power increased 19 On 7 April Chiang and several other KMT leaders held a meeting during which they proposed that Communist activities were socially and economically disruptive and had to be undone for the Nationalist revolution to proceed On 12 April in Shanghai many Communist members in the KMT were purged 13 through hundreds of arrests and executions 20 on the orders of General Bai Chongxi The CCP referred to this as the 12 April Incident the White Terror or Shanghai Massacre 21 This incident widened the rift between Chiang and Wang Jingwei the leader of the left wing faction of the KMT who controlled the city of Wuhan Eventually the left wing of the KMT also expelled CCP members from the Wuhan government which in turn was toppled by Chiang Kai shek The KMT resumed its campaign against warlords and captured Beijing in June 1928 22 Soon most of eastern China was under the control of the Nanjing central government which received prompt international recognition as the sole legitimate government of China The KMT government announced in conformity with Sun Yat sen the formula for the three stages of revolution military unification political tutelage and constitutional democracy 23 Communist insurgency 1927 1937 EditMain article Encirclement Campaigns Communist insurgency 1927 1937 Second National Revolutionary War Mainland China Traditional Chinese第二次國內革命戰爭Simplified Chinese第二次国内革命战争TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinDierci Guonei Geming ZhanzhengOn 1 August 1927 the Communist Party launched an uprising in Nanchang against the Nationalist government in Wuhan This conflict led to the creation of the Red Army 1 24 On 4 August the main forces of the Red Army left Nanchang and headed southwards for an assault on Guangdong Nationalist forces quickly reoccupied Nanchang while the remaining members of the CCP in Nanchang went into hiding 1 A CCP meeting on 7 August confirmed the objective of the party was to seize the political power by force but the CCP was quickly suppressed the next day on 8 August by the Nationalist government in Wuhan led by Wang Jingwei On 14 August Chiang Kai shek announced his temporary retirement as the Wuhan faction and Nanjing faction of the Kuomintang were allied once again with common goal of suppressing the Communist Party after the earlier split citation needed Attempts were later made by the CCP to take the cities of Changsha Shantou and Guangzhou The Red Army consisting of mutinous former National Revolutionary Army NRA soldiers as well as armed peasants established control over several areas in southern China 24 KMT forces continued to attempt to suppress the rebellions 24 Then in September Wang Jingwei was forced out of Wuhan September also saw an unsuccessful armed rural insurrection known as the Autumn Harvest Uprising led by Mao Zedong 25 Borodin then returned to the USSR in October via Mongolia In November Chiang Kai shek went to Shanghai and invited Wang to join him On 11 December the CCP started the Guangzhou Uprising establishing a soviet there the next day but lost the city by 13 December to a counter attack under the orders of General Zhang Fakui On 16 December Wang Jingwei fled to France There were now three capitals in China the internationally recognized republic capital in Beijing the CCP and left wing KMT at Wuhan and the right wing KMT regime at Nanjing which would remain the KMT capital for the next decade 26 27 This marked the beginning of a ten year armed struggle known in mainland China as the Ten Year Civil War 十年内战 which ended with the Xi an Incident when Chiang Kai shek was forced to form the Second United Front against invading forces from the Empire of Japan In 1930 the Central Plains War broke out as an internal conflict of the KMT It was launched by Feng Yuxiang Yan Xishan and Wang Jingwei The attention was turned to root out remaining pockets of Communist activity in a series of five encirclement campaigns 28 The first and second campaigns failed and the third was aborted due to the Mukden Incident The fourth campaign 1932 1933 achieved some early successes but Chiang s armies were badly mauled when they tried to penetrate into the heart of Mao s Soviet Chinese Republic During these campaigns KMT columns struck swiftly into Communist areas but were easily engulfed by the vast countryside and were not able to consolidate their foothold Finally in late 1934 Chiang launched a fifth campaign that involved the systematic encirclement of the Jiangxi Soviet region with fortified blockhouses 29 The blockhouse strategy was devised and implemented in part by newly hired Nazi advisors 30 Unlike previous campaigns in which they penetrated deeply in a single strike this time the KMT troops patiently built blockhouses each separated by about eight kilometres five miles to surround the Communist areas and cut off their supplies and food sources 29 In October 1934 the CCP took advantage of gaps in the ring of blockhouses manned by the forces of a warlord ally of Chiang Kai shek s rather than regular KMT troops and broke out of the encirclement The warlord armies were reluctant to challenge Communist forces for fear of losing their own men and did not pursue the CCP with much fervor In addition the main KMT forces were preoccupied with annihilating Zhang Guotao s army which was much larger than Mao s The massive military retreat of Communist forces lasted a year and covered what Mao estimated as 12 500 km 25 000 Li it became known as the Long March 31 This military retreat was undertaken by the Chinese Communist Party led by Mao Zedong to evade the pursuit or attack of the Kuomintang army It consisted of a series of marches during which numerous Communist armies in the south escaped to the north and west Over the course of the march from Jiangxi the First Front Army led by an inexperienced military commission was on the brink of annihilation by Chiang Kai Shek s troops as their stronghold was in Jiangxi The Communists under the command of Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai escaped in a circling retreat to the west and north which reportedly traversed over 9 000 kilometers over 370 days The route passed through some of the most difficult terrain of western China by traveling west and then northwards towards Shaanxi In November 1935 shortly after settling in northern Shaanxi Mao officially took over Zhou Enlai s leading position in the Red Army Following a major reshuffling of official roles Mao became the chairman of the Military Commission with Zhou and Deng Xiaoping as vice chairmen This marked Mao s position as the pre eminent leader of the Party with Zhou in second position to him citation needed The march ended when the CCP reached the interior of Shaanxi Zhang Guotao s army which took a different route through northwest China was largely destroyed by the forces of Chiang Kai shek and his Chinese Muslim allies the Ma clique Along the way the Communist army confiscated property and weapons from local warlords and landlords while recruiting peasants and the poor solidifying its appeal to the masses Of the 90 000 100 000 people who began the Long March from the Soviet Chinese Republic only around 7 000 8 000 made it to Shaanxi 32 The remnants of Zhang s forces eventually joined Mao in Shaanxi but with his army destroyed Zhang even as a founding member of the CCP was never able to challenge Mao s authority Essentially the great retreat made Mao the undisputed leader of the Chinese Communist Party The Kuomintang used Khampa troops who were former bandits to battle the Communist Red Army as it advanced and to undermine local warlords who often refused to fight Communist forces to conserve their own strength The KMT enlisted 300 Khampa bandits into its Consolatory Commission military in Sichuan where they were part of the effort of the central government to penetrate and destabilize local Han warlords such as Liu Wenhui The government was seeking to exert full control over frontier areas against the warlords Liu had refused to battle the Communists in order to conserve his army The Consolatory Commission forces were used to battle the Red Army but they were defeated when their religious leader was captured by the Communists 33 In 1936 Zhou Enlai and Zhang Xueliang grew closer with Zhou even suggesting that he join the CCP However this was turned down by the Comintern in the USSR Later on Zhou persuaded Zhang and Yang Hucheng