Yi people

For the peoples living to the east of the early Chinese civilization, see Dongyi.

The Yi or Nuosu people (Nuosu: ꆈꌠ, [nɔ̄sū]), historically known as the Lolo, are an ethnic group in China, Vietnam, Laos and Thailand. Numbering nine million people, they are the seventh largest of the 55 ethnic minority groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. They live primarily in rural areas of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, and Guangxi, usually in mountainous regions. The Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture is home to the largest population of Yi people within mainland China, with two million Yi people in the region. For other countries, as of 1999, there were 3,300 Lô Lô people living in the Hà Giang, Cao Bằng, and Lào Cai provinces in Northern Vietnam.

Yi people

Yi woman in Yunnan
Regions with significant populations
China (Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangxi)	9 million (2010)^[citation needed]
Vietnam	4,827 (2019)^[1]
Laos and  Thailand	2,203 (2015)^[citation needed]
Taiwan	2,000
Japan	2,000
Languages
Yi, Southwestern Mandarin
Religion
Majority: Bimoism (native Yi variety of Shamanism); minority: Taoism
Related ethnic groups
Bamar (Burman), Naxi, Qiang, Tujia

Yi people
Chinese name
Chinese	彝族
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Yízú
Nuosu
Simplified Chinese	诺苏
Traditional Chinese	諾蘇
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Nuòsū
Lolo
Chinese	倮倮
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Luǒ luǒ
Burmese name
Burmese	ယီလူမျိုး
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese	Lô Lô
Thai name
Thai	โล-โล
Nuosu name
Nuosu	ꆈꌠꉙ

Black Nuosu Yi of Daliangshan

The Yi speak various Loloish languages, closely related to Burmese. The prestige variety is Nuosu, which is written in the Yi script.

Location

Of the more than 9 million Yi people, over 4.5 million live in Yunnan Province, 2.5 million live in southern Sichuan Province and 1 million live in the northwest corner of Guizhou Province. Nearly all the Yi live in mountainous areas,^{[citation needed]} often carving out their existence on the sides of steep mountain slopes far from the cities of China.

The altitudinal differences of the Yi areas directly affect the climate and precipitation of these areas. These striking differences are the basis of the old saying that "The weather is different a few miles away" in the Yi area. Yi populations in different areas are very different from one another, making their living in completely different ways.^[2]

Names and subgroups

See also: List of lesser-known Loloish languages

Although different groups of Yi refer to themselves in different ways (including Nisu, Sani, Axi, Lolo, and Acheh) and sometimes speak mutually unintelligible languages, they have been grouped into a single ethnicity by the Chinese and the various local appellations can be classified into three groups:

• Ni (ꆀ). The appellations of Nuosu,^[3] Nasu, Nesu, Nisu and other similar names are considered derivatives of the original autonym Nip (ꆀ) appended with the suffix -su, indicating 'people'. The name Sani is also a variety of this group. Further, it is widely believed that the Chinese name Yí (both 夷 and 彝) were derived from Ni.
• Lolo. The appellations of Lolo, Lolopu, etc. are related to the Yi people's worship of the tiger, as lo in their dialects means 'tiger'.^[4] Lo is also the basis for the Chinese exonym Luóluó (猓猓, 倮倮 or 罗罗). The original character (猓), with the "dog radical" (犭) and a guǒ (果) phonetic, