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East Timor

March 03, 2023

This article is about the current country. For the former Indonesian province, see East Timor (province).

East Timor (/ˈtiːmɔːr/ (listen)), also known as Timor-Leste (/tiˈmɔːr ˈlɛʃteɪ/; Portuguese pronunciation: [ti.ˈmoɾ ˈɫɛʃ.tɨ]), officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, is a country in Southeast Asia. It comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor, the exclave of Oecusse on the island's north-western half, and the minor islands of Atauro and Jaco. Australia is the country's southern neighbour, separated by the Timor Sea. The country's size is 14,874 square kilometres (5,743 sq mi). Dili is its capital and largest city.

Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste
  • República Democrática de
    Timor-Leste     (Portuguese)
  • Repúblika Demokrátika de
    Timór-Leste     (Tetum)
Motto: Unidade, Acção, Progresso (Portuguese)
"Unity, Action, Progress"
Anthem: Pátria (Portuguese)
"Fatherland"
Capital
and largest city
Dili
8°33′S 125°34′E / 8.55°S 125.56°E / -8.55; 125.56Coordinates: 8°33′S 125°34′E / 8.55°S 125.56°E / -8.55; 125.56
Official languages
National languages
15 languages
Working languages
Religion
(2015 census)[1]
Demonym(s)
  • East Timorese
  • Timorese
  • Maubere (informal)[2][3]
GovernmentUnitary semi-presidential republic[4]
• President
José Ramos-Horta
Taur Matan Ruak
LegislatureNational Parliament
Independence 
from Portugal and Indonesia
16th century
28 November 1975
17 July 1976
25 October 1999
20 May 2002
Area
• Total
14,874 km2 (5,743 sq mi) (154th)
• Water (%)
Negligible
Population
• 2021 estimate
1,340,513 (153rd)
• 2015 census
1,183,643[5]
• Density
78/km2 (202.0/sq mi) (137th)
GDP (PPP)2023 estimate
• Total
 $5 billion
• Per capita
 $3,545[6]
GDP (nominal)2023 estimate
• Total
 $2 billion
• Per capita
 $1,495[6]
Gini (2014)28.7[7]
low
HDI (2019)0.606[8]
medium · 141st
CurrencyUnited States dollarbEast Timor Centavo (USD)
Time zoneUTC+9 (Timor-Leste Time)
Driving sideleft
Calling code+670
ISO 3166 codeTL
Internet TLD.tlc
  1. Fifteen further "national languages" are recognised by the Constitution
  2. Centavo coins also used
  3. Former use of .tp has been phased out

East Timor came under Portuguese influence in the sixteenth century, remaining a Portuguese colony until 1975. Internal conflict preceded a unilateral declaration of independence and an Indonesian invasion and annexation. Resistance continued throughout Indonesian rule, and in 1999 a United Nations–sponsored act of self-determination led to Indonesia relinquishing control of the territory. On 20 May 2002, as Timor-Leste, it became the first new sovereign state of the 21st century.

The national government runs on a semi-presidential system, with the popularly elected president sharing power with a prime minister appointed by the National Parliament. Power is centralised under the national government, although many local leaders have informal influence. The country maintains a policy of international cooperation, and is a member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, an observer of the Pacific Islands Forum, and an applicant for ASEAN membership. The country remains relatively poor, with an economy that relies heavily on natural resources, especially oil, and foreign aid.

The total population is over 1.1 million, and is heavily skewed towards young people due to a high fertility rate. Education has led to the increasing literacy over the past half-century, especially in the two national languages of Portuguese and Tetum. High ethnic and linguistic diversity is reflected by the 30 indigenous languages spoken in the country. The majority of the population is Catholic, which exists alongside strong local traditions, especially in rural areas.

Etymology

"Timor" is derived from timur, meaning 'east' in Malay, thus resulting in a tautological place name meaning 'East East'. In Indonesian, this results in the name Timor Timur. In Portuguese, the country is called Timor-Leste (Leste meaning 'east'; Portuguese pronunciation: [ti'moɾ 'lɛʃ.tɨ]). In Tetum it is Timór Lorosa'e (Lorosa'e can be literally translated as 'where the sun rises').[9][10]

The official names under its constitution are "Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste" in English,[11][12] "República Democrática de Timor-Leste" in Portuguese,[13] and "Repúblika Demokrátika Timór-Leste" in Tetum.[14] The official short form of the name is "Timor-Leste",[12] and it uses the ISO codes TLS & TL.[15]

History

Main article: History of East Timor

Prehistory and Classical era

Main article: Pre-colonial Timor
See also: Greater India

Cultural remains at Jerimalai on the eastern tip of East Timor have been dated to 42,000 years ago.[16] The first known inhabitants are those who arrived during the Australo-Melanesian migration through the region, likely bringing the precursors to today's Papuan languages.[17] A later migration of Austroasiatic-speakers is suspected, although no such languages remain.[18][19] The arrival of Austronesian peoples brought new languages, and merged with existing cultures on the island.[20] Timorese origin myths recount settlers sailing around the eastern end of the island before landing in the south. These people are sometimes noted as being from the Malay Peninsula or the Minangkabau highlands of Sumatra.[21] Austronesian migration to Timor may be associated with the development of agriculture on the island.[22][23]

While information is limited about the political system of Timor during this period, the island had developed an interconnected series of polities governed by customary law. Small communities, centred around a particular sacred house, were part of wider sucos (or principalities), which were themselves part of larger kingdoms led by a liurai. Authority within these kingdoms was held by two individuals, with the worldly power of the liurai balanced by the spiritual power of a rai nain, who was generally associated with the primary sacred house of the kingdom. These polities were numerous and saw shifting alliances and relations, but many were stable enough that they survived from initial European documentation in the 16th century until the end of Portuguese rule.[24]: 11–15 

From perhaps the thirteenth century, the island exported sandalwood,[24]: 267  which was valued both for its use in crafting and as a source of perfume.[25] Timor was included in Southeast Asian, Chinese, and Indian trading networks by the fourteenth century, exporting sandalwood,[26] honey, and wax. The island was recorded by the Majapahit Empire as a source of tribute.[27]: 89  It was sandalwood that attracted European explorers to the island in the early sixteenth century. Early European presence was limited to trade,[28] with the first Portuguese settlement being on the nearby island of Solor.[27]: 90 

Portuguese era (1769–1975)

Main article: Portuguese Timor
 
The Battle of Cailaco in 1726, part of a rebellion following the introduction of a new head tax.

Early Portuguese presence on Timor was very limited; trade was directed through Portuguese settlements on other islands. Only in the 17th century did they establish a more direct presence on the island, a consequence of being driven out of other islands by the Dutch.[24]: 267  After Solor was lost in 1613 the Portuguese moved to Flores. In 1646 the capital moved to Kupang on Timor's west, before Kupang too was lost to the Dutch in 1652. The Portuguese then moved to Lifau, in what is now East Timor's Oecusse exclave.[27]: 90  Effective European occupation in the east of the island only began in 1769, when the city of Dili was founded, although actual control remained highly limited.[29] A definitive border between the Dutch and Portuguese parts of the island was established by the Permanent Court of Arbitration in 1914 and remains the international boundary between the successor states Indonesia and East Timor, respectively.[30]

For the Portuguese, East Timor remained little more than a neglected trading post, with minimal investment in infrastructure and education, until the late nineteenth century. Even when Portugal established actual control over the interior of its colony, investment remained minimal.[24]: 269, 273  Sandalwood continued to be the main export crop and coffee exports became significant in the mid-nineteenth century.[25]

At the beginning of the twentieth century, a faltering domestic economy prompted the Portuguese to extract greater wealth from its colonies, which was met with East Timorese resistance.[26] The colony was seen as an economic burden during the Great Depression and received little support or management from Portugal.[24]: 269 

During World War II, Dili was occupied by the Allies in 1941, and later by the Japanese beginning in 1942. The mountainous interior of the colony became the scene of a guerrilla campaign, known as the Battle of Timor. Waged by East Timorese volunteers and Allied forces against the Japanese, the struggle killed between 40,000 and 70,000 East Timorese civilians.[31] The Japanese eventually drove the last of the Australian and Allied forces out in early 1943.[32] Portuguese control resumed, however, after Japanese surrender at the end of World War II.[33]

Portugal began investment in the colony in the 1950s, funding education and promoting coffee exports, but the economy did not improve substantially and infrastructure improvements were limited.[24]: 269  Growth rates remained low, near 2%.[34] Following the 1974 Portuguese revolution, Portugal effectively abandoned its colony in Timor, and civil war between East Timorese political parties broke out in 1975.

The Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (Fretilin) resisted a Timorese Democratic Union (UDT) coup attempt in August 1975,[35] and unilaterally declared independence on 28 November 1975. Fearing a communist state within the Indonesian archipelago, the Indonesian military launched an invasion of East Timor in December 1975.[36] Indonesia declared East Timor its 27th province on 17 July 1976.[37] The United Nations Security Council opposed the invasion, and the territory's nominal status in the UN remained as "non-self-governing territory under Portuguese administration".[38]

Indonesian occupation (1975–1999)

Main articles: Indonesian occupation of East Timor and Timor Timur
 
A demonstration for independence from Indonesia held in Australia during September 1999

Fretilin resisted the invasion, initially as an army, holding territory until November 1978, and then as a guerrilla resistance.[39] The Indonesian occupation of Timor was marked by violence and brutality. A detailed statistical report prepared for the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor cited a minimum of 102,800 conflict-related deaths in the period between 1974 and 1999, including approximately 18,600 killings and 84,200 excess deaths from hunger and illness. The total number of conflict-related deaths during this period is difficult to determine due to a lack of data. One estimate based on Portuguese, Indonesian, and Catholic Church data suggests it may have been as high as 200,000.[40] Repression and restrictions counteracted improvements in health and education infrastructure and services, meaning there was little overall improvement in living standards; economic growth mostly benefited immigrants from elsewhere in Indonesia.[24]: 271  A huge expansion of education was intended to increase Indonesian language use and internal security as much as it was for development.[41]

The 1991 massacre of more than 200 demonstrators by the Indonesian military was a turning point for the independence cause, and brought increased international pressure on Indonesia. Following the resignation of Indonesian President Suharto,[39] the new President BJ Habibie, prompted by a letter from Australian Prime Minister John Howard, decided to hold a referendum on independence.[42] A UN-sponsored agreement between Indonesia and Portugal allowed for a UN-supervised popular referendum in August 1999. A clear vote for independence was met with a punitive campaign of violence by East Timorese pro-integration militias supported by elements of the Indonesian military. In response, the Indonesian government allowed a multinational peacekeeping force, INTERFET, to restore order and aid East Timorese refugees and internally displaced persons.[43] On 25 October 1999, the administration of East Timor was taken over by the UN through the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET).[44][45] INTERFET deployment ended in February 2000 with the transfer of military command to the UN.[46]

Contemporary era

See also: East Timor independence and United Nations Administered East Timor
 
José Ramos-Horta, 1996 Nobel Peace Prize winner, second president of East Timor

On 30 August 2001, the East Timorese voted in their first election organised by the UN to elect members of the Constituent Assembly.[11][47] On 22 March 2002, the Constituent Assembly approved the Constitution.[11] By May 2002, more than 205,000 refugees had returned.[48] On 20 May 2002, the Constitution of the Democratic Republic of East Timor came into force and East Timor was recognised as independent by the UN.[47][49] The Constituent Assembly was renamed the National Parliament, and Xanana Gusmão was elected as the country's first president.[50] On 27 September 2002 the country became a UN member state.[51]

In 2006, a crisis of unrest and factional fighting forced 155,000 people to flee their homes; the United Nations sent in security forces to restore order.[52][53] The following year, Gusmão declined to run for another term. While there were minor incidents in the build-up to the mid-year presidential elections, the process was peaceful overall and José Ramos-Horta was elected president.[54][55] In June 2007, Gusmão ran in the parliamentary elections and became prime minister at the head of the National Congress for Timorese Reconstruction (CNRT) party. In February 2008, Ramos-Horta was critically injured in an attempted assassination; Prime Minister Gusmão also faced gunfire separately but escaped unharmed. Australian reinforcements were immediately sent to help keep order.[56] In March 2011, the UN handed over operational control of the police force to the East Timor authorities. The United Nations ended its peacekeeping mission on 31 December 2012.[52]

Francisco Guterres of the centre-left Fretilin party became president in May 2017.[57] The leader of Fretilin, Mari Alkatiri, formed a coalition government after the July 2017 parliamentary election. This government soon fell, leading to a second general election in May 2018.[58] In June 2018, former president and independence fighter, Taur Matan Ruak, became the new prime minister.[59] José Ramos-Horta again became president in 20 May 2022 after winning the April 2022 presidential election runoff against Francisco Guterres.[60]


Politics and government

Main article: Politics of East Timor
 
Xanana Gusmão, the first East Timorese president after the end of Indonesian occupation

The political system of East Timor is semi-presidential, based upon the Portuguese system.[61][62]: 175  The constitution establishes both this separation of executive powers between the president and the prime minister; and the separation of powers between the executive, legislature, and judiciary.[63]: 12  Individuals are not allowed to participate in both the legislature and the executive branch. The legislature is intended to provide a check on the executive; in practice the executive has maintained control of the legislature under all political parties, reflecting the dominance of individual leaders within political parties and coalitions.[62]: 174  The executive, through the council of ministers, also holds some formal legislative powers.[62]: 175  The judiciary operates independently, although there are instances of executive interference.[63]: 13, 39 [64] Some courts shift between locations, to improve access for those in more isolated areas.[64] Despite political rhetoric, the constitution and democratic institutions have been followed by politicians, and changes of government are peaceful.[63]: 15, 42  Elections are run by an independent body,[65]: 216  and turnout is high, ranging from around 70% to 85%.[63]: 17 [66] The political system has wide public acceptance.[63]: 17 [67]: 106 

The head of state of East Timor is the president of the republic, who is elected by popular vote for a five-year term,[4]: 244  and can serve a maximum of two terms.[64] Formally, the directly elected president holds relatively limited powers compared to those in similar systems, with no power over the appointment and dismissal of the prime minister and the council of ministers. However, as they are directly elected, past presidents have wielded great informal power and influence.[62]: 175  The president does have the power to veto government legislation, initiate referendums, and to dissolve parliament in the event that it is unable to form a government or pass a budget.[4]: 244  If the president vetoes a legislative action, the parliament can overturn the veto with a two-thirds majority.[63]: 10  The prime minister is chosen by the parliament, with the president appointing the leader of the majority party or coalition as prime minister of East Timor and the cabinet on the proposal of the latter.[63]: 10 [68] As head of government, the prime minister presides over the cabinet.[68]

