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Mongolia

January 05, 2023

This article is about the modern sovereign state. For other uses, see Mongolia (disambiguation).

Mongolia[c] (/mɒŋˈɡoʊliə/ (listen)) is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of 1,564,116 square kilometres (603,909 square miles), with a population of just 3.3 million, making it the world's most sparsely populated sovereign nation. Mongolia is the world's largest landlocked country that does not border a closed sea, and much of its area is covered by grassy steppe, with mountains to the north and west and the Gobi Desert to the south. Ulaanbaatar, the capital and largest city, is home to roughly half of the country's population.

Mongolia
  • ᠮᠤᠩᠭᠤᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ (Mongolian)
  • Монгол Улс (Mongolian)
Anthem: Монгол улсын төрийн дуулал
Mongol ulsyn töriin duulal
"National Anthem of Mongolia"
Capital
and largest city
Ulaanbaatar[a]
Coordinates: 48°N 106°E / 48°N 106°E / 48; 106
Official languagesMongolian
Official scripts
Ethnic groups
(2020[2])
Religion
(2020[2])
Demonym(s)Mongolian[b]
GovernmentUnitary semi-presidential republic[3]
• President
Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh
Luvsannamsrain Oyun-Erdene
Gombojavyn Zandanshatar
LegislatureState Great Khural
Formation
209 BCE
1206
• Completion of Qing dynasty conquest
1691
29 December 1911
• Mongolian People's Republic established
26 November 1924
13 February 1992
Area
• Total
1,564,116 km2 (603,909 sq mi) (18th)
• Water (%)
0.67[4]
Population
• 2020 estimate
3,227,863[5] (134th)
• Density
2.07/km2 (5.4/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)2022 estimate
• Total
$47.1  billion[6] (124th)
• Per capita
$13,611[6] (103rd)
GDP (nominal)2022 estimate
• Total
$15.7 billion[6] (136rd)
• Per capita
$4,542[6] (115th)
Gini (2018)32.7[7]
medium
HDI (2021) 0.739[8]
high · 96th
CurrencyTögrög (MNT)
Time zoneUTC+7/+8[9]
Date formatyyyy.mm.dd (CE)
Driving sideright
Calling code+976
ISO 3166 codeMN
Internet TLD.mn, .мон

The territory of modern-day Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic empires, including the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Rouran, the First Turkic Khaganate, and others. In 1206, Genghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous land empire in history. His grandson Kublai Khan conquered China proper and established the Yuan dynasty. After the collapse of the Yuan, the Mongols retreated to Mongolia and resumed their earlier pattern of factional conflict, except during the era of Dayan Khan and Tumen Zasagt Khan. In the 16th century, Tibetan Buddhism spread to Mongolia, being further led by the Manchu-founded Qing dynasty, which absorbed the country in the 17th century. By the early 20th century, almost one-third of the adult male population were Buddhist monks.[10][11] After the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia declared independence, and achieved actual independence from the Republic of China in 1921. Shortly thereafter, the country became a satellite state of the Soviet Union, which had aided its independence from China. In 1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was founded as a socialist state.[12] After the anti-communist revolutions of 1989, Mongolia conducted its own peaceful democratic revolution in early 1990. This led to a multi-party system, a new constitution of 1992, and transition to a market economy.

Approximately 30% of the population is nomadic or semi-nomadic; horse culture remains integral. Buddhism is the majority religion (51.7%), with the nonreligious being the second-largest group (40.6%). Islam is the third-largest religious identification (3.2%), concentrated among ethnic Kazakhs. The vast majority of citizens are ethnic Mongols, with roughly 5% of the population being Kazakhs, Tuvans, and other ethnic minorities, who are especially concentrated in the west. Mongolia is a member of the United Nations, Asia Cooperation Dialogue, G77, Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, Non-Aligned Movement and a NATO global partner. Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization in 1997 and seeks to expand its participation in regional economic and trade groups.[4]

Etymology

Mongolia
Mongolian name
Mongolian CyrillicМонгол Улс
(Mongol Uls)
Mongolian scriptᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ
ᠤᠯᠤᠰ
Transcriptions
SASM/GNCMongol Uls

The name Mongolia means the "Land of the Mongols" in Latin. The origin of the Mongolian word "Mongol" (монгол) is of uncertain etymology, given variously such as the name of a mountain or river; a corruption of the Mongolian Mongkhe-tengri-gal ("Eternal Sky Fire");[13] or a derivation from Mugulü, the 4th-century founder of the Rouran Khaganate.[14] First attested as the 'Mungu',[15] (Chinese: 蒙兀, Modern Chinese Měngwù, Middle Chinese Muwngu[16]), a branch of the Shiwei in an 8th-century Tang dynasty list of northern tribes, presumably related to the Liao-era Mungku[15] (Chinese: 蒙古, Modern Chinese Měnggǔ, Middle Chinese MuwngkuX[17]).

After the fall of the Liao in 1125, the Khamag Mongols became a leading tribe on the Mongolian Plateau. However, their wars with the Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty and the Tatar confederation had weakened them. The last head of the tribe was Yesügei, whose son Temüjin eventually united all the Shiwei tribes as the Mongol Empire (Yekhe Monggol Ulus). In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic-speaking tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan.[18]

Since the adoption of the new Constitution of Mongolia on 13 February 1992, the official name of the state is "Mongolia" (Mongol Uls).

History

Main article: History of Mongolia

Prehistory and antiquity

Main articles: Prehistoric Mongolia and Proto-Mongols

The Khoit Tsenkher Cave[19] in Khovd Province shows lively pink, brown, and red ochre paintings (dated to 20,000 years ago) of mammoths, lynx, bactrian camels, and ostriches, earning it the nickname "the Lascaux of Mongolia". The Venus figurines of Mal'ta (21,000 years ago) testify to the level of Upper Paleolithic art in northern Mongolia; Mal'ta is now part of Russia. Neolithic agricultural settlements (c. 5500–3500 BC), such as those at Norovlin, Tamsagbulag, Bayanzag, and Rashaan Khad, predated the introduction of horse-riding nomadism, a pivotal event in the history of Mongolia which became the dominant culture. Horse-riding nomadism has been documented by archeological evidence in Mongolia during the Copper and Bronze Age Afanasevo culture (3500–2500 BC);[20] this Indo-European culture was active to the Khangai Mountains in Central Mongolia. The wheeled vehicles found in the burials of the Afanasevans have been dated to before 2200 BC.[21] Pastoral nomadism and metalworking became more developed with the later Okunev culture (2nd millennium BC), Andronovo culture (2300–1000 BC) and Karasuk culture (1500–300 BC), culminating with the Iron Age Xiongnu Empire in 209 BC. Monuments of the pre-Xiongnu Bronze Age include deer stones, keregsur kurgans, square slab tombs, and rock paintings.

Although cultivation of crops has continued since the Neolithic, agriculture has always remained small in scale compared to pastoral nomadism. Agriculture may have first been introduced from the west or arose independently in the region. The population during the Copper Age has been described as mongoloid in the east of what is now Mongolia, and as europoid in the west.[19] Tocharians (Yuezhi) and Scythians inhabited western Mongolia during the Bronze Age. The mummy of a Scythian warrior, which is believed to be about 2,500 years old, was a 30- to 40-year-old man with blond hair; it was found in the Altai, Mongolia.[22] As equine nomadism was introduced into Mongolia, the political center of the Eurasian Steppe also shifted to Mongolia, where it remained until the 18th century CE. The intrusions of northern pastoralists (e.g. the Guifang, Shanrong, and Donghu) into China during the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC) and Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) presaged the age of nomadic empires.

 
7th-century artifacts found 180 km (112 mi) from Ulaanbaatar.

Since prehistoric times, Mongolia has been inhabited by nomads who, from time to time, formed great confederations that rose to power and prominence. Common institutions were the office of the Khan, the Kurultai (Supreme Council), left and right wings, imperial army (Keshig) and the decimal military system. The first of these empires, the Xiongnu of undetermined ethnicity, were brought together by Modu Shanyu to form a confederation in 209 BC. Soon they emerged as the greatest threat to the Qin Dynasty, forcing the latter to construct the Great Wall of China. It was guarded by up to almost 300,000 soldiers during Marshal Meng Tian's tenure, as a means of defense against the destructive Xiongnu raids. The vast Xiongnu empire (209 BC–93 AD) was followed by the Mongolic Xianbei empire (93–234 AD), which also ruled more than the entirety of present-day Mongolia. The Mongolic Rouran Khaganate (330–555), of Xianbei provenance was the first to use "Khagan" as an imperial title. It ruled a massive empire before being defeated by the Göktürks (555–745) whose empire was even bigger.

The Göktürks laid siege to Panticapaeum, present-day Kerch, in 576. They were succeeded by the Uyghur Khaganate (745–840) who were defeated by the Kyrgyz. The Mongolic Khitans, descendants of the Xianbei, ruled Mongolia during the Liao Dynasty (907–1125), after which the Khamag Mongol (1125–1206) rose to prominence.

Lines 3–5 of the memorial inscription of Bilge Khagan (684–737) in central Mongolia summarizes the time of the Khagans:

In battles they subdued the nations of all four sides of the world and suppressed them. They made those who had heads bow their heads, and who had knees genuflect them. In the east up to the Kadyrkhan common people, in the west up to the Iron Gate they conquered... These Khagans were wise. These Khagans were great. Their servants were wise and great too. Officials were honest and direct with people. They ruled the nation this way. This way they held sway over them. When they died ambassadors from Bokuli Cholug (Baekje Korea), Tabgach (Tang China), Tibet (Tibetan Empire), Avar (Avar Khaganate), Rome (Byzantine Empire), Kirgiz, Uch-Kurykan, Otuz-Tatars, Khitans, Tatabis came to the funerals. So many people came to mourn over the great Khagans. They were famous Khagans.[23]

Middle Ages to early 20th century

Main articles: Mongol Empire, Mongolia under Yuan rule, Northern Yuan dynasty, Dzungar Khanate, and Mongolia under Qing rule
See also: List of medieval Mongol tribes and clans, List of Mongol states, and List of Mongol rulers
 
Mongol Empire expansion (1206 till 1294)
 
1236-1242 Mongol invasions of Europe
 
This map shows the boundary of the 13th-century Mongol Empire compared to today's Mongols. The red area shows where the majority of Mongolian speakers reside today.
 
The Northern Yuan at its greatest extent.

In the chaos of the late 12th century, a chieftain named Temüjin finally succeeded in uniting the Mongol tribes between Manchuria and the Altai Mountains. In 1206, he took the title Genghis Khan, and waged a series of military campaigns – renowned for their brutality and ferocity – sweeping through much of Asia, and forming the Mongol Empire, the largest contiguous land empire in world history. Under his successors it stretched from present-day Poland in the west to Korea in the east, and from parts of Siberia in the north to the Gulf of Oman and Vietnam in the south, covering some 33,000,000 square kilometres (13,000,000 sq mi),[24] (22% of Earth's total land area) and had a population of over 100 million people (about a quarter of Earth's total population at the time). The emergence of Pax Mongolica also significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia during its height.[25][26]

After Genghis Khan's death, the empire was subdivided into four kingdoms or Khanates. These eventually became quasi-independent after the Toluid Civil War (1260–1264), which broke out in a battle for power following Möngke Khan's death in 1259. One of the khanates, the "Great Khaanate", consisting of the Mongol homeland and most of modern-day China, became known as the Yuan dynasty under Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan. He set up his capital in present-day Beijing. After more than a century of power, the Yuan dynasty was overthrown by the Ming dynasty in 1368, and the Yuan court fled to the north, thus becoming the Northern Yuan dynasty. As the Ming armies pursued the Mongols into their homeland, they successfully sacked and destroyed the Mongol capital Karakorum and other cities. Some of these attacks were repelled by the Mongols under Ayushridar and his general Köke Temür.[27]

After the expulsion of the Yuan rulers from China proper, the Mongols continued to rule their homeland, known in historiography as the Northern Yuan dynasty. The next centuries were marked by violent power struggles among various factions, notably the Genghisids and the non-Genghisid Oirats, as well as by several Ming invasions (such as the five expeditions led by the Yongle Emperor).

 
Genghis Khan, the first Mongol Emperor

In the early 16th century, Dayan Khan and his khatun Mandukhai reunited the entire Mongol nation under the Genghisids. In the mid-16th century, Altan Khan of the Tümed, a grandson of Dayan Khan – but not a hereditary or legitimate Khan – became powerful. He founded Hohhot in 1557. After he met with the Dalai Lama in 1578, he ordered the introduction of Tibetan Buddhism to Mongolia. (It was the second time this had occurred.) Abtai Khan of the Khalkha converted to Buddhism and founded the Erdene Zuu monastery in 1585. His grandson Zanabazar became the first Jebtsundamba Khutughtu in 1640. Following the leaders, the entire Mongolian population embraced Buddhism. Each family kept scriptures and Buddha statues on an altar at the north side of their ger (yurt). Mongolian nobles donated land, money and herders to the monasteries. As was typical in states with established religions, the top religious institutions, the monasteries, wielded significant temporal power in addition to spiritual power.[citation needed]

The last Mongol Khan was Ligden Khan in the early 17th century. He came into conflicts with the Manchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and also alienated most Mongol tribes. He died in 1634. By 1636 most Inner Mongolian tribes had submitted to the Manchus, who founded the Qing dynasty. The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under Manchu rule. After several Dzungar–Qing Wars, the Dzungars (western Mongols or Oirats) were virtually annihilated during the Qing conquest of Dzungaria in 1757 and 1758.[28]

 
Altan Khan (1507–1582) founded the city of Hohhot, helped introduce Buddhism and originated the title of Dalai Lama

Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the 600,000 or more Dzungar were destroyed by a combination of disease and warfare.[29] Outer Mongolia was given relative autonomy, being administered by the hereditary Genghisid khanates of Tusheet Khan, Setsen Khan, Zasagt Khan and Sain Noyon Khan. The Jebtsundamba Khutuktu of Mongolia had immense de facto authority. The Manchu forbade mass Chinese immigration into the area, which allowed the Mongols to keep their culture. The Oirats who migrated to the Volga steppes in Russia became known as Kalmyks.

The main trade route during this period was the Tea Road through Siberia; it had permanent stations located every 25 to 30 kilometres (16 to 19 mi), each of which was staffed by 5–30 chosen families.

Until 1911, the Qing dynasty maintained control of Mongolia with a series of alliances and intermarriages, as well as military and economic measures. Ambans, Manchu "high officials", were installed in Khüree, Uliastai, and Khovd, and the country was divided into numerous feudal and ecclesiastical fiefdoms (which also placed people in power with loyalty to the Qing). Over the course of the 19th century, the feudal lords attached more importance to representation and less importance to the responsibilities towards their subjects. The behaviour of Mongolia's nobility, together with usurious practices by Chinese traders and the collection of imperial taxes in silver instead of animals, resulted in widespread poverty among the nomads. By 1911 there were 700 large and small monasteries in Outer Mongolia; their 115,000 monks made up 21% of the population. Apart from the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, there were 13 other reincarnating high lamas, called 'seal-holding saints' (tamgatai khutuktu), in Outer Mongolia.

Modern history

Main articles: Mongolian Revolution of 1911, Bogd Khanate of Mongolia, Mongolian Revolution of 1921, Mongolian People's Republic, Mongolian Revolution of 1990, and History of modern Mongolia
 
The eighth Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, Bogd Khaan
 
Map of unified Mongolia in 1917

With the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia under the Bogd Khaan declared its independence. But the newly established Republic of China considered Mongolia to be part of its own territory. Yuan Shikai, the President of the Republic of China, considered the new republic to be the successor of the Qing. Bogd Khaan said that both Mongolia and China had been administered by the Manchu during the Qing, and after the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, the contract of Mongolian submission to the Manchu had become invalid.[30][d]

The area controlled by the Bogd Khaan was approximately that of the former Outer Mongolia during the Qing period. In 1919, after the October Revolution in Russia, Chinese troops led by warlord Xu Shuzheng occupied Mongolia. Warfare erupted on the northern border. As a result of the Russian Civil War, the White Russian Lieutenant General Baron Ungern led his troops into Mongolia in October 1920, defeating the Chinese forces in Niislel Khüree (now Ulaanbaatar) in early February 1921 with Mongol support.

To eliminate the threat posed by Ungern, Bolshevik Russia decided to support the establishment of a communist Mongolian government and army. This Mongolian army took the Mongolian part of Kyakhta from Chinese forces on 18 March 1921, and on 6 July, Russian and Mongolian troops arrived in Khüree. Mongolia declared its independence again on 11 July 1921.[31] As a result, Mongolia was closely aligned with the Soviet Union over the next seven decades.

Mongolian People's Republic

In 1924, after the Bogd Khaan died of laryngeal cancer[32] or, as some sources claim, at the hands of Russian spies,[33] the country's political system was changed. The Mongolian People's Republic was established. In 1928, Khorloogiin Choibalsan rose to power. The early leaders of the Mongolian People's Republic (1921–1952) included many with Pan-Mongolist ideals. However, changing global politics and increased Soviet pressure led to the decline of Pan-Mongol aspirations in the following period.