another warlord to instigate the Xi an Incident Chiang was placed under house arrest and forced to stop his attacks on the Red Army instead focusing on the Japanese threat The situation in China in 1929 After the Northern Expedition the KMT had direct control over east and central China while the rest of China proper as well as Manchuria was under the control of warlords loyal to the Nationalist government Map showing the communist controlled Soviet Zones of China during and after the encirclement campaigns Route s taken by Communist forces during the Long March A Communist leader addressing survivors of the Long March Generalissimo Chiang Kai shek Commander in Chief of the National Revolutionary Army emerged from the Northern Expedition as the leader of the Republic of China NRA soldiers marching NRA troops firing artillery at Communist forcesSecond Sino Japanese War 1937 1945 EditMain article Second Sino Japanese War The leaders of the Chinese Communist Party L R Zhou Enlai Mao Zedong and Zhu De During Japan s invasion and occupation of Manchuria Chiang Kai shek saw the CCP as the greater threat Chiang refused to ally with the CCP preferring to unite China by eliminating the warlord and CCP forces first He believed his forces were too weak to face the Japanese Imperial Army only after unification could the KMT mobilize against Japan He ignored the Chinese people s discontent and anger at the KMT policy of compromise with the Japanese instead ordering KMT generals Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng to suppress the CCP However their provincial forces suffered significant casualties in battles with the Red Army 34 On 12 December 1936 the disgruntled Zhang and Yang conspired to kidnap Chiang and force him into a truce with the CCP The incident became known as the Xi an Incident 35 Both parties suspended fighting to form a Second United Front to focus their energies and fight the Japanese 35 In 1937 Japan launched its full scale invasion of China and its well equipped troops overran KMT defenders in northern and coastal China The alliance of CCP and KMT was in name only 36 Unlike the KMT forces CCP troops shunned conventional warfare and instead waged guerrilla warfare against the Japanese The level of actual cooperation and coordination between the CCP and KMT during World War II was minimal 36 In the midst of the Second United Front the CCP and the KMT were still vying for territorial advantage in Free China i e areas not occupied by the Japanese or ruled by Japanese puppet governments such as Manchukuo and the Reorganized National Government of China 36 The situation came to a head in late 1940 and early 1941 when clashes between Communist and KMT forces intensified Chiang demanded in December 1940 that the CCP s New Fourth Army evacuate Anhui and Jiangsu Provinces due to its provocation and harassment of KMT forces in this area Under intense pressure the New Fourth Army commanders complied The following year they were ambushed by KMT forces during their evacuation which led to several thousand deaths 37 It also ended the Second United Front formed earlier to fight the Japanese 37 As clashes between the CCP and KMT intensified countries such as the United States and the Soviet Union attempted to prevent a disastrous civil war After the New Fourth Army incident US President Franklin D Roosevelt sent special envoy Lauchlin Currie to talk with Chiang Kai shek and KMT party leaders to express their concern regarding the hostility between the two parties with Currie stating that the only ones to benefit from a civil war would be the Japanese The Soviet Union allied more closely with the CCP sent an imperative telegram to Mao in 1941 warning that civil war would also make the situation easier for the Japanese military Due to the international community s efforts there was a temporary and superficial peace Chiang criticized the CCP in 1943 with the propaganda piece China s Destiny which questioned the CCP s power after the war while the CCP strongly opposed Chiang s leadership and referred to his regime as fascist in an attempt to generate a negative public image Both leaders knew that a deadly battle had begun between themselves 38 In general developments in the Second Sino Japanese War were to the advantage of the CCP as its guerrilla war tactics had won them popular support within the Japanese occupied areas However the KMT had to defend the country against the main Japanese campaigns since it was the legal Chinese government a factor which proved costly to Chiang Kai shek and his troops Japan launched its last major offensive against the KMT Operation Ichi Go in 1944 which resulted in the severe weakening of Chiang s forces 39 The CCP also suffered fewer losses through its guerrilla tactics By the end of the war the Red Army had grown to more than 1 3 million members with a separate militia of over 2 6 million About one hundred million people lived in CCP controlled zones Japanese occupation red of eastern China near the end of the war and Communist bases striped Immediate post war clashes 1945 1946 Edit Chiang Kai shek and Mao Zedong met in Chongqing in 1945 Under the terms of the Japanese unconditional surrender dictated by the Allies Japanese troops were to surrender to KMT troops but not to the CCP which was present in some of the occupied areas 40 In Manchuria however where the KMT had no forces the Japanese surrendered to the Soviet Union Chiang Kai shek reminded Japanese troops to remain at their posts to receive the KMT but Communist forces soon began taking surrenders from the Japanese and fighting those who resisted 40 General Wedemeyer of the United States Army became alarmed at these developments and wanted seven American divisions to be sent to China but General Marshall replied that it should not be given priority over Japan and Korea 41 The first post war peace negotiation attended by both Chiang Kai shek and Mao Zedong was in Chongqing from 28 August to 10 October 1945 Chiang entered the meeting at an advantage because he had recently signed a friendly treaty with the Soviet Union while the Communists were still forcing the Japanese to surrender in some places Mao was accompanied by American ambassador Patrick J Hurley who was devoted to Chiang but also wanted to ensure Mao s safety in light of the past history between the two Chinese leaders 42 It concluded with the signing of the Double Tenth Agreement 43 Both sides stressed the importance of a peaceful reconstruction but the conference did not produce any concrete results 43 Battles between the two sides continued even as peace negotiations were in progress until the agreement was reached in January 1946 However large campaigns and full scale confrontations between the CCP and Chiang s troops were temporarily avoided Shangdang Campaign September October 1945 In the last month of World War II in East Asia Soviet forces launched the huge Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation against the Japanese Kwantung Army in Manchuria and along the Chinese Mongolian border 44 This operation destroyed the Kwantung Army in just three weeks and left the USSR occupying all of Manchuria by the end of the war in a total power vacuum of local Chinese forces Consequently the 700 000 Japanese troops stationed in the region surrendered Later in the year Chiang Kai shek realized that he lacked the resources to prevent a CCP takeover of Manchuria following the scheduled Soviet departure 45 He therefore made a deal with the Soviets to delay their withdrawal until he had moved enough of his best trained men and modern material into the region However the Soviets refused permission for the Nationalist troops to traverse its territory and spent the extra time systematically dismantling the extensive Manchurian industrial base worth up to 2 billion and shipping it back to their war ravaged country 45 KMT troops were then airlifted by the US to occupy key cities in North China while the countryside was already dominated by the CCP On 15 November 1945 the KMT began a campaign to prevent the CCP from strengthening its already strong base 46 At the same time however the return of the KMT also brought widespread graft and corruption with an OSS officer remarking that the only winners were the Communists 47 In the winter of 1945 46 Joseph Stalin commanded Marshal Rodion Malinovsky to give Mao Zedong most Imperial Japanese Army weapons that were captured 48 Chiang Kai shek s forces pushed as far as Chinchow Jinzhou by 26 November 1945 meeting with little resistance This was followed by a Communist offensive on the Shandong Peninsula that was largely successful as all of the peninsula except what was controlled by the US fell to the Communists 46 The truce fell apart in June 1946 when full scale war between CCP and KMT forces broke out on 26 June 1946 China then entered a state of civil war that lasted more than three years 49 The Soviet Red Army invaded Manchuria in August 1945 Chinese Communist soldiers march north to occupy rural Manchuria 1945 Resumed fighting 1946 1949 EditBackground and disposition of forces Edit Resumed fighting 1946 1949 Third National Revolutionary War Mainland China Traditional Chinese第三次國內革命戰爭Simplified Chinese第三次国内革命战争TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinDisanci Guonei Geming ZhanzhengWar of Liberation mainland China Traditional Chinese解放戰爭Simplified Chinese解放战争TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinJiefang ZhanzhengWuRomanizationchia fhon tsan zenYue CantoneseJyutpinggaai2 fong3 zin3 zang1Southern MinHokkien POJkai hong chian chengAnti Communist Counter insurgency War Taiwan Traditional Chinese反共戡亂戰爭Simplified Chinese反共戡乱战争TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinFǎngong Kanluan ZhanzhengChinese People s Liberation War mainland China Traditional Chinese中國人民解放戰爭Simplified Chinese中国人民解放战争TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinZhōngguo Renmin Jiefang ZhanzhengBy the end of the Second Sino Japanese War the power of the Communist Party grew considerably Their main force grew to 1 2 million troops backed with additional militia of 2 million totalling 3 2 million troops Their Liberated Zone in 1945 contained 19 base areas including one quarter of the country s territory and one third of its population this included many important towns and cities Moreover the Soviet Union turned over all of its captured Japanese weapons and a substantial amount of their own supplies to the Communists who received Northeastern China from the Soviets as well 50 In March 1946 despite repeated requests from Chiang the Soviet Red Army under the command of Marshal Rodion Malinovsky continued to delay pulling out of Manchuria while Malinovsky secretly told the CCP forces to move in behind them which led to full scale war for the control of the Northeast These favorable conditions also facilitated many changes inside the Communist leadership the more radical hard line faction who wanted a complete military take over of China finally gained the upper hand and defeated the careful opportunists 51 Before giving control to Communist leaders on 27 March Soviet diplomats requested a joint venture of industrial development with the Nationalist Party in Manchuria 52 Although General Marshall stated that he knew of no evidence that the CCP was being supplied by the Soviet Union the CCP was able to utilize a large number of weapons abandoned by the Japanese including some tanks When large numbers of well trained KMT troops began to defect to the Communist forces the CCP was finally able to achieve material superiority 53 54 The CCP s ultimate trump card was its land reform policy This drew the massive number of landless and starving peasants in the countryside into the Communist cause 55 This strategy enabled the CCP to access an almost unlimited supply of manpower for both combat and logistical purposes despite suffering heavy casualties throughout many of the war s campaigns manpower continued to grow For example during the Huaihai Campaign alone the CCP was able to mobilize 5 430 000 peasants to fight against the KMT forces 56 Nationalist warplanes being prepared for an air raid on Communist bases After the war with the Japanese ended Chiang Kai shek quickly moved KMT troops to newly liberated areas to prevent Communist forces from receiving the Japanese surrender 50 The US airlifted many KMT troops from central China to the Northeast Manchuria President Harry S Truman was very clear about what he described as using the Japanese to hold off the Communists In his memoirs he writes It was perfectly clear to us that if we told the Japanese to lay down their arms immediately and march to the seaboard the entire country would be taken over by the Communists We therefore had to take the unusual step of using the enemy as a garrison until we could airlift Chinese National troops to South China and send Marines to guard the seaports President Truman 57 Using the pretext of receiving the Japanese surrender business interests within the KMT government occupied most of the banks factories and commercial properties which had previously been seized by the Imperial Japanese Army 50 They also conscripted troops at an accelerated pace from the civilian population and hoarded supplies preparing for a resumption of war with the Communists These hasty and harsh preparations caused great hardship for the residents of cities such as Shanghai where the unemployment rate rose dramatically to 37 5 50 The US strongly supported the Kuomintang forces About 50 000 US soldiers were sent to guard strategic sites in Hebei and Shandong in Operation Beleaguer The US equipped and trained KMT troops and transported Japanese and Koreans back to help KMT forces to occupy liberated zones as well as to contain Communist controlled areas 50 According to William Blum American aid included substantial amounts of mostly surplus military supplies and loans were made to the KMT 58 Within less than two years after the Sino Japanese War the KMT had received 4 43 billion from the US most of which was military aid 50 Outbreak of war Edit Situation in 1947 Situation in the fall of 1948 Situation in the winter of 1948 and 1949 Situation in April to October 1949As postwar negotiations between the Nationalist government in Nanjing and the Communist Party failed the civil war between these two parties resumed This stage of war is referred to in mainland China and Communist historiography as the War of Liberation Chinese 解放战争 pinyin Jiefang Zhanzheng On 20 July 1946 Chiang Kai shek launched a large scale assault on Communist territory in North China with 113 brigades a total of 1 6 million troops 50 This marked the first stage of the final phase in the Chinese Civil War Knowing their disadvantages in manpower and equipment the CCP executed a passive defense strategy It avoided the strong points of the KMT army and was prepared to abandon territory in order to preserve its forces In most cases the surrounding countryside and small towns had come under Communist influence long before the cities The CCP also attempted to wear out the KMT forces as much as possible This tactic seemed to be successful after a year the power balance became more favorable to the CCP They wiped out 1 12 million KMT troops while their strength grew to about two million men 50 The PLA enters Beiping today s Beijing in the Pingjin Campaign In March 1947 the KMT achieved a symbolic victory by seizing the CCP capital of Yan an 59 The Communists counterattacked soon afterwards on 30 June 1947 CCP troops crossed the Yellow River and moved to the Dabie Mountains area restored and developed the Central Plain At the same time Communist forces also began to counterattack in Northeastern China North China and East China 50 By late 1948 the CCP eventually captured the northern cities of Shenyang and Changchun and seized control of the Northeast after suffering numerous setbacks while trying to take the cities with the decisive Liaoshen Campaign 60 The New 1st Army regarded as the best KMT army was forced to surrender after the CCP conducted a brutal six month siege of Changchun that resulted in more than 150 000 civilian deaths from starvation 61 Republic of China FT tanks The capture of large KMT units provided the CCP with the tanks heavy artillery and other combined arms assets needed to execute offensive operations south of the Great Wall By April 1948 the city of Luoyang fell cutting the KMT army off from Xi an 62 Following a fierce battle the CCP captured Jinan and Shandong province on 24 September 1948 The Huaihai Campaign of late 1948 and early 1949 secured east central China for the CCP 60 The outcome of these encounters were decisive for the military outcome of the civil war 60 The Pingjin Campaign resulted in the Communist conquest of northern China It lasted 64 days from 21 November 1948 to 31 January 1949 63 The PLA suffered heavy casualties while securing Zhangjiakou Tianjin along with its port and garrison at Dagu and Beiping 63 The CCP brought 890 000 troops from the northeast to oppose some 600 000 KMT troops 62 There were 40 000 CCP casualties at Zhangjiakou alone They in turn killed wounded or captured some 520 000 KMT during the campaign 63 The Nationalists retreat to Taipei after the Nationalists lost Nanjing Nanking they next moved to Guangzhou Canton then to Chongqing Chungking Chengdu Chengtu and finally Xichang Sichang before arriving Taipei in 1949 After achieving decisive victory at Liaoshen Huaihai and Pingjin campaigns the CCP destroyed 144 regular and 29 irregular KMT divisions including 1 54 million veteran KMT troops which significantly reduced the strength of Nationalist forces 50 Stalin initially favored a coalition government in postwar China and tried to persuade Mao to stop the CCP from crossing the Yangtze and attacking the KMT positions south of the river 64 Mao rejected Stalin s position and on 21 April and began the Yangtze River Crossing Campaign On 23 April they captured the KMT s capital Nanjing 31 The KMT government retreated to Canton Guangzhou until 15 October Chongqing until 25 November and then Chengdu before retreating to Taiwan on 7 December By late 1949 the People s Liberation Army was pursuing remnants of KMT forces southwards in southern China and only Tibet was left A Chinese Muslim Hui cavalry regiment the 14th Tungan Cavalry was sent by the Chinese government to attack Mongol and Soviet positions along the border during the Pei ta shan Incident 65 66 The Kuomintang made several last ditch attempts to use Khampa troops against the Communists in southwest China The Kuomintang formulated a plan in which three Khampa divisions would be assisted by the Panchen Lama to oppose the Communists 67 Kuomintang intelligence reported that some Tibetan tusi chiefs and the Khampa Su Yonghe controlled 80 000 troops in Sichuan Qinghai and Tibet They hoped to use them against the Communist army 68 Pushing south Edit Main article Proclamation of the People s Republic of China Mao Zedong s proclamation of the founding of the People s Republic in 1949 On 1 October 1949 Mao Zedong proclaimed the founding of the People s Republic of China with its capital at Beiping which was returned to the former name Beijing Chiang Kai shek and approximately two million Nationalist soldiers retreated from mainland China to the island of Taiwan in December after the PLA advanced into the Sichuan province Isolated Nationalist pockets of resistance remained in the area but the majority of the resistance collapsed after the fall of Chengdu on 10 December 1949 with some resistance continuing in the far south 69 Communist conquest of Hainan Island in mid 1950 A PRC attempt to take the ROC controlled island of Quemoy was thwarted in the Battle of Kuningtou halting the PLA advance towards Taiwan 70 In December 1949 Chiang proclaimed Taipei the temporary capital of the Republic of China and continued to assert his government as the sole legitimate authority in China The Communists other amphibious operations of 1950 were more successful they led to the Communist conquest of Hainan Island in April 1950 capture of Wanshan Islands off the Guangdong coast May August 1950 Zhoushan Island off Zhejiang May 1950 71 Aftermath and unsolved issues 1949 present EditMain articles Cross Strait relations and Kuomintang retreat to Taiwan See also Political status of Taiwan and Two Chinas Map of the Chinese Civil War 1946 1949 and 1950 Most observers expected Chiang s government to eventually fall to the imminent invasion of Taiwan by the People s Liberation Army and the US was initially reluctant in offering full support for Chiang in their final stand US President Harry S Truman announced on 5 January 1950 that the United States would not engage in any dispute involving the Taiwan Strait and that he would not intervene in the event of an attack by the PRC 72 Truman seeking to exploit the possibility of a Titoist style Sino Soviet split announced in his United States Policy toward Formosa that the US would obey the Cairo Declaration s designation of Taiwan as Chinese territory and would not assist the Nationalists However the Communist leadership was not aware of this change of policy instead becoming increasingly hostile to the US 73 The situation quickly changed after the sudden onset of the Korean War in June 1950 This led to changing political climate in the US and President Truman ordered the United States Seventh Fleet to sail to the Taiwan Strait as part of the containment policy against potential Communist advance 74 Forget not that you are in Jǔ a rock in Quemoy Island with Chiang Kai shek s calligraphy signifying the retaking of one s homeland In June 1949 the ROC declared a closure of all mainland China ports and its navy attempted to intercept all foreign ships The closure was from a point north of the mouth of Min River in Fujian to the mouth of the Liao River in Liaoning 75 Since mainland China s railroad network was underdeveloped north south trade depended heavily on sea lanes ROC naval activity also caused severe hardship for mainland China fishermen During the retreat of the Republic of China to Taiwan KMT troops who couldn t retreat to Taiwan were left behind and allied with local bandits to fight a guerrilla war against the Communists These KMT remnants were eliminated in the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries and the Campaigns to Suppress Bandits 76 According to official statistics from the CCP in 1954 during the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries at least 2 6 million people were arrested some 1 29 million people were imprisoned and 712 000 people were executed 77 Most of those killed were former Kuomintang officials businessmen former employees of Western companies and intellectuals whose loyalty was suspect 78 Winning China proper in 1950 also after Annexation of Tibet the CCP controlled the entire mainland in late 1951 excluding Kinmen and Matsu Islands But a group of approximately 3 000 KMT Central soldiers retreated to Burma and continued launching guerrilla attacks into south China during the Kuomintang Islamic Insurgency in China 1950 1958 and Campaign at the China Burma Border Their leader Li Mi was paid a salary by the ROC government and given the nominal title of Governor of Yunnan Initially the US supported these remnants and the Central Intelligence Agency provided them with military aid After the Burmese government appealed to the United Nations in 1953 the US began pressuring the ROC to withdraw its loyalists By the end of 1954 nearly 6 000 soldiers had left Burma and Li declared his army disbanded However thousands remained and the ROC continued to supply and command them even secretly supplying reinforcements at times to maintain a base close to China After the ROC complained to the United Nations against the Soviet Union for violating the Sino Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance to support the CCP the UN General Assembly Resolution 505 was adopted on 1 February 1952 condemning the Soviet Union In the end the Communist military forces suffered 1 3 million combat casualties in the 1945 1949 phase of the war 260 000 killed 190 000 missing and 850 000 wounded discounting irregulars Nationalist casualties in the same phase were recorded after the war by the PRC 5 452 700 regulars and 2 258 800 irregulars 7 Monument in memory of the crossing of the Yangtze in Nanjing Taiwan Strait Tensions Edit Though viewed as a military liability by the US the ROC viewed its remaining islands in Fujian as vital for any future campaign to defeat the PRC and retake mainland China On 3 September 1954 the First Taiwan Strait Crisis began when the PLA started shelling Kinmen and threatened to take the Dachen Islands in Zhejiang 75 On 20 January 1955 the PLA took nearby Yijiangshan Island with the entire ROC garrison of 720 troops killed or wounded defending the island On 24 January of the same year the United States Congress passed the Formosa Resolution authorizing the President to defend the ROC s offshore islands 75 The First Taiwan Straits crisis ended in March 1955 when the PLA ceased its bombardment The crisis was brought to a close during the Bandung conference 75 The Second Taiwan Strait Crisis began on 23 August 1958 with air and naval engagements between PRC and ROC forces leading to intense artillery bombardment of Quemoy by the PRC and Amoy by the ROC and ended on November of the same year 75 PLA patrol boats blockaded the islands from ROC supply ships Though the US rejected Chiang Kai shek s proposal to bomb mainland China artillery batteries it quickly moved to supply fighter jets and anti aircraft missiles to the ROC It also provided amphibious assault ships to land supplies as a sunken ROC naval vessel was blocking the harbor On 7 September the US escorted a convoy of ROC supply ships and the PRC refrained from firing The third crisis occurred in 1995 96 The PLA responded to Taiwanese President Lee Teng hui s visit to the United States and the U S recognition of Lee as a representative of Taiwan with military exercises PLA actions were also meant to deter Taiwanese voters from supporting Lee in the 1996 election The U S deployed two aircraft carriers in response to the PLA s actions and Lee won the election The carriers were not attacked and deescalation followed 79 U S speaker Nancy Pelosi s visit to Taiwan in August 2022 triggered the PLA to cause military exercises across the Taiwan Strait She originally intended to travel to Taiwan in April 2022 80 but was delayed due to COVID 19 81 She rescheduled the trip to August as part of a wider Asian trip The White House was reported to have been initially divided over the appropriateness of the trip but later affirmed Pelosi s right to visit Taiwan 82 83 84 85 As a result the PLA announced four days of unprecedented military live fire drills 86 in six zones that encircle the island on the busiest international waterways and aviation routes 87 In response to the announcement ROC officials complained that the PLA s live fire drills were an invasion of Taiwan s territorial space and a direct challenge to free air and sea navigation 88 Political fallout Edit Main articles China and the United Nations and United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758 Lockheed U 2 wreckage pilot Chang Liyi on display at the Museum in Beijing On 25 October 1971 the United Nations General Assembly admitted the PRC and expelled the ROC which had been a founding member of the United Nations and was one of the five permanent members of the Security Council Representatives of Chiang Kai shek refused to recognise their accreditations as representatives of China and left the assembly Recognition for the People s Republic of China soon followed from most other member nations including the United States 89 By 1984 PRC and ROC began to de escalate their hostilities through diplomatic relations with each other and cross straits trade and investment has been growing ever since The state of war was officially declared over by the ROC in 1991 90 Despite the end of the hostilities the two sides have never signed any agreement or treaty to officially end the war According to Mao Zedong there were three ways of staving off imperialist intervention in the short term during the continuation of the Chinese Revolution The first was through a rapid completion of the military takeover of the country and through showing determination and strength against foreign attempts at challenging the new regime along its borders The second was by formalising a comprehensive military alliance with the Soviet Union which would dedicate Soviet power to directly defending China against its enemies this aspect became extensively significant given the backdrop of the start of the Cold War And finally the regime had to root out its domestic opponents the heads of secret societies religious sects independent unions or tribal and ethnic organisations By destroying the basis of domestic reaction Mao believed a safer world for the Chinese revolution to spread in would come into existence 91 Under the new ROC president Lee Teng hui the Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion was renounced in May 1991 thus ending the chances of the Kuomintang s quest to retake the mainland In July 1999 Lee announced a special diplomatic relationship China was furious again but the military drills were stopped by the 921 earthquakes It was the last tense moment of this civil war 92 With the election in 2000 of Democratic Progressive Party candidate Chen Shui bian a party other than the KMT gained the presidency for the first time in Taiwan The new president did not share the Chinese nationalist ideology of the KMT and CCP This led to tension between the two sides although trade and other ties such as the 2005 Pan Blue visit continued to increase With the election of Pro mainland President Ma Ying jeou KMT in 2008 significant warming of relations resumed between Taipei and Beijing with high level exchanges between the semi official diplomatic organizations of both states such as the Chen Chiang summit series Although the Taiwan Strait remains a potential flash point regular direct air links were established in 2009 12 page needed Reasons for the Communist victory EditThe historian Rana Mitter concluded that the Nationalist government in 1945 had been fundamentally destroyed by the war with Japan 93 Mitter writes that a lack of trust in the Nationalist government developed as it was increasingly seen as corrupt vindictive and with no overall vision of what China under its rule should look like 94 Historian Odd Arne Westad says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang Kai shek and also because in his search for a powerful centralized government Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China Furthermore his party was weakened in the war against the Japanese Meanwhile the Communists targeted different groups such as peasants and brought them to their side 95 Chiang wrote in his diary in June 1948 After the fall of Kaifeng our conditions worsened and became more serious I now realized that the main reason our nation has collapsed time after time throughout our history was not because of superior power used by our external enemies but because of disintegration and rot from within 96 The better trained Communist army was also able to receive support from the USSR which helped to counter the American aid that the Nationalists received 94 Chen Yun said They did their best to help us we were backed by the Soviet Union and North Korea 97 98 99 100 Strong American support for the Nationalists was hedged with the failure of the Marshall Mission and then stopped completely mainly because of KMT corruption 101 such as the notorious Yangtze Development Corporation controlled by H H Kung and T V Soong s family 102 103 and KMT s military setback in Northeast China The main advantage of the Chinese Communist Party was the extraordinary cohesion within the top level of its leadership These skills were not only secured from defections that came about during difficult times but also coupled with communications and top level debates over tactics The charismatic style of leadership of Mao Zedong created a unity of purpose and a unity of command which the KMT lacked Apart from that the CCP had mastered the manipulation of local politics to their benefit this was also derived from their propaganda skills that had also been decentralised successfully By portraying their opponents as enemies of all groups of Chinese and itself as defenders of the nation and people given the backdrop of the war with Japan 104 In the Chinese Civil War after 1945 the economy in the ROC areas collapsed because of hyperinflation and the failure of price controls by the ROC government and financial reforms the Gold Yuan devaluated sharply in late 1948 105 and resulted in the ROC government losing the support of the cities middle classes In the meantime the Communists continued their relentless land reform land redistribution programs to win the support of the population in the countryside Historians such as Jay Taylor and Robert Cowley and Anne W Carroll argue that the nationalists failure was largely caused by external reasons outside of the KMT s control most notably the refusal of the Truman administration to support Chiang with the withdrawal of aid US armed embargo the failed pursuit of a detente between the nationalists and the communists and the USSR s consistent support of the CPC in the Chinese Civil War 106 107 108 109 Atrocities EditDuring the war both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities with millions of non combatants deliberately killed by both sides 110 Benjamin Valentino has estimated atrocities in the Chinese Civil War resulted in the death of between 1 8 million and 3 5 million people between 1927 and 1949 111 better source needed dubious discuss Nationalist atrocities Edit Over several years after the 1927 Shanghai massacre the Kuomintang killed between 300 000 and one million people primarily peasants in anti communist campaigns as part of the White Terror 112 113 During the White Terror the Nationalists specifically targeted women with short hair who had not been subjected to foot binding on the presumption that such non traditional women were radicals 113 Nationalist forces cut off their breasts shaved their heads and displayed their mutilated bodies to intimidate the populace 113 From 1946 to 1949 the Nationalists arrested tortured and killed political dissidents via the Sino American Cooperative Organization 114 Communist atrocities Edit Main articles Siege of Changchun and Chinese Land Reform Mass killings of landlords During the December 1930 Futian incident the communists executed 2 000 to 3 000 members of the Futian battalion after its leaders had mutinied against Mao Zedong 115 Between 1931 and 1934 in the Jiangxi Fujian Soviet the communist authorities engaged in a widespread campaign of violence against civilians to ensure compliance with its policies and to stop defection to the advancing KMT including mass executions land confiscation and forced labor 116 According to Li Weihan a high ranking communist in Jiangxi at the time in response to mass flight of civilians to KMT held areas the local authorities authorities would usually to send armed squads after those attempting to flee and kill them on the spot producing numerous mass graves throughout the CSR Chinese Soviet Republic in Jiangxi that would later be uncovered by the KMT and its allies Zhang Wentian another high ranking communist reported that the policy of annihilating landlords as an exploiting class had degenerated into a massacre 117 The population of the communist controlled area fell by 700 000 from 1931 and 1935 of which a large proportion were murdered as class enemies worked to death committed suicide or died in other circumstances attributable to the communists 118 During the Siege of Changchun the People s Liberation Army implemented a military blockade on the KMT held city of Changchun and prevented civilians from leaving the city during the blockade 119 this blockade caused the starvation of tens 119 to 150 120 thousand civilians The PLA continued to use siege tactics throughout Northeast China 121 At the outbreak of the Chinese Civil War in 1946 Mao Zedong began to push for a return to radical policies to mobilize China against the landlord class but protected the rights of middle peasants and specified that rich peasants were not landlords 122 The 7 July Directive of 1946 set off eighteen months of fierce conflict in which all rich peasant and landlord property of all types was to be confiscated and redistributed to poor peasants Party work teams went quickly from village to village and divided the population into landlords rich middle poor and landless peasants Because the work teams did not involve villagers in the process however rich and middle peasants quickly returned to power 123 The Outline Land Law of October 1947 increased the pressure 124 Those condemned as landlords were buried alive dismembered strangled and shot 125 In response to the aforementioned land reform campaign the Kuomintang helped establish the Huanxiang Tuan 還鄉團 or Homecoming Legion which was composed of landlords who sought the return of their redistributed land and property from peasants and CCP guerrillas as well as forcibly conscripted peasants and communist POWs 126 The Homecoming legion conducted its guerrilla warfare campaign against CCP forces and purported collaborators up until the end of the civil war in 1949 126 See also Edit War portal China portal Taiwan portalList of wars involving the People s Republic of China Campaign to suppress bandits in northeast China Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Wuping Campaign to suppress bandits in southwestern China Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Eastern ChinaReferences Edit a b c Li Xiaobing 2012 China at War An Encyclopedia p 295 ISBN 9781598844153 Li Xiaobing 1 June 2007 A History of the Modern Chinese Army University Press of Kentucky ISBN 978 0 8131 7224 8 a b Hsiung James C 1992 China s Bitter Victory The War With Japan 1937 1945 New York M E Sharpe publishing ISBN 1 56324 246 X a b Sarker Sunil Kumar 1994 The Rise and Fall of Communism Atlantic Publishers amp Dist ISBN 9788171565153 曹 前发 毛泽东的独创 兵民是胜利之本 中国共产党新闻网 人民网 中国共产党新闻网 a b c Lynch Michael 2010 The Chinese Civil War 1945 49 Osprey Publishing p 91 ISBN 978 1 84176 671 3 a b The History of the Chinese People s Liberation Army Beijing People s Liberation Army Press 1983 Twentieth Century Atlas Death Tolls Twentieth Century Atlas Death Tolls Lew Christopher R Leung Pak Wah eds 2013 Historical Dictionary of the Chinese Civil War Lanham Maryland The Scarecrow Press Inc p 3 ISBN 978 0810878730 Green Leslie C The Contemporary Law of Armed Conflict p 79 a b So Alvin Y Lin Nan Poston Dudley eds July 2001 The Chinese Triangle of Mainland China Taiwan and Hong Kong Comparative Institutional Analyses Contributions in Sociology Vol 133 Westport CT London Greenwood Press ISBN 978 0 313 30869 7 ISSN 0084 9278 OCLC 45248282 a b c Milestones 1945 1952 Office of the Historian history state gov Retrieved 28 October 2021 a b c March G Patrick Eastern Destiny Russia in Asia and the North Pacific 1996 1996 Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 0 275 95566 4 p 205 a b H H Chang Chiang Kai Shek Asia s Man of Destiny Doubleday 1944 reprint 2007 ISBN 1 4067 5818 3 p 126 Ho Alfred K Ho Alfred Kuo liang 2004 2004 China s Reforms and Reformers Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 0 275 96080 3 p 7 a b c Fairbank John King 1994 1994 China A New History Harvard University Press ISBN 0 674 11673 9 Kuhn Robert 2005 The man who changed China the life and legacy of Jiang Zemin Crown Publishers Zedong Mao Thompson Roger R 1990 1990 Report from Xunwu Stanford University Press ISBN 0 8047 2182 3 Brune Lester H Dean Burns Richard Dean Burns 2003 2003 Chronological History of U S Foreign Relations Routledge ISBN 0 415 93914 3 Zhao Suisheng 2004 2004 A Nation state by Construction Dynamics of Modern Chinese Nationalism Stanford University Press ISBN 0 8047 5001 7 Guo Xuezhi 2002 2002 The Ideal Chinese Political Leader A Historical and Cultural Perspective Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 0 275 97259 3 Theodore De Bary William Bloom Irene Chan Wing tsit Adler Joseph Lufrano Richard Lufrano John 1999 1999 Sources of Chinese Tradition Columbia University Press ISBN 0 231 10938 5 p 328 a b c Lee Lai to Trade Unions in China 1949 To the Present 1986 1986 National University of Singapore Press ISBN 9971 69 093 4 Blasko Dennis J 2006 2006 The Chinese Army Today Tradition and Transformation for the 21st Century Routledge ISBN 0 415 77003 3 Esherick Joseph 2000 Remaking the Chinese City Modernity and National Identity 1900 1950 University of Hawaii Press ISBN 0 8248 2518 7 Clark Anne Klein Donald eds 1971 Biographic Dictionary of Chinese Communism Harvard University Press p 134 Lynch Michael Lynch Clausen Soren 2003 2003 Mao Routledge ISBN 0 415 21577 3 a b Manwaring Max G Joes Anthony James 2000 2000 Beyond Declaring Victory and Coming Home The Challenges of Peace and Stability operations Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 0 275 96768 9 p 58 Karl Rebecca E 2010 Mao Zedong and China in the twentieth century world a concise history Durham NC Duke University Press p 46 ISBN 978 0 8223 4780 4 OCLC 503828045 a b Zhang Chunhou Vaughan C Edwin 2002 2002 Mao Zedong as Poet and Revolutionary Leader Social and Historical Perspectives Lexington books ISBN 0 7391 0406 3 pp 58 65 Bianco Lucien Bell Muriel 1971 1971 Origins of the Chinese Revolution 1915 1949 Stanford University Press ISBN 0 8047 0827 4 p 68 Lin Hsiao ting 2010 Modern China s Ethnic Frontiers A Kourney to the West Routledge studies in the modern history of Asia Vol 67 illustrated ed Taylor amp Francis p 52 ISBN 978 0 415 58264 3 Retrieved 27 December 2011 A force of about 300 soldiers was organized and augmented by recruiting local Khampa bandits into the army The relationship between the Consolatory Commission and Liu Wenhui seriously deteriorated in early 1936 when the Norla Hutuktu Background of Xi an Incident Cultural China Retrieved June 4 2021 a b Ye Zhaoyan Ye Berry Michael 2003 2003 Nanjing 1937 A Love Story Columbia University Press ISBN 0 231 12754 5 a b c Buss Claude Albert 1972 1972 Stanford Alumni Association The People s Republic of China and Richard Nixon United States a b Schoppa R Keith 2000 2000 The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History Columbia University Press ISBN 0 231 11276 9 Chen Jian 2001 2001 Mao s China and the Cold War The University of North Carolina Press ISBN 0 807 84932 4 Lary Diana 2007 2007 China s Republic Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 84256 5 a b Zarrow Peter Gue 2005 China in War and Revolution 1895 1949 Routledge ISBN 0 415 36447 7 p 338 Spector Ronald H 2007 In the ruins of empire the Japanese surrender and the battle for postwar Asia 1st ed New York pp 38 39 ISBN 9780375509155 Spector Ronald H 2007 In the ruins of empire the Japanese surrender and the battle for postwar Asia 1st ed New York ISBN 9780375509155 a b Xu Guangqiu 2001 2001 War Wings The United States and Chinese Military Aviation 1929 1949 Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 0 313 32004 7 p 201 Bright Richard Carl 2007 2007 Pain and Purpose in the Pacific True Reports of War Trafford Publishing ISBN 1 4251 2544 1 a b Lilley James China hands nine decades of adventure espionage and diplomacy in Asia PublicAffairs New York 2004 a b Jessup John E 1989 A Chronology of Conflict and Resolution 1945 1985 New York Greenwood Press ISBN 0 313 24308 5 Spector Ronald H 2007 In the ruins of empire the Japanese surrender and the battle for postwar Asia 1st ed New York p 61 ISBN 9780375509155 Yang Kuisong 24 November 2011 杨奎松 读史求实 苏联给了林彪东北野战军多少现代武器 Sina Books Archived from the original on 26 September 2013 Retrieved 17 May 2013 Hu Jubin 2003 Projecting a Nation Chinese National Cinema Before 1949 Hong Kong University Press ISBN 962 209 610 7 a b c d e f g h i j Nguyễn Anh Thai chief author Nguyễn Quốc Hung Vũ Ngọc Oanh Trần Thị Vinh Đặng Thanh Toan Đỗ Thanh Binh 2002 Lịch sử thế giới hiện đại in Vietnamese Ho Chi Minh City Giao Dục Publisher pp 320 322 8934980082317 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a last has generic name help Michael M Sheng Battling Western Imperialism Princeton University Press 1997 pp 132 135 Liu Shiao Tang 1978 Min Kuo Ta Shih Jih Chih Vol 2 Taipei Zhuan Chi Wen Shuan p 735 The New York Times 12 January 1947 p 44 Zeng Kelin Zeng Kelin jianjun zishu General Zeng Kelin Tells His Story Liaoning renmin chubanshe Shenyang 1997 pp 112 113 Ray Huang cong dalishi jiaodu du Jiang Jieshi riji Reading Chiang Kai shek s diary from a macro history perspective China Times Publishing Press Taipei 1994 pp 441 443 Lung Ying tai dajiang dahai 1949 Commonwealth Publishing Press Taipei 2009 p 184 Harry S Truman Memoirs Vol Two Years of Trial and Hope 1946 1953 Great Britain 1956 p 66 p23 U S Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II William Blum Zed Books 2004 London Lilley James R China Hands Nine Decades of Adventure Espionage and Diplomacy in Asia ISBN 1 58648 136 3 a b c Westad Odd Arne 2003 2003 Decisive Encounters The Chinese Civil War 1946 1950 Stanford University Press ISBN 0 8047 4484 X pp 192 193 Pomfret John Red Army Starved 150 000 Chinese Civilians Books Says Seattle Times 2 October 2009 Accessed 2009 10 02 Archived WebSite a b Elleman Bruce A Modern Chinese Warfare 1795 1989 Routledge ISBN 0 415 21473 4 a b c Finkelstein David Michael Ryan Mark A McDevitt Michael 2003 2003 Chinese Warfighting The PLA Experience Since 1949 M E Sharpe China ISBN 0 7656 1088 4 p 63 Donggil Kim Stalin and the Chinese Civil War Cold War History 10 2 2010 185 202 Andrew D W Forbes 1986 Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911 1949 Cambridge England CUP Archive p 215 ISBN 0 521 25514 7 Retrieved 28 June 2010 Andrew D W Forbes 1986 Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911 1949 Cambridge England CUP Archive p 225 ISBN 0 521 25514 7 Retrieved 28 June 2010 Hsiao ting Lin 2010 Modern China s ethnic frontiers a journey to the west Vol 67 of Routledge studies in the modern history of Asia illustrated ed Taylor amp Francis p 117 ISBN 978 0 415 58264 3 Retrieved 27 December 2011 China s far northwest 23 A simultaneous proposal suggested that with the support of the new Panchen Lama and his entourage at least three army divisions of anti Communist Khampa Tibetans could be mustered in southwest China Hsiao ting Lin 2010 Modern China s ethnic frontiers a journey to the west Vol 67 of Routledge studies in the modern history of Asia illustrated ed Taylor amp Francis p xxi ISBN 978 0 415 58264 3 Retrieved 27 December 2011 tusi from the Sichuan Qinghai border and Su Yonghe a Khampa native chieftain from Nagchuka on the Qinghai Tibetan border According to Nationalist intelligence reports these leaders altogether commanded about 80000 irregulars Cook Chris Cook Stevenson John 2005 2005 The Routledge Companion to World History Since 1914 Routledge ISBN 0 415 34584 7 p 376 Qi Bangyuan Wang Dewei Wang David Der wei 2003 2003 The Last of the Whampoa Breed Stories of the Chinese Diaspora Columbia University Press ISBN 0 231 13002 3 p 2 MacFarquhar Roderick Fairbank John K Twitchett Denis C 1991 1991 The Cambridge History of China Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 24337 8 p 820 Harry S Truman Statement on Formosa January 5 1950 University of Southern California Retrieved 7 May 2017 Yafeng Xia 2006 Negotiating with the Enemy U S China Talks during the Cold War 1949 1972 Indiana University Press p 38 ISBN 9780253112378 Bush Richard C 2005 Untying the Knot Making Peace in the Taiwan Strait Brookings Institution Press ISBN 0 8157 1288 X a b c d e Tsang Steve Yui Sang Tsang The Cold War s Odd Couple The Unintended Partnership Between the Republic of China and the UK 1950 1958 2006 I B Tauris ISBN 1 85043 842 0 pp 155 115 120 139 145 Yang Kuisong March 2008 Reconsidering the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries The China Quarterly 193 102 121 JSTOR 20192166 via JSTOR Guo Xuezhi 29 August 2012 China s Security State Philosophy Evolution and Politics Cambridge University Press p 62 ISBN 978 1 107 02323 9 Among them 712 000 counterrevolutionaries were executed 1 29 million were imprisoned and 1 2 million were subject to control at various times Steven W Mosher China Misperceived American Illusions and Chinese Reality Basic Books 1992 ISBN 0 465 09813 4 p 73 Kuhn Anthony Feng Emily 2 August 2022 What 3 past Taiwan Strait crises can teach us about U S China tensions today www npr org Retrieved 3 August 2022 Pollard Martin Quin 7 April 2022 China warns U S against House Speaker Pelosi visiting Taiwan Reuters Retrieved 3 August 2022 Chiacu Doina 8 April 2022 U S House Speaker Pelosi is latest U S official to test positive for COVID Reuters Retrieved 3 August 2022 Mason Jeff Martina Michael 1 August 2022 White House U S will not be intimidated by China Pelosi has right to visit Taiwan Reuters Nancy Pelosi s plan to visit Taiwan prompts outrage from China Financial Times Archived from the original on 10 December 2022 Kitaj Tajvan na tli mozhlivogo vizitu Pelosi zrostaye napruzhennya China Taiwan Tensions rise amid possible Pelosi visit BBC News Ukrayina in Ukrainian Archived from the original on 2 August 2022 Retrieved 2 August 2022 Nensi Pelosi letit na Tajvan sho potribno znati pro krizu mizh SShA i Kitayem Nancy Pelosi flies to Taiwan what you need to know about the crisis between the USA and China unian ua in Ukrainian Archived from the original on 1 August 2022 Retrieved 2 August 2022 Zheng Sarah 2 August 2022 China Plans Four Days of Military Drills in Areas Encircling Taiwan Bloomberg Retrieved 3 August 2022 Davidson Helen Ni Vincent 3 August 2022 China to begin series of unprecedented live fire drills off Taiwan coast the Guardian Retrieved 4 August 2022 Lee Yimou 4 August 2022 China begins illegitimate irresponsible live fire military drills Taiwan Reuters Retrieved 4 August 2022 People s Republic of China In Taiwan Out at U N The Learning Network 25 October 2011 Retrieved 20 May 2018 Taiwan flashpoint BBC News Retrieved 20 October 2017 Decisive Encounters By Westad Odd Arne Stanford University Press 21 Mar pp 292 297 2003 Google Books 历次台海危机内幕及其背后大国之间的博弈 图 Retrieved 23 May 2022 Mitter Rana 10 September 2013 Forgotten Ally China s World War II 1937 1945 HMH ISBN 9780547840567 a b Mitter Rana 2020 China s good war how World War II is shaping a new nationalism Cambridge Massachusetts The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press p 54 ISBN 978 0 674 98426 4 OCLC 1141442704 Odd Arne Westad Restless Empire China and the World Since 1750 2012 p 291 Trei Lisa 9 March 2005 Hoover s new archival acquisitions shed light on Chinese history Stanford University Retrieved 11 July 2019 GLAVA 35 GRAZhDANSKAYa VOJNA V KITAE 青 山 苏联出兵之后中共对东北的争夺 中国共产党新闻网 人民网 吕 明辉 朝鲜支援中国东北解放战争纪实 通化师范学院 白山出版社 金 东吉 中国人民解放军中的朝鲜师回朝鲜问题新探 香港中文大學 中國研究服務中心 Sun Tung hsun 1982 Some Recent American Interpretations of Sino American Relations of the Late 1940s An Assessment PDF Institute of European and American Studies Academia Sinica Retrieved 22 November 2018 T V Soong A Register of His Papers in the Hoover Institution Archives media hoover org 轉載 杜月笙的1931 6 五湖煙景的日誌 倍可親 big5 backchina com in Traditional Chinese Archived from the original on 27 February 2015 Retrieved 23 November 2018 For quotes see Odd Arne Westad 2003 Decisive Encounters The Chinese Civil War 1946 1950 Stanford University Press pp 9 11 ISBN 9780804744843 金圓券相關史料 財政部財政史料陳列室 Archived from the original on 2 January 2015 Retrieved 8 March 2014 Taylor Jay 2009 The Generalissimo Harvard University Press pp 102 103 ISBN 9780674054714 Chiang s China Worldif economist com 1 July 2015 Retrieved 20 July 2022 China Without Tears If Chiang Kai Shek Hadn t Gambled in 1946 Uchronia net Retrieved 19 July 2022 Who Lost China EWTN Rummel Rudolph 1994 Death by Government Valentino Benjamin A Final Solutions Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century Cornell University Press 8 December 2005 p 88 Barnouin Barbara and Yu Changgen Zhou Enlai A Political Life Archived 25 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine Hong Kong Chinese University of Hong Kong 2006 ISBN 962 996 280 2 Retrieved 12 November 2022 p 38 a b c Karl Rebecca E 2010 Mao Zedong and China in the twentieth century world a concise history Durham NC Duke University Press p 33 ISBN 978 0 8223 4780 4 OCLC 503828045 Mitter Rana 2020 China s good war how World War II is shaping a new nationalism Cambridge Massachusetts The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press p 179 ISBN 978 0 674 98426 4 OCLC 1141442704 Feigon Lee 2002 Mao A Reinterpretation Chicago Ivan R Dee pp 51 53 ISBN 978 1566634588 Opper Marc 2018 Revolution Defeated The Collapse of the Chinese Soviet Republic Twentieth Century China 43 1 60 doi 10 1353 tcc 2018 0003 S2CID 148775889 Opper Marc 2020 The Chinese Soviet Republic 1931 1934 PDF People s Wars in China Malaya and Vietnam University of Michigan Press p 58 doi 10 3998 mpub 11413902 ISBN 9780472131846 JSTOR 10 3998 mpub 11413902 8 S2CID 211359950 Archived from the original PDF on 18 January 2022 Halliday Jon Chang Jung 30 September 2012 Mao The Unknown Story p 133 ISBN 9781448156863 The Ruijin base the seat of the first Red state consisted of large parts of the provinces of Jiangxi and Fujian These two provinces suffered the greatest population decrease in the whole of China from the year when the Communist state was founded 1931 to the year after the Reds left 1935 The population of Red Jiangxi fell by more than half a million a drop of 20 percent The fall in Red Fujian was comparable Given that escapes were few this means that altogether some 700 000 people died in the Ruijin base A large part of these were murdered as class enemies or were worked to death or committed suicide or died other premature deaths attributable to the regime a b Koga Yukiko 2016 Inheritance of Loss China Japan and the Political Economy of Redemption After Empire Chicago University of Chicago Press ISBN 022641213X Pomfret John October 2 2009 Red Army Starved 150 000 Chinese Civilians Books Says Associated Press The Seattle Times Archived from the original on October 2 2009 Retrieved October 2 2009 Archived from the original on 25 October 2011 Lary Diana 2015 China s Civil War Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 1107054672 DeMare Brian James 2019 Land Wars The Story of China s Agrarian Revolution Palo Alto CA Stanford University Press ISBN 978 1503609525 Tanner 2015 pp 134 135 Saich The Rise to Power of the Chinese Communist Party Outline Land Law of 1947 Scheidel Walter 2017 The Great Leveler Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty First Century Princeton University Press p 225 ISBN 978 0 691 16502 8 a b Liu Zaiyu 2002 第二次國共戰爭時期的還鄉團 PDF Hong Kong Twenty First Century Bimonthly Further reading EditCheng Victor Shiu Chiang Imagining China s Madrid in Manchuria The Communist Military Strategy at the Onset of the Chinese Civil War 1945 1946 Modern China 31 1 2005 72 114 Chi Hsi sheng Nationalist China at War Military Defeats and Political Collapse 1937 45 U of Michigan Press 1982 Dreyer Edward L China at War 1901 1949 Routledge 2014 Dupuy Trevor N The Military History of the Chinese Civil War Franklin Watts Inc 1969 Eastman Lloyd E Who lost China Chiang Kai shek testifies China Quarterly 88 1981 658 668 Eastman Lloyd E et al The Nationalist Era in China 1927 1949 Cambridge UP 1991 Fenby Jonathan Generalissimo Chiang Kai shek and the China He Lost 2003 Ferlanti Federica The New Life Movement at War Wartime Mobilisation and State Control in Chongqing and Chengdu 1938 1942 European Journal of East Asian Studies 11 2 2012 pp 187 212 online how Nationalist forces mobilized society Jian Chen The Myth of America s Lost Chance in China A Chinese Perspective in Light of New Evidence Diplomatic History 21 1 1997 77 86 Lary Diana China s Civil War A Social History 1945 1949 Cambridge UP 2015 excerpt Levine Steven I A new look at American mediation in the Chinese civil war the Marshall mission and Manchuria Diplomatic History 3 4 1979 349 376 Lew Christopher R The Third Chinese Revolutionary Civil War 1945 49 An Analysis of Communist Strategy and Leadership Routledge 2009 Li Xiaobing China at War An Encyclopedia ABC CLIO 2012 Lynch Michael The Chinese Civil War 1945 49 Bloomsbury Publishing 2014 Mitter Rana Research Note Changed by War The Changing Historiography Of Wartime China and New Interpretations Of Modern Chinese History Chinese Historical Review 17 1 2010 85 95 Nasca David S Western Influence on the Chinese National Revolutionary Army from 1925 to 1937 Marine Corps Command And Staff Coll Quantico Va 2013 online Pepper Suzanne Civil war in China the political struggle 1945 1949 Rowman amp Littlefield 1999 Reilly Major Thomas P Mao Tse Tung And Operational Art During The Chinese Civil War Pickle Partners Publishing 2015 online Shen Zhihua and Yafeng Xia Mao and the Sino Soviet Partnership 1945 1959 A New History Lexington Books 2015 Tanner Harold M 2015 Where Chiang Kai shek Lost China The Liao Shen Campaign 1948 Bloomington IN Indiana University Press advanced military history excerpt Taylor Jeremy E and Grace C Huang Deep changes in interpretive currents Chiang Kai shek studies in the post cold war era International Journal of Asian Studies 9 1 2012 99 121 Taylor Jay The Generalissimo Harvard University Press 2009 biography of Chiang Kai shek van de Ven Hans 2017 China at War Triumph and Tragedy in the Emergence of the New China 1937 1952 Cambridge MA Harvard University Press ISBN 9780674983502 Westad Odd Arne 2003 Decisive Encounters The Chinese Civil War 1946 1950 Stanford University Press ISBN 9780804744843 Yick Joseph K S Making Urban Revolution in China The CCP GMD Struggle for Beiping Tianjin 1945 49 Routledge 2015 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chinese Civil War Wikiquote has quotations related to Chinese Civil War Summary of Chinese Civil War 1946 1949 Armored Car Like Oil Tanker Used by Chinese Popular Mechanics March 1930 article and photo of armoured train of Chinese Civil War Topographic maps of China Series L500 U S Army Map Service 1954 Operational Art in the Chinese PLA s Huai Hai Campaign Postal Stamps of the Chinese Post Civil War Era Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Chinese Civil War amp oldid 1140006617, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

    article

    , read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.