Representatives in the unicameral National Parliament are elected by popular vote to a five-year term.[64] The number of seats can vary from a minimum of fifty-two to a maximum of sixty-five. Parties must achieve 3% of the vote to enter parliament, with seats for qualifying parties allocated using the D'Hondt method.[68] Elections occur within the framework of a competitive multi-party system. Upon independence, power was held by the Fretilin political party, which was formed shortly before the Indonesian invasion and led its resistance. Given its history, Fretilin viewed itself as the natural party of government and supported a multi-party system, expecting the development of a dominant-party system. Support from the United Nations and the international community, both before and after independence, allowed the nascent political system to survive shocks such as the 2006 crisis.[62]: 173 

Candidates in parliamentary elections run in a single national district in a party-list system. One in three of all candidates presented by political parties must be women. This system promotes a diversity of political parties, but gives voters little influence over the individual candidates selected by each party.[62]: 175–176  Women hold more than a third of parliamentary seats, with parties required by law to run female candidates, but they are less prominent at other levels and within party leadership.[64]

Political divisions exist along class lines and along geographical lines. There is broadly a divide between eastern and western areas of the country, stemming from differences that arose under Indonesian rule. Fretilin in particular is strongly linked to the Eastern areas.[62]: 176–177  Political parties are more closely associated with prominent personalities more than with ideology.[63]: 16 [69] The National Congress for Timorese Reconstruction became the main opposition to Fretilin, following its establishment to allow Xanana Gusmão to run for Prime Minister in the 2007 parliamentary elections.[62]: 168–169 [70] While both major parties have been relatively stable, they remain led by an "old guard" of individuals who came to prominence during the resistance against Indonesia.[62]: 175 [63]: 10–11 [71][72]

Politics and administration is centred in the capital Dili, with the national government responsible for most civil services.[63]: 9, 36  Oecusse, separated from the rest of the country by Indonesian territory, is a special administrative region with some autonomy.[62]: 180  The National Police of East Timor and Timor Leste Defence Force have held a monopoly on violence since 2008 and very few guns are present outside of these organisations.[63]: 8  While there are allegations of abuse of power, there is some judicial oversight of police and public trust in the institution has grown.[64] An active civil society functions independently of the government, as do media outlets.[63]: 11–12  Civil society organisations are concentrated in the capital, including student groups. Due to the structure of the economy, there are no powerful trade unions.[63]: 17  The Catholic Church has strong influence in the country.[63]: 40 

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Municipalities of East Timor, Administrative posts of East Timor, and Sucos of East Timor
 
The fourteen municipalities of East Timor

East Timor is divided into fourteen municipalities, which in turn are subdivided into 64 administrative posts, 442 sucos (villages), and 2,225 aldeias (hamlets).[73][74][75] The municipalities are: Aileu, Ainaro, Atauro, Baucau, Bobonaro, Cova Lima, Dili, Ermera, Lautém, Liquiçá, Manatuto, Manufahi, Oecusse, and Viqueque.[73][75]

The existing system of municipalities and administrative posts was established during Portuguese rule.[76]: 3  While decentralisation is mentioned in the constitution, administrative powers generally remain with the national government operating out of Dili.[77]: 2  Upon independence there was debate about how to implement decentralisation; various proposed models would create different levels of administration between the sucos and the central government. In most proposals, there were no specific provisions for suco-level governance, and they were expected to continue to exist as mostly traditional spaces, identifying communities rather than being part of the civil administration. In the end, the existing districts were kept and renamed municipalities in 2009, and received very few powers.[67]: 88–92  In 2016 changes were made so that each municipality is led by a civil servant appointed by the central government. This civil servant is advised by locally elected leaders.[76]: 4, 7  The isolated Oecusse municipality, which has a strong identity and is fully surrounded by Indonesian territory, is specified by Articles 5 and 71 of the 2002 constitution to be governed by a special administrative policy and economic regime. Law 3/2014 of 18 June 2014 implemented this constitutional provision, which went into effect in January 2015, turning Oecusse into a Special Administrative Region. The region began operating its own civil service in June 2015.[78][79] In January 2022 the island of Atauro, formerly an Administrative Post of Dili, became its own municipality.[75]

Administration in the lowest levels of the administrative system of East Timor, the aldeias and sucos, generally reflects traditional customs,[77]: 1  reflecting community identity and relationships between local households.[80]: 4  Sucos generally contain 2,000 to 3,000 inhabitants. Their long persistence and links to local governance means the sucos are the level of government that is linked to community identities, rather than any high level of administration.[67]: 89  Such relationships, however, are associated specifically with the kinship groups within that land, rather than the land itself.[81]: 52–53  Relationships between sucos also reflect customary practices, for example through the reciprocal exchanging of support for local initiatives.[80]: 9  Laws passed in 2004 provided for the election of some suco officials, but assigned these positions no formal powers. An updated law in 2009 established the expected mandate of these positions, although it continued to leave them outside of the formal state system, reliant on municipal governments to provide formal administration and services.[67]: 94–97  Further clarification was given in 2016, which entrenched the treatment of sucos and aldeias more as communities than formal levels of administration. Despite this lack of formal association with the state, suco leaders hold great influence and are often seen by their community as representatives of the state. They have responsibilities usually associated with civic administration.[76]: 7–10 

Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of East Timor and Timor Leste Defence Force
 
Demonstration against Australia in December 2013

International cooperation has always been important to East Timor; donor funds made up 80% of the budget before oil revenues began to replace them.[63]: 42–44  International forces also provided security, with five UN missions sent to the country from 1999. The final one, the United Nations Integrated Mission in East Timor, began after the 2006 East Timorese crisis and concluded in 2012.[82]: 4, 14 

East Timor formally applied to join ASEAN in 2011,[63]: 42–44 [83] and was granted observer status and accepted "in principle" in November 2022.[84] Despite the nationalist political leadership promoting closer ties with Melanesian states, the country has targeted ASEAN membership since before its independence, with its leaders stating that joining Pacific bodies would have precluded ASEAN membership. ASEAN membership was sought for economic and security reasons, including to improve the relationship with Indonesia. Nonetheless, the process has been slow due to a lack of support from some ASEAN states.[82]: 10–11  East Timor is thus an observer to the Pacific Islands Forum and the Melanesian Spearhead Group. More broadly, the country is a leader within the Group of Seven Plus (g7+), an organisation of fragile states. It is also a member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries.[63]: 42–44 [85]

Continuing bilateral donors include Australia, Portugal, Germany, and Japan, and East Timor has a reputation for effectively and transparently using donor funds. Good relations with Australia and with Indonesia are a policy goal for the government, despite historical and more-recent tensions. These countries are important economic partners and provide most transport links to the country.[63]: 42–44  China has also increased its presence by contributing to infrastructure in Dili.[82]: 12 

The relationship with Australia was dominated from before independence by disputes over natural resources in the ocean between them, hampering the establishment of a mutually agreed border. The dominance of Australian hard power led East Timor to utilise public diplomacy and forums for international law to push their case.[86][87] The dispute was resolved in 2018 following negotiations at the Permanent Court of Arbitration, when a maritime boundary between the two was established along with an agreement on natural resource revenues.[88][89]

The Timor Leste Defence Force (F-FDTL) was established in 2001, replacing Falintil, and was restructured following the events of 2006. It is responsible not only for safeguarding against external threats, but also for addressing violent crime, a role it shares with the National Police of East Timor. These forces remain small: 2,200 soldiers in the regular army and 80 in a naval component. A single aircraft and seven patrol boats are operated, and there are plans to expand the naval component. There is some military cooperation with Australia, Portugal, and the United States.[90]

Geography

Main article: Geography of East Timor
 
Map of East Timor

Located in between Southeast Asia and the South Pacific,[91]: 2  the island of Timor is the largest of the Lesser Sunda Islands, which lie within the Malay archipelago.[92]: 1  The island is surrounded by the Ombai and Wetar Straits of the rougher Banda Sea in the north, and the calmer Timor Sea in the south.[91]: 2 [93] East Timor shares the island with Indonesia, with Indonesian territory separating the Oecusse exclave from the rest of the country. The island of Atauro lies north of the mainland,[91]: 2  with the fourth area being the small island of Jaco. The Savu Sea lies north of Oecusse.[94]: 1  The country is about 265 kilometres (165 mi) long and 97 kilometres (60 mi) wide, with a total land area of 14,874 square kilometres (5,743 sq mi).[92]: 1  This territory is situated between 8′15S – 10′30S latitude and 125′50E – 127′30E longitude.[95]: 2  The country's coastline covers around 700 kilometres (430 mi),[92]: 27  while the main land border with Indonesia is 125 kilometres (78 mi) long, and the Oecusse land border is around 100 kilometres (62 mi) long.[94]: 1  Maritime borders exist with Australia to the south and Indonesia elsewhere.[96][97] East Timor has an exclusive economic zone of 77,051 km2 (29,750 sq mi).[98]

The interior of the country is mountainous,[91]: 2  with ridges of inactive volcanic mountains extending along the island.[24]: 2  Almost half of the country has a slope of at least 40%. The south is slightly less mountainous, and has some plains near the coastline.[95]: 2  The highest point is Tatamailau (also known as Mount Ramelau) at 2,963 metres (9,721 ft).[93][99] Most rivers dry up at least partially during the dry season.[94]: 2  Outside of some coastal areas and river valleys, the soil is shallow and prone to erosion, and its quality is poor.[95]: 13 [24]: 2  The capital and largest city is Dili. The second-largest city is the eastern town of Baucau.[63]: 22 

 
Land cover

The climate is tropical with relatively stable temperatures throughout the year. A wet season lasts from December to May throughout the country, and lasts slightly longer in the south[95]: 5  and the interior due to the effect of a monsoon from Australia.[24]: 2  During this period, rainfall can reach 222–252 millimetres (8.7–9.9 in) per month. In the dry season, it drops to 12–18 millimetres (0.47–0.71 in).[95]: 5  The country is vulnerable to flooding and landslides that occur as a result of heavy rain, especially when rainfall levels are increased by the La Niña effect.[95]: 13  The mountainous interior is cooler than the coasts.[93] Coastal areas are heavily dependent on groundwater, which faces pressure from mismanagement, deforestation, and climate change.[95]: 14  While the temperature is thought to have experienced a small increase due to climate change, there has been little change in annual rainfall.[95]: 6 

Coastal ecosystems around the country are diverse and varied, with vary spatially between the north and south coastlines, as well as between the eastern tip and areas more to the west. These ecosystems include coral reefs, as the country's waters are part of the Coral Triangle biodiversity hotspot.[92]: 28  The easternmost area of East Timor consists of the Paitchau Range and the Lake Ira Lalaro area, which contains the country's first conservation area, the Nino Konis Santana National Park.[100] It contains the last remaining tropical dry forested area within the country. It hosts a number of unique plant and animal species and is sparsely populated.[101] The northern coast is characterised by a number of coral reef systems that have been determined to be at risk.[102][103]

There are around 41,000 terrestrial plant species in the country. Forests covered 35% of East Timor's land in the mid 2010s.[104]: 1  The forests of the northern coast, central uplands, and southern coast are distinct.[94]: 2  East Timor is home to the Timor and Wetar deciduous forests ecoregion.[105] There is some environmental protection in law, but it has not been a government priority.[63]: 27 [92]: 10–14  In addition to climate change, local ecosystems are threatened by deforestation, land degradation, overfishing, and pollution.[104]: 2–3 

Economy

Main article: Economy of East Timor
 
Nominal GDP of East Timor (previous and data)

The economy of East Timor is a market economy, although it is dependent upon the export of a few commodities[106] and has a large public sector. Internally, market operations are limited by widespread poverty.[63]: 20  The country uses the United States dollar, producing its own coins to facilitate smaller transactions.[107][108] The economy is generally open to foreign investment, although a prohibition on foreigners owning land means many require a local partner in the country.[63]: 20  Competition is limited by the small size of the economy, rather than any government barriers. There are far more imports than exports,[63]: 21  and prices for goods are often higher than in nearby countries.[63]: 27  Inflation is strongly affected by government spending.[109]: 257  Growth has been slow, averaging just 2.5% per year from 2011 to 2021.[110]: 24 

Most of the country is very poor, with just more than 40% living under the national poverty line. This poverty is especially prevalent in rural areas, where many are subsistence farmers or fishermen. Even in urban areas, the majority are poor. Overall, women are poorer than men, often being employed in lower-paying careers.[63]: 18  Malnutrition is common, with over half of children showing stunted growth.[109]: 255  While 91% of married working age (15–49) men were employed as of 2016, only 43% of married working age women were. There are small disparities in favour of men in terms of home and land ownership and owning a bank account.[111]: 14  The eastern three municipalities, which contain around a quarter of the population, has less poverty than the western areas, which contain 50% of the population.[65]: 214 

Sixty-six per cent of families are in part supported by subsistence activities, however the country as a whole does not produce enough food to be self-sustaining, and thus relies on imports.[95]: 16  Agricultural work carries the implication of poverty, and the sector receives little investment from the government.[109]: 260  Ninety-four per cent of domestic fish catch comes from the ocean, especially coastal fisheries.[95]: 17  Those in the capital of Dili are on average better off, although they remain poor by international standards.[109]: 257  The small size of the private sector means the government is often the customer of public businesses. A quarter of the national population works in the informal economy, with the official public and private sectors employing 9% each.[63]: 18  Of those of working age, around 23% are in the formal sector, 21% are students, and 27% are subsistence farmers and fishers.[63]: 21  The economy is mostly cash-based, with little commercial credit available from banks.[110]: 11–12  Remittances from overseas workers add up to around $100 million annually.[109]: 257 

 
Fractional coins, "centavos", used locally as part of the United States dollar

This poverty belies significant wealth in terms of natural resources, which at the time of independence had per capita value equivalent to the wealth of an upper-middle income country. Over half of this was in oil, and over a quarter natural gas. The Timor-Leste Petroleum Fund was established in 2005 to turn these non-renewable resources into a more sustainable form of wealth.[92]: 4–6  From 2005 to 2021, $23 billion earned from oil sales has entered the fund. $8 billion has been generated from investments, while $12 billion has been spent.[63]: 30  A decrease in oil and gas reserves led to decreasing HDI beginning in 2010.[63]: 18–19  80% of government spending comes from this fund, which as of 2021 had $19 billion, 10 times greater than the size of the national budget. As oil income has decreased, the fund is at risk of being exhausted. Withdrawals have exceeded sustainable levels almost every year since 2009.[63]: 23  Resources within the Bayu-Undan field are expected to soon run out, while extracting those within the so far undeveloped Greater Sunrise field has proven technically and politically challenging. Remaining potential reserves are also losing value as oil and gas become less favoured sources of energy.[109]: 264–272 [112]