 
Khorloogiin Choibalsan led Mongolia during the Stalinist era and presided over an environment of intense political persecution

Khorloogiin Choibalsan instituted collectivization of livestock, began the destruction of the Buddhist monasteries, and carried out Stalinist purges, which resulted in the murders of numerous monks and other leaders. In Mongolia during the 1920s, approximately one-third of the male population were monks. By the beginning of the 20th century, about 750 monasteries were functioning in Mongolia.[34]

In 1930, the Soviet Union stopped Buryat migration to the Mongolian People's Republic to prevent Mongolian reunification. All leaders of Mongolia who did not fulfill Stalin's demands to perform Red Terror against Mongolians were executed, including Peljidiin Genden and Anandyn Amar. The Stalinist purges in Mongolia, which began in 1937, killed more than 30,000 people. Choibalsan died suspiciously in the Soviet Union in 1952. Comintern leader Bohumír Šmeral said, "People of Mongolia are not important, the land is important. Mongolian land is larger than England, France and Germany".[35][page needed]

 
Mongolian troops fight against the Japanese counterattack at Khalkhin Gol, 1939

After the Japanese invasion of neighboring Manchuria in 1931, Mongolia was threatened on this front. During the Soviet-Japanese Border War of 1939, the Soviet Union successfully defended Mongolia against Japanese expansionism. Mongolia fought against Japan during the Battles of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 and during the Soviet–Japanese War in August 1945 to liberate Inner Mongolia from Japan and Mengjiang.[36]

Cold War

The February 1945 Yalta Conference provided for the Soviet Union's participation in the Pacific War. One of the Soviet conditions for its participation, put forward at Yalta, was that after the war Outer Mongolia would retain its independence. The referendum took place on 20 October 1945, with (according to official numbers) 100% of the electorate voting for independence.[37]

After the establishment of the People's Republic of China, both countries confirmed their mutual recognition on 6 October 1949. However, the Republic of China used its Security Council veto in 1955, to stop the admission of the Mongolian People's Republic to the United Nations on the grounds it recognized all of Mongolia —including Outer Mongolia— as part of China. This was the only time the Republic of China ever used its veto. Hence, and because of the repeated threats to veto by the ROC, Mongolia did not join the UN until 1961 when the Soviet Union agreed to lift its veto on the admission of Mauritania (and any other newly independent African state), in return for the admission of Mongolia. Faced with pressure from nearly all the other African countries, the ROC relented under protest. Mongolia and Mauritania were both admitted to the UN on 27 October 1961.[38][39][40] (see China and the United Nations)

 
Mongolian Premier Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal was the longest-serving leader in the Soviet Bloc, with over 44 years in office

On 26 January 1952, Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal took power in Mongolia after the death of Choibalsan. Tsedenbal was the leading political figure in Mongolia for more than 30 years.[41] While Tsedenbal was visiting Moscow in August 1984, his severe illness prompted the parliament to announce his retirement and replace him with Jambyn Batmönkh.

Post-Cold War

The fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 strongly influenced Mongolian politics and youth. Its people undertook the peaceful Democratic Revolution in January 1990 and the introduction of a multi-party system and a market economy. At the same time, the transformation of the former Marxist-Leninist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party to the current social democratic Mongolian People's Party reshaped the country's political landscape.

A new constitution was introduced in 1992, and the term "People's Republic" was dropped from the country's name. The transition to a market economy was often rocky; during the early 1990s the country had to deal with high inflation and food shortages.[42] The first election victories for non-communist parties came in 1993 (presidential elections) and 1996 (parliamentary elections). China has supported Mongolia's application for membership in to the Asia Cooperation Dialogue (ACD), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and granting it observer status in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.[43]

Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of Mongolia
 
The southern portion of Mongolia is taken up by the Gobi Desert, while the northern and western portions are mountainous.

At 1,564,116 km2 (603,909 sq mi), Mongolia is the world's 18th-largest country (after Iran).[44] It is significantly larger than the next-largest country, Peru. It mostly lies between latitudes 41° and 52°N (a small area is north of 52°), and longitudes 87° and 120°E. As a point of reference the northernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same latitude as Berlin (Germany) and Saskatoon (Canada), while the southernmost part is on roughly the same latitude as Rome (Italy) and Chicago (USA). The westernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same longitude as Kolkata in India, while the easternmost part is on the same longitude as Qinhuangdao and Hangzhou in China, as well as the western edge of Taiwan. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its westernmost point is only 36.76 kilometres (22.84 mi) from Kazakhstan.

The geography of Mongolia is varied, with the Gobi Desert to the south and cold, mountainous regions to the north and west. Much of Mongolia consists of the Mongolian-Manchurian grassland steppe, with forested areas accounting for 11.2% of the total land area,[45] a higher percentage than Ireland (10%).[46] The whole of Mongolia is considered to be part of the Mongolian Plateau. The highest point in Mongolia is the Khüiten Peak in the Tavan bogd massif in the far west at 4,374 m (14,350 ft). The basin of the Uvs Lake, shared with Tuva Republic in Russia, is a natural World Heritage Site.

Climate

Main article: Climate of Mongolia

Mongolia is known as the "Land of the Eternal Blue Sky" or "Country of Blue Sky" (Mongolian: "Mönkh khökh tengeriin oron") because it has over 250 sunny days a year.[47][48][49][50]

 
Mongolia map of Köppen climate classification zones.

Most of the country is hot in the summer and extremely cold in the winter, with January averages dropping as low as −30 °C (−22 °F).[51] A vast front of cold, heavy, shallow air comes in from Siberia in winter and collects in river valleys and low basins causing very cold temperatures while slopes of mountains are much warmer due to the effects of temperature inversion (temperature increases with altitude).

 
The Khentii Mountains in Terelj, close to the birthplace of Genghis Khan.

In winter the whole of Mongolia comes under the influence of the Siberian Anticyclone. The localities most severely affected by this cold weather are Uvs province (Ulaangom), western Khovsgol (Rinchinlhumbe), eastern Zavkhan (Tosontsengel), northern Bulgan (Hutag) and eastern Dornod province (Khalkhiin Gol). Ulaanbaatar is strongly, but less severely, affected. The cold gets less severe as one goes south, reaching the warmest January temperatures in Omnogovi Province (Dalanzadgad, Khanbogd) and the region of the Altai mountains bordering China. A unique microclimate is the fertile grassland-forest region of central and eastern Arkhangai Province (Tsetserleg) and northern Ovorkhangai Province (Arvaikheer) where January temperatures are on average the same and often higher than the warmest desert regions to the south in addition to being more stable. The Khangai Mountains play a certain role in forming this microclimate. In Tsetserleg, the warmest town in this microclimate, nighttime January temperatures rarely go under −30 °C (−22 °F) while daytime January temperatures often reach 0 °C (32 °F) to 5 °C (41 °F).[52][53]

The country is subject to occasional harsh climatic conditions known as zud. Zud, a natural disaster unique to Mongolia, results in large proportions of the country's livestock dying from starvation or freezing temperatures or both, resulting in economic upheaval for the largely pastoral population. The annual average temperature in Ulaanbaatar is −1.3 °C (29.7 °F), making it the world's coldest capital city.[51] Mongolia is high, cold and windy.[54] It has an extreme continental climate with long, cold winters and short summers, during which most of its annual precipitation falls.[54] The country averages 257 cloudless days a year, and it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric pressure.[54] Precipitation is highest in the north (average of 200 to 350 millimeters (8 to 14 in) per year) and lowest in the south, which receives 100 to 200 millimeters (4 to 8 in) annually.[54] The highest annual precipitation of 622.297 mm (24.500 in) occurred in the forests of Bulgan Province near the border with Russia and the lowest of 41.735 mm (1.643 in) occurred in the Gobi Desert (period 1961–1990).[55] The sparsely populated far north of Bulgan Province averages 600 mm (24 in) in annual precipitation which means it receives more precipitation than Beijing (571.8 mm or 22.51 in) or Berlin (571 mm or 22.5 in).

Environmental issues

This section is an excerpt from Environmental issues in Mongolia.[edit]
There are many pressing environmental issues in Mongolia that are detrimental to both human and environmental wellness. These problems have arisen in part due to natural factors, but increasingly because of human actions. One of these issues is climate change, which will be responsible for an increase in desertification, natural disasters, and land degradation.[56] Another is deforestation, which is expanding due to human recklessness, pests, disease, and fires. Mongolian lands are becoming more arid through desertification, a process that is being exacerbated due to irresponsible land use. Additionally, more and more species are disappearing and at risk for extinction. Moreover, especially in population centers, Mongolians deal with air and water pollution caused by industrialization.

Wildlife

Main article: Wildlife of Mongolia
 
Bactrian camels by sand dunes in Gobi Desert.

The name "Gobi" is a Mongol term for a desert steppe, which usually refers to a category of arid rangeland with insufficient vegetation to support marmots but with enough to support camels.[54] Mongols distinguish Gobi from desert proper, although the distinction is not always apparent to outsiders unfamiliar with the Mongolian landscape.[54]

Gobi rangelands are fragile and easily destroyed by overgrazing, which results in expansion of the true desert, a stony waste where not even Bactrian camels can survive.[54] The arid conditions in the Gobi are attributed to the rain shadow effect caused by the Himalayas. Before the Himalayas were formed by the collision of the Indo-Australian plate with the Eurasian plate 10 million years ago, Mongolia was a flourishing habitat for major fauna but still somewhat arid and cold due to distance from sources of evaporation. Sea turtle and mollusk fossils have been found in the Gobi, apart from well-known dinosaur fossils. Tadpole shrimps (Lepidurus mongolicus) are still found in the Gobi today. The eastern part of Mongolia including the Onon and Kherlen rivers and Lake Buir form part of the Amur river basin draining to the Pacific Ocean. It hosts some unique species like the Eastern brook lamprey, Daurian crayfish (cambaroides dauricus) and Daurian pearl oyster (dahurinaia dahurica) in the Onon/Kherlen rivers as well as Siberian prawn (exopalaemon modestus) in Lake Buir.

Mongolia had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.36/10, ranking it sixth globally out of 172 countries.[57]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Mongolia
 
Ulaanbaatar is the capital and largest city of Mongolia
 
In settlements, many families live in ger districts

Mongolia's total population as of January 2015 was estimated by the U.S. Census Bureau[58][failed verification] to be 3,000,251 people, ranking around 121st in the world. But the U.S. Department of State Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs uses the United Nations (UN) estimations[59] instead of the U.S. Census Bureau estimations. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division[60] estimates Mongolia's total population (mid-2007) as 2,629,000 (11% less than the U.S. Census Bureau figure). UN estimates resemble those made by the Mongolian National Statistical Office (2,612,900, end of June 2007). Mongolia's population growth rate is estimated at 1.2% (2007 est.).[60] About 59% of the total population is under age 30, 27% of whom are under 14. This relatively young and growing population has placed strains on Mongolia's economy.[citation needed]

The first census in the 20th century was carried out in 1918 and recorded a population of 647,500.[61] Since the end of socialism, Mongolia has experienced a decline of total fertility rate (children per woman) that is steeper than in any other country in the world, according to recent UN estimations:[60] in 1970–1975, fertility was estimated to be 7.33 children per woman, dropping to about 2.1 in 2000–2005.[62] The decline ended and in 2005–2010, the estimated fertility value increased to 2.5 and stabilised afterwards at the rate of about 2.2–2.3 children per woman.[citation needed]

Ethnic Mongols account for about 95% of the population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. The Khalkha make up 86% of the ethnic Mongol population. The remaining 14% include Oirats, Buryats and others. Turkic peoples (Kazakhs and Tuvans) constitute 4.5% of Mongolia's population, and the rest are Russian, Chinese, Korean and American nationalities.[63]

Languages

The official language of Mongolia is Mongolian, and is spoken by 95% of the population. A variety of dialects of Oirat and Buryat are spoken across the country, and there are also some speakers of Mongolic Khamnigan. In the west of the country, Kazakh and Tuvan, both Turkic languages, are also spoken. Mongolian Sign Language is the principal language of the deaf community.

Today, Mongolian is written using the Cyrillic alphabet in Mongolia, although in the past it was written using the Mongolian script. An official reintroduction of the old script was planned for 1994, but has not taken place as older generations encountered practical difficulties.[64] Schools are reintroducing the traditional alphabet.[65] In March 2020, the Mongolian government announced plans to use both Cyrillic and the traditional Mongolian script in official documents by 2025.[66][67]

Russian is the most frequently spoken foreign language in Mongolia, followed by English, although English has been gradually replacing Russian as the second language. Korean has gained popularity as tens of thousands of Mongolians work in South Korea.[68]

Religion

Main articles: Religion in Mongolia and Freedom of religion in Mongolia
Religions in Mongolia
(population aged 15 and above)[69]
Religion Population Share
Non-religious 735,283 38.6%
Religious 1,170,283 61.4%
Buddhism 1,009,357 53.0%
Islam 57,702 3.0%
Shamanism 55,174 2.9%
Christianity 41,117 2.2%
Other religions 6,933 0.4%
Total 1,905,566 100.0%

According to the 2010 National Census, among Mongolians aged 15 and above, 53% were Buddhists, while 39% were non-religious.

Mongolian shamanism has been widely practised throughout the history of what is now Mongolia, with similar beliefs being common among the nomads of central Asia. They gradually gave way to Tibetan Buddhism, but shamanism has left a mark on Mongolian religious culture, and it continues to be practiced. The Kazakhs of western Mongolia, some Mongols, and other Turkic peoples in the country traditionally adhere to Islam.

Throughout much of the 20th century, the communist government repressed religious practices. It targeted the clergy of the Mongolian Buddhist Church, which had been tightly intertwined with the previous feudal government structures (e.g. from 1911 on, the head of the Church had also been the Khan of the country).[70] In the late 1930s, the regime, then led by Khorloogiin Choibalsan, closed almost all of Mongolia's over 700 Buddhist monasteries and killed at least 30,000 people, of whom 18,000 were lamas.[71] The number of Buddhist monks dropped from 100,000 in 1924 to 110 in 1990.[70]

The fall of communism in 1991 restored public religious practice. Tibetan Buddhism, which had been the predominant religion prior to the rise of communism, again rose to become the most widely practised religion in Mongolia. The end of religious repression in the 1990s also allowed for other religions to spread in the country. According to the Christian missionary group Barnabas Fund, the number of Christians grew from just four in 1989 to around 40,000 as of 2008. In May 2013, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) held a cultural program to celebrate twenty years of LDS Church history in Mongolia, with 10,900 members, and 16 church buildings in the country.[72] There are some 1,000 Catholics in Mongolia and, in 2003, a missionary from the Philippines was named Mongolia's first Catholic bishop.[73] In 2017 Seventh-day Adventists reported 2,700 members in six churches up from zero members in 1991.[74]

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Mongolia
 
State Great Khural chamber in session

Mongolia is a semi-presidential representative democratic republic with a directly elected President.[75][76][3] The people also elect the deputies in the national assembly, the State Great Khural. The president appoints the prime minister, and nominates the cabinet on the proposal of the prime minister. The constitution of Mongolia guarantees a number of freedoms, including full freedom of expression and religion. Mongolia has a number of political parties; the largest are the Mongolian People's Party and the Democratic Party. The non-governmental organisation Freedom House considers Mongolia to be free.[77]

The People's Party – known as the People's Revolutionary Party between 1924 and 2010 – formed the government from 1921 to 1996 (in a one-party system until 1990) and from 2000 to 2004. From 2004 to 2006, it was part of a coalition with the Democrats and two other parties, and after 2006 it was the dominant party in two other coalitions. The party initiated two changes of government from 2004 prior to losing power in the 2012 election. The Democrats were the dominant force in a ruling coalition between 1996 and 2000, and an almost-equal partner with the People's Revolutionary Party in a coalition between 2004 and 2006. An election of deputies to the national assembly on 28 June 2012 resulted in no party having an overall majority;[78] however, as the Democratic Party won the largest number of seats,[79] its leader, Norovyn Altankhuyag, was appointed prime minister on 10 August 2012.[80] In 2014, he was replaced by Chimediin Saikhanbileg. The MPP won a landslide victory in the 2016 elections and the next Prime Minister was MPP's Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh. In June 2020, MPP won a landslide victory in the election. It took 62 seats and the main opposition DP, 11 of the 76 seats. Before the elections the ruling party had redrawn the electoral map in a way that was beneficial for MPP.[81] In January 2021, Prime Minister Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh resigned after protests over the treatment of a coronavirus patient.[82] On 27 January 2021, Luvsannamsrai Oyun-Erdene of MPP became new prime minister. He represents a younger generation of leaders that had studied abroad.[83]

 
Mongolia's President Tsakhia Elbegdorj with U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry, June 2016

The President of Mongolia is able to veto the laws made by parliament, appoint judges and justice of courts and appoint ambassadors. The parliament can override that veto by a two-thirds majority vote. Mongolia's constitution provides three requirements for taking office as president; the candidate must be a native-born Mongolian, be at least 45 years old, and have resided in Mongolia for five years before taking office. The president must also suspend their party membership. After defeating incumbent Nambaryn Enkhbayar, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, a two-time former prime minister and member of the Democratic Party, was elected as president on 24 May 2009 and inaugurated on 18 June that year.[84] The ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (2010) (MPRP)nominated Batbold Sukhbaatar as new Prime Minister in October 2009.[85] Elbegdorj was re-elected on 26 June 2013 and was inaugurated on 10 July 2013 for his second term as president.[86] In June 2017, opposition Democratic Party candidate Khaltmaagiin Battulga won the presidential election.[87] He was inaugurated on 10 July 2017.[88]

In June 2021, former Prime Minister Ukhnaa Khurelsukh, the candidate of the ruling Mongolian People's Party (MPP), became the country's sixth democratically elected president after winning the presidential election.[89]

Mongolia uses a unicameral legislature, the State Great Khural, with 76 seats, which is chaired by the Speaker of the House. Its members are directly elected, every four years, by popular vote.[3]

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Mongolia
 
Mongolia's President Khaltmaagiin Battulga and Vladimir Putin in Vladivostok, September 2017

Mongolia's foreign relations traditionally focus on its two large neighbors, Russia and the People's Republic of China.[90] Mongolia is economically dependent on these countries: China receives 90% of Mongolia's exports by value and accounts for 60% of its foreign trade, while Russia supplies 90% of Mongolia's energy requirements.[4] Mongolia's most important trading partner is China, and the government has been trying to stay out of the current US-China confrontation.[91]

It has begun seeking positive relations with a wider range of other nations especially in cultural and economic matters, focusing on encouraging foreign investments and trade.[92] Mongolia has been pursuing a third-neighbor foreign policy since early 1990s to build deeper relations and partnerships with countries beyond its two neighbors.[93]

Embassies

Main article: List of diplomatic missions of Mongolia

Mongolia maintains many diplomatic missions in other countries and has embassies in the following world capitals:[94]

Military

Main article: Mongolian Armed Forces
 
Mongolian, Chinese and Russian national flags set on armored vehicles during the large-scale military exercise Vostok 2018 in Eastern Siberia

Mongolia supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and has sent several successive contingents of 103 to 180 troops each to Iraq. About 130 troops were deployed to Afghanistan. 200 Mongolian troops are serving in Sierra Leone on a UN mandate to protect the UN's special court set up there, and in July 2009, Mongolia decided to send a battalion to Chad in support of MINURCAT.[95]

From 2005 to 2006, about 40 troops were deployed with the Belgian and Luxembourg contingents in Kosovo. On 21 November 2005, George W. Bush became the first-ever sitting U.S. president to visit Mongolia.[96] In 2004, under Bulgarian chairmanship, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) invited Mongolia as its newest Asian partner.

Legal system

Main article: Judiciary of Mongolia

The judiciary of Mongolia is made of a three-tiered court system: first instance courts in each provincial district and each Ulaanbaatar district; appellate courts for each province and also the Capital Ulaanbaatar; and the court of last resort (for non-constitutional matters) at the Supreme Court of Mongolia.[97] For questions of constitutional law there is a separate constitutional court.

A Judicial General Council (JGC) nominates judges which must then be confirmed by the parliament and appointed by the President.

Arbitration centres provide alternative dispute resolution options for commercial and other disputes.[98]

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Provinces of Mongolia and Districts of Mongolia

Mongolia is divided into 21 provinces (aimags) and subdivided into 331 districts (sums).[99] The capital Ulaanbaatar is administrated separately as a capital city (municipality) with provincial status. The aimags are:

Major cities

Main article: List of cities in Mongolia

About 40% of the population lives in Ulaanbaatar (Ulan Bator), and in 2002 a further 23% lived in Darkhan, Erdenet, the aimag centers and sum-level permanent settlements.[100] Another share of the population lives in the sum centers.

 
 
Largest cities or towns in Mongolia
2020
Rank Name Province Pop. Rank Name Province Pop.
 
Ulaanbaatar
 
Erdenet 		1 Ulaanbaatar Ulaanbaatar 1,426,645 11 Ulaangom Uvs 30,958
2 Erdenet Orkhon 101,421 12 Baganuur* Ulaanbaatar 29,342
3 Darkhan Darkhan-Uul 83,213 13 Dalanzadgad Ömnögovi 27,525
4 Choibalsan Dornod 46,683 14 Sainshand Dornogovi 26,558
5 Mörön Khövsgöl 41,586 15 Chinggis City Khentii 24,036
6 Nalaikh* Ulaanbaatar 38,960 16 Sükhbaatar Selenge 22,470
7 Ölgii Bayan-Ölgii 38,310 17 Tsetserleg Arkhangai 20,645
8 Arvaikheer Övörkhangai 33,743 18 Züünkharaa Selenge 19,934
9 Bayankhongor Bayankhongor 31,948 19 Baruun-Urt Sükhbaatar 19,255
10 Khovd Khovd 31,081 20 Zamyn-Üüd Dornogovi 19,116
*Under Ulaanbaatar administration

Economy

Main article: Economy of Mongolia
 
Historical development of real GDP per capita in Mongolia
 
A proportional representation of Mongolia exports, 2019
 
View of Ulaanbaatar with the Blue Sky Tower

Economic activity in Mongolia has long been based on herding and agriculture, although development of extensive mineral deposits of copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten and gold have emerged as a driver of industrial production.[101] Besides mining (21.8% of GDP) and agriculture (16% of GDP), dominant industries in the composition of GDP are wholesale and retail trade and service, transportation and storage, and real estate activities.[101] The informal economy is estimated to be at least one-third the size of the official economy.[101] As of 2006, 68.4% of Mongolia's exports went to the PRC, and the PRC supplied 29.8% of Mongolia's imports.[102]

Mongolia is ranked as a lower-middle-income economy by the World Bank.[103] Some 22.4% of the population lives on less than US$1.25 a day.[104] In 2011, GDP per capita was $3,100.[4] Despite growth, the proportion of the population below the poverty line was estimated to be 35.6% in 1998, 36.1% in 2002–2003, and 32.2% in 2006.[105]

Because of a boom in the mining sector, Mongolia had high growth rates in 2007 and 2008 (9.9% and 8.9%, respectively).[101] In 2009, sharp drops in commodity prices and the effects of the global financial crisis caused the local currency to drop 40% against the U.S. dollar. Two of the 16 commercial banks were taken into receivership.[101] In 2011, GDP growth was expected to reach 16.4%. However, inflation continued to erode GDP gains, with an average rate of 12.6% expected at the end of 2011.[101] Although GDP has risen steadily since 2002 at the rate of 7.5% in an official 2006 estimate, the state is still working to overcome a sizable trade deficit. The Economist predicted this trade deficit of 14% of Mongolia's GDP would transform into a surplus in 2013.[106]

Mongolia was never listed among the emerging market countries until February 2011 when Citigroup analysts determined Mongolia to be one of the "global growth generating" countries, which are countries with the most promising growth prospects for 2010–2050.[107] The Mongolian Stock Exchange, established in 1991 in Ulaanbaatar, is among the world's smallest stock exchanges by market capitalisation.[108][109] In 2011, it had 336 companies listed with a total market capitalization of US$2 billion after quadrupling from US$406 million in 2008.[110] Mongolia made a significant improvement in the ease of doing business in 2012, ranking 76th compared with 88th the previous year in the "Doing Business" report by the International Finance Corporation (IFC).[111]

Mineral industry

Main article: Mining in Mongolia
 
Oyu Tolgoi employs 18,000 workers and expects to be producing 450,000 tonnes of copper a year by 2020[112]

Minerals represent more than 80% of Mongolia's exports, a proportion expected to eventually rise to 95%. Fiscal revenues from mining represented 21% of government income in 2010 and rose to 24% in 2018.[113][114] About 3,000 mining licences have been issued.[106] Mining continues to rise as a major industry of Mongolia as evidenced by the number of Chinese, Russian and Canadian firms starting mining businesses in Mongolia.[4]

In 2009, the government negotiated an "investment agreement" with Rio Tinto and Ivanhoe Mines to develop the Oyu Tolgoi copper and gold deposit,[101] the biggest foreign-investment project in Mongolia, expected to account for one-third of Mongolia's GDP by 2020.[106] In March 2011, six big mining companies prepared to bid for the Tavan Tolgoi area, the world's largest untapped coal deposit. According to Erdenes MGL, the government body in-charge of Tavan Tolgoi, ArcelorMittal, Vale, Xstrata, U.S. coal miner Peabody, a consortium of Chinese energy firm Shenhua and Japan's Mitsui & Co, and a separate consortium of Japanese, South Korean and Russian firms are the preferred bidders.[115]

In September 2022, Mongolia built and launched a 233-km direct rail link to China, which is a milestone in Mongolia’s plan to become China’s leading supplier of high-quality coal from the Tavan Tolgoi mine, which has more than six billion tonnes of coal reserves.[116]

Agriculture

This section is an excerpt from Agriculture in Mongolia.[edit]
 
Mongolian landscape

Agriculture in Mongolia constitutes over 10% of Mongolia's annual Gross domestic product and employs one-third of the labor force.[117] However, the high altitude, extreme fluctuation in temperature, long winters, and low precipitation provides limited potential for agricultural development. The growing season is only 95 – 110 days.[118] Because of Mongolia's harsh climate, it is unsuited to most cultivation.

The agriculture sector therefore remains heavily focused on nomadic animal husbandry with 75% of the land allocated to pasture, and cropping only employing 3% of the population. In 2002, about 30% of all households in Mongolia lived from breeding livestock.[119] Most herders in Mongolia follow a pattern of nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralism.

Crops produced in Mongolia include corn, wheat, barley, and potatoes. Animals raised commercially in Mongolia include sheep, goats, cattle, horses, camels, and pigs. They are raised primarily for their meat, although goats are valued for their hair which can be used to produce cashmere. Due to the severe 2009–2010 winter, Mongolia lost 9.7 million animals, or 22% of total livestock. This immediately affected meat prices, which increased twofold; the GDP dropped 1.6% in 2009.[120]

Infrastructure

Communications

This section is an excerpt from Telecommunications in Mongolia.[edit]

Telecommunications in Mongolia face unique challenges. As the least densely populated country in the world, with a significant portion of the population living a nomadic lifestyle, it has been difficult for many traditional information and communication technology (ICT) companies to make headway into Mongolian society. With almost half the population clustered in the capital of Ulaanbaatar, most landline technologies are deployed there. Wireless technologies have had greater success in rural areas.

Mobile phones are common, with provincial capitals all having 4G access. Wireless local loop is another technology that has helped Mongolia increase accessibility to telecommunications and bypass fixed-line infrastructure.

For Internet, Mongolia relies on fiber optic communications with its Chinese and Russian neighbors.

In 2005, Mongolia's state-run radio and TV provider converted to a public service provider. Private radio and TV broadcasters, multi-channel satellite, and cable TV providers are also available.[121]

Postal services are provided by state-owned Mongol Post and 54 other licensed operators.[122]

Energy

This section is an excerpt from Energy in Mongolia.[edit]
Mongolia had a total primary energy supply (TPES) of 6.66 Mtoe in 2019. Electricity consumption was 7.71 TWh.[123] Mongolia is a big producer of coal, which is mostly exported.[124] Domestic consumption of coal accounts for about 70% of Mongolia's primary energy and makes up most of the electricity generation, accounting for about 87% of the domestic electricity production in 2019.[123]

Transportation

Main article: Transport in Mongolia
 
Train in Zamyn-Üüd station in Dornogovi aimag
 
While the Mongolian horse continues to be revered as the national symbol, they are rapidly being replaced by motorized vehicles.
 
Mongolian ferry Sukhbaatar on Lake Khovsgol in Khovsgol Province

The Trans-Mongolian Railway is the main rail link between Mongolia and its neighbors. It begins at the Trans-Siberian Railway in Russia at the town of Ulan-Ude, crosses into Mongolia, runs through Ulaanbaatar, then passes into China at Erenhot where it joins the Chinese railway system. A separate railroad link connects the eastern city of Choibalsan with the Trans-Siberian Railway. However, that link is closed to passengers after the Mongolian town of Chuluunkhoroot.[125] Mongolia also has a 233 km-long cargo rail link from the Tavan Tolgoi coal mine to Chinese border.[126]

Mongolia has a number of domestic airports, with some of them having international status. However, the main international airport is Chinggis Khaan International Airport, located approximately 52 km (32 mi) south of the capital Ulaanbaatar. Direct flight connections exist between Mongolia and South Korea, China, Thailand, Hong Kong, Japan, Russia, Germany, and Turkey. MIAT Mongolian Airlines is Mongolia's national air carrier, operating international flights, while air carriers such as Aero Mongolia and Hunnu Airlines serve domestic and short international routes.

Many overland roads in Mongolia are only gravel roads or simple cross-country tracks. There are paved roads from Ulaanbaatar to the Russian and Chinese borders, from Ulaanbaatar east- and westward (the so-called Millennium Road), and from Darkhan to Bulgan. A number of road construction projects are currently underway. Mongolia has 4,800 km (3,000 mi) of paved roads, with 1,800 km (1,100 mi) of that total completed in 2013 alone.[127]

Education

Main article: Education in Mongolia

During the state socialist period, education was one of the areas of significant achievement in Mongolia. Before the People's Republic, literacy rates were below one percent. By 1952, illiteracy was virtually eliminated,[128] in part through the use of seasonal boarding schools for children of nomadic families. Funding to these boarding schools was cut in the 1990s, contributing to slightly increased illiteracy.

Primary and secondary education formerly lasted ten years, but was expanded to eleven years. Since the 2008–2009 school year, new first-graders are using the 12-year system, with a full transition to the 12-year system in the 2019–2020 school year.[129]

As of 2006, English is taught in all secondary schools across Mongolia, beginning in fourth grade.

Mongolian national universities are all spin-offs from the National University of Mongolia and the Mongolian University of Science and Technology. Almost three in five Mongolian youths now enroll in university. There was a six-fold increase in students between 1993 and 2010.[130] Mongolia was ranked 58th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, down from 53rd in 2019.[131][132][133][134]

Health

This section is an excerpt from Health in Mongolia.[edit]

Modern Mongolia inherited a relatively good healthcare system from its socialist period, a world bank report from 2007 notes "despite its low per capita income, Mongolia has relatively strong health indicators; a reflection of the important health gains achieved during the socialist period." On average Mongolia's infant mortality rate is less than half of that of similarly economically developed countries, its under-five mortality rate and life expectancy are all better on average than other nations with similar GDP per capita.[135]

Since 1990, key health indicators in Mongolia like life expectancy and infant and child mortality have steadily improved, both due to social changes and to improvement in the health sector. Echinococcosis was one of the commonest surgical diagnoses in the 1960s, but now has been greatly reduced.[136] Yet, adult health deteriorated during the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century and mortality rates increased significantly.[137] Smallpox, typhus, plague, poliomyelitis, and diphtheria were eradicated by 1981. The Mongolian Red Cross Society focuses on preventive work. The Confederation of Mongolian Trade Unions established a network of sanatoriums.[138]

Serious problems remain, especially in the countryside.[139] According to a 2011 study by the World Health Organization, Mongolia's capital city, Ulaanbaatar, has the second highest level of fine particle pollution of any city in the world.[140] Poor air quality is also the largest occupational hazard, as over two-thirds of occupational disease in Mongolia is dust induced chronic bronchitis or pneumoconiosis.[141]

Average childbirth (fertility rate) is around 2.25[142]–1.87[143] per woman (2007) and average life expectancy is 68.5 years (2011).[144] Infant mortality is at 1.9%[145] to 4%[146] and child mortality is at 4.3%.[147]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Mongolia

The symbol in the left bar of the national flag is a Buddhist icon called Soyombo. It represents the sun, moon, stars, and heavens per standard cosmological symbology abstracted from that seen in traditional thangka paintings.

Visual arts

Before the 20th century, most works of the fine arts in Mongolia had a religious function, and therefore Mongolian fine arts were heavily influenced by religious texts.[148] Thangkas were usually painted or made in appliqué technique. Bronze sculptures usually showed Buddhist deities. A number of great works are attributed to the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, Zanabazar.

In the late 19th century, painters like "Marzan" Sharav turned to more realistic painting styles. Under the Mongolian People's Republic, socialist realism was the dominant painting style,[149] however traditional thangka-like paintings dealing with secular, nationalist themes were also popular, a genre known as "Mongol zurag".

Among the first attempts to introduce modernism into the fine arts of Mongolia was the painting Ehiin setgel (Mother's love) created by Tsevegjav in the 1960s. The artist was purged as his work was censored.

All forms of fine arts flourished only after "Perestroika" in the late 1980s. Otgonbayar Ershuu is arguably one of the most well-known Mongolian modern artists in the Western world, he was portrayed in the film "ZURAG" by Tobias Wulff.[150]

Architecture

Main article: Architecture of Mongolia
 
A ger in front of the Gurvan Saikhan Mountains

The traditional Mongolian dwelling is known as a ger. In the past it was known by the Russian term yurt, but this has been changing as the Mongolian term becomes better known in English-speaking countries. According to Mongolian artist and art critic N. Chultem, the ger was the basis for development of traditional Mongolian architecture. In the 16th and 17th centuries, lamaseries were built throughout the country. Many of them started as ger-temples. When they needed to be enlarged to accommodate the growing number of worshippers, the Mongolian architects used structures with 6 and 12 angles[clarification needed] with pyramidal roofs to approximate to the round shape of a ger. Further enlargement led to a quadratic shape of the temples. The roofs were made in the shape of marquées.[151] The trellis walls, roof poles and layers of felt were replaced by stone, brick, beams and planks, and became permanent.[152]

Chultem distinguished three styles in traditional Mongolian architecture: Mongolian, Tibetan and Chinese as well as combinations of the three. Among the first quadratic temples was Batu-Tsagaan (1654) designed by Zanabazar. An example of the ger-style architecture is the lamasery Dashi-Choiling in Ulaanbaatar. The temple Lavrin (18th century) in the Erdene Zuu lamasery was built in the Tibetan tradition. An example of a temple built in the Chinese tradition is the lamasery Choijing Lamiin Sume (1904), which is a museum today. The quadratic temple Tsogchin in lamasery Gandan in Ulaanbaatar is a combination of the Mongolian and Chinese tradition. The temple of Maitreya (disassembled in 1938) is an example of the Tibeto-Mongolian architecture.[151] Dashi-Choiling monastery has commenced a project to restore the temple and the 25 metres (82 ft) sculpture of Maitreya.

Music

Main article: Music of Mongolia
 
Musician playing the traditional Mongolian musical instrument morin khuur

The music of Mongolia is strongly influenced by nature, nomadism, shamanism, and also Tibetan Buddhism. The traditional music includes a variety of instruments, famously the morin khuur, and also the singing styles like the urtyn duu ("long song"), and throat-singing (khoomei). The "tsam" is danced to keep away evil spirits and it was seen as reminiscent of shamanism.

The first rock band of Mongolia was Soyol Erdene, founded in the 1960s. Their Beatles-like manner was severely criticized by the communist censorship. It was followed by Mungunhurhree, Ineemseglel, Urgoo, etc., carving out the path for the genre in the harsh environment of communist ideology. Mungunhurhree and Haranga were to become the pioneers in the Mongolia's heavy rock music. Haranga approached its zenith in the late 1980s and 1990s.

The leader of Haranga, famous guitarist Enh-Manlai, generously helped the growth of the following generations of rockers. Among the followers of Haranga was the band Hurd. In the early 1990s, group Har-Chono pioneered Mongolia's folk-rock, merging elements of the Mongolian traditional "long song" into the genre.

By that time, the environment for development of artistic thought had become largely liberal thanks to the new democratic society in the country. The 1990s saw the development of rap, techno, hip-hop and also boy bands and girl bands flourished at the turn of the millennium.

Media

Main article: Media of Mongolia
 
Mongolian media interviewing the opposition Mongolian Green Party in 2008. The media has gained significant freedoms since democratic reforms initiated in the 1990s.

Mongolian press began in 1920 with close ties to the Soviet Union under the Mongolian Communist Party, with the establishment of the Unen ("Truth") newspaper similar to the Soviet Pravda.[153] Until reforms in the 1990s, the government had strict control of the media and oversaw all publishing, in which no independent media were allowed.[153] The dissolution of the Soviet Union had a significant impact on Mongolia, where the one-party state grew into a multi-party democracy, and with that, media freedoms came to the forefront.

A new law on press freedom, drafted with help from international NGOs on August 28, 1998 and enacted on January 1, 1999, paved the way for media reforms.[154] The Mongolian media currently consists of around 300 print and broadcasting outlets.[155]

Since 2006, the media environment has been improving with the government debating a new Freedom of Information Act, and the removal of any affiliation of media outlets with the government.[156][157] Market reforms have led to an annually increasing number of people working in the media, along with students at journalism schools.[156]

In its 2013 World Press Freedom Index report, Reporters Without Borders classified the media environment as 98th out of 179, with 1st being most free.[158] In 2016, Mongolia was ranked 60th out of 180.[159]

According to 2014 Asian Development Bank survey, 80% of Mongolians cited television as their main source of information.[160]

Mongolian cuisine

This section is an excerpt from Mongolian cuisine.[edit]
 
Various Mongolian meat dishes
 
From smallest to largest: boortsog cookies, aaruul (dried curds), and ul boov cakes

Mongolian cuisine predominantly consists of dairy products, meat, and animal fats. The most common rural dish is cooked mutton. In the city, steamed dumplings filled with meat—"buuz"— are popular.

The extreme continental climate of Mongolia has influenced the traditional diet. Use of vegetables and spices are limited. Due to geographic proximity and deep historic ties with China and Russia, Mongolian cuisine is also influenced by Chinese and Russian cuisine.[161]

Sports and festivals

Main article: Mongolia at the Olympics
 
Naadam is the largest summer celebration.

The main national festival is Naadam, which has been organised for centuries and takes place over three days in the summer, consisting of three Mongolian traditional sports, archery, cross-country horse-racing, and wrestling, traditionally recognized as the Three Manly Games of Naadam. In modern-day Mongolia, Naadam is held from July 11 to 13 in the honour of the anniversaries of the National Democratic Revolution and foundation of the Great Mongol State.

Another very popular activity called Shagaa is the "flicking" of sheep ankle bones at a target several feet away, using a flicking motion of the finger to send the small bone flying at targets and trying to knock the target bones off the platform. At Naadam, this contest is popular among older Mongolians.

 
Riders during Naadam festival

Horse riding is especially central to Mongolian culture. The long-distance races that are showcased during Naadam festivals are one aspect of this, as is the popularity of trick riding. One example of trick riding is the legend that the Mongolian military hero Damdin Sükhbaatar scattered coins on the ground and then picked them up while riding a horse at full gallop.

Mongolian wrestling is the most popular of all Mongol sports. It is the highlight of the Three Manly Games of Naadam. Historians claim that Mongol-style wrestling originated some seven thousand years ago. Hundreds of wrestlers from different cities and aimags around the country take part in the national wrestling competition.

Other sports such as basketball, weightlifting, powerlifting, association football, athletics, gymnastics, table tennis, jujutsu, karate, aikido, kickboxing, and mixed martial arts have become popular in Mongolia. More Mongolian table tennis players are competing internationally.

Freestyle wrestling has been practised since 1958 in Mongolia.[162] Mongolian freestyle wrestlers have won the first and the most Olympic medals of Mongolia.

Naidangiin Tüvshinbayar won Mongolia's first ever Olympic gold medal in the men's 100-kilogram class of judo.[163]

Amateur boxing has been practised in Mongolia since 1948.[164] The Mongolian Olympic boxing national team was founded in 1960. The Communist government of Mongolia banned boxing from 1964 to 1967 but the government soon ended the ban. Professional boxing began in Mongolia in the 1990s.

Mongolia national basketball team enjoyed some success recently, especially at the East Asian Games.

Association football is also played in Mongolia. The Mongolia national football team began playing national games again during the 1990s; but has not yet qualified for a major international tournament. The Mongolia Premier League is the top domestic competition.

Several Mongolian women have excelled in pistol shooting: Otryadyn Gündegmaa is a silver medalist of the 2008 Olympic Games, Munkhbayar Dorjsuren is a double world champion and Olympic bronze medal winner (now representing Germany), while Tsogbadrakhyn Mönkhzul is, as of May 2007, ranked third in the world in the 25-metre pistol event.[165]

Mongolian sumo wrestler Dolgorsürengiin Dagvadorj won 25 top division tournament championships, placing him fourth on the all-time list. In January 2015, Mönkhbatyn Davaajargal took his 33rd top division championship, giving him the most in the history of sumo.

Bandy is the only sport in which Mongolia has finished higher than third place at the Asian Winter Games, which happened in 2011 when the national team captured the silver medal. It led to being chosen as the best Mongolian sports team of 2011.[166] Mongolia won the bronze medal of the B division at the 2017 Bandy World Championship after which the then President of Mongolia, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, held a reception for the team.[167]

Ulaanbataar holds an annual marathon in June. 2015 will have the sixth marathon that has been organized by Ar Mongol. The race starts at Sukh Bataar Square and is always open to residents and runners who come especially for this event.[168]

 
Kazakh hunters in Mongolia with eagles

Mongolia holds other traditional festivals throughout the year. The Golden Eagle Festival draws about 400 eagle hunters on horseback, including the traveler Мөнхбаярт Батсайхан (Mönkhbayart Batsaikhan), to compete with their birds. The Ice Festival and the Thousand Camel Festival are amongst many other traditional Mongolian festivals.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Also spelled "Ulan Bator".
  2. ^ "Mongolian" denotes nationality, which includes minorities such as Kazakhs or Tuvans, while "Mongol" indicates Mongol ethnicity.
  3. ^ Mongolian: Монгол Улс, romanized: Mongol Uls; Mongolian script: ᠮᠤᠩᠭᠤᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ, Mongolian pronunciation: [mɔŋɢəɮ ʊɮs], moŋɣol ulus; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia"
  4. ^ This view is further explored in the school of thought of New Qing History.

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January 05, 2023
mongolia, this, article, about, modern, sovereign, state, other, uses, disambiguation, listen, landlocked, country, east, asia, bordered, russia, north, china, south, covers, area, square, kilometres, square, miles, with, population, just, million, making, wor. This article is about the modern sovereign state For other uses see Mongolia disambiguation Mongolia c m ɒ ŋ ˈ ɡ oʊ l i e listen is a landlocked country in East Asia bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south It covers an area of 1 564 116 square kilometres 603 909 square miles with a population of just 3 3 million making it the world s most sparsely populated sovereign nation Mongolia is the world s largest landlocked country that does not border a closed sea and much of its area is covered by grassy steppe with mountains to the north and west and the Gobi Desert to the south Ulaanbaatar the capital and largest city is home to roughly half of the country s population Mongoliaᠮᠤᠩᠭᠤᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ Mongolian Mongol Uls Mongolian Flag EmblemAnthem Mongol ulsyn torijn duulal Mongol ulsyn toriin duulal National Anthem of Mongolia source source track track track track track track track Capitaland largest cityUlaanbaatar a Coordinates 48 N 106 E 48 N 106 E 48 106Official languagesMongolianOfficial scriptsMongolianCyrillic 1 Ethnic groups 2020 2 95 60 Mongolic peoples 83 79 Khalkha Mongols 11 81 Other Mongols3 81 Kazakhs0 59 OthersReligion 2020 2 51 7 Buddhism40 6 No religion3 2 Islam2 5 Shamanism1 3 Christianity0 7 OthersDemonym s Mongolian b GovernmentUnitary semi presidential republic 3 PresidentUkhnaagiin Khurelsukh Prime MinisterLuvsannamsrain Oyun Erdene State Great Khural ChairmanGombojavyn ZandanshatarLegislatureState Great KhuralFormation Xiongnu Confederacy209 BCE Mongol Empire1206 Completion of Qing dynasty conquest1691 Declaration of independence from the Qing dynasty29 December 1911 Mongolian People s Republic established26 November 1924 Current constitution13 February 1992Area Total1 564 116 km2 603 909 sq mi 18th Water 0 67 4 Population 2020 estimate3 227 863 5 134th Density2 07 km2 5 4 sq mi GDP PPP 2022 estimate Total 47 1 billion 6 124th Per capita 13 611 6 103rd GDP nominal 2022 estimate Total 15 7 billion 6 136rd Per capita 4 542 6 115th Gini 2018 32 7 7 mediumHDI 2021 0 739 8 high 96thCurrencyTogrog MNT Time zoneUTC 7 8 9 Date formatyyyy mm dd CE Driving siderightCalling code 976ISO 3166 codeMNInternet TLD mn monThe territory of modern day Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic empires including the Xiongnu the Xianbei the Rouran the First Turkic Khaganate and others In 1206 Genghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire which became the largest contiguous land empire in history His grandson Kublai Khan conquered China proper and established the Yuan dynasty After the collapse of the Yuan the Mongols retreated to Mongolia and resumed their earlier pattern of factional conflict except during the era of Dayan Khan and Tumen Zasagt Khan In the 16th century Tibetan Buddhism spread to Mongolia being further led by the Manchu founded Qing dynasty which absorbed the country in the 17th century By the early 20th century almost one third of the adult male population were Buddhist monks 10 11 After the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911 Mongolia declared independence and achieved actual independence from the Republic of China in 1921 Shortly thereafter the country became a satellite state of the Soviet Union which had aided its independence from China In 1924 the Mongolian People s Republic was founded as a socialist state 12 After the anti communist revolutions of 1989 Mongolia conducted its own peaceful democratic revolution in early 1990 This led to a multi party system a new constitution of 1992 and transition to a market economy Approximately 30 of the population is nomadic or semi nomadic horse culture remains integral Buddhism is the majority religion 51 7 with the nonreligious being the second largest group 40 6 Islam is the third largest religious identification 3 2 concentrated among ethnic Kazakhs The vast majority of citizens are ethnic Mongols with roughly 5 of the population being Kazakhs Tuvans and other ethnic minorities who are especially concentrated in the west Mongolia is a member of the United Nations Asia Cooperation Dialogue G77 Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank Non Aligned Movement and a NATO global partner Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization in 1997 and seeks to expand its participation in regional economic and trade groups 4 Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Prehistory and antiquity 2 2 Middle Ages to early 20th century 2 3 Modern history 2 3 1 Mongolian People s Republic 2 3 2 Cold War 2 3 3 Post Cold War 3 Geography and climate 3 1 Climate 3 2 Environmental issues 3 3 Wildlife 4 Demographics 4 1 Languages 4 2 Religion 5 Government and politics 5 1 Foreign relations 5 1 1 Embassies 5 2 Military 5 3 Legal system 5 4 Administrative divisions 5 5 Major cities 6 Economy 6 1 Mineral industry 6 2 Agriculture 7 Infrastructure 7 1 Communications 7 2 Energy 7 3 Transportation 7 4 Education 7 5 Health 8 Culture 8 1 Visual arts 8 2 Architecture 8 3 Music 8 4 Media 8 5 Mongolian cuisine 8 6 Sports and festivals 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External linksEtymologyMongoliaMongolian nameMongolian CyrillicMongol Uls Mongol Uls Mongolian scriptᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰTranscriptionsSASM GNCMongol UlsThe name Mongolia means the Land of the Mongols in Latin The origin of the Mongolian word Mongol mongol is of uncertain etymology given variously such as the name of a mountain or river a corruption of the Mongolian Mongkhe tengri gal Eternal Sky Fire 13 or a derivation from Mugulu the 4th century founder of the Rouran Khaganate 14 First attested as the Mungu 15 Chinese 蒙兀 Modern Chinese Mengwu Middle Chinese Muwngu 16 a branch of the Shiwei in an 8th century Tang dynasty list of northern tribes presumably related to the Liao era Mungku 15 Chinese 蒙古 Modern Chinese Menggǔ Middle Chinese MuwngkuX 17 After the fall of the Liao in 1125 the Khamag Mongols became a leading tribe on the Mongolian Plateau However their wars with the Jurchen ruled Jin dynasty and the Tatar confederation had weakened them The last head of the tribe was Yesugei whose son Temujin eventually united all the Shiwei tribes as the Mongol Empire Yekhe Monggol Ulus In the thirteenth century the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic speaking tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan 18 Since the adoption of the new Constitution of Mongolia on 13 February 1992 the official name of the state is Mongolia Mongol Uls HistoryMain article History of Mongolia Prehistory and antiquity Main articles Prehistoric Mongolia and Proto Mongols The Khoit Tsenkher Cave 19 in Khovd Province shows lively pink brown and red ochre paintings dated to 20 000 years ago of mammoths lynx bactrian camels and ostriches earning it the nickname the Lascaux of Mongolia The Venus figurines of Mal ta 21 000 years ago testify to the level of Upper Paleolithic art in northern Mongolia Mal ta is now part of Russia Neolithic agricultural settlements c 5500 3500 BC such as those at Norovlin Tamsagbulag Bayanzag and Rashaan Khad predated the introduction of horse riding nomadism a pivotal event in the history of Mongolia which became the dominant culture Horse riding nomadism has been documented by archeological evidence in Mongolia during the Copper and Bronze Age Afanasevo culture 3500 2500 BC 20 this Indo European culture was active to the Khangai Mountains in Central Mongolia The wheeled vehicles found in the burials of the Afanasevans have been dated to before 2200 BC 21 Pastoral nomadism and metalworking became more developed with the later Okunev culture 2nd millennium BC Andronovo culture 2300 1000 BC and Karasuk culture 1500 300 BC culminating with the Iron Age Xiongnu Empire in 209 BC Monuments of the pre Xiongnu Bronze Age include deer stones keregsur kurgans square slab tombs and rock paintings Although cultivation of crops has continued since the Neolithic agriculture has always remained small in scale compared to pastoral nomadism Agriculture may have first been introduced from the west or arose independently in the region The population during the Copper Age has been described as mongoloid in the east of what is now Mongolia and as europoid in the west 19 Tocharians Yuezhi and Scythians inhabited western Mongolia during the Bronze Age The mummy of a Scythian warrior which is believed to be about 2 500 years old was a 30 to 40 year old man with blond hair it was found in the Altai Mongolia 22 As equine nomadism was introduced into Mongolia the political center of the Eurasian Steppe also shifted to Mongolia where it remained until the 18th century CE The intrusions of northern pastoralists e g the Guifang Shanrong and Donghu into China during the Shang dynasty 1600 1046 BC and Zhou dynasty 1046 256 BC presaged the age of nomadic empires 7th century artifacts found 180 km 112 mi from Ulaanbaatar Since prehistoric times Mongolia has been inhabited by nomads who from time to time formed great confederations that rose to power and prominence Common institutions were the office of the Khan the Kurultai Supreme Council left and right wings imperial army Keshig and the decimal military system The first of these empires the Xiongnu of undetermined ethnicity were brought together by Modu Shanyu to form a confederation in 209 BC Soon they emerged as the greatest threat to the Qin Dynasty forcing the latter to construct the Great Wall of China It was guarded by up to almost 300 000 soldiers during Marshal Meng Tian s tenure as a means of defense against the destructive Xiongnu raids The vast Xiongnu empire 209 BC 93 AD was followed by the Mongolic Xianbei empire 93 234 AD which also ruled more than the entirety of present day Mongolia The Mongolic Rouran Khaganate 330 555 of Xianbei provenance was the first to use Khagan as an imperial title It ruled a massive empire before being defeated by the Gokturks 555 745 whose empire was even bigger The Gokturks laid siege to Panticapaeum present day Kerch in 576 They were succeeded by the Uyghur Khaganate 745 840 who were defeated by the Kyrgyz The Mongolic Khitans descendants of the Xianbei ruled Mongolia during the Liao Dynasty 907 1125 after which the Khamag Mongol 1125 1206 rose to prominence Lines 3 5 of the memorial inscription of Bilge Khagan 684 737 in central Mongolia summarizes the time of the Khagans In battles they subdued the nations of all four sides of the world and suppressed them They made those who had heads bow their heads and who had knees genuflect them In the east up to the Kadyrkhan common people in the west up to the Iron Gate they conquered These Khagans were wise These Khagans were great Their servants were wise and great too Officials were honest and direct with people They ruled the nation this way This way they held sway over them When they died ambassadors from Bokuli Cholug Baekje Korea Tabgach Tang China Tibet Tibetan Empire Avar Avar Khaganate Rome Byzantine Empire Kirgiz Uch Kurykan Otuz Tatars Khitans Tatabis came to the funerals So many people came to mourn over the great Khagans They were famous Khagans 23 Middle Ages to early 20th century Main articles Mongol Empire Mongolia under Yuan rule Northern Yuan dynasty Dzungar Khanate and Mongolia under Qing rule See also List of medieval Mongol tribes and clans List of Mongol states and List of Mongol rulers Mongol Empire expansion 1206 till 1294 1236 1242 Mongol invasions of Europe This map shows the boundary of the 13th century Mongol Empire compared to today s Mongols The red area shows where the majority of Mongolian speakers reside today The Northern Yuan at its greatest extent In the chaos of the late 12th century a chieftain named Temujin finally succeeded in uniting the Mongol tribes between Manchuria and the Altai Mountains In 1206 he took the title Genghis Khan and waged a series of military campaigns renowned for their brutality and ferocity sweeping through much of Asia and forming the Mongol Empire the largest contiguous land empire in world history Under his successors it stretched from present day Poland in the west to Korea in the east and from parts of Siberia in the north to the Gulf of Oman and Vietnam in the south covering some 33 000 000 square kilometres 13 000 000 sq mi 24 22 of Earth s total land area and had a population of over 100 million people about a quarter of Earth s total population at the time The emergence of Pax Mongolica also significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia during its height 25 26 After Genghis Khan s death the empire was subdivided into four kingdoms or Khanates These eventually became quasi independent after the Toluid Civil War 1260 1264 which broke out in a battle for power following Mongke Khan s death in 1259 One of the khanates the Great Khaanate consisting of the Mongol homeland and most of modern day China became known as the Yuan dynasty under Kublai Khan the grandson of Genghis Khan He set up his capital in present day Beijing After more than a century of power the Yuan dynasty was overthrown by the Ming dynasty in 1368 and the Yuan court fled to the north thus becoming the Northern Yuan dynasty As the Ming armies pursued the Mongols into their homeland they successfully sacked and destroyed the Mongol capital Karakorum and other cities Some of these attacks were repelled by the Mongols under Ayushridar and his general Koke Temur 27 After the expulsion of the Yuan rulers from China proper the Mongols continued to rule their homeland known in historiography as the Northern Yuan dynasty The next centuries were marked by violent power struggles among various factions notably the Genghisids and the non Genghisid Oirats as well as by several Ming invasions such as the five expeditions led by the Yongle Emperor Genghis Khan the first Mongol Emperor In the early 16th century Dayan Khan and his khatun Mandukhai reunited the entire Mongol nation under the Genghisids In the mid 16th century Altan Khan of the Tumed a grandson of Dayan Khan but not a hereditary or legitimate Khan became powerful He founded Hohhot in 1557 After he met with the Dalai Lama in 1578 he ordered the introduction of Tibetan Buddhism to Mongolia It was the second time this had occurred Abtai Khan of the Khalkha converted to Buddhism and founded the Erdene Zuu monastery in 1585 His grandson Zanabazar became the first Jebtsundamba Khutughtu in 1640 Following the leaders the entire Mongolian population embraced Buddhism Each family kept scriptures and Buddha statues on an altar at the north side of their ger yurt Mongolian nobles donated land money and herders to the monasteries As was typical in states with established religions the top religious institutions the monasteries wielded significant temporal power in addition to spiritual power citation needed The last Mongol Khan was Ligden Khan in the early 17th century He came into conflicts with the Manchus over the looting of Chinese cities and also alienated most Mongol tribes He died in 1634 By 1636 most Inner Mongolian tribes had submitted to the Manchus who founded the Qing dynasty The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691 thus bringing all of today s Mongolia under Manchu rule After several Dzungar Qing Wars the Dzungars western Mongols or Oirats were virtually annihilated during the Qing conquest of Dzungaria in 1757 and 1758 28 Altan Khan 1507 1582 founded the city of Hohhot helped introduce Buddhism and originated the title of Dalai Lama Some scholars estimate that about 80 of the 600 000 or more Dzungar were destroyed by a combination of disease and warfare 29 Outer Mongolia was given relative autonomy being administered by the hereditary Genghisid khanates of Tusheet Khan Setsen Khan Zasagt Khan and Sain Noyon Khan The Jebtsundamba Khutuktu of Mongolia had immense de facto authority The Manchu forbade mass Chinese immigration into the area which allowed the Mongols to keep their culture The Oirats who migrated to the Volga steppes in Russia became known as Kalmyks The main trade route during this period was the Tea Road through Siberia it had permanent stations located every 25 to 30 kilometres 16 to 19 mi each of which was staffed by 5 30 chosen families Until 1911 the Qing dynasty maintained control of Mongolia with a series of alliances and intermarriages as well as military and economic measures Ambans Manchu high officials were installed in Khuree Uliastai and Khovd and the country was divided into numerous feudal and ecclesiastical fiefdoms which also placed people in power with loyalty to the Qing Over the course of the 19th century the feudal lords attached more importance to representation and less importance to the responsibilities towards their subjects The behaviour of Mongolia s nobility together with usurious practices by Chinese traders and the collection of imperial taxes in silver instead of animals resulted in widespread poverty among the nomads By 1911 there were 700 large and small monasteries in Outer Mongolia their 115 000 monks made up 21 of the population Apart from the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu there were 13 other reincarnating high lamas called seal holding saints tamgatai khutuktu in Outer Mongolia Modern history Main articles Mongolian Revolution of 1911 Bogd Khanate of Mongolia Mongolian Revolution of 1921 Mongolian People s Republic Mongolian Revolution of 1990 and History of modern Mongolia The eighth Jebtsundamba Khutuktu Bogd Khaan Map of unified Mongolia in 1917 With the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 Mongolia under the Bogd Khaan declared its independence But the newly established Republic of China considered Mongolia to be part of its own territory Yuan Shikai the President of the Republic of China considered the new republic to be the successor of the Qing Bogd Khaan said that both Mongolia and China had been administered by the Manchu during the Qing and after the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 the contract of Mongolian submission to the Manchu had become invalid 30 d The area controlled by the Bogd Khaan was approximately that of the former Outer Mongolia during the Qing period In 1919 after the October Revolution in Russia Chinese troops led by warlord Xu Shuzheng occupied Mongolia Warfare erupted on the northern border As a result of the Russian Civil War the White Russian Lieutenant General Baron Ungern led his troops into Mongolia in October 1920 defeating the Chinese forces in Niislel Khuree now Ulaanbaatar in early February 1921 with Mongol support To eliminate the threat posed by Ungern Bolshevik Russia decided to support the establishment of a communist Mongolian government and army This Mongolian army took the Mongolian part of Kyakhta from Chinese forces on 18 March 1921 and on 6 July Russian and Mongolian troops arrived in Khuree Mongolia declared its independence again on 11 July 1921 31 As a result Mongolia was closely aligned with the Soviet Union over the next seven decades Mongolian People s Republic In 1924 after the Bogd Khaan died of laryngeal cancer 32 or as some sources claim at the hands of Russian spies 33 the country s political system was changed The Mongolian People s Republic was established In 1928 Khorloogiin Choibalsan rose to power The early leaders of the Mongolian People s Republic 1921 1952 included many with Pan Mongolist ideals However changing global politics and increased Soviet pressure led to the decline of Pan Mongol aspirations in the following period Khorloogiin Choibalsan led Mongolia during the Stalinist era and presided over an environment of intense political persecution Khorloogiin Choibalsan instituted collectivization of livestock began the destruction of the Buddhist monasteries and carried out Stalinist purges which resulted in the murders of numerous monks and other leaders In Mongolia during the 1920s approximately one third of the male population were monks By the beginning of the 20th century about 750 monasteries were functioning in Mongolia 34 In 1930 the Soviet Union stopped Buryat migration to the Mongolian People s Republic to prevent Mongolian reunification All leaders of Mongolia who did not fulfill Stalin s demands to perform Red Terror against Mongolians were executed including Peljidiin Genden and Anandyn Amar The Stalinist purges in Mongolia which began in 1937 killed more than 30 000 people Choibalsan died suspiciously in the Soviet Union in 1952 Comintern leader Bohumir Smeral said People of Mongolia are not important the land is important Mongolian land is larger than England France and Germany 35 page needed Mongolian troops fight against the Japanese counterattack at Khalkhin Gol 1939 After the Japanese invasion of neighboring Manchuria in 1931 Mongolia was threatened on this front During the Soviet Japanese Border War of 1939 the Soviet Union successfully defended Mongolia against Japanese expansionism Mongolia fought against Japan during the Battles of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 and during the Soviet Japanese War in August 1945 to liberate Inner Mongolia from Japan and Mengjiang 36 Cold War The February 1945 Yalta Conference provided for the Soviet Union s participation in the Pacific War One of the Soviet conditions for its participation put forward at Yalta was that after the war Outer Mongolia would retain its independence The referendum took place on 20 October 1945 with according to official numbers 100 of the electorate voting for independence 37 After the establishment of the People s Republic of China both countries confirmed their mutual recognition on 6 October 1949 However the Republic of China used its Security Council veto in 1955 to stop the admission of the Mongolian People s Republic to the United Nations on the grounds it recognized all of Mongolia including Outer Mongolia as part of China This was the only time the Republic of China ever used its veto Hence and because of the repeated threats to veto by the ROC Mongolia did not join the UN until 1961 when the Soviet Union agreed to lift its veto on the admission of Mauritania and any other newly independent African state in return for the admission of Mongolia Faced with pressure from nearly all the other African countries the ROC relented under protest Mongolia and Mauritania were both admitted to the UN on 27 October 1961 38 39 40 see China and the United Nations Mongolian Premier Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal was the longest serving leader in the Soviet Bloc with over 44 years in office On 26 January 1952 Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal took power in Mongolia after the death of Choibalsan Tsedenbal was the leading political figure in Mongolia for more than 30 years 41 While Tsedenbal was visiting Moscow in August 1984 his severe illness prompted the parliament to announce his retirement and replace him with Jambyn Batmonkh Post Cold War The fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 strongly influenced Mongolian politics and youth Its people undertook the peaceful Democratic Revolution in January 1990 and the introduction of a multi party system and a market economy At the same time the transformation of the former Marxist Leninist Mongolian People s Revolutionary Party to the current social democratic Mongolian People s Party reshaped the country s political landscape A new constitution was introduced in 1992 and the term People s Republic was dropped from the country s name The transition to a market economy was often rocky during the early 1990s the country had to deal with high inflation and food shortages 42 The first election victories for non communist parties came in 1993 presidential elections and 1996 parliamentary elections China has supported Mongolia s application for membership in to the Asia Cooperation Dialogue ACD Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation APEC and granting it observer status in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation 43 Geography and climateMain article Geography of Mongolia The southern portion of Mongolia is taken up by the Gobi Desert while the northern and western portions are mountainous At 1 564 116 km2 603 909 sq mi Mongolia is the world s 18th largest country after Iran 44 It is significantly larger than the next largest country Peru It mostly lies between latitudes 41 and 52 N a small area is north of 52 and longitudes 87 and 120 E As a point of reference the northernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same latitude as Berlin Germany and Saskatoon Canada while the southernmost part is on roughly the same latitude as Rome Italy and Chicago USA The westernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same longitude as Kolkata in India while the easternmost part is on the same longitude as Qinhuangdao and Hangzhou in China as well as the western edge of Taiwan Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan its westernmost point is only 36 76 kilometres 22 84 mi from Kazakhstan The geography of Mongolia is varied with the Gobi Desert to the south and cold mountainous regions to the north and west Much of Mongolia consists of the Mongolian Manchurian grassland steppe with forested areas accounting for 11 2 of the total land area 45 a higher percentage than Ireland 10 46 The whole of Mongolia is considered to be part of the Mongolian Plateau The highest point in Mongolia is the Khuiten Peak in the Tavan bogd massif in the far west at 4 374 m 14 350 ft The basin of the Uvs Lake shared with Tuva Republic in Russia is a natural World Heritage Site Climate Main article Climate of Mongolia Mongolia is known as the Land of the Eternal Blue Sky or Country of Blue Sky Mongolian Monkh khokh tengeriin oron because it has over 250 sunny days a year 47 48 49 50 Mongolia map of Koppen climate classification zones Most of the country is hot in the summer and extremely cold in the winter with January averages dropping as low as 30 C 22 F 51 A vast front of cold heavy shallow air comes in from Siberia in winter and collects in river valleys and low basins causing very cold temperatures while slopes of mountains are much warmer due to the effects of temperature inversion temperature increases with altitude The Khentii Mountains in Terelj close to the birthplace of Genghis Khan In winter the whole of Mongolia comes under the influence of the Siberian Anticyclone The localities most severely affected by this cold weather are Uvs province Ulaangom western Khovsgol Rinchinlhumbe eastern Zavkhan Tosontsengel northern Bulgan Hutag and eastern Dornod province Khalkhiin Gol Ulaanbaatar is strongly but less severely affected The cold gets less severe as one goes south reaching the warmest January temperatures in Omnogovi Province Dalanzadgad Khanbogd and the region of the Altai mountains bordering China A unique microclimate is the fertile grassland forest region of central and eastern Arkhangai Province Tsetserleg and northern Ovorkhangai Province Arvaikheer where January temperatures are on average the same and often higher than the warmest desert regions to the south in addition to being more stable The Khangai Mountains play a certain role in forming this microclimate In Tsetserleg the warmest town in this microclimate nighttime January temperatures rarely go under 30 C 22 F while daytime January temperatures often reach 0 C 32 F to 5 C 41 F 52 53 The country is subject to occasional harsh climatic conditions known as zud Zud a natural disaster unique to Mongolia results in large proportions of the country s livestock dying from starvation or freezing temperatures or both resulting in economic upheaval for the largely pastoral population The annual average temperature in Ulaanbaatar is 1 3 C 29 7 F making it the world s coldest capital city 51 Mongolia is high cold and windy 54 It has an extreme continental climate with long cold winters and short summers during which most of its annual precipitation falls 54 The country averages 257 cloudless days a year and it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric pressure 54 Precipitation is highest in the north average of 200 to 350 millimeters 8 to 14 in per year and lowest in the south which receives 100 to 200 millimeters 4 to 8 in annually 54 The highest annual precipitation of 622 297 mm 24 500 in occurred in the forests of Bulgan Province near the border with Russia and the lowest of 41 735 mm 1 643 in occurred in the Gobi Desert period 1961 1990 55 The sparsely populated far north of Bulgan Province averages 600 mm 24 in in annual precipitation which means it receives more precipitation than Beijing 571 8 mm or 22 51 in or Berlin 571 mm or 22 5 in Environmental issues This section is an excerpt from Environmental issues in Mongolia edit There are many pressing environmental issues in Mongolia that are detrimental to both human and environmental wellness These problems have arisen in part due to natural factors but increasingly because of human actions One of these issues is climate change which will be responsible for an increase in desertification natural disasters and land degradation 56 Another is deforestation which is expanding due to human recklessness pests disease and fires Mongolian lands are becoming more arid through desertification a process that is being exacerbated due to irresponsible land use Additionally more and more species are disappearing and at risk for extinction Moreover especially in population centers Mongolians deal with air and water pollution caused by industrialization Wildlife Main article Wildlife of Mongolia Bactrian camels by sand dunes in Gobi Desert Mongolian steppe The name Gobi is a Mongol term for a desert steppe which usually refers to a category of arid rangeland with insufficient vegetation to support marmots but with enough to support camels 54 Mongols distinguish Gobi from desert proper although the distinction is not always apparent to outsiders unfamiliar with the Mongolian landscape 54 Gobi rangelands are fragile and easily destroyed by overgrazing which results in expansion of the true desert a stony waste where not even Bactrian camels can survive 54 The arid conditions in the Gobi are attributed to the rain shadow effect caused by the Himalayas Before the Himalayas were formed by the collision of the Indo Australian plate with the Eurasian plate 10 million years ago Mongolia was a flourishing habitat for major fauna but still somewhat arid and cold due to distance from sources of evaporation Sea turtle and mollusk fossils have been found in the Gobi apart from well known dinosaur fossils Tadpole shrimps Lepidurus mongolicus are still found in the Gobi today The eastern part of Mongolia including the Onon and Kherlen rivers and Lake Buir form part of the Amur river basin draining to the Pacific Ocean It hosts some unique species like the Eastern brook lamprey Daurian crayfish cambaroides dauricus and Daurian pearl oyster dahurinaia dahurica in the Onon Kherlen rivers as well as Siberian prawn exopalaemon modestus in Lake Buir Mongolia had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9 36 10 ranking it sixth globally out of 172 countries 57 DemographicsMain article Demographics of Mongolia Ulaanbaatar is the capital and largest city of Mongolia In settlements many families live in ger districts Mongolia s total population as of January 2015 was estimated by the U S Census Bureau 58 failed verification to be 3 000 251 people ranking around 121st in the world But the U S Department of State Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs uses the United Nations UN estimations 59 instead of the U S Census Bureau estimations United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division 60 estimates Mongolia s total population mid 2007 as 2 629 000 11 less than the U S Census Bureau figure UN estimates resemble those made by the Mongolian National Statistical Office 2 612 900 end of June 2007 Mongolia s population growth rate is estimated at 1 2 2007 est 60 About 59 of the total population is under age 30 27 of whom are under 14 This relatively young and growing population has placed strains on Mongolia s economy citation needed The first census in the 20th century was carried out in 1918 and recorded a population of 647 500 61 Since the end of socialism Mongolia has experienced a decline of total fertility rate children per woman that is steeper than in any other country in the world according to recent UN estimations 60 in 1970 1975 fertility was estimated to be 7 33 children per woman dropping to about 2 1 in 2000 2005 62 The decline ended and in 2005 2010 the estimated fertility value increased to 2 5 and stabilised afterwards at the rate of about 2 2 2 3 children per woman citation needed Ethnic Mongols account for about 95 of the population and consist of Khalkha and other groups all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language The Khalkha make up 86 of the ethnic Mongol population The remaining 14 include Oirats Buryats and others Turkic peoples Kazakhs and Tuvans constitute 4 5 of Mongolia s population and the rest are Russian Chinese Korean and American nationalities 63 Languages The official language of Mongolia is Mongolian and is spoken by 95 of the population A variety of dialects of Oirat and Buryat are spoken across the country and there are also some speakers of Mongolic Khamnigan In the west of the country Kazakh and Tuvan both Turkic languages are also spoken Mongolian Sign Language is the principal language of the deaf community Today Mongolian is written using the Cyrillic alphabet in Mongolia although in the past it was written using the Mongolian script An official reintroduction of the old script was planned for 1994 but has not taken place as older generations encountered practical difficulties 64 Schools are reintroducing the traditional alphabet 65 In March 2020 the Mongolian government announced plans to use both Cyrillic and the traditional Mongolian script in official documents by 2025 66 67 Russian is the most frequently spoken foreign language in Mongolia followed by English although English has been gradually replacing Russian as the second language Korean has gained popularity as tens of thousands of Mongolians work in South Korea 68 Religion Main articles Religion in Mongolia and Freedom of religion in Mongolia Religions in Mongolia population aged 15 and above 69 Religion Population ShareNon religious 735 283 38 6 Religious 1 170 283 61 4 Buddhism 1 009 357 53 0 Islam 57 702 3 0 Shamanism 55 174 2 9 Christianity 41 117 2 2 Other religions 6 933 0 4 Total 1 905 566 100 0 According to the 2010 National Census among Mongolians aged 15 and above 53 were Buddhists while 39 were non religious Mongolian shamanism has been widely practised throughout the history of what is now Mongolia with similar beliefs being common among the nomads of central Asia They gradually gave way to Tibetan Buddhism but shamanism has left a mark on Mongolian religious culture and it continues to be practiced The Kazakhs of western Mongolia some Mongols and other Turkic peoples in the country traditionally adhere to Islam Throughout much of the 20th century the communist government repressed religious practices It targeted the clergy of the Mongolian Buddhist Church which had been tightly intertwined with the previous feudal government structures e g from 1911 on the head of the Church had also been the Khan of the country 70 In the late 1930s the regime then led by Khorloogiin Choibalsan closed almost all of Mongolia s over 700 Buddhist monasteries and killed at least 30 000 people of whom 18 000 were lamas 71 The number of Buddhist monks dropped from 100 000 in 1924 to 110 in 1990 70 Amarbayasgalant Monastery The fall of communism in 1991 restored public religious practice Tibetan Buddhism which had been the predominant religion prior to the rise of communism again rose to become the most widely practised religion in Mongolia The end of religious repression in the 1990s also allowed for other religions to spread in the country According to the Christian missionary group Barnabas Fund the number of Christians grew from just four in 1989 to around 40 000 as of 2008 update In May 2013 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints LDS Church held a cultural program to celebrate twenty years of LDS Church history in Mongolia with 10 900 members and 16 church buildings in the country 72 There are some 1 000 Catholics in Mongolia and in 2003 a missionary from the Philippines was named Mongolia s first Catholic bishop 73 In 2017 Seventh day Adventists reported 2 700 members in six churches up from zero members in 1991 74 Government and politicsMain article Politics of Mongolia State Great Khural chamber in session Mongolia is a semi presidential representative democratic republic with a directly elected President 75 76 3 The people also elect the deputies in the national assembly the State Great Khural The president appoints the prime minister and nominates the cabinet on the proposal of the prime minister The constitution of Mongolia guarantees a number of freedoms including full freedom of expression and religion Mongolia has a number of political parties the largest are the Mongolian People s Party and the Democratic Party The non governmental organisation Freedom House considers Mongolia to be free 77 The People s Party known as the People s Revolutionary Party between 1924 and 2010 formed the government from 1921 to 1996 in a one party system until 1990 and from 2000 to 2004 From 2004 to 2006 it was part of a coalition with the Democrats and two other parties and after 2006 it was the dominant party in two other coalitions The party initiated two changes of government from 2004 prior to losing power in the 2012 election The Democrats were the dominant force in a ruling coalition between 1996 and 2000 and an almost equal partner with the People s Revolutionary Party in a coalition between 2004 and 2006 An election of deputies to the national assembly on 28 June 2012 resulted in no party having an overall majority 78 however as the Democratic Party won the largest number of seats 79 its leader Norovyn Altankhuyag was appointed prime minister on 10 August 2012 80 In 2014 he was replaced by Chimediin Saikhanbileg The MPP won a landslide victory in the 2016 elections and the next Prime Minister was MPP s Ukhnaagiin Khurelsukh In June 2020 MPP won a landslide victory in the election It took 62 seats and the main opposition DP 11 of the 76 seats Before the elections the ruling party had redrawn the electoral map in a way that was beneficial for MPP 81 In January 2021 Prime Minister Ukhnaagiin Khurelsukh resigned after protests over the treatment of a coronavirus patient 82 On 27 January 2021 Luvsannamsrai Oyun Erdene of MPP became new prime minister He represents a younger generation of leaders that had studied abroad 83 Mongolia s President Tsakhia Elbegdorj with U S Secretary of State John Kerry June 2016 The President of Mongolia is able to veto the laws made by parliament appoint judges and justice of courts and appoint ambassadors The parliament can override that veto by a two thirds majority vote Mongolia s constitution provides three requirements for taking office as president the candidate must be a native born Mongolian be at least 45 years old and have resided in Mongolia for five years before taking office The president must also suspend their party membership After defeating incumbent Nambaryn Enkhbayar Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj a two time former prime minister and member of the Democratic Party was elected as president on 24 May 2009 and inaugurated on 18 June that year 84 The ruling Mongolian People s Revolutionary Party 2010 MPRP nominated Batbold Sukhbaatar as new Prime Minister in October 2009 85 Elbegdorj was re elected on 26 June 2013 and was inaugurated on 10 July 2013 for his second term as president 86 In June 2017 opposition Democratic Party candidate Khaltmaagiin Battulga won the presidential election 87 He was inaugurated on 10 July 2017 88 In June 2021 former Prime Minister Ukhnaa Khurelsukh the candidate of the ruling Mongolian People s Party MPP became the country s sixth democratically elected president after winning the presidential election 89 Mongolia uses a unicameral legislature the State Great Khural with 76 seats which is chaired by the Speaker of the House Its members are directly elected every four years by popular vote 3 Foreign relations Main article Foreign relations of Mongolia Mongolia s President Khaltmaagiin Battulga and Vladimir Putin in Vladivostok September 2017 Mongolia s foreign relations traditionally focus on its two large neighbors Russia and the People s Republic of China 90 Mongolia is economically dependent on these countries China receives 90 of Mongolia s exports by value and accounts for 60 of its foreign trade while Russia supplies 90 of Mongolia s energy requirements 4 Mongolia s most important trading partner is China and the government has been trying to stay out of the current US China confrontation 91 It has begun seeking positive relations with a wider range of other nations especially in cultural and economic matters focusing on encouraging foreign investments and trade 92 Mongolia has been pursuing a third neighbor foreign policy since early 1990s to build deeper relations and partnerships with countries beyond its two neighbors 93 Embassies Main article List of diplomatic missions of Mongolia Mongolia maintains many diplomatic missions in other countries and has embassies in the following world capitals 94 Ankara Bangkok Beijing Berlin Brasilia Brussels Budapest Cairo Canberra Hanoi Havana Jakarta Kuala Lumpur Kuwait City London Moscow New Delhi Nur Sultan Ottawa Paris Prague Pyongyang Rome Seoul Singapore Sofia Stockholm Tokyo Vienna Vientiane Warsaw Washington D C Military Main article Mongolian Armed Forces Mongolian Chinese and Russian national flags set on armored vehicles during the large scale military exercise Vostok 2018 in Eastern Siberia Mongolia supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq and has sent several successive contingents of 103 to 180 troops each to Iraq About 130 troops were deployed to Afghanistan 200 Mongolian troops are serving in Sierra Leone on a UN mandate to protect the UN s special court set up there and in July 2009 Mongolia decided to send a battalion to Chad in support of MINURCAT 95 From 2005 to 2006 about 40 troops were deployed with the Belgian and Luxembourg contingents in Kosovo On 21 November 2005 George W Bush became the first ever sitting U S president to visit Mongolia 96 In 2004 under Bulgarian chairmanship the Organization for Security and Co operation in Europe OSCE invited Mongolia as its newest Asian partner Legal system Main article Judiciary of Mongolia The judiciary of Mongolia is made of a three tiered court system first instance courts in each provincial district and each Ulaanbaatar district appellate courts for each province and also the Capital Ulaanbaatar and the court of last resort for non constitutional matters at the Supreme Court of Mongolia 97 For questions of constitutional law there is a separate constitutional court A Judicial General Council JGC nominates judges which must then be confirmed by the parliament and appointed by the President Arbitration centres provide alternative dispute resolution options for commercial and other disputes 98 Administrative divisions Main articles Provinces of Mongolia and Districts of Mongolia Bayan Olgii Uvs Khovd Zavkhan Govi Altai Bayankhongor Arkhangai Khovsgol Bulgan Orkhon Ovorkhangai Omnogovi Dundgovi Tov Ulaanbaatar Selenge Darkhan Uul Govisumber Dornogovi Khentii Sukhbaatar DornodClickable map of Mongolian provinces Mongolia is divided into 21 provinces aimags and subdivided into 331 districts sums 99 The capital Ulaanbaatar is administrated separately as a capital city municipality with provincial status The aimags are Arkhangai Bayan Olgii Bayankhongor Bulgan Darkhan Uul Dornod Dornogovi Dundgovi Govi Altai Govisumber Khentii Khovd Khovsgol Omnogovi Orkhon Ovorkhangai Selenge Sukhbaatar Tov Uvs Zavkhan Major cities This section needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information February 2019 Main article List of cities in Mongolia About 40 of the population lives in Ulaanbaatar Ulan Bator and in 2002 a further 23 lived in Darkhan Erdenet the aimag centers and sum level permanent settlements 100 Another share of the population lives in the sum centers Largest cities or towns in Mongolia 2020Rank Name Province Pop Rank Name Province Pop Ulaanbaatar Erdenet 1 Ulaanbaatar Ulaanbaatar 1 426 645 11 Ulaangom Uvs 30 9582 Erdenet Orkhon 101 421 12 Baganuur Ulaanbaatar 29 3423 Darkhan Darkhan Uul 83 213 13 Dalanzadgad Omnogovi 27 5254 Choibalsan Dornod 46 683 14 Sainshand Dornogovi 26 5585 Moron Khovsgol 41 586 15 Chinggis City Khentii 24 0366 Nalaikh Ulaanbaatar 38 960 16 Sukhbaatar Selenge 22 4707 Olgii Bayan Olgii 38 310 17 Tsetserleg Arkhangai 20 6458 Arvaikheer Ovorkhangai 33 743 18 Zuunkharaa Selenge 19 9349 Bayankhongor Bayankhongor 31 948 19 Baruun Urt Sukhbaatar 19 25510 Khovd Khovd 31 081 20 Zamyn Uud Dornogovi 19 116 Under Ulaanbaatar administrationEconomyMain article Economy of Mongolia This section needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information August 2016 Historical development of real GDP per capita in Mongolia A proportional representation of Mongolia exports 2019 View of Ulaanbaatar with the Blue Sky Tower Economic activity in Mongolia has long been based on herding and agriculture although development of extensive mineral deposits of copper coal molybdenum tin tungsten and gold have emerged as a driver of industrial production 101 Besides mining 21 8 of GDP and agriculture 16 of GDP dominant industries in the composition of GDP are wholesale and retail trade and service transportation and storage and real estate activities 101 The informal economy is estimated to be at least one third the size of the official economy 101 As of 2006 update 68 4 of Mongolia s exports went to the PRC and the PRC supplied 29 8 of Mongolia s imports 102 Mongolia is ranked as a lower middle income economy by the World Bank 103 Some 22 4 of the population lives on less than US 1 25 a day 104 In 2011 GDP per capita was 3 100 4 Despite growth the proportion of the population below the poverty line was estimated to be 35 6 in 1998 36 1 in 2002 2003 and 32 2 in 2006 105 Because of a boom in the mining sector Mongolia had high growth rates in 2007 and 2008 9 9 and 8 9 respectively 101 In 2009 sharp drops in commodity prices and the effects of the global financial crisis caused the local currency to drop 40 against the U S dollar Two of the 16 commercial banks were taken into receivership 101 In 2011 GDP growth was expected to reach 16 4 However inflation continued to erode GDP gains with an average rate of 12 6 expected at the end of 2011 101 Although GDP has risen steadily since 2002 at the rate of 7 5 in an official 2006 estimate the state is still working to overcome a sizable trade deficit The Economist predicted this trade deficit of 14 of Mongolia s GDP would transform into a surplus in 2013 106 Mongolia was never listed among the emerging market countries until February 2011 when Citigroup analysts determined Mongolia to be one of the global growth generating countries which are countries with the most promising growth prospects for 2010 2050 107 The Mongolian Stock Exchange established in 1991 in Ulaanbaatar is among the world s smallest stock exchanges by market capitalisation 108 109 In 2011 it had 336 companies listed with a total market capitalization of US 2 billion after quadrupling from US 406 million in 2008 110 Mongolia made a significant improvement in the ease of doing business in 2012 ranking 76th compared with 88th the previous year in the Doing Business report by the International Finance Corporation IFC 111 Mineral industry Main article Mining in Mongolia Oyu Tolgoi employs 18 000 workers and expects to be producing 450 000 tonnes of copper a year by 2020 112 Minerals represent more than 80 of Mongolia s exports a proportion expected to eventually rise to 95 Fiscal revenues from mining represented 21 of government income in 2010 and rose to 24 in 2018 113 114 About 3 000 mining licences have been issued 106 Mining continues to rise as a major industry of Mongolia as evidenced by the number of Chinese Russian and Canadian firms starting mining businesses in Mongolia 4 In 2009 the government negotiated an investment agreement with Rio Tinto and Ivanhoe Mines to develop the Oyu Tolgoi copper and gold deposit 101 the biggest foreign investment project in Mongolia expected to account for one third of Mongolia s GDP by 2020 106 In March 2011 six big mining companies prepared to bid for the Tavan Tolgoi area the world s largest untapped coal deposit According to Erdenes MGL the government body in charge of Tavan Tolgoi ArcelorMittal Vale Xstrata U S coal miner Peabody a consortium of Chinese energy firm Shenhua and Japan s Mitsui amp Co and a separate consortium of Japanese South Korean and Russian firms are the preferred bidders 115 In September 2022 Mongolia built and launched a 233 km direct rail link to China which is a milestone in Mongolia s plan to become China s leading supplier of high quality coal from the Tavan Tolgoi mine which has more than six billion tonnes of coal reserves 116 Agriculture This section is an excerpt from Agriculture in Mongolia edit This article needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information April 2010 Mongolian landscape Agriculture in Mongolia constitutes over 10 of Mongolia s annual Gross domestic product and employs one third of the labor force 117 However the high altitude extreme fluctuation in temperature long winters and low precipitation provides limited potential for agricultural development The growing season is only 95 110 days 118 Because of Mongolia s harsh climate it is unsuited to most cultivation The agriculture sector therefore remains heavily focused on nomadic animal husbandry with 75 of the land allocated to pasture and cropping only employing 3 of the population In 2002 about 30 of all households in Mongolia lived from breeding livestock 119 Most herders in Mongolia follow a pattern of nomadic or semi nomadic pastoralism Crops produced in Mongolia include corn wheat barley and potatoes Animals raised commercially in Mongolia include sheep goats cattle horses camels and pigs They are raised primarily for their meat although goats are valued for their hair which can be used to produce cashmere Due to the severe 2009 2010 winter Mongolia lost 9 7 million animals or 22 of total livestock This immediately affected meat prices which increased twofold the GDP dropped 1 6 in 2009 120 InfrastructureCommunications This section is an excerpt from Telecommunications in Mongolia edit Telecommunications in Mongolia face unique challenges As the least densely populated country in the world with a significant portion of the population living a nomadic lifestyle it has been difficult for many traditional information and communication technology ICT companies to make headway into Mongolian society With almost half the population clustered in the capital of Ulaanbaatar most landline technologies are deployed there Wireless technologies have had greater success in rural areas Mobile phones are common with provincial capitals all having 4G access Wireless local loop is another technology that has helped Mongolia increase accessibility to telecommunications and bypass fixed line infrastructure For Internet Mongolia relies on fiber optic communications with its Chinese and Russian neighbors In 2005 Mongolia s state run radio and TV provider converted to a public service provider Private radio and TV broadcasters multi channel satellite and cable TV providers are also available 121 Postal services are provided by state owned Mongol Post and 54 other licensed operators 122 Energy This section is an excerpt from Energy in Mongolia edit Mongolia had a total primary energy supply TPES of 6 66 Mtoe in 2019 Electricity consumption was 7 71 TWh 123 Mongolia is a big producer of coal which is mostly exported 124 Domestic consumption of coal accounts for about 70 of Mongolia s primary energy and makes up most of the electricity generation accounting for about 87 of the domestic electricity production in 2019 123 Transportation Main article Transport in Mongolia Train in Zamyn Uud station in Dornogovi aimag While the Mongolian horse continues to be revered as the national symbol they are rapidly being replaced by motorized vehicles Mongolian ferry Sukhbaatar on Lake Khovsgol in Khovsgol Province The Trans Mongolian Railway is the main rail link between Mongolia and its neighbors It begins at the Trans Siberian Railway in Russia at the town of Ulan Ude crosses into Mongolia runs through Ulaanbaatar then passes into China at Erenhot where it joins the Chinese railway system A separate railroad link connects the eastern city of Choibalsan with the Trans Siberian Railway However that link is closed to passengers after the Mongolian town of Chuluunkhoroot 125 Mongolia also has a 233 km long cargo rail link from the Tavan Tolgoi coal mine to Chinese border 126 Mongolia has a number of domestic airports with some of them having international status However the main international airport is Chinggis Khaan International Airport located approximately 52 km 32 mi south of the capital Ulaanbaatar Direct flight connections exist between Mongolia and South Korea China Thailand Hong Kong Japan Russia Germany and Turkey MIAT Mongolian Airlines is Mongolia s national air carrier operating international flights while air carriers such as Aero Mongolia and Hunnu Airlines serve domestic and short international routes Many overland roads in Mongolia are only gravel roads or simple cross country tracks There are paved roads from Ulaanbaatar to the Russian and Chinese borders from Ulaanbaatar east and westward the so called Millennium Road and from Darkhan to Bulgan A number of road construction projects are currently underway Mongolia has 4 800 km 3 000 mi of paved roads with 1 800 km 1 100 mi of that total completed in 2013 alone 127 Education Main article Education in Mongolia During the state socialist period education was one of the areas of significant achievement in Mongolia Before the People s Republic literacy rates were below one percent By 1952 illiteracy was virtually eliminated 128 in part through the use of seasonal boarding schools for children of nomadic families Funding to these boarding schools was cut in the 1990s contributing to slightly increased illiteracy Primary and secondary education formerly lasted ten years but was expanded to eleven years Since the 2008 2009 school year new first graders are using the 12 year system with a full transition to the 12 year system in the 2019 2020 school year 129 As of 2006 update English is taught in all secondary schools across Mongolia beginning in fourth grade Mongolian national universities are all spin offs from the National University of Mongolia and the Mongolian University of Science and Technology Almost three in five Mongolian youths now enroll in university There was a six fold increase in students between 1993 and 2010 130 Mongolia was ranked 58th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021 down from 53rd in 2019 131 132 133 134 Health This section is an excerpt from Health in Mongolia edit Modern Mongolia inherited a relatively good healthcare system from its socialist period a world bank report from 2007 notes despite its low per capita income Mongolia has relatively strong health indicators a reflection of the important health gains achieved during the socialist period On average Mongolia s infant mortality rate is less than half of that of similarly economically developed countries its under five mortality rate and life expectancy are all better on average than other nations with similar GDP per capita 135 Since 1990 key health indicators in Mongolia like life expectancy and infant and child mortality have steadily improved both due to social changes and to improvement in the health sector Echinococcosis was one of the commonest surgical diagnoses in the 1960s but now has been greatly reduced 136 Yet adult health deteriorated during the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century and mortality rates increased significantly 137 Smallpox typhus plague poliomyelitis and diphtheria were eradicated by 1981 The Mongolian Red Cross Society focuses on preventive work The Confederation of Mongolian Trade Unions established a network of sanatoriums 138 Serious problems remain especially in the countryside 139 According to a 2011 study by the World Health Organization Mongolia s capital city Ulaanbaatar has the second highest level of fine particle pollution of any city in the world 140 Poor air quality is also the largest occupational hazard as over two thirds of occupational disease in Mongolia is dust induced chronic bronchitis or pneumoconiosis 141 Average childbirth fertility rate is around 2 25 142 1 87 143 per woman 2007 and average life expectancy is 68 5 years 2011 144 Infant mortality is at 1 9 145 to 4 146 and child mortality is at 4 3 147 CultureMain article Culture of Mongolia The symbol in the left bar of the national flag is a Buddhist icon called Soyombo It represents the sun moon stars and heavens per standard cosmological symbology abstracted from that seen in traditional thangka paintings Visual arts Before the 20th century most works of the fine arts in Mongolia had a religious function and therefore Mongolian fine arts were heavily influenced by religious texts 148 Thangkas were usually painted or made in applique technique Bronze sculptures usually showed Buddhist deities A number of great works are attributed to the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu Zanabazar In the late 19th century painters like Marzan Sharav turned to more realistic painting styles Under the Mongolian People s Republic socialist realism was the dominant painting style 149 however traditional thangka like paintings dealing with secular nationalist themes were also popular a genre known as Mongol zurag Among the first attempts to introduce modernism into the fine arts of Mongolia was the painting Ehiin setgel Mother s love created by Tsevegjav in the 1960s The artist was purged as his work was censored All forms of fine arts flourished only after Perestroika in the late 1980s Otgonbayar Ershuu is arguably one of the most well known Mongolian modern artists in the Western world he was portrayed in the film ZURAG by Tobias Wulff 150 Architecture Main article Architecture of Mongolia A ger in front of the Gurvan Saikhan Mountains The traditional Mongolian dwelling is known as a ger In the past it was known by the Russian term yurt but this has been changing as the Mongolian term becomes better known in English speaking countries According to Mongolian artist and art critic N Chultem the ger was the basis for development of traditional Mongolian architecture In the 16th and 17th centuries lamaseries were built throughout the country Many of them started as ger temples When they needed to be enlarged to accommodate the growing number of worshippers the Mongolian architects used structures with 6 and 12 angles clarification needed with pyramidal roofs to approximate to the round shape of a ger Further enlargement led to a quadratic shape of the temples The roofs were made in the shape of marquees 151 The trellis walls roof poles and layers of felt were replaced by stone brick beams and planks and became permanent 152 Chultem distinguished three styles in traditional Mongolian architecture Mongolian Tibetan and Chinese as well as combinations of the three Among the first quadratic temples was Batu Tsagaan 1654 designed by Zanabazar An example of the ger style architecture is the lamasery Dashi Choiling in Ulaanbaatar The temple Lavrin 18th century in the Erdene Zuu lamasery was built in the Tibetan tradition An example of a temple built in the Chinese tradition is the lamasery Choijing Lamiin Sume 1904 which is a museum today The quadratic temple Tsogchin in lamasery Gandan in Ulaanbaatar is a combination of the Mongolian and Chinese tradition The temple of Maitreya disassembled in 1938 is an example of the Tibeto Mongolian architecture 151 Dashi Choiling monastery has commenced a project to restore the temple and the 25 metres 82 ft sculpture of Maitreya Music Main article Music of Mongolia Musician playing the traditional Mongolian musical instrument morin khuur The music of Mongolia is strongly influenced by nature nomadism shamanism and also Tibetan Buddhism The traditional music includes a variety of instruments famously the morin khuur and also the singing styles like the urtyn duu long song and throat singing khoomei The tsam is danced to keep away evil spirits and it was seen as reminiscent of shamanism The first rock band of Mongolia was Soyol Erdene founded in the 1960s Their Beatles like manner was severely criticized by the communist censorship It was followed by Mungunhurhree Ineemseglel Urgoo etc carving out the path for the genre in the harsh environment of communist ideology Mungunhurhree and Haranga were to become the pioneers in the Mongolia s heavy rock music Haranga approached its zenith in the late 1980s and 1990s The leader of Haranga famous guitarist Enh Manlai generously helped the growth of the following generations of rockers Among the followers of Haranga was the band Hurd In the early 1990s group Har Chono pioneered Mongolia s folk rock merging elements of the Mongolian traditional long song into the genre By that time the environment for development of artistic thought had become largely liberal thanks to the new democratic society in the country The 1990s saw the development of rap techno hip hop and also boy bands and girl bands flourished at the turn of the millennium Media Main article Media of Mongolia Mongolian media interviewing the opposition Mongolian Green Party in 2008 The media has gained significant freedoms since democratic reforms initiated in the 1990s Mongolian press began in 1920 with close ties to the Soviet Union under the Mongolian Communist Party with the establishment of the Unen Truth newspaper similar to the Soviet Pravda 153 Until reforms in the 1990s the government had strict control of the media and oversaw all publishing in which no independent media were allowed 153 The dissolution of the Soviet Union had a significant impact on Mongolia where the one party state grew into a multi party democracy and with that media freedoms came to the forefront A new law on press freedom drafted with help from international NGOs on August 28 1998 and enacted on January 1 1999 paved the way for media reforms 154 The Mongolian media currently consists of around 300 print and broadcasting outlets 155 Since 2006 the media environment has been improving with the government debating a new Freedom of Information Act and the removal of any affiliation of media outlets with the government 156 157 Market reforms have led to an annually increasing number of people working in the media along with students at journalism schools 156 In its 2013 World Press Freedom Index report Reporters Without Borders classified the media environment as 98th out of 179 with 1st being most free 158 In 2016 Mongolia was ranked 60th out of 180 159 According to 2014 Asian Development Bank survey 80 of Mongolians cited television as their main source of information 160 Mongolian cuisine This section is an excerpt from Mongolian cuisine edit Various Mongolian meat dishes From smallest to largest boortsog cookies aaruul dried curds and ul boov cakes Mongolian cuisine predominantly consists of dairy products meat and animal fats The most common rural dish is cooked mutton In the city steamed dumplings filled with meat buuz are popular The extreme continental climate of Mongolia has influenced the traditional diet Use of vegetables and spices are limited Due to geographic proximity and deep historic ties with China and Russia Mongolian cuisine is also influenced by Chinese and Russian cuisine 161 Sports and festivals Main article Mongolia at the Olympics Naadam is the largest summer celebration The main national festival is Naadam which has been organised for centuries and takes place over three days in the summer consisting of three Mongolian traditional sports archery cross country horse racing and wrestling traditionally recognized as the Three Manly Games of Naadam In modern day Mongolia Naadam is held from July 11 to 13 in the honour of the anniversaries of the National Democratic Revolution and foundation of the Great Mongol State Another very popular activity called Shagaa is the flicking of sheep ankle bones at a target several feet away using a flicking motion of the finger to send the small bone flying at targets and trying to knock the target bones off the platform At Naadam this contest is popular among older Mongolians Riders during Naadam festival Horse riding is especially central to Mongolian culture The long distance races that are showcased during Naadam festivals are one aspect of this as is the popularity of trick riding One example of trick riding is the legend that the Mongolian military hero Damdin Sukhbaatar scattered coins on the ground and then picked them up while riding a horse at full gallop Mongolian wrestling is the most popular of all Mongol sports It is the highlight of the Three Manly Games of Naadam Historians claim that Mongol style wrestling originated some seven thousand years ago Hundreds of wrestlers from different cities and aimags around the country take part in the national wrestling competition Other sports such as basketball weightlifting powerlifting association football athletics gymnastics table tennis jujutsu karate aikido kickboxing and mixed martial arts have become popular in Mongolia More Mongolian table tennis players are competing internationally Freestyle wrestling has been practised since 1958 in Mongolia 162 Mongolian freestyle wrestlers have won the first and the most Olympic medals of Mongolia Naidangiin Tuvshinbayar won Mongolia s first ever Olympic gold medal in the men s 100 kilogram class of judo 163 Amateur boxing has been practised in Mongolia since 1948 164 The Mongolian Olympic boxing national team was founded in 1960 The Communist government of Mongolia banned boxing from 1964 to 1967 but the government soon ended the ban Professional boxing began in Mongolia in the 1990s Mongolia national basketball team enjoyed some success recently especially at the East Asian Games Association football is also played in Mongolia The Mongolia national football team began playing national games again during the 1990s but has not yet qualified for a major international tournament The Mongolia Premier League is the top domestic competition Several Mongolian women have excelled in pistol shooting Otryadyn Gundegmaa is a silver medalist of the 2008 Olympic Games Munkhbayar Dorjsuren is a double world champion and Olympic bronze medal winner now representing Germany while Tsogbadrakhyn Monkhzul is as of May 2007 ranked third in the world in the 25 metre pistol event 165 Mongolian sumo wrestler Dolgorsurengiin Dagvadorj won 25 top division tournament championships placing him fourth on the all time list In January 2015 Monkhbatyn Davaajargal took his 33rd top division championship giving him the most in the history of sumo Bandy is the only sport in which Mongolia has finished higher than third place at the Asian Winter Games which happened in 2011 when the national team captured the silver medal It led to being chosen as the best Mongolian sports team of 2011 166 Mongolia won the bronze medal of the B division at the 2017 Bandy World Championship after which the then President of Mongolia Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj held a reception for the team 167 Ulaanbataar holds an annual marathon in June 2015 will have the sixth marathon that has been organized by Ar Mongol The race starts at Sukh Bataar Square and is always open to residents and runners who come especially for this event 168 Kazakh hunters in Mongolia with eagles Mongolia holds other traditional festivals throughout the year The Golden Eagle Festival draws about 400 eagle hunters on horseback including the traveler Monhbayart Batsajhan Monkhbayart Batsaikhan to compete with their birds The Ice Festival and the Thousand Camel Festival are amongst many other traditional Mongolian festivals See also Asia portal Geography portalIndex of Mongolia related articles Outline of MongoliaNotes Also spelled Ulan Bator Mongolian denotes nationality which includes minorities such as Kazakhs or Tuvans while Mongol indicates Mongol ethnicity Mongolian Mongol Uls romanized Mongol Uls Mongolian script ᠮᠤᠩᠭᠤᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ Mongolian pronunciation mɔŋɢeɮ ʊɮs moŋɣol ulus lit Mongol Nation or State of Mongolia This view is further explored in the school of thought of New Qing History References Official Documents to be in Mongolian Script UB Post 21 June 2011 Archived from the original on 1 November 2011 Retrieved 11 July 2010 a b Hun am oron suucny 2020 ony ulsyn eelzhit toollogy negdsen dun PDF in Mongolian Archived from the original PDF on 7 November 2020 Retrieved 16 August 2021 a b c Odonkhuu Munkhsaikhan February 12 2016 Mongolia A Vain Constitutional Attempt to Consolidate Parliamentary Democracy ConstitutionNet International IDEA Archived from the original on February 25 2016 Retrieved February 21 2016 Mongolia is sometimes described as a semi presidential system because while the prime minister and cabinet are collectively responsible to the SGKh the president is popularly elected and his her powers are much broader than the conventional powers of heads of state in parliamentary systems a b c d e Mongolia The World Factbook CIA Retrieved August 9 2015 Mongolia The World Factbook 2023 ed Central Intelligence Agency Retrieved 24 September 2022 a b c d World Economic Outlook Database October 2022 IMF org International Monetary Fund October 2022 Retrieved 20 December 2022 GINI index World Bank estimate Mongolia data worldbank org World Bank Retrieved 22 March 2020 Human Development Report 2021 2022 PDF United Nations Development Programme 8 September 2022 Retrieved 8 September 2022 Mongolia Standard Time is GMT UTC 8 some areas of Mongolia use GMT UTC 7 Time Temperature com Archived from the original on October 13 2007 Retrieved September 30 2007 Michael Jerryson Mongolian Buddhism The Rise and Fall of the Sangha Chiang Mai Silkworm Books 2007 89 Mongolia Religion Michigan State University Archived from the original on March 15 2015 Retrieved January 24 2015 Sik Ko Swan 1990 Nationality and International Law in Asian Perspective p 39 ISBN 9780792308768 Archived from the original on September 4 2015 Retrieved June 28 2013 National University of Mongolia School of Social Sciences Department of History 1999 2 Hүnij үүsel Mongolchuudyn үүsel garval 2 Origins of Humanity Origins of the Mongols Mongol ulsyn tүүh History of Mongolia in Mongolian Admon pp 67 69 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link G Sүhbaatar 1992 Mongol Nirun uls Mongol Nirun Rouran state Mongolyn ertnij tүүh sudlal III bot Historiography of Ancient Mongolia Volume III in Mongolian Vol 3 pp 330 550 a b Svantesson Jan Olov amp al The Phonology of Mongolian pp 103 105 Oxford Univ Press Oxford 2005 Pulleyblank Edwin George Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese Late Middle Chinese and Early Mandarin UBC Press 1991 ISBN 0 7748 0366 5 Baxter Wm H amp Sagart Laurent Baxter Sagart Old Chinese Reconstruction Archived from the original on 25 April 2012 1 93 MB 2011 Retrieved 11 October 2011 Mongolia Ethnography of Mongolia Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 22 July 2007 a b Eleanora Novgorodova Archaologische Funde Ausgrabungsstatten und Skulpturen in Mongolen catalogue pp 14 20 Gibbons Ann 10 June 2015 Nomadic herders left a strong genetic mark on Europeans and Asians Science AAAS David Christian 16 December 1998 A History of Russia Central Asia and Mongolia Wiley p 101 ISBN 978 0 631 20814 3 Archeological Sensation Ancient Mummy Found in Mongolia Spiegel Online Spiegel de August 25 2006 Archived from the original on May 22 2010 Retrieved May 2 2010 Memorial Complex of Bilge Khagan bitig org Archived from the original on February 3 2015 Retrieved January 1 2015 Bruce R Gordon To Rule the Earth Archived from the original on 1 July 2007 Retrieved 28 June 2013 Guzman Gregory G 1988 Were the barbarians a negative or positive factor in ancient and medieval history The Historian 50 568 570 Thomas T Allsen March 25 2004 Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia Cambridge University Press p 211 ISBN 978 0 521 60270 9 Retrieved June 28 2013 扩廓帖木儿传 biography of Koke Temur 卷一四一 列传第二八 ed History of Yuan Edward Allworth Kazakhstan to c 1700 ce Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on December 12 2013 Retrieved June 28 2013 Michael Edmund Clarke 2004 In the Eye of Power China and Xinjiang from the Qing Conquest to the New Great Game for Central Asia 1759 2004 PDF PhD Brisbane Griffith University p 37 Archived from the original PDF on 10 April 2008 Bawden Charles 1968 The Modern History of Mongolia Weidenfeld amp Nicolson 194 195 Thomas E Ewing Russia China and the Origins of the Mongolian People s Republic 1911 1921 A Reappraisal in The Slavonic and East European Review Vol 58 No 3 Jul 1980 pp 399 414 415 417 421 Kuzmin S L Kuzmin S L Oyuunchimeg Zh Oyunchimeg J Buddizm i revolyuciya v Mongolii Buddhism and the revolution in Mongolia in Russian Archived from the original on 6 March 2016 Dogsomyn Bodoo 1 2 on YouTube Mongolian Mongolia The Bhudda and the Khan Orient Magazine Archived from the original on 18 August 2010 Retrieved 28 June 2013 History of Mongolia 2003 Volume 5 Mongolian Institute of History Borzhigon Hүsel 18 January 2015 1945 OND BNMAU AAS HYaTAD ULSAD ҮZҮҮLSEN TUSLAMZh Mongolian People s Republic supported the Chinese Anti Japan War in 1945 Mongolia Journals Online Retrieved 2 February 2019 Nohlen D Grotz F amp Hartmann C 2001 Elections in Asia A data handbook Volume II p491 ISBN 0 19 924959 8 因常任理事国投反对票而未获通过的决议草案或修正案各段 PDF in Chinese 聯合國 Archived PDF from the original on March 23 2014 The veto and how to use it BBC News Online Archived from the original on July 26 2010 Changing Pattern in the Use of Veto in the Security Council Global Policy Forum Archived from the original on May 8 2013 Tsedenbal s Mongolia and the Communist Aid Donors A Reappraisal Wilson Center Rossabi Morris 2005 Modern Mongolia From Khans to Commissars to Capitalists Berkeley University of California Press pp 57 58 143 144 ISBN 978 0520244191 Pan Mongolism and U S China Mongolia relations Jamestown Foundation June 29 2005 Archived from the original on December 27 2015 Retrieved April 7 2013 Country Comparison Area The World Factbook CIA Archived from the original on February 9 2014 Retrieved June 28 2013 Mongolian Forestry Sector Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Archived from the original on November 1 2012 Retrieved May 31 2013 Ireland now has the second smallest forest area in Europe thejournal ie August 30 2012 Archived from the original on January 10 2014 Retrieved May 31 2013 Mongolia Climate Retrieve the average temperatures and rains in Mongolia amp in Ulaan baatar Archived from the original on February 3 2016 Country Nicknames Top 40 best nation aliases May 31 2013 Archived from the original on January 1 2016 Nomadic trails in the land of the blue sky BBC Archived from the original on 22 October 2014 Weeping Camel A Real Mongolian Tear Jerker National Geographic 7 July 2004 Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 a b Republic of Mongolia PDF 2004 Archived from the original PDF on 2 October 2006 Retrieved 10 February 2008 Arkhangai Meteorological Department Icc mn June 24 2013 Archived from the original on January 10 2014 Retrieved June 28 2013 Climate History for Tsetserleg Mongolia Weather Underground Archived from the original on June 16 2013 Retrieved June 28 2013 a b c d e f g This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain DeGlopper Donald R 1991 The Society and Its Environment In Worden Robert L Savada Andrea Matles eds Mongolia a country study Washington D C Federal Research Division Library of Congress OCLC 622910663 Annual average temperature and precipitation of Mongolia Gis wwf mn Archived from the original on January 10 2014 Retrieved June 28 2013 Climate Change Impacts on Health and Livelihoods Mongolia Assessment Mongolia ReliefWeb reliefweb int Grantham H S et al 2020 Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40 of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity Supplementary Material Nature Communications 11 1 5978 Bibcode 2020NatCo 11 5978G doi 10 1038 s41467 020 19493 3 ISSN 2041 1723 PMC 7723057 PMID 33293507 U S Census Bureau International Data Base Archived from the original on 11 December 2007 Retrieved 28 June 2013 U S Department of State Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs Background Note Mongolia State gov February 28 2010 Retrieved May 2 2010 a b c WPP2006 Highlights 0823 doc PDF Archived PDF from the original on July 21 2013 Retrieved June 28 2013 Mongolia PDF United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific Archived PDF from the original on May 11 2013 Retrieved June 28 2013 Spoorenberg Thomas 2009 The impact of the political and economic transition on fertility and family formation in Mongolia A synthetic parity progression ratio analysis Asian Population Studies 5 2 127 151 doi 10 1080 17441730902992067 S2CID 153650562 Second wave of Chinese invasion Sydney Morning Herald August 13 2007 Archived from the original on October 21 2013 Retrieved June 28 2013 Ulrich Ammon Norbert Dittmar Klaus J Mattheier Peter Trudgill 2006 Sociolinguistics Soziolinguistik An Internationdkznal Handbook of the Science of Language and Society Berlin Walter de Gruyter amp Co ISBN 978 3 11 018418 1 Mongolia Essential information guardian co uk London November 22 2006 Archived from the original on December 20 2013 Retrieved March 27 2010 Official documents to be recorded in both scripts from 2025 Archived 5 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine Montsame 18 March 2020 Mongolian Language Law is effective from July 1st Archived 9 April 2022 at the Wayback Machine Gogo 1 July 2015 Misinterpretation 1 Use of cyrillic is to be terminated and only Mongolian script to be used There is no provision in the law that states the termination of use of cyrillic It clearly states that Mongolian script is to be added to the current use of cyrillic Mongolian script will be introduced in stages and state and local government is to conduct their correspondence in both cyrillic and Mongolian script This provision is to be effective starting January 1st of 2025 ID birth certificate marriage certificate and education certificates are to be both in Mongolian cyrillic and Mongolian script and currently Mongolian script is being used in official letters of President Prime Minister and Speaker of Parliament Han Jae hyuck 5 May 2006 Today in Mongolia Everyone can speak a few words of Korean Office of the President Republic of Korea Archived from the original on 30 September 2007 Retrieved 17 August 2007 2010 Population and Housing Census of Mongolia Data recorded in Brian J Grim et al Yearbook of International Religious Demography 2014 BRILL 2014 p 152 a b Mongolia Encyclopaedia Britannica Online July 11 1921 Archived from the original on May 14 2013 Retrieved June 28 2013 Historical Injustice and Democratic Transition in Eastern Asia and Northern Europe London 2002 p 156 PDF Archived PDF from the original on May 11 2011 Retrieved December 23 2010 Members Celebrate 20 Years of Church in Mongolia churchofjesuschrist org Retrieved June 2 2013 Religions in Mongolia Mongolia attractions com Archived from the original on May 13 2011 Retrieved 2010 05 02 Mongolia Mission Adventistyearbook org 16 December 2019 Retrieved 29 May 2020 Shugart Matthew Soberg September 2005 Semi Presidential Systems Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns PDF Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies Archived from the original PDF on 19 August 2008 Retrieved 21 February 2016 Shugart Matthew Soberg December 2005 Semi Presidential Systems Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns PDF French Politics 3 3 323 351 doi 10 1057 palgrave fp 8200087 S2CID 73642272 Archived PDF from the original on March 4 2016 Retrieved February 21 2016 Even if the president has no discretion in the forming of cabinets or the right to dissolve parliament his or her constitutional authority can be regarded as quite considerable in Duverger s sense if cabinet legislation approved in parliament can be blocked by the people s elected agent Such powers are especially relevant if an extraordinary majority is required to override a veto as in Mongolia Poland and Senegal Freedom in the World 2016 PDF Freedom House Archived PDF from the original on February 5 2016 Retrieved January 30 2016 Preliminary Results Issued by the General Election Commission of Mongolia Infomongolia com June 29 2012 Archived from the original on May 22 2013 Retrieved June 28 2013 Hook Leslie June 29 2012 Democratic party leads Mongolia poll Financial Times Archived from the original on July 5 2012 Retrieved June 28 2013 N Altankhuyag Becomes 27th Prime Minister of Mongolia UBPost August 10 2012 Archived from the original on February 8 2013 Retrieved June 28 2013 Sambuu Boldsaikhan 7 July 2020 Here s how an unpopular ruling party swept Mongolia s June elections The Washington Post Retrieved 16 August 2021 Mongolian PM resigns The Daily Star Agence France Press 22 January 2021 Retrieved 16 August 2021 Lkhaajav Bolor Dierkes Julian 27 January 2021 With New PM a New Generation Taking Charge in Mongolia The Diplomat Retrieved 16 August 2021 Opposition leader Mongolia s new president UPI 25 May 2009 Retrieved 16 August 2021 Mongolia nominates a new leader BBC News 29 October 2009 Retrieved 16 August 2021 President to be sworn in on 10th in front of Genghis Khan monument shuud mn in Mongolian July 3 2013 Archived from the original on July 5 2013 Retrieved July 3 2013 Dierkes Julian 8 July 2017 Mongolia Just Chose a New President What Now The Diplomat Retrieved 16 August 2021 MONGOL ULSYN ERӨNHIJLӨGChIJN 2017 ONY SONGUULIJN 2 DAH SANAL HURAALTYN DҮN in Mongolian Archived from the original on 10 July 2017 Retrieved 11 July 2017 Ex Mongolian prime minister Khurelsukh wins presidential election in landslide Reuters 10 June 2021 Dierkes Julian February 16 2018 Can Mongolia s Brash New President Navigate Between China and Russia WPR World Politics Review Archived from the original on September 9 2017 Retrieved February 18 2018 Adiya Amar 28 July 2021 Mongolia forced to choose sides as friends fight Mongolia Weekly Retrieved 25 September 2022 Mongolia Country Brief Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade Government of Australia Archived from the original on August 14 2015 Retrieved February 18 2018 Adiya Amar 26 April 2022 Why Mongolians Won t Take Sides in the Ukraine War Mongolia Weekly Retrieved 1 July 2022 Mongolia Embassies amp Consulates EmbassyPages com Retrieved 18 February 2018 Ban Ki Moon on press conference in Ulaanbaatar July 27th 2009 Un org Archived from the original on May 3 2011 Retrieved May 2 2010 President George W Bush Visits Mongolia US embassy in Mongolia 2005 Archived from the original on 29 February 2008 Retrieved 30 June 2013 Judicial System of Mongolia Supreme Court of Mongolia Archived from the original on December 20 2016 Retrieved December 10 2016 Evlerүүlen zuuchlalyn tuhaj huul Law on mediation and conciliation www Legalinfo mn May 22 2012 Archived from the original on May 9 2016 Retrieved May 13 2016 Givaandondogiin Purevsambuu 2006 Mongolia Montsame News Agency p 46 ISBN 978 99929 0 627 9 National Statistical Office Statistical Yearbook 2002 p 39 Villages in this case refers to settlements that are not part of a sum see p 37 PDF Archived from the original PDF on 25 March 2009 Retrieved 28 June 2013 a b c d e f g Background Note Mongolia Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs Morris Rossabi Vladimir Socor May 5 2005 Beijing s growing politico economic leverage over Ulaanbaatar Jamestown Foundation Archived from the original on December 21 2013 Retrieved June 28 2013 Mongolia World Bank Data worldbank org Archived from the original on October 29 2011 Retrieved October 30 2011 Human Development Report 2011 PDF United Nations 2011 Archived PDF from the original on January 11 2012 Retrieved January 27 2012 Statistical Yearbook of Mongolia 2006 National Statistical Office Ulaanbaatar 2007 a b c Booming Mongolia Mine all mine The Economist January 21 2012 Archived from the original on January 21 2012 Forget The BRICs Citi s Willem Buiter Presents The 11 3G Countries That Will Win The Future Business Insider February 22 2011 Archived from the original on November 22 2011 Retrieved June 28 2013 Jeffs Luke 12 February 2007 Mongolia earns a sporting chance with fledgling operation Dow Jones Financial News Online Retrieved 11 September 2007 Cheng Patricia 19 September 2006 Mongolian bourse seeks foreign investment International Herald Tribune Archived from the original on 20 August 2007 Retrieved 11 September 2007 Message From The Board of Chairman and the Acting Ceo PDF Mongolian Stock Exchange Archived from the original PDF on 4 May 2012 Retrieved 28 June 2013 Improved regulations push Mongolia up on Doing Business index Mad mongolia com October 25 2012 Archived from the original on October 28 2012 Retrieved June 28 2013 Mongolian copper Halfway to where A massive mining project hits a snag The Economist October 8 2011 Archived from the original on January 26 2012 Lkhagva Davaajargal Wang Zheng Liu Changxin 29 May 2019 Mining Booms and Sustainable Economic Growth in Mongolia Empirical Result from Recursive Dynamic CGE Model Economies 7 2 51 doi 10 3390 economies7020051 ISSN 2227 7099 Mongolian Statistical Yearbook 2018 Ulan Bator National Statistics Office of Mongolia 2018 Jin Hyunjoo amp David Stanway March 7 2011 ArcelorMittal Vale vie for huge Mongolia coal mine Reuters Reuters com Archived from the original on May 5 2013 Retrieved June 28 2013 Adiya Amar 8 September 2022 New Coal Rail Network Comes Online Connecting Mongolia With China Mongolia Weekly Retrieved 25 September 2022 Enkhbold Enerelt The foreseeable future of Mongolia s agriculture blogs adb org Werner Elstner Mongolei p 18 Berlin 1993 Statistical Yearbook 2002 PDF National 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Archived from the original on July 29 2013 Retrieved June 28 2013 a b Iskusstvo Mongolii Moscow 1984 Cultural Heritage of Mongolia Indiana University Archived from the original on 2 July 2007 Retrieved 7 July 2007 a b Mongolia media Press reference Archived from the original on April 15 2013 Retrieved June 28 2013 Ole Bruun Ole Odgaard 1996 Mongolia in Transition Routledge ISBN 978 0 7007 0441 5 Archived from the original on January 11 2014 Retrieved June 28 2013 Country Profile Mongolia BBC News Archived from the original on February 6 2009 Retrieved June 28 2013 a b Indrajit Banerjee Stephen Logan eds 2008 Asian communication handbook 2008 AMIC ISBN 978 981 4136 10 5 Patrick F J Macrory Arthur E Appleton Michael G Plummer eds 2005 The World Trade Organization legal economic and political analysis New York Springer ISBN 978 0 387 22685 9 2013 World Press Freedom Index Dashed Hopes After Spring Reporters Without Borders 2013 Archived from the original on February 15 2013 2016 World Press Freedom Index Reporters Without Borders 2016 Archived from the original on March 14 2017 Enkhbold Enerelt 2016 TV drama promotes financial education in Mongolia Asian Development Bank Blog Archived from the original on 30 May 2016 Marshall Cavendish Corporation 2007 p 268 Mongolyn Choloot Bohijn Holboo Archived from the original on March 30 2015 Mark Bixler 15 August 2008 Mongolia wins first ever gold medal CNN com world sport Archived from the original on 22 August 2008 Retrieved 16 August 2008 D Batmyenh Anh deeltej mongol gutaltaj boks toglodog bajlaa D Batmunkh The first Mongolian boxer was dressed in Mongolian boots in Mongolian Archived from the original on 31 October 2013 World ranking 25 m Pistol Women International Shooting Sport Federation 29 May 2007 Archived from the original on 25 April 2007 Retrieved 4 June 2007 Mongolia NOC announces sports press awards PressReader com Connecting People Through News www pressreader com MongoliaTourism Medee medeelel 6th International Ulaanbaatar Marathon June 2015 Archived from the original on October 15 2015 Further readingLing Elaine Fitzhugh William W Norbu Thubten Konchog 2009 Mongolia Land of the Deer Stone Lodima Press ISBN 978 1 888899 57 3 Archived from the original on October 20 2013 Retrieved June 28 2013 Mongolia Archived 14 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopaedia Britannica Mongolia Archived 9 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency Background notes on Mongolia Archived 4 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine US Department of State Mongolia Growth Democracy and Two Wary Neighbors Archived 25 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine Q amp A with Alan Wachman May 2012 External linksMongolia at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel information from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity GovernmentOfficial website of the Government Organizations of Mongolia in English and Russian Mongolia Government Overview in Mongolian Chief of State and Cabinet MembersGeneral informationMongolia The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency Mongolia Travel Guide Mongolian tourism website Mongolia at UCB Libraries GovPubs Mongolia at Curlie Mongolia profile from the BBC News Mongolia at Britannica com Kropotkin Peter Alexeivitch 1911 Mongolia Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 18 11th ed pp 711 712 Wikimedia Atlas of Mongolia Wrestling Roots Mongolia Facts and Culture on CountryReports org Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Mongolia amp oldid 1130979421, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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