The country's economy is dependent on government spending and, to a lesser extent, assistance from foreign donors.[113] Government spending decreased beginning in 2012, which had knock-on effects in the private sector over the following years. The government and its state-owned oil company often invest in large private projects. Decreasing government spending was matched with a decrease in GDP growth.[63]: 18  After the petroleum fund, the second largest source of government income is taxes. Tax revenue is less than 8% of GDP, lower than many other countries in the region and with similarly sized economies. Other government income comes from 23 "autonomous agencies", which include port authorities, infrastructure companies, and the National University of East Timor.[110]: 13, 28–309  Overall, government spending remains among the highest in the world,[110]: 12  although investment into education, health, and water infrastructure is negligible.[109]: 260 

 
A proportional representation of East Timor exports, 2019

Private sector development has lagged due to human capital shortages, infrastructure weakness, an incomplete legal system, and an inefficient regulatory environment.[113] Property rights remain ill-defined, with conflicting titles from Portuguese and Indonesian rule, as well as needing to accommodate traditional customary rights.[63]: 23  As of 2010, 87.7% of urban (321,043 people) and 18.9% of rural (821,459 people) households have electricity, for an overall average of 38.2%.[114] The private sector shrank between 2014 and 2018, despite a growing working age population. Agriculture and manufacturing are less productive per capita than at independence.[109]: 255–256  Non-oil economic sectors have failed to develop,[115] and growth in construction and administration is dependent on oil revenue.[109]: 256  The dependence on oil shows some aspects of a resource curse.[116] Coffee made up 90% of all non-fossil fuel exports from 2013-2019, with all such exports totalling to around US$20 million annually.[109]: 257  In 2017, the country was visited by 75,000 tourists.[117]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of East Timor
 
Population pyramid

East Timor recorded a population of 1,183,643 in its 2015 census.[5] The population lives mainly along the coastline, where all urban areas are located.[92]: 27  Those in urban areas generally have more formal education, employment prospects, and healthcare. While a strong gender disparity exists throughout the country, it is less severe in the urban capital. The wealthy minority often go abroad for health and education purposes.[63]: 25  The population is young, with the median age being under 20.[63]: 29  In particular, a large proportion of the population (almost 45% in 2015) are males between the ages of 15 and 24, the third largest male 'youth bulge' in the world.[65]: 212 

The Government of Timor-Leste's website lists the English-language demonym for East Timor as Timorese.[118] Other reference sources list it as East Timorese.[119][120] The word Maubere [de] formerly used by the Portuguese to refer to native East Timorese and often employed as synonymous with the illiterate and uneducated, was adopted by Fretilin as a term of pride.[121]

Healthcare received 6% of the national budget in 2021.[63]: 24  From 1990 to 2019 life expectancy rose from 48.5 to 69.5. Expected years of schooling rose from 9.8 to 12.4 between 2000 and 2010, while mean years of schooling rose from 2.8 to 4.4. Progress since 2010 for these has been limited. Gross national income per capita similarly peaked in 2010, and has decreased since.[122]: 3  As of 2016, 45.8% of East Timorese were impoverished, 16.3% severely so.[122]: 6  The fertility rate, which at the time of independence was the highest in the world at 7.8,[123] dropped to 4.2 by 2016. It is relatively higher in rural areas, and among poorer[111]: 3  and less literate households.[124] As of 2016, the average household size was 5.3, with 41% of people aged under 15, and 18% of households headed by women.[111]: 2  Infant mortality stood at 30 per 1,000, down from 60 per 1,000 in 2003.[111]: 7  46% of children under 5 showed stunted growth, down from 58% in 2010. Working age adult obesity increased from 5% to 10% during the same time period. As of 2016, 40% of children, 23% of women, and 13% of men had anemia.[111]: 11 

 
 
Largest cities and towns in East Timor
www.citypopulation.de/en/timor/cities/
Rank Name Municipalities Pop.
 
Dili
 
Baucau 		1 Dili Dili 244,584
2 Baucau Baucau 17,357
3 Maliana Bobonaro 12,787
4 Lospalos Lautém 12,471
5 Pante Macassar Oecusse 12,421
6 Suai Cova Lima 9,130
7 Ermera Ermera 8,045
8 Same Manufahi 7,332
9 Viqueque Viqueque 6,530
10 Ainaro Ainaro 6,250

Ethnicity and language

Main article: Languages of East Timor
 
Major language groups in East Timor by suco

Timorese communities are not strictly defined by ethnic background or linguistic group. Separate communities may share ethnicity or language, and many areas show overlaps and hybridisation between ethnic and linguistic groups.[81]: 44  Familial relations and descent, which are interlinked with sacred house affiliation, are a more important indicator of identity.[81]: 47  Each family group generally identifies with a single language or dialect.[81]: 49  With this immense local variation in mind, there is a broad cultural and identity distinction between the east (Bacau, Lautém, and Viqueque Municipalities) and the west of the country, a product of history more than it is of linguistic and ethnic differences,[81]: 45–47  although it is very loosely associated with the two language groups.[125]: 142–143  There is a small mestiço population of mixed Portuguese and local descent.[126] There is a small Chinese minority, most of whom are Hakka.[127][128] Many Chinese left in the mid-1970s, but a significant number have also returned to East Timor following the end of Indonesian occupation.[129] East Timor has a small community of Timorese Indian, specifically Goan descent,[130] as well as historical immigration from Africa and Yemen.[126]

Likely reflecting the mixed origins of the different ethnolinguistic groups of the island, the indigenous languages fall into two language families: Austronesian and Papuan.[24]: 10  Depending on how they are classified, there are up to 19 indigenous languages with up to 30 dialects.[125]: 136  Aside from Tetum, Ethnologue lists the following indigenous languages: Adabe, Baikeno, Bunak, Fataluku, Galoli, Habun, Idaté, Kairui-Midiki, Kemak, Lakalei, Makasae, Makuv'a, Mambae, Nauete, Tukudede, and Waima'a.[131] According to the Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger, there are six endangered languages in East Timor: Adabe, Habu, Kairui-Midiki, Maku'a, Naueti, and Waima'a.[132] The largest Malayo-Polynesian group is the Tetum,[133] mostly around Dili or the western border. Other Malayo-Polynesian languages with native speakers of more than 40,000 are Mambai in the central mountains south of Dili, Baikeno in Oecusse, Kemak in the north-west interior, and Tokodede on the northwest coast.[134][135] The main Papuan languages spoken are Bunak in the centre of Timor, especially within Bobonaro Municipality; Makasae in the eastern Baucau and Viqueque municipalities; and Fataluku in the eastern Lautém Municipality.[81]: 43  The 2015 census found that the most commonly spoken mother tongues were Tetum Prasa (mother tongue for 30.6% of the population), Mambai (16.6%), Makasai (10.5%), Tetum Terik (6.05%), Baikenu (5.87%), Kemak (5.85%), Bunak (5.48%), Tokodede (3.97%), and Fataluku (3.52%). Other indigenous languages accounted for 10.47%, while 1.09% of the population spoke foreign languages natively.[136]

East Timor's two official languages are Portuguese and Tetum. In addition, English and Indonesian are designated by the constitution as "working languages".[91]: 3 [137] This is within the Final and Transitional Provisions, which do not set a final date. In 2012, 35% could speak, read, and write Portuguese, which is up significantly from less than 5% in the 2006 UN Development Report. Portuguese is recovering as it has now been made the main official language of Timor, and is being taught in most schools.[137][138] The use of Portuguese for government information and in the court system provides some barriers to access for those who do not speak it.[64] Tetum is also not understood by everyone in the country.[24]: 11  According to the Observatory of the Portuguese Language, the East Timorese literacy rate was 77.8% in Tetum, 55.6% in Indonesian, and 39.3% in Portuguese, and that the primary literacy rate increased from 73% in 2009 to 83% in 2012.[139] According to the 2015 census, 50% of the population between the ages of 14 and 24 can speak and understand Portuguese.[140] The 2015 census found around 15% of those over the age of five were literate in English.[141]

Education

 
Escola Portuguesa Ruy Cinatti, the Portuguese School of Díli

East Timor's adult literacy rate was 68% among adults, and 84% among those aged 15–24, as of 2021. It is slightly higher among women than men.[63]: 27  More girls than boys attend school, although some drop out upon reaching puberty.[63]: 25  As of 2016 22% of working age women (15–49) and 19% of working age men had no education, 15% of women and 18% of men had some primary education, 52% of women and 51% of men had some secondary education, and 11% of women and 12% of men had higher education. Overall, 75% of women and 82% of men were literate.[111]: 2  Primary schools exist throughout the country, although the quality of materials and teaching is often poor. Secondary schools are generally limited to municipal capitals. Education takes up 10% of the national budget.[63]: 27  The country's main university is the National University of East Timor. There are also four colleges.[142]

Since independence, both Indonesian and Tetum have lost ground as media of instruction, while Portuguese has increased: in 2001 only 8.4% of primary school and 6.8% of secondary school students attended a Portuguese-medium school; by 2005 this had increased to 81.6% for primary and 46.3% for secondary schools.[143] Indonesian formerly played a considerable role in education, being used by 73.7% of all secondary school students as a medium of instruction, but by 2005 Portuguese was used by most schools in Baucau, Manatuto, as well as the capital district.[143] Portugal provides support to about 3% of the public schools in East Timor, focused on those in urban areas, further encouraging the use of the Portuguese language.[63]: 28 

Religion

Main article: Religion in East Timor
 
Igreja da Imaculada Conceição church, in Viqueque

While the Constitution of East Timor enshrines the principles of freedom of religion and separation of church and state, Section 45 Comma 1 also acknowledges "the participation of the Catholic Church in the process of national liberation" in its preamble.[144] Upon independence, the country joined the Philippines to become the only two predominantly Catholic states in Asia, although nearby parts of eastern Indonesia such as Flores and parts of Western New Guinea also have Catholic majorities.[145][146]

According to the 2015 census, 97.57% of the population is Catholic; 1.96% Protestant; 0.24% Muslim; 0.08% Traditional; 0.05% Buddhist; 0.02% Hindu, and 0.08% other religions.[1] A 2016 survey conducted by the Demographic and Health Survey programme showed that Catholics made up 98.3% of the population, Protestants 1.2%, and Muslims 0.3%.[147]

The number of churches grew from 100 in 1974 to more than 800 in 1994,[142] with Church membership having grown considerably under Indonesian rule as Pancasila, Indonesia's state ideology, requires all citizens to believe in one God and does not recognise traditional beliefs. East Timorese animist belief systems did not fit with Indonesia's constitutional monotheism, resulting in mass conversions to Christianity. Portuguese clergy were replaced with Indonesian priests and Latin and Portuguese mass was replaced by Indonesian mass.[148] While just 20% of East Timorese called themselves Catholics at the time of the 1975 invasion, the figure surged to reach 95% by the end of the first decade after the invasion.[148][149] The Roman Catholic Church divides East Timor into three dioceses: the Archdiocese of Díli, the Diocese of Baucau, and the Diocese of Maliana.[150] In rural areas, Roman Catholicism is syncretised with local animist beliefs.[151] The number of Protestants and Muslims declined significantly after September 1999, as these groups were disproportionately represented among supporters of integration with Indonesia. Fewer than half of previous Protestant congregations existed after September 1999, and many Protestants were among those who remained in West Timor.[152]

Culture

Main article: Culture of East Timor
 
Traditional Timorese dancers

The many cultures within East Timor stem from the several waves of Austronesian and Melanesian migration that led to the current population, with unique identities and traditions developing within each petty kingdom. Portuguese authorities built upon traditional structures, blending Portuguese influence into the existing political and social systems.[27]: 91–92  The presence of the Catholic Church created a point of commonality across the various ethnic groups, despite full conversion remaining limited. The Portuguese language also provided common linkages, even if direct Portuguese impact was limited.[27]: 97–98  Under Indonesian rule, resistance strengthened cultural links to Catholicism and the Portuguese language. At the same time, Indonesian cultural influence was spread through schools and administration.[27]: 98–99 

The preservation of traditional beliefs in the face of Indonesian attempts to suppress them became linked to the creation of the country's national identity.[91]: 7–13  This national identity only began to emerge at the very end of Portuguese rule, and further developed during Indonesian rule.[125]: 134–136  Following independence, a civic identity began to develop. This was most clearly expressed through enthusiasm for national-level democracy,[125]: 155–156  and was reflected in politics through a shift from resistance narratives to development ones.[153]: 3  The capital has developed a more cosmopolitan culture, while rural areas maintain stronger traditional practices.[63]: 30  Internal migration into urban areas, especially Dili, creates cultural links between these areas and rural hinterlands. Those in urban areas often continue to identify with a specific rural area, even those with multiple generations born in Dili.[81]: 53–54 

The presence of so many ethnic and linguistic groups means cultural practices vary across the country.[91]: 11  These practices reflect historical social structures and practices, where political leaders were regarded as having spiritual powers. Ancestry was an important part of cultural practices, and partly signified leadership. Leaders often had influence over land use, and these leaders continue to play an informal role in land disputes and other aspects of community practice today. An important traditional concept is lulik, or sacredness. Some lulik ceremonies continue to reflect animist beliefs, for example through divination ceremonies which vary throughout the country. Sacred status can also be associated with objects, such as Portuguese flags which have been passed down within families.[91]: 7–13 

 
Sacred house (lee teinu) in Lospalos

Community life is centred around sacred houses (Uma Lulik), physical structures which serve as a representative symbol and identifier for each community.[81]: 47–49  The architectural style of these houses varies between different parts of the country, although following widespread destruction by Indonesian forces many were rebuilt with cheap modern materials.[154]: 22–25  The house as a concept extends beyond the physical object to the surrounding community.[27]: 92–93, 96  Kinship systems exist within and between houses. Traditional leaders, who stem from historically important families, retain key roles in administering justice and resolving disputes through methods that vary between communities.[81]: 47–49  Such leaders are often elected to official leadership positions, merging cultural and historical status with modern political status.[81]: 52  The concept of being part of a communal house has been extended to the nation, with Parliament serving as the national sacred house.[27]: 96 

Art styles vary throughout the various ethnolinguistic groups of the island. Nonetheless, similar artistic motifs are present throughout, such as large animals and particular geometric patterns. Some art is traditionally associated with particular genders.[155] For example, the Tais textiles that play a widespread role in traditional life throughout the island are traditionally handwoven by women.[156] Different tais patterns are associated with different communities, and more broadly with linguistic groups.[125]: 137  Many buildings within central Dili maintain historical Portuguese architecture.[157]: I-5 

Traditional rituals remain important, often mixed in with more modern aspects.[125]: 137  A strong oral history is highlighted in individuals able to recite long stories or poetry.[158] This history, or Lia nain, passes down traditional knowledge.[154]: 16  There remains a strong tradition of poetry.[159] Prime Minister Xanana Gusmão, for example, is a distinguished poet, earning the moniker "poet warrior".[160]

In the field of cinema, East Timor released its first feature-length film, a period thriller titled Beatriz's War, in 2013.[161] Shot with a limited budget by a mix of local filmmakers and a volunteer Australian film crew, the film depicted East Timorese life under Indonesian occupation in the 1970s, with producer Lurdes Pires acknowledging their aim to diverge from the government's "friendship and forgiveness" policy for its past conflicts by telling a story of truth-seeking and justice.[162]

See also

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External links

Struggle for Independence

  • 8 Sep 1999 account of the United Nations ballot on East Timorese independence

Government

  • Timor-Leste official government website
  • Timor-Leste official tourism website

General information

March 03, 2023
east, timor, this, article, about, current, country, former, indonesian, province, province, ɔːr, listen, also, known, timor, leste, ɔːr, portuguese, pronunciation, ˈmoɾ, ˈɫɛʃ, officially, democratic, republic, timor, leste, country, southeast, asia, comprises. This article is about the current country For the former Indonesian province see East Timor province East Timor ˈ t iː m ɔːr listen also known as Timor Leste t i ˈ m ɔːr ˈ l ɛ ʃ t eɪ Portuguese pronunciation ti ˈmoɾ ˈɫɛʃ tɨ officially the Democratic Republic of Timor Leste is a country in Southeast Asia It comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor the exclave of Oecusse on the island s north western half and the minor islands of Atauro and Jaco Australia is the country s southern neighbour separated by the Timor Sea The country s size is 14 874 square kilometres 5 743 sq mi Dili is its capital and largest city Democratic Republic of wbr Timor LesteRepublica Democratica deTimor Leste Portuguese Republika Demokratika deTimor Leste Tetum Flag EmblemMotto Unidade Accao Progresso Portuguese Unity Action Progress Anthem Patria Portuguese Fatherland source source source track track track track track track track Capitaland largest cityDili8 33 S 125 34 E 8 55 S 125 56 E 8 55 125 56 Coordinates 8 33 S 125 34 E 8 55 S 125 56 E 8 55 125 56Official languagesPortuguese TetumaNational languages15 languages Atauru Baikeno Bekais Bunak Fataluku Galoli Habun Idalaka Kawaimina Kemak Makalero Makasae Makuva Mambai TokodedeWorking languagesEnglish IndonesianReligion 2015 census 1 99 53 Christianity 97 57 Catholicism 1 96 Protestantism0 24 Islam0 23 OtherDemonym s East Timorese Timorese Maubere informal 2 3 GovernmentUnitary semi presidential republic 4 PresidentJose Ramos Horta Prime MinisterTaur Matan RuakLegislatureNational ParliamentIndependence from Portugal and Indonesia Portuguese Timor16th century Independence declared28 November 1975 Annexation by Indonesia17 July 1976 Administered by UNTAET25 October 1999 Independence restored20 May 2002Area Total14 874 km2 5 743 sq mi 154th Water NegligiblePopulation 2021 estimate1 340 513 153rd 2015 census1 183 643 5 Density78 km2 202 0 sq mi 137th GDP PPP 2023 estimate Total 5 billion Per capita 3 545 6 GDP nominal 2023 estimate Total 2 billion Per capita 1 495 6 Gini 2014 28 7 7 lowHDI 2019 0 606 8 medium 141stCurrencyUnited States dollarbEast Timor Centavo USD Time zoneUTC 9 Timor Leste Time Driving sideleftCalling code 670ISO 3166 codeTLInternet TLD tlcFifteen further national languages are recognised by the ConstitutionCentavo coins also usedFormer use of tp has been phased outEast Timor came under Portuguese influence in the sixteenth century remaining a Portuguese colony until 1975 Internal conflict preceded a unilateral declaration of independence and an Indonesian invasion and annexation Resistance continued throughout Indonesian rule and in 1999 a United Nations sponsored act of self determination led to Indonesia relinquishing control of the territory On 20 May 2002 as Timor Leste it became the first new sovereign state of the 21st century The national government runs on a semi presidential system with the popularly elected president sharing power with a prime minister appointed by the National Parliament Power is centralised under the national government although many local leaders have informal influence The country maintains a policy of international cooperation and is a member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries an observer of the Pacific Islands Forum and an applicant for ASEAN membership The country remains relatively poor with an economy that relies heavily on natural resources especially oil and foreign aid The total population is over 1 1 million and is heavily skewed towards young people due to a high fertility rate Education has led to the increasing literacy over the past half century especially in the two national languages of Portuguese and Tetum High ethnic and linguistic diversity is reflected by the 30 indigenous languages spoken in the country The majority of the population is Catholic which exists alongside strong local traditions especially in rural areas Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Prehistory and Classical era 2 2 Portuguese era 1769 1975 2 3 Indonesian occupation 1975 1999 2 4 Contemporary era 3 Politics and government 4 Administrative divisions 5 Foreign relations and military 6 Geography 7 Economy 8 Demographics 8 1 Ethnicity and language 8 2 Education 8 3 Religion 9 Culture 10 See also 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 External linksEtymology Edit Timor is derived from timur meaning east in Malay thus resulting in a tautological place name meaning East East In Indonesian this results in the name Timor Timur In Portuguese the country is called Timor Leste Leste meaning east Portuguese pronunciation ti moɾ lɛʃ tɨ In Tetum it is Timor Lorosa e Lorosa e can be literally translated as where the sun rises 9 10 The official names under its constitution are Democratic Republic of Timor Leste in English 11 12 Republica Democratica de Timor Leste in Portuguese 13 and Republika Demokratika Timor Leste in Tetum 14 The official short form of the name is Timor Leste 12 and it uses the ISO codes TLS amp TL 15 History EditMain article History of East Timor Prehistory and Classical era Edit Main article Pre colonial Timor See also Greater India Cultural remains at Jerimalai on the eastern tip of East Timor have been dated to 42 000 years ago 16 The first known inhabitants are those who arrived during the Australo Melanesian migration through the region likely bringing the precursors to today s Papuan languages 17 A later migration of Austroasiatic speakers is suspected although no such languages remain 18 19 The arrival of Austronesian peoples brought new languages and merged with existing cultures on the island 20 Timorese origin myths recount settlers sailing around the eastern end of the island before landing in the south These people are sometimes noted as being from the Malay Peninsula or the Minangkabau highlands of Sumatra 21 Austronesian migration to Timor may be associated with the development of agriculture on the island 22 23 While information is limited about the political system of Timor during this period the island had developed an interconnected series of polities governed by customary law Small communities centred around a particular sacred house were part of wider sucos or principalities which were themselves part of larger kingdoms led by a liurai Authority within these kingdoms was held by two individuals with the worldly power of the liurai balanced by the spiritual power of a rai nain who was generally associated with the primary sacred house of the kingdom These polities were numerous and saw shifting alliances and relations but many were stable enough that they survived from initial European documentation in the 16th century until the end of Portuguese rule 24 11 15 From perhaps the thirteenth century the island exported sandalwood 24 267 which was valued both for its use in crafting and as a source of perfume 25 Timor was included in Southeast Asian Chinese and Indian trading networks by the fourteenth century exporting sandalwood 26 honey and wax The island was recorded by the Majapahit Empire as a source of tribute 27 89 It was sandalwood that attracted European explorers to the island in the early sixteenth century Early European presence was limited to trade 28 with the first Portuguese settlement being on the nearby island of Solor 27 90 Portuguese era 1769 1975 Edit Main article Portuguese Timor The Battle of Cailaco in 1726 part of a rebellion following the introduction of a new head tax Early Portuguese presence on Timor was very limited trade was directed through Portuguese settlements on other islands Only in the 17th century did they establish a more direct presence on the island a consequence of being driven out of other islands by the Dutch 24 267 After Solor was lost in 1613 the Portuguese moved to Flores In 1646 the capital moved to Kupang on Timor s west before Kupang too was lost to the Dutch in 1652 The Portuguese then moved to Lifau in what is now East Timor s Oecusse exclave 27 90 Effective European occupation in the east of the island only began in 1769 when the city of Dili was founded although actual control remained highly limited 29 A definitive border between the Dutch and Portuguese parts of the island was established by the Permanent Court of Arbitration in 1914 and remains the international boundary between the successor states Indonesia and East Timor respectively 30 For the Portuguese East Timor remained little more than a neglected trading post with minimal investment in infrastructure and education until the late nineteenth century Even when Portugal established actual control over the interior of its colony investment remained minimal 24 269 273 Sandalwood continued to be the main export crop and coffee exports became significant in the mid nineteenth century 25 At the beginning of the twentieth century a faltering domestic economy prompted the Portuguese to extract greater wealth from its colonies which was met with East Timorese resistance 26 The colony was seen as an economic burden during the Great Depression and received little support or management from Portugal 24 269 During World War II Dili was occupied by the Allies in 1941 and later by the Japanese beginning in 1942 The mountainous interior of the colony became the scene of a guerrilla campaign known as the Battle of Timor Waged by East Timorese volunteers and Allied forces against the Japanese the struggle killed between 40 000 and 70 000 East Timorese civilians 31 The Japanese eventually drove the last of the Australian and Allied forces out in early 1943 32 Portuguese control resumed however after Japanese surrender at the end of World War II 33 Portugal began investment in the colony in the 1950s funding education and promoting coffee exports but the economy did not improve substantially and infrastructure improvements were limited 24 269 Growth rates remained low near 2 34 Following the 1974 Portuguese revolution Portugal effectively abandoned its colony in Timor and civil war between East Timorese political parties broke out in 1975 The Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor Fretilin resisted a Timorese Democratic Union UDT coup attempt in August 1975 35 and unilaterally declared independence on 28 November 1975 Fearing a communist state within the Indonesian archipelago the Indonesian military launched an invasion of East Timor in December 1975 36 Indonesia declared East Timor its 27th province on 17 July 1976 37 The United Nations Security Council opposed the invasion and the territory s nominal status in the UN remained as non self governing territory under Portuguese administration 38 Indonesian occupation 1975 1999 Edit Main articles Indonesian occupation of East Timor and Timor Timur A demonstration for independence from Indonesia held in Australia during September 1999 Fretilin resisted the invasion initially as an army holding territory until November 1978 and then as a guerrilla resistance 39 The Indonesian occupation of Timor was marked by violence and brutality A detailed statistical report prepared for the Commission for Reception Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor cited a minimum of 102 800 conflict related deaths in the period between 1974 and 1999 including approximately 18 600 killings and 84 200 excess deaths from hunger and illness The total number of conflict related deaths during this period is difficult to determine due to a lack of data One estimate based on Portuguese Indonesian and Catholic Church data suggests it may have been as high as 200 000 40 Repression and restrictions counteracted improvements in health and education infrastructure and services meaning there was little overall improvement in living standards economic growth mostly benefited immigrants from elsewhere in Indonesia 24 271 A huge expansion of education was intended to increase Indonesian language use and internal security as much as it was for development 41 The 1991 massacre of more than 200 demonstrators by the Indonesian military was a turning point for the independence cause and brought increased international pressure on Indonesia Following the resignation of Indonesian President Suharto 39 the new President BJ Habibie prompted by a letter from Australian Prime Minister John Howard decided to hold a referendum on independence 42 A UN sponsored agreement between Indonesia and Portugal allowed for a UN supervised popular referendum in August 1999 A clear vote for independence was met with a punitive campaign of violence by East Timorese pro integration militias supported by elements of the Indonesian military In response the Indonesian government allowed a multinational peacekeeping force INTERFET to restore order and aid East Timorese refugees and internally displaced persons 43 On 25 October 1999 the administration of East Timor was taken over by the UN through the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor UNTAET 44 45 INTERFET deployment ended in February 2000 with the transfer of military command to the UN 46 Contemporary era Edit See also East Timor independence and United Nations Administered East Timor Jose Ramos Horta 1996 Nobel Peace Prize winner second president of East Timor On 30 August 2001 the East Timorese voted in their first election organised by the UN to elect members of the Constituent Assembly 11 47 On 22 March 2002 the Constituent Assembly approved the Constitution 11 By May 2002 more than 205 000 refugees had returned 48 On 20 May 2002 the Constitution of the Democratic Republic of East Timor came into force and East Timor was recognised as independent by the UN 47 49 The Constituent Assembly was renamed the National Parliament and Xanana Gusmao was elected as the country s first president 50 On 27 September 2002 the country became a UN member state 51 In 2006 a crisis of unrest and factional fighting forced 155 000 people to flee their homes the United Nations sent in security forces to restore order 52 53 The following year Gusmao declined to run for another term While there were minor incidents in the build up to the mid year presidential elections the process was peaceful overall and Jose Ramos Horta was elected president 54 55 In June 2007 Gusmao ran in the parliamentary elections and became prime minister at the head of the National Congress for Timorese Reconstruction CNRT party In February 2008 Ramos Horta was critically injured in an attempted assassination Prime Minister Gusmao also faced gunfire separately but escaped unharmed Australian reinforcements were immediately sent to help keep order 56 In March 2011 the UN handed over operational control of the police force to the East Timor authorities The United Nations ended its peacekeeping mission on 31 December 2012 52 Francisco Guterres of the centre left Fretilin party became president in May 2017 57 The leader of Fretilin Mari Alkatiri formed a coalition government after the July 2017 parliamentary election This government soon fell leading to a second general election in May 2018 58 In June 2018 former president and independence fighter Taur Matan Ruak became the new prime minister 59 Jose Ramos Horta again became president in 20 May 2022 after winning the April 2022 presidential election runoff against Francisco Guterres 60 Politics and government EditMain article Politics of East Timor Xanana Gusmao the first East Timorese president after the end of Indonesian occupation The political system of East Timor is semi presidential based upon the Portuguese system 61 62 175 The constitution establishes both this separation of executive powers between the president and the prime minister and the separation of powers between the executive legislature and judiciary 63 12 Individuals are not allowed to participate in both the legislature and the executive branch The legislature is intended to provide a check on the executive in practice the executive has maintained control of the legislature under all political parties reflecting the dominance of individual leaders within political parties and coalitions 62 174 The executive through the council of ministers also holds some formal legislative powers 62 175 The judiciary operates independently although there are instances of executive interference 63 13 39 64 Some courts shift between locations to improve access for those in more isolated areas 64 Despite political rhetoric the constitution and democratic institutions have been followed by politicians and changes of government are peaceful 63 15 42 Elections are run by an independent body 65 216 and turnout is high ranging from around 70 to 85 63 17 66 The political system has wide public acceptance 63 17 67 106 The head of state of East Timor is the president of the republic who is elected by popular vote for a five year term 4 244 and can serve a maximum of two terms 64 Formally the directly elected president holds relatively limited powers compared to those in similar systems with no power over the appointment and dismissal of the prime minister and the council of ministers However as they are directly elected past presidents have wielded great informal power and influence 62 175 The president does have the power to veto government legislation initiate referendums and to dissolve parliament in the event that it is unable to form a government or pass a budget 4 244 If the president vetoes a legislative action the parliament can overturn the veto with a two thirds majority 63 10 The prime minister is chosen by the parliament with the president appointing the leader of the majority party or coalition as prime minister of East Timor and the cabinet on the proposal of the latter 63 10 68 As head of government the prime minister presides over the cabinet 68 The National Parliament fronted by flags of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries Representatives in the unicameral National Parliament are elected by popular vote to a five year term 64 The number of seats can vary from a minimum of fifty two to a maximum of sixty five Parties must achieve 3 of the vote to enter parliament with seats for qualifying parties allocated using the D Hondt method 68 Elections occur within the framework of a competitive multi party system Upon independence power was held by the Fretilin political party which was formed shortly before the Indonesian invasion and led its resistance Given its history Fretilin viewed itself as the natural party of government and supported a multi party system expecting the development of a dominant party system Support from the United Nations and the international community both before and after independence allowed the nascent political system to survive shocks such as the 2006 crisis 62 173 Candidates in parliamentary elections run in a single national district in a party list system One in three of all candidates presented by political parties must be women This system promotes a diversity of political parties but gives voters little influence over the individual candidates selected by each party 62 175 176 Women hold more than a third of parliamentary seats with parties required by law to run female candidates but they are less prominent at other levels and within party leadership 64 Political divisions exist along class lines and along geographical lines There is broadly a divide between eastern and western areas of the country stemming from differences that arose under Indonesian rule Fretilin in particular is strongly linked to the Eastern areas 62 176 177 Political parties are more closely associated with prominent personalities more than with ideology 63 16 69 The National Congress for Timorese Reconstruction became the main opposition to Fretilin following its establishment to allow Xanana Gusmao to run for Prime Minister in the 2007 parliamentary elections 62 168 169 70 While both major parties have been relatively stable they remain led by an old guard of individuals who came to prominence during the resistance against Indonesia 62 175 63 10 11 71 72 Politics and administration is centred in the capital Dili with the national government responsible for most civil services 63 9 36 Oecusse separated from the rest of the country by Indonesian territory is a special administrative region with some autonomy 62 180 The National Police of East Timor and Timor Leste Defence Force have held a monopoly on violence since 2008 and very few guns are present outside of these organisations 63 8 While there are allegations of abuse of power there is some judicial oversight of police and public trust in the institution has grown 64 An active civil society functions independently of the government as do media outlets 63 11 12 Civil society organisations are concentrated in the capital including student groups Due to the structure of the economy there are no powerful trade unions 63 17 The Catholic Church has strong influence in the country 63 40 Administrative divisions EditMain articles Municipalities of East Timor Administrative posts of East Timor and Sucos of East Timor The fourteen municipalities of East Timor East Timor is divided into fourteen municipalities which in turn are subdivided into 64 administrative posts 442 sucos villages and 2 225 aldeias hamlets 73 74 75 The municipalities are Aileu Ainaro Atauro Baucau Bobonaro Cova Lima Dili Ermera Lautem Liquica Manatuto Manufahi Oecusse and Viqueque 73 75 The existing system of municipalities and administrative posts was established during Portuguese rule 76 3 While decentralisation is mentioned in the constitution administrative powers generally remain with the national government operating out of Dili 77 2 Upon independence there was debate about how to implement decentralisation various proposed models would create different levels of administration between the sucos and the central government In most proposals there were no specific provisions for suco level governance and they were expected to continue to exist as mostly traditional spaces identifying communities rather than being part of the civil administration In the end the existing districts were kept and renamed municipalities in 2009 and received very few powers 67 88 92 In 2016 changes were made so that each municipality is led by a civil servant appointed by the central government This civil servant is advised by locally elected leaders 76 4 7 The isolated Oecusse municipality which has a strong identity and is fully surrounded by Indonesian territory is specified by Articles 5 and 71 of the 2002 constitution to be governed by a special administrative policy and economic regime Law 3 2014 of 18 June 2014 implemented this constitutional provision which went into effect in January 2015 turning Oecusse into a Special Administrative Region The region began operating its own civil service in June 2015 78 79 In January 2022 the island of Atauro formerly an Administrative Post of Dili became its own municipality 75 Administration in the lowest levels of the administrative system of East Timor the aldeias and sucos generally reflects traditional customs 77 1 reflecting community identity and relationships between local households 80 4 Sucos generally contain 2 000 to 3 000 inhabitants Their long persistence and links to local governance means the sucos are the level of government that is linked to community identities rather than any high level of administration 67 89 Such relationships however are associated specifically with the kinship groups within that land rather than the land itself 81 52 53 Relationships between sucos also reflect customary practices for example through the reciprocal exchanging of support for local initiatives 80 9 Laws passed in 2004 provided for the election of some suco officials but assigned these positions no formal powers An updated law in 2009 established the expected mandate of these positions although it continued to leave them outside of the formal state system reliant on municipal governments to provide formal administration and services 67 94 97 Further clarification was given in 2016 which entrenched the treatment of sucos and aldeias more as communities than formal levels of administration Despite this lack of formal association with the state suco leaders hold great influence and are often seen by their community as representatives of the state They have responsibilities usually associated with civic administration 76 7 10 Foreign relations and military EditMain articles Foreign relations of East Timor and Timor Leste Defence Force Demonstration against Australia in December 2013 International cooperation has always been important to East Timor donor funds made up 80 of the budget before oil revenues began to replace them 63 42 44 International forces also provided security with five UN missions sent to the country from 1999 The final one the United Nations Integrated Mission in East Timor began after the 2006 East Timorese crisis and concluded in 2012 82 4 14 East Timor formally applied to join ASEAN in 2011 63 42 44 83 and was granted observer status and accepted in principle in November 2022 84 Despite the nationalist political leadership promoting closer ties with Melanesian states the country has targeted ASEAN membership since before its independence with its leaders stating that joining Pacific bodies would have precluded ASEAN membership ASEAN membership was sought for economic and security reasons including to improve the relationship with Indonesia Nonetheless the process has been slow due to a lack of support from some ASEAN states 82 10 11 East Timor is thus an observer to the Pacific Islands Forum and the Melanesian Spearhead Group More broadly the country is a leader within the Group of Seven Plus g7 an organisation of fragile states It is also a member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries 63 42 44 85 Continuing bilateral donors include Australia Portugal Germany and Japan and East Timor has a reputation for effectively and transparently using donor funds Good relations with Australia and with Indonesia are a policy goal for the government despite historical and more recent tensions These countries are important economic partners and provide most transport links to the country 63 42 44 China has also increased its presence by contributing to infrastructure in Dili 82 12 The relationship with Australia was dominated from before independence by disputes over natural resources in the ocean between them hampering the establishment of a mutually agreed border The dominance of Australian hard power led East Timor to utilise public diplomacy and forums for international law to push their case 86 87 The dispute was resolved in 2018 following negotiations at the Permanent Court of Arbitration when a maritime boundary between the two was established along with an agreement on natural resource revenues 88 89 The Timor Leste Defence Force F FDTL was established in 2001 replacing Falintil and was restructured following the events of 2006 It is responsible not only for safeguarding against external threats but also for addressing violent crime a role it shares with the National Police of East Timor These forces remain small 2 200 soldiers in the regular army and 80 in a naval component A single aircraft and seven patrol boats are operated and there are plans to expand the naval component There is some military cooperation with Australia Portugal and the United States 90 Geography EditMain article Geography of East Timor Map of East Timor Located in between Southeast Asia and the South Pacific 91 2 the island of Timor is the largest of the Lesser Sunda Islands which lie within the Malay archipelago 92 1 The island is surrounded by the Ombai and Wetar Straits of the rougher Banda Sea in the north and the calmer Timor Sea in the south 91 2 93 East Timor shares the island with Indonesia with Indonesian territory separating the Oecusse exclave from the rest of the country The island of Atauro lies north of the mainland 91 2 with the fourth area being the small island of Jaco The Savu Sea lies north of Oecusse 94 1 The country is about 265 kilometres 165 mi long and 97 kilometres 60 mi wide with a total land area of 14 874 square kilometres 5 743 sq mi 92 1 This territory is situated between 8 15S 10 30S latitude and 125 50E 127 30E longitude 95 2 The country s coastline covers around 700 kilometres 430 mi 92 27 while the main land border with Indonesia is 125 kilometres 78 mi long and the Oecusse land border is around 100 kilometres 62 mi long 94 1 Maritime borders exist with Australia to the south and Indonesia elsewhere 96 97 East Timor has an exclusive economic zone of 77 051 km2 29 750 sq mi 98 The interior of the country is mountainous 91 2 with ridges of inactive volcanic mountains extending along the island 24 2 Almost half of the country has a slope of at least 40 The south is slightly less mountainous and has some plains near the coastline 95 2 The highest point is Tatamailau also known as Mount Ramelau at 2 963 metres 9 721 ft 93 99 Most rivers dry up at least partially during the dry season 94 2 Outside of some coastal areas and river valleys the soil is shallow and prone to erosion and its quality is poor 95 13 24 2 The capital and largest city is Dili The second largest city is the eastern town of Baucau 63 22 Land cover The climate is tropical with relatively stable temperatures throughout the year A wet season lasts from December to May throughout the country and lasts slightly longer in the south 95 5 and the interior due to the effect of a monsoon from Australia 24 2 During this period rainfall can reach 222 252 millimetres 8 7 9 9 in per month In the dry season it drops to 12 18 millimetres 0 47 0 71 in 95 5 The country is vulnerable to flooding and landslides that occur as a result of heavy rain especially when rainfall levels are increased by the La Nina effect 95 13 The mountainous interior is cooler than the coasts 93 Coastal areas are heavily dependent on groundwater which faces pressure from mismanagement deforestation and climate change 95 14 While the temperature is thought to have experienced a small increase due to climate change there has been little change in annual rainfall 95 6 Coastal ecosystems around the country are diverse and varied with vary spatially between the north and south coastlines as well as between the eastern tip and areas more to the west These ecosystems include coral reefs as the country s waters are part of the Coral Triangle biodiversity hotspot 92 28 The easternmost area of East Timor consists of the Paitchau Range and the Lake Ira Lalaro area which contains the country s first conservation area the Nino Konis Santana National Park 100 It contains the last remaining tropical dry forested area within the country It hosts a number of unique plant and animal species and is sparsely populated 101 The northern coast is characterised by a number of coral reef systems that have been determined to be at risk 102 103 There are around 41 000 terrestrial plant species in the country Forests covered 35 of East Timor s land in the mid 2010s 104 1 The forests of the northern coast central uplands and southern coast are distinct 94 2 East Timor is home to the Timor and Wetar deciduous forests ecoregion 105 There is some environmental protection in law but it has not been a government priority 63 27 92 10 14 In addition to climate change local ecosystems are threatened by deforestation land degradation overfishing and pollution 104 2 3 Economy EditMain article Economy of East Timor Nominal GDP of East Timor previous and data The economy of East Timor is a market economy although it is dependent upon the export of a few commodities 106 and has a large public sector Internally market operations are limited by widespread poverty 63 20 The country uses the United States dollar producing its own coins to facilitate smaller transactions 107 108 The economy is generally open to foreign investment although a prohibition on foreigners owning land means many require a local partner in the country 63 20 Competition is limited by the small size of the economy rather than any government barriers There are far more imports than exports 63 21 and prices for goods are often higher than in nearby countries 63 27 Inflation is strongly affected by government spending 109 257 Growth has been slow averaging just 2 5 per year from 2011 to 2021 110 24 Most of the country is very poor with just more than 40 living under the national poverty line This poverty is especially prevalent in rural areas where many are subsistence farmers or fishermen Even in urban areas the majority are poor Overall women are poorer than men often being employed in lower paying careers 63 18 Malnutrition is common with over half of children showing stunted growth 109 255 While 91 of married working age 15 49 men were employed as of 2016 only 43 of married working age women were There are small disparities in favour of men in terms of home and land ownership and owning a bank account 111 14 The eastern three municipalities which contain around a quarter of the population has less poverty than the western areas which contain 50 of the population 65 214 Sixty six per cent of families are in part supported by subsistence activities however the country as a whole does not produce enough food to be self sustaining and thus relies on imports 95 16 Agricultural work carries the implication of poverty and the sector receives little investment from the government 109 260 Ninety four per cent of domestic fish catch comes from the ocean especially coastal fisheries 95 17 Those in the capital of Dili are on average better off although they remain poor by international standards 109 257 The small size of the private sector means the government is often the customer of public businesses A quarter of the national population works in the informal economy with the official public and private sectors employing 9 each 63 18 Of those of working age around 23 are in the formal sector 21 are students and 27 are subsistence farmers and fishers 63 21 The economy is mostly cash based with little commercial credit available from banks 110 11 12 Remittances from overseas workers add up to around 100 million annually 109 257 Fractional coins centavos used locally as part of the United States dollar This poverty belies significant wealth in terms of natural resources which at the time of independence had per capita value equivalent to the wealth of an upper middle income country Over half of this was in oil and over a quarter natural gas The Timor Leste Petroleum Fund was established in 2005 to turn these non renewable resources into a more sustainable form of wealth 92 4 6 From 2005 to 2021 23 billion earned from oil sales has entered the fund 8 billion has been generated from investments while 12 billion has been spent 63 30 A decrease in oil and gas reserves led to decreasing HDI beginning in 2010 63 18 19 80 of government spending comes from this fund which as of 2021 had 19 billion 10 times greater than the size of the national budget As oil income has decreased the fund is at risk of being exhausted Withdrawals have exceeded sustainable levels almost every year since 2009 63 23 Resources within the Bayu Undan field are expected to soon run out while extracting those within the so far undeveloped Greater Sunrise field has proven technically and politically challenging Remaining potential reserves are also losing value as oil and gas become less favoured sources of energy 109 264 272 112 The country s economy is dependent on government spending and to a lesser extent assistance from foreign donors 113 Government spending decreased beginning in 2012 which had knock on effects in the private sector over the following years The government and its state owned oil company often invest in large private projects Decreasing government spending was matched with a decrease in GDP growth 63 18 After the petroleum fund the second largest source of government income is taxes Tax revenue is less than 8 of GDP lower than many other countries in the region and with similarly sized economies Other government income comes from 23 autonomous agencies which include port authorities infrastructure companies and the National University of East Timor 110 13 28 309 Overall government spending remains among the highest in the world 110 12 although investment into education health and water infrastructure is negligible 109 260 A proportional representation of East Timor exports 2019 Private sector development has lagged due to human capital shortages infrastructure weakness an incomplete legal system and an inefficient regulatory environment 113 Property rights remain ill defined with conflicting titles from Portuguese and Indonesian rule as well as needing to accommodate traditional customary rights 63 23 As of 2010 87 7 of urban 321 043 people and 18 9 of rural 821 459 people households have electricity for an overall average of 38 2 114 The private sector shrank between 2014 and 2018 despite a growing working age population Agriculture and manufacturing are less productive per capita than at independence 109 255 256 Non oil economic sectors have failed to develop 115 and growth in construction and administration is dependent on oil revenue 109 256 The dependence on oil shows some aspects of a resource curse 116 Coffee made up 90 of all non fossil fuel exports from 2013 2019 with all such exports totalling to around US 20 million annually 109 257 In 2017 the country was visited by 75 000 tourists 117 Demographics EditMain article Demographics of East Timor Population pyramid East Timor recorded a population of 1 183 643 in its 2015 census 5 The population lives mainly along the coastline where all urban areas are located 92 27 Those in urban areas generally have more formal education employment prospects and healthcare While a strong gender disparity exists throughout the country it is less severe in the urban capital The wealthy minority often go abroad for health and education purposes 63 25 The population is young with the median age being under 20 63 29 In particular a large proportion of the population almost 45 in 2015 are males between the ages of 15 and 24 the third largest male youth bulge in the world 65 212 The Government of Timor Leste s website lists the English language demonym for East Timor as Timorese 118 Other reference sources list it as East Timorese 119 120 The word Maubere de formerly used by the Portuguese to refer to native East Timorese and often employed as synonymous with the illiterate and uneducated was adopted by Fretilin as a term of pride 121 Healthcare received 6 of the national budget in 2021 63 24 From 1990 to 2019 life expectancy rose from 48 5 to 69 5 Expected years of schooling rose from 9 8 to 12 4 between 2000 and 2010 while mean years of schooling rose from 2 8 to 4 4 Progress since 2010 for these has been limited Gross national income per capita similarly peaked in 2010 and has decreased since 122 3 As of 2016 45 8 of East Timorese were impoverished 16 3 severely so 122 6 The fertility rate which at the time of independence was the highest in the world at 7 8 123 dropped to 4 2 by 2016 It is relatively higher in rural areas and among poorer 111 3 and less literate households 124 As of 2016 the average household size was 5 3 with 41 of people aged under 15 and 18 of households headed by women 111 2 Infant mortality stood at 30 per 1 000 down from 60 per 1 000 in 2003 111 7 46 of children under 5 showed stunted growth down from 58 in 2010 Working age adult obesity increased from 5 to 10 during the same time period As of 2016 40 of children 23 of women and 13 of men had anemia 111 11 Largest cities and towns in East Timor www wbr citypopulation wbr de wbr en wbr timor wbr cities wbr Rank Name Municipalities Pop Dili Baucau 1 Dili Dili 244 5842 Baucau Baucau 17 3573 Maliana Bobonaro 12 7874 Lospalos Lautem 12 4715 Pante Macassar Oecusse 12 4216 Suai Cova Lima 9 1307 Ermera Ermera 8 0458 Same Manufahi 7 3329 Viqueque Viqueque 6 53010 Ainaro Ainaro 6 250 Ethnicity and language Edit Main article Languages of East Timor Major language groups in East Timor by suco Timorese communities are not strictly defined by ethnic background or linguistic group Separate communities may share ethnicity or language and many areas show overlaps and hybridisation between ethnic and linguistic groups 81 44 Familial relations and descent which are interlinked with sacred house affiliation are a more important indicator of identity 81 47 Each family group generally identifies with a single language or dialect 81 49 With this immense local variation in mind there is a broad cultural and identity distinction between the east Bacau Lautem and Viqueque Municipalities and the west of the country a product of history more than it is of linguistic and ethnic differences 81 45 47 although it is very loosely associated with the two language groups 125 142 143 There is a small mestico population of mixed Portuguese and local descent 126 There is a small Chinese minority most of whom are Hakka 127 128 Many Chinese left in the mid 1970s but a significant number have also returned to East Timor following the end of Indonesian occupation 129 East Timor has a small community of Timorese Indian specifically Goan descent 130 as well as historical immigration from Africa and Yemen 126 Likely reflecting the mixed origins of the different ethnolinguistic groups of the island the indigenous languages fall into two language families Austronesian and Papuan 24 10 Depending on how they are classified there are up to 19 indigenous languages with up to 30 dialects 125 136 Aside from Tetum Ethnologue lists the following indigenous languages Adabe Baikeno Bunak Fataluku Galoli Habun Idate Kairui Midiki Kemak Lakalei Makasae Makuv a Mambae Nauete Tukudede and Waima a 131 According to the Atlas of the World s Languages in Danger there are six endangered languages in East Timor Adabe Habu Kairui Midiki Maku a Naueti and Waima a 132 The largest Malayo Polynesian group is the Tetum 133 mostly around Dili or the western border Other Malayo Polynesian languages with native speakers of more than 40 000 are Mambai in the central mountains south of Dili Baikeno in Oecusse Kemak in the north west interior and Tokodede on the northwest coast 134 135 The main Papuan languages spoken are Bunak in the centre of Timor especially within Bobonaro Municipality Makasae in the eastern Baucau and Viqueque municipalities and Fataluku in the eastern Lautem Municipality 81 43 The 2015 census found that the most commonly spoken mother tongues were Tetum Prasa mother tongue for 30 6 of the population Mambai 16 6 Makasai 10 5 Tetum Terik 6 05 Baikenu 5 87 Kemak 5 85 Bunak 5 48 Tokodede 3 97 and Fataluku 3 52 Other indigenous languages accounted for 10 47 while 1 09 of the population spoke foreign languages natively 136 East Timor s two official languages are Portuguese and Tetum In addition English and Indonesian are designated by the constitution as working languages 91 3 137 This is within the Final and Transitional Provisions which do not set a final date In 2012 35 could speak read and write Portuguese which is up significantly from less than 5 in the 2006 UN Development Report Portuguese is recovering as it has now been made the main official language of Timor and is being taught in most schools 137 138 The use of Portuguese for government information and in the court system provides some barriers to access for those who do not speak it 64 Tetum is also not understood by everyone in the country 24 11 According to the Observatory of the Portuguese Language the East Timorese literacy rate was 77 8 in Tetum 55 6 in Indonesian and 39 3 in Portuguese and that the primary literacy rate increased from 73 in 2009 to 83 in 2012 139 According to the 2015 census 50 of the population between the ages of 14 and 24 can speak and understand Portuguese 140 The 2015 census found around 15 of those over the age of five were literate in English 141 Education Edit Escola Portuguesa Ruy Cinatti the Portuguese School of Dili East Timor s adult literacy rate was 68 among adults and 84 among those aged 15 24 as of 2021 It is slightly higher among women than men 63 27 More girls than boys attend school although some drop out upon reaching puberty 63 25 As of 2016 22 of working age women 15 49 and 19 of working age men had no education 15 of women and 18 of men had some primary education 52 of women and 51 of men had some secondary education and 11 of women and 12 of men had higher education Overall 75 of women and 82 of men were literate 111 2 Primary schools exist throughout the country although the quality of materials and teaching is often poor Secondary schools are generally limited to municipal capitals Education takes up 10 of the national budget 63 27 The country s main university is the National University of East Timor There are also four colleges 142 Since independence both Indonesian and Tetum have lost ground as media of instruction while Portuguese has increased in 2001 only 8 4 of primary school and 6 8 of secondary school students attended a Portuguese medium school by 2005 this had increased to 81 6 for primary and 46 3 for secondary schools 143 Indonesian formerly played a considerable role in education being used by 73 7 of all secondary school students as a medium of instruction but by 2005 Portuguese was used by most schools in Baucau Manatuto as well as the capital district 143 Portugal provides support to about 3 of the public schools in East Timor focused on those in urban areas further encouraging the use of the Portuguese language 63 28 Religion Edit Main article Religion in East Timor Igreja da Imaculada Conceicao church in Viqueque While the Constitution of East Timor enshrines the principles of freedom of religion and separation of church and state Section 45 Comma 1 also acknowledges the participation of the Catholic Church in the process of national liberation in its preamble 144 Upon independence the country joined the Philippines to become the only two predominantly Catholic states in Asia although nearby parts of eastern Indonesia such as Flores and parts of Western New Guinea also have Catholic majorities 145 146 According to the 2015 census 97 57 of the population is Catholic 1 96 Protestant 0 24 Muslim 0 08 Traditional 0 05 Buddhist 0 02 Hindu and 0 08 other religions 1 A 2016 survey conducted by the Demographic and Health Survey programme showed that Catholics made up 98 3 of the population Protestants 1 2 and Muslims 0 3 147 The number of churches grew from 100 in 1974 to more than 800 in 1994 142 with Church membership having grown considerably under Indonesian rule as Pancasila Indonesia s state ideology requires all citizens to believe in one God and does not recognise traditional beliefs East Timorese animist belief systems did not fit with Indonesia s constitutional monotheism resulting in mass conversions to Christianity Portuguese clergy were replaced with Indonesian priests and Latin and Portuguese mass was replaced by Indonesian mass 148 While just 20 of East Timorese called themselves Catholics at the time of the 1975 invasion the figure surged to reach 95 by the end of the first decade after the invasion 148 149 The Roman Catholic Church divides East Timor into three dioceses the Archdiocese of Dili the Diocese of Baucau and the Diocese of Maliana 150 In rural areas Roman Catholicism is syncretised with local animist beliefs 151 The number of Protestants and Muslims declined significantly after September 1999 as these groups were disproportionately represented among supporters of integration with Indonesia Fewer than half of previous Protestant congregations existed after September 1999 and many Protestants were among those who remained in West Timor 152 Culture EditMain article Culture of East Timor Traditional Timorese dancers The many cultures within East Timor stem from the several waves of Austronesian and Melanesian migration that led to the current population with unique identities and traditions developing within each petty kingdom Portuguese authorities built upon traditional structures blending Portuguese influence into the existing political and social systems 27 91 92 The presence of the Catholic Church created a point of commonality across the various ethnic groups despite full conversion remaining limited The Portuguese language also provided common linkages even if direct Portuguese impact was limited 27 97 98 Under Indonesian rule resistance strengthened cultural links to Catholicism and the Portuguese language At the same time Indonesian cultural influence was spread through schools and administration 27 98 99 The preservation of traditional beliefs in the face of Indonesian attempts to suppress them became linked to the creation of the country s national identity 91 7 13 This national identity only began to emerge at the very end of Portuguese rule and further developed during Indonesian rule 125 134 136 Following independence a civic identity began to develop This was most clearly expressed through enthusiasm for national level democracy 125 155 156 and was reflected in politics through a shift from resistance narratives to development ones 153 3 The capital has developed a more cosmopolitan culture while rural areas maintain stronger traditional practices 63 30 Internal migration into urban areas especially Dili creates cultural links between these areas and rural hinterlands Those in urban areas often continue to identify with a specific rural area even those with multiple generations born in Dili 81 53 54 The presence of so many ethnic and linguistic groups means cultural practices vary across the country 91 11 These practices reflect historical social structures and practices where political leaders were regarded as having spiritual powers Ancestry was an important part of cultural practices and partly signified leadership Leaders often had influence over land use and these leaders continue to play an informal role in land disputes and other aspects of community practice today An important traditional concept is lulik or sacredness Some lulik ceremonies continue to reflect animist beliefs for example through divination ceremonies which vary throughout the country Sacred status can also be associated with objects such as Portuguese flags which have been passed down within families 91 7 13 Sacred house lee teinu in Lospalos Community life is centred around sacred houses Uma Lulik physical structures which serve as a representative symbol and identifier for each community 81 47 49 The architectural style of these houses varies between different parts of the country although following widespread destruction by Indonesian forces many were rebuilt with cheap modern materials 154 22 25 The house as a concept extends beyond the physical object to the surrounding community 27 92 93 96 Kinship systems exist within and between houses Traditional leaders who stem from historically important families retain key roles in administering justice and resolving disputes through methods that vary between communities 81 47 49 Such leaders are often elected to official leadership positions merging cultural and historical status with modern political status 81 52 The concept of being part of a communal house has been extended to the nation with Parliament serving as the national sacred house 27 96 Art styles vary throughout the various ethnolinguistic groups of the island Nonetheless similar artistic motifs are present throughout such as large animals and particular geometric patterns Some art is traditionally associated with particular genders 155 For example the Tais textiles that play a widespread role in traditional life throughout the island are traditionally handwoven by women 156 Different tais patterns are associated with different communities and more broadly with linguistic groups 125 137 Many buildings within central Dili maintain historical Portuguese architecture 157 I 5 Traditional rituals remain important often mixed in with more modern aspects 125 137 A strong oral history is highlighted in individuals able to recite long stories or poetry 158 This history or Lia nain passes down traditional knowledge 154 16 There remains a strong tradition of poetry 159 Prime Minister Xanana Gusmao for example is a distinguished poet earning the moniker poet warrior 160 In the field of cinema East Timor released its first feature length film a period thriller titled Beatriz s War in 2013 161 Shot with a limited budget by a mix of local filmmakers and a volunteer Australian film crew the film depicted East Timorese life under Indonesian occupation in the 1970s with producer Lurdes Pires acknowledging their aim to diverge from the government s friendship and forgiveness policy for its past conflicts by telling a story of truth seeking and justice 162 See also Edit Asia portalOutline of East Timor Index of East Timor related articles List of topics on the Portuguese Empire in the EastReferences Edit a b Nationality Citizenship and Religion Government of Timor Leste 25 October 2015 Archived from the original on 14 July 2019 Retrieved 29 January 2020 Hicks David 15 September 2014 Rhetoric and the Decolonization and Recolonization of East Timor Routledge ISBN 9781317695356 via Google Books Adelman Howard 28 June 2011 No Return No Refuge Rites and Rights in Minority Repatriation Columbia University Press ISBN 9780231526906 via Google Books a b c Shoesmith Dennis 2003 Timor Leste Divided Leadership in a Semi Presidential System Asian Survey 43 2 231 252 doi 10 1525 as 2003 43 2 231 The semi presidential system in the new state of Timor Leste has institutionalized a political struggle between the president Xanana Gusmao and the prime minister Mari Alkatiri This has polarized political alliances and threatens the viability of the new state This paper explains the ideological divisions and the history of rivalry between these two key political actors The adoption of Marxism by Fretilin in 1977 led to Gusmao s repudiation of the party in the 1980s and his decision to remove Falintil the guerrilla movement from Fretilin control The power struggle between the two leaders is then examined in the transition to independence This includes an account of the politicization of the defense and police forces and attempts by Minister of Internal Administration Rogerio Lobato to use disaffected Falintil veterans as a counterforce to the Gusmao loyalists in the army The December 4 2002 Dili riots are explained in the context of this political struggle a b Population by Age amp Sex Government of Timor Leste 25 October 2015 Archived from the original on 25 January 2020 Retrieved 29 January 2020 a b World Economic Outlook database October 2022 World Economic Outlook IMF 10 October 2022 Retrieved 30 January 2023 Gini Index coefficient CIA World Factbook Retrieved 16 July 2021 Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier Human Development and the Anthropocene PDF United Nations Development Programme 15 December 2020 pp 343 346 ISBN 978 92 1 126442 5 Retrieved 16 December 2020 Amy Ochoa Carson 2007 East Timor s Land Tenure Problems A Consideration of Land Reform Programs in South Africa and Zimbabwe PDF Indiana International amp Comparative Law Review 17 2 395 doi 10 18060 17554 tetun org tetun org a b c Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Timor Leste PDF Government of Timor Leste Retrieved 2 September 2016 a b UNGEGN list of country names PDF United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names 2 6 May 2011 Retrieved 14 August 2016 Constituicao da Republica Democratica de Timor PDF Government of Timor Leste Retrieved 2 September 2016 Konstituisaun Republika Demokratika Timor Leste PDF Government of Timor Leste Retrieved 2 September 2016 TL ISO Retrieved 24 October 2022 Marwick Ben Clarkson Chris O Connor Sue Collins Sophie 2016 Early Modern Human Lithic Technology from Jerimalai East Timor Journal of Human Evolution Submitted manuscript 101 45 64 doi 10 1016 j jhevol 2016 09 004 PMID 27886810 Gomes Sibylle M Bodner Martin Souto Luis Zimmermann Bettina Huber Gabriela Strobl Christina Rock Alexander W Achilli Alessandro Olivieri Anna Torroni Antonio Corte Real Francisco Parson Walther 14 February 2015 Human settlement history between Sunda and Sahul a focus on East Timor Timor Leste and the Pleistocenic mtDNA diversity BMC Genomics 16 1 2 14 doi 10 1186 s12864 014 1201 x ISSN 1471 2164 PMC 4342813 PMID 25757516 Oliveira Sandra Nagele Kathrin Carlhoff Selina Pugach Irina Koesbardiati Toetik Hubner Alexander Meyer Matthias Oktaviana Adhi Agus Takenaka Masami Katagiri Chiaki Murti Delta Bayu Putri Rizky Sugianto Mahirta Petchey Fiona Higham Thomas 9 June 2022 Ancient genomes from the last three millennia support multiple human dispersals into Wallacea Nature Ecology amp Evolution 6 7 1024 1034 doi 10 1038 s41559 022 01775 2 ISSN 2397 334X PMC 9262713 PMID 35681000 Truman Simanjuntak 24 March 2017 The Western Route Migration A Second Probable Neolithic Diffusion to Indonesia PDF In Piper Philip Matsumura Hirofumi Bulbeck David eds New Perspectives in Southeast Asian and Pacific Prehistory 1st ed ANU Press doi 10 22459 ta45 03 2017 ISBN 978 1 76046 094 5 O Connor Sue 15 October 2015 Rethinking the Neolithic in Island Southeast Asia with Particular Reference to the Archaeology of Timor Leste and Sulawesi Archipel 90 15 47 doi 10 4000 archipel 362 ISSN 0044 8613 S2CID 204467392 Taylor Jean Gelman 2003 Indonesia Peoples and Histories New Haven and London Yale University Press pp 378 ISBN 978 0 300 10518 6 O Connor Sue 2015 Rethinking the Neolithic in Island Southeast Asia with Particular Reference to the Archaeology of Timor Leste and Sulawesi Archipel 90 doi 10 4000 archipel 362 S2CID 204467392 Donohue Mark Denham Tim April 2010 Farming and Language in Island Southeast Asia Reframing Austronesian History Current Anthropology 51 2 223 256 doi 10 1086 650991 S2CID 4815693 a b c d e f g h i j k l Lundahl Mats Sjoholm Fredrik 17 July 2019 The Creation of the East Timorese Economy Volume 1 History of a Colony Springer ISBN 9783030194666 a b Villiers John July 1994 The Vanishing Sandalwood of Portuguese Timor Itinerario 18 2 89 93 doi 10 1017 S0165115300022518 S2CID 162012899 a b Schwarz A 1994 A Nation in Waiting Indonesia in the 1990s Westview Press p 198 199 ISBN 978 1 86373 635 0 a b c d e f g h Paulino Vincente 2011 Remembering the Portuguese Presence in Timor and its Contribution to the Making of Timor s National and Cultural Identity In Jarnagin Laura ed Culture and Identity in the Luso Asian World Institute of Southeast Asian Studies ISBN 9789814345507 Leibo Steven 2012 East and Southeast Asia 2012 45 ed Lanham MD Stryker Post pp 161 165 ISBN 978 1 6104 8885 3 The Portuguese Colonization and the Problem of East Timorese Nationalism Archived from the original on 23 November 2006 Deeley Neil 2001 The International Boundaries of East Timor p 8 Department of Defence Australia 2002 A Short History of East Timor Archived from the original on 3 January 2006 Retrieved 3 January 2007 Retrieved 3 January 2007 Operations and Evacuation of the 2 4th Western Australian Museum Retrieved 23 October 2022 Levi Werner 17 July 1946 Portuguese Timor and the War Far Eastern Survey 15 14 221 223 doi 10 2307 3023062 JSTOR 3023062 About Timor Leste gt Brief History of Timor Leste A History Timor Leste gov tl Archived from the original on 29 October 2008 Ricklefs M C 1991 A History of Modern Indonesia since c 1300 Second Edition MacMillan p 301 ISBN 978 0 333 57689 2 Jardine pp 50 51 Official Web Gateway to the Government of Timor Leste Districts Government of the Democratic Republic of Timor Leste Archived from the original on 21 March 2012 Retrieved 16 July 2011 Chega The report of the commission for reception truth and reconciliation Timor Leste reliefweb 28 November 2005 Retrieved 24 October 2022 a b Niner Sarah 2000 A long journey of resistance The origins and struggle of the CNRT Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 32 1 2 11 18 doi 10 1080 14672715 2000 10415775 ISSN 0007 4810 S2CID 147535429 Benetech Human Rights Data Analysis Group 9 February 2006 The Profile of Human Rights Violations in Timor Leste 1974 1999 PDF A Report to the Commission on Reception Truth and Reconciliation of Timor Leste Human Rights Data Analysis Group HRDAG pp 2 4 Lutz Nancy Melissa 20 November 1991 Colonization Decolonization and Integration Language Policies in East Timor Indonesia Australian National University Retrieved 8 October 2022 Howard pushed me on E Timor referendum Habibie ABC News 15 November 2008 Retrieved 8 June 2022 United States Congress House Committee on International Relations Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific United States Congress Senate Committee on Foreign Relations Subcommittee on East Asian and Pacific Affairs 2000 East Timor A New Beginning Joint Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific of the Committee on International Relations House of Representatives and the Subcommittee on East Asian and Pacific Affairs of the Committee on Foreign Relations United States Senate One Hundred Sixth Congress Second Session February 10 2000 U S Government Printing Office pp 51 53 ISBN 9780160607820 Retrieved 26 July 2020 One Man s Legacy in East Timor thediplomat com Retrieved 30 May 2020 United Nations Transitional Administration In East Timor UNTAET United Nations Retrieved 17 July 2011 Etan Us 15 February 2000 UN takes over East Timor command Etan org Retrieved 17 July 2011 a b Security Council 31 October 2001 Council Endorses Proposal to Declare East Timor s Independence 20 May 2002 United Nations Press release Retrieved 2 September 2016 East Timor More than 1 000 refugees return since beginning of month ReliefWeb 10 May 2002 Retrieved 13 February 2013 Constitution of the Democratic Republic of East Timor refworld 20 May 2002 Retrieved 2 September 2016 Aucoin Louis Brandt Michele 1 April 2010 East Timor s Constitutional Passage to Independence PDF Framing the State in Times of Transition Case Studies in Constitution Making United States Institute of Peace p 254 270 ISBN 978 1601270559 Unanimous Assembly decision makes Timor Leste 191st United Nations member state Press release United Nations 27 September 2002 Retrieved 2 September 2016 a b UN wraps up East Timor mission ABC News Australia 30 December 2012 East Timor May Be Becoming Failed State London 13 January 2008 Archived from the original on 13 January 2008 Ana Gomes 11 April 2007 Delegation to Observe the Presidential Elections in the Democratic Republic of Timor Leste PDF European Parliament Retrieved 24 October 2022 Jose Cornelio Guterres 2008 Timor Leste A Year of Democratic Elections Southeast Asian Affairs 359 372 JSTOR 27913367 Shot East Timor leader critical BBC News 11 February 2008 Retrieved 17 July 2011 East Timor profile Timeline BBC News 26 February 2018 Roughneen Simon 12 May 2018 East Timor votes in second general election in 10 months Nikkei Asia Cruz Nelson de la 22 June 2018 New East Timor PM pledges to bring unity after political deadlock Reuters via www reuters com France Presse Agence 20 April 2022 Timor Leste presidential election Jose Ramos Horta wins in landslide the Guardian Neto Octavio Amorim Lobo Marina Costa 2010 Between Constitutional Diffusion and Local Politics Semi Presidentialism in Portuguese Speaking Countries APSA 2010 Annual Meeting Paper SSRN 1644026 Retrieved 6 May 2022 a b c d e f g h i j Shoesmith Dennis 24 January 2020 Party Systems and Factionalism in Timor Leste Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs 39 1 167 186 doi 10 1177 1868103419889759 S2CID 214341149 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an Timor Leste Country Report 2022 Bertelsmann Stiftung 2022 Retrieved 2 May 2022 a b c d e f g Timor Leste Freedom House 2021 Retrieved 5 May 2022 a b c Aurel Croissant Rebecca Abu Sharkh 21 May 2020 As Good as It Gets Stateness and Democracy in East Timor In Croissant Aurel Hellmann Olli eds Stateness and Democracy in East Asia Cambridge University Press ISBN 9781108495745 Democratic Republic of Timor Leste International Foundation for Electoral Systems Retrieved 27 December 2022 a b c d Rui Graca Feijo 1 April 2015 Timor Leste The Adventurous Tribulations of Local Governance after Independence Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs 34 1 85 114 doi 10 1177 186810341503400104 S2CID 59459849 a b c Timor Leste Final Report Parliamentary Election 2012 PDF European Union Election Observation Mission 2012 p 9 Retrieved 30 May 2022 The East Timor Political and Election Observation Project Final Project Report PDF The Carter Center April 2004 p 11 Ingram Sue 2018 Parties personalities and political power legacies of liberal peace building in Timor Leste Conflict Security and Development 18 5 374 doi 10 1080 14678802 2018 1511163 S2CID 149690926 Hynd Evan 5 July 2012 Timor s old guard marching on Australian National University Archived from the original on 28 May 2022 Retrieved 1 May 2022 Joao da Cruz Cardoso 27 April 2022 Timor Leste The new president needs to tune in The Interpreter Retrieved 1 May 2022 a b Diploma Ministerial No 199 GM MAEOT IX 09 de 15 de Setembro de 2009 Que fixa o numero de Sucos e Aldeias em Territorio Nacional Exposicao de motivos PDF Jornal da Republica Serie I N 33 16 de Setembro de 2009 3588 3620 archived from the original PDF on 1 March 2012 Population and Housing Census 2015 Preliminary Results PDF Direccao Geral de Estatistica retrieved 15 January 2018 a b c Filomeno Martins 28 December 2021 Government to officially declare Atauro Island as new municipality in january 2022 Tatoli Archived from the original on 2 July 2022 Retrieved 14 May 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Lessons for Local Development under Decentralization World Bank Retrieved 12 May 2022 a b c d e f g h i j Scambary James 15 May 2019 Conflict Identity and State Formation in East Timor 2000 2017 Brill ISBN 9789004396791 a b c Sahin Selver B 1 August 2014 Timor Leste s Foreign Policy Securing State Identity in the Post Independence Period Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs 33 2 3 25 doi 10 1177 186810341403300201 S2CID 54546263 Tansubhapol Thanida 30 January 2011 East Timor Bid to Join ASEAN Wins Strong Support Bangkok Post via PressReader ASEAN ASEAN Leaders Statement on the Application of Timor Leste for ASEAN Membership ASEAN Retrieved 14 November 2022 Taylor Leech Kerry 2009 The language situation in Timor Leste Current Issues in Language Planning 10 1 1 68 doi 10 1080 14664200802339840 S2CID 146270920 Richard Baker 21 April 2007 New Timor treaty a failure Theage com au The Age Company Ltd Retrieved 3 January 2010 Strating Rebecca 2017 Timor Leste s foreign policy approach to the Timor Sea disputes pipeline or pipe dream Australian Journal of International Affairs 71 3 259 283 doi 10 1080 10357718 2016 1258689 S2CID 157488844 Australia and East Timor sign historic maritime border deal BBC News 7 March 2018 Retrieved 15 May 2022 Australia ratifies maritime boundaries with East Timor Reuters 29 July 2019 Retrieved 15 May 2022 Chapter Six Asia The Military Balance International Institute for Strategic Studies 121 1 307 308 24 February 2001 doi 10 1080 04597222 2021 1868795 ISSN 0459 7222 S2CID 232050863 a b c d e f g h Berlie Jean A 1 October 2017 A Socio Historical Essay Traditions Indonesia Independence and Elections East Timor s Independence Indonesia and ASEAN Springer ISBN 9783319626307 a b c d e f g Timor Leste Country Environmental Analysis World Bank Group July 2009 hdl 10986 28126 Retrieved 24 May 2022 a b c Molnar Andrea Katalin 17 December 2009 Timor Leste Politics History and Culture Routledge ISBN 9781135228842 a b c d Deeley Neil 2001 The International Boundaries of East Timor International Boundaries Research Unit ISBN 9781897643426 a b c d e f g h i j Climate Risk Country Profile Timor Leste Asian Development Bank World Bank Group 18 November 2021 Retrieved 23 May 2022 Dixon David 1 March 2021 Demarcating the Frontiers of Australia Indonesia and Timor Leste Frontiers in International Environmental Law Oceans and Climate Challenges Brill pp 43 74 doi 10 1163 9789004372887 003 ISBN 9789004372887 S2CID 235518614 Posma Sariguna Johnson Kennedy Suzanna Josephine L Tobing Adolf Bastian Heatubun Rutman Lumbantoruan 2021 The Maritime Border Management of Indonesia and Timor Leste By Military Approach or Welfare Approach PDF Proceedings of Airlangga Conference on International Relations ACIR 2018 Politics Economy and Security in Changing Indo Pacific Region 348 354 doi 10 5220 0010277003480354 ISBN 978 989 758 493 0 Catches by Taxon in the waters of Timor Leste Sea Around Us Retrieved 15 May 2022 Mount Ramelau Gunung Bagging 10 April 2015 Retrieved 18 December 2016 Nino Konis Santana National Park declared as Timor Leste s formerly East Timor first national park Petside Wildlife Extra Norwegian energy and Water Resources Directorate NVE 2004 Iralalaro Hydropower Project Environmental Assessment ReefGIS Reefs At Risk Global 1998 Reefgis reefbase org Retrieved 28 March 2010 Norman James 8 May 2022 East Timor s coral reefs are the most biodiverse in the world Why are they surviving climate change ABC News Retrieved 9 February 2023 a b Country Partnership Strategy Timor Leste 2016 2020 Environment Assessment Summary PDF Asian Development Bank Retrieved 24 May 2022 Dinerstein Eric Olson David Joshi Anup Vynne Carly Burgess Neil D Wikramanayake Eric Hahn Nathan Palminteri Suzanne Hedao Prashant Noss Reed Hansen Matt Locke Harvey Ellis Erle C Jones Benjamin Barber Charles Victor Hayes Randy Kormos Cyril Martin Vance Crist Eileen Sechrest Wes Price Lori Baillie Jonathan E M Weeden Don Suckling Kieran Davis Crystal Sizer Nigel Moore Rebecca Thau David Birch Tanya Potapov Peter Turubanova Svetlana Tyukavina Alexandra de Souza Nadia Pintea Lilian Brito Jose C Llewellyn Othman A Miller Anthony G Patzelt Annette Ghazanfar Shahina A Timberlake Jonathan Kloser Heinz Shennan Farpon Yara Kindt Roeland Lilleso Jens Peter Barnekow van Breugel Paulo Graudal Lars Voge Maianna Al Shammari Khalaf F Saleem Muhammad 2017 An Ecoregion Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm BioScience 67 6 534 545 doi 10 1093 biosci bix014 PMC 5451287 PMID 28608869 de Brouwer Gordon 2001 Hill Hal Saldanha Joao M eds East Timor Development Challenges For The World s Newest Nation Canberra Australia Asia Pacific Press pp 39 51 ISBN 978 0 3339 8716 2 Amara Jomana 20 May 2013 Adopting a Currency in Post Conflict Environments The Case of Timor Leste PDF Calhoun Institutional Archive of the Naval Postgraduate School Retrieved 17 February 2023 Matthew G Yuching 11 November 2022 FAST FACTS Timor Leste the upcoming 11th member of ASEAN Rappler Retrieved 17 February 2023 a b c d e f g h i j Scheiner Charles 30 September 2021 Timor Leste economic survey The end of petroleum income Asia amp the Pacific Policy Studies 8 2 253 279 doi 10 1002 app5 333 S2CID 244233899 a b c d Timor Leste Economic Report December 2021 Steadying the Ship World Bank Group 1 December 2021 Retrieved 26 May 2022 a b c d e f Timor Leste 2016 Demographic and Health Survey Key Findings PDF General Directorate of Statistics 2018 Retrieved 30 May 2022 Angus Grigg 30 April 2021 Less than 20 years after independence Timor Leste is running on fumes Financial Review Retrieved 29 May 2022 a b U S Relations With Timor Leste U S Department of State 3 July 2012 Highlights of the 2010 Census Main Results in Timor Leste PDF Direccao Nacional de Estatistica Archived from the original PDF on 28 September 2013 Joao da Cruz Cardoso 1 March 2021 Why is Timor Leste Still Unable to Diversify its Economy The Diplomat Retrieved 28 May 2022 John Samuel Papyrakis Elissaios Tasciotti Luca 2020 Is there a resource curse in Timor Leste A critical review of recent evidence Development Studies Research 7 1 141 152 doi 10 1080 21665095 2020 1816189 S2CID 224995979 Keine Lust auf Massentourismus Studie Die Lander mit den wenigsten Urlaubern der Welt TRAVELBOOK 10 September 2018 Government of Timor Leste Timor leste gov tl Retrieved 14 January 2018 Dickson Paul 2006 Labels for Locals What to Call People from Abilene to Zimbabwe Collins ISBN 978 0 06 088164 1 The International Thesaurus of Refugee Terminology UNHCR amp FMO Retrieved 14 January 2018 Fox James J Soares Dionisio Babo 2000 Out of the Ashes Destruction and Reconstruction of East Timor C Hurst p 60 ISBN 978 1 85065 554 1 a b Human Development Report 2020 Timor Leste PDF United Nations Development Programme 2020 Retrieved 30 May 2022 Udoy Sankar Saikia Gouranga L Dasvarma Tanya Wells Brown 2009 The world s highest fertility in Asia s newest nation an investigation into reproductive behaviour of women in Timor Leste Princeton University p 2 Retrieved 30 May 2022 Fertility Summary of the Thematic Report PDF General Directorate of Statistics 2015 p 6 Retrieved 30 May 2022 a b c d e f Kingsbury Damien March 2010 National identity in Timor Leste challenges and opportunities South East Asia Research 18 1 133 159 doi 10 5367 000000010790959820 JSTOR 23750953 S2CID 144171942 a b Boac Ernesto D 2001 The East Timor and Mindanao Independence Movements A Comparative Study U S Army War College p 3 Berlie Jean A 2015 Chinese in East Timor Identity Society and Economy HumaNetten 35 37 49 doi 10 15626 hn 20153503 Huber Juliette 1 September 2021 At the Periphery of Nanyang The Hakka Community of Timor Leste Sinitic Voices across the Southern Seas Brill pp 52 90 doi 10 1163 9789004473263 004 ISBN 9789004473263 S2CID 250178726 Constancio Pinto Matthew Jardine 1997 East Timor s Unfinished Struggle Inside the East Timorese Resistance South End Press p 263 ISBN 978 0 89608 541 1 Relations with a new nation How far South East is New Delhi prepared to go www etan org Retrieved 22 June 2021 Languages of East Timor Ethnologue Interactive Atlas of the World s Languages in Danger UNESCO Taylor Jean Gelman 2003 Indonesia Peoples and Histories Yale University Press p 378 ISBN 978 0 300 10518 6 Language General Directorate of Statistics 2015 Retrieved 31 May 2022 Catharina Williams van Klinken Rob Williams 2015 Mapping the mother tongue in Timor Leste Who spoke what where in 2010 Retrieved 31 May 2022 Language Population and Housing Census of Timor Leste 2015 Timor Leste Ministry of Finance a b Ramos Horta J 20 April 2012 Timor Leste Tetum Portuguese Bahasa Indonesia or English The Jakarta Post The Impact of the Language Directive on the Courts in East Timor PDF Report Dili East Timor Judicial System Monitoring Programme August 2004 Archived from the original PDF on 11 February 2012 Retrieved 1 June 2016 O estimulo ao uso da lingua portuguesa em Timor Leste e Guine Bissau Blog of the International Portuguese Language Institute in Portuguese 29 May 2015 Fernandes Neila 6 May 2021 Longuinhos pede a academicos que utilizem a lingua portuguesa na transmissao de conhecimento Tatoli Archived from the original on 9 May 2021 Retrieved 9 May 2021 Jessica Gardner Timor Leste Population and Housing Census 2015 Analytical Report on Gender Dimensions PDF United Nations Population Fund p 34 Retrieved 24 October 2022 a b Robinson Geoffrey 2010 If You Leave Us Here We Will Die How Genocide Was Stopped in East Timor Princeton Princeton University Press p 72 a b Table 5 7 Profile Of Students That Attended The 2004 05 Academic Year By Rural And Urban Areas And By District Direccao Nacional de Estatistica Archived from the original on 14 November 2009 Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Timor Leste PDF Governo de Timor Leste Brown Bernardo Chambon Michel 4 February 2022 Catholicism s Overlooked Importance in Asia The Diplomat Retrieved 14 July 2022 Cavanaugh Ray 24 April 2019 Timor Leste A young nation with strong faith and heavy burdens The Catholic World Report Timor Leste Demographic and Health Survey 2016 PDF General Directorate of Statistics Ministry of Planning and Finance amp Ministry of Health p 35 Retrieved 21 April 2018 a b Taylor Jean Gelman 2003 Indonesia Peoples and Histories Yale University Press p 381 ISBN 978 0 300 10518 6 Head Jonathan 5 April 2005 East Timor mourns catalyst Pope BBC News Pope Benedict XVI erects new diocese in East Timor Catholic News Agency Hajek John Tilman Alexandre Vital 1 October 2001 East Timor Phrasebook Lonely Planet p 56 ISBN 978 1 74059 020 4 International Religious Freedom Report 2007 Timor Leste United States Bureau of Democracy Human Rights and Labor 14 September 2007 This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain Leach Michael 8 December 2016 Nation Building and National Identity in Timor Leste Taylor amp Francis ISBN 9781315311647 a b Rosangela Tenorio Jairo da Costa Junior eds 3 March 2022 Homan Futuru Timor Leste Traditional Housing University of Western Australia Nico de Jonge 2013 Traditional Arts in Timorese Cultures Dallas Museum of Art Retrieved 15 October 2022 Tais traditional textile UNESCO Retrieved 15 October 2022 The Project for Study on Dili Urban Master Plan in the Democratic Republic of Timor Leste PDF Japan International Cooperation Agency October 2016 Retrieved 6 July 2021 Morris Chris 1992 The People of East Timor A Traveller s Dictionary in Tetun English and English Tetun Baba Dook Books ISBN 9780959192223 Literatura timorense em lingua portuguesa Timorese literature in the Portuguese language lusofonia x10 mx in Portuguese Archived from the original on 29 September 2019 East Timor s president accepts Xanana Gusmao s resignation ABC News 9 February 2015 Retrieved 22 January 2017 Fresh start for East Timor s film scene Sydney Morning Herald Retrieved 3 October 2013 Craig Natalie 10 July 2014 East Timor s first feature film a quest for truth on a shoestring budget The Guardian Guardian News amp Media Limited Retrieved 1 January 2023 Bibliography EditCashmore Ellis 1988 Dictionary of Race and Ethnic Relations New York Routledge ASIN B000NPHGX6 Charny Israel W ed 1999 Encyclopedia of Genocide Vol 1 Santa Barbara California ABC Clio ISBN 0 87436 928 2 Dunn James 1996 East Timor A People Betrayed Sydney Australian Broadcasting Corporation Durand Frederic 2006 East Timor A Country at the Crossroads of Asia and the Pacific a Geo Historical Atlas Chiang Mai Silkworm Books ISBN 9749575989 Durand Frederic 2016 History of Timor Leste Chiang Mai Silkworm Books ISBN 978 616 215 124 8 Groshong Daniel J 2006 Timor Leste Land of Discovery Hong Kong Tayo Photo Group ISBN 988987640X Gunn Geoffrey C 1999 Timor Loro Sae 500 Years Macau Livros do Oriente ISBN 972 9418 69 1 Gunn Geoffrey C 2011 Historical Dictionary of East Timor Lanham Maryland Scarecrow Press ISBN 9780810867543 Hagerdal Hans 2012 Lords of the Land Lords of the Sea Conflict and Adaptation in Early Colonial Timor 1600 1800 Leiden KITLV Press doi 10 26530 oapen 408241 hdl 20 500 12657 34566 ISBN 978 90 6718 378 9 via Oapen Kingsbury Damien Leach Michael 2007 East Timor Beyond Independence Monash Papers on Southeast Asia no 65 Clayton Vic Monash University Press ISBN 9781876924492 Hill H Saldanha J eds 2002 East Timor Development Challenges for the World s Newest Nation London Palgrave Macmillan UK ISBN 978 0 333 98716 2 Leach Michael Kingsbury Damien eds 2013 The Politics of Timor Leste Democratic Consolidation After Intervention Studies on Southeast Asia no 59 Ithaca NY Cornell University Southeast Asia Program Publications ISBN 9780877277897 Levinson David 1998 Ethnic Relations A Cross Cultural Encyclopedia Santa Barbara California ABC Clio Molnar Andrea Katalin 2010 Timor Leste Politics History and Culture Routledge Contemporary Southeast Asia series 27 London New York Routledge ISBN 9780415778862 Rudolph Joseph R ed 2003 Encyclopedia of Modern Ethnic Conflicts Westport Connecticut Greenwood Press pp 101 106 ISBN 0 313 01574 0 Shelton Dinah L ed 2005 Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity Detroit Thompson Gale SSRN 2226008 Taylor John G 1999 East Timor The Price of Freedom Annandale Pluto Press ISBN 978 1 85649 840 1 Viegas Susana de Matos Feijo Rui Graca eds 2017 Transformations in Independent Timor Leste Dynamics of Social and Cultural Cohabitations London Routledge ISBN 9781315534992 Berlie Jean A 2001 East Timor A Bibliography Paris Indes savantes ISBN 2 84654 012 8 a bibliographic reference launched by PM Xanana Gusmao East Timor politics and elections in Chinese 东帝汶政治与选举 2001 2006 国家建设及前景展望 Jean A Berlie Institute of Southeast Asian Studies of Jinan University editor Jinan China published in 2007 Lundahl Mats Sjoholm Fredrik 2019 The Creation of the East Timorese Economy Vol 1 2 Cham Springer External links EditEast Timor at Wikipedia s sister projects Media from Commons News from Wikinews Travel information from Wikivoyage Struggle for Independence 8 Sep 1999 account of the United Nations ballot on East Timorese independenceGovernment Timor Leste official government website Timor Leste official tourism website Chief of State and Cabinet MembersGeneral information Timor Leste The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency East Timor from UCB Libraries GovPubs Timor Leste at Curlie East Timor at Encyclopaedia Britannica East Timor profile BBC News Wikimedia Atlas of East Timor Key Development Forecasts for Timor Leste from International Futures Timor Leste Studies Association Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title East Timor amp oldid 1142568531, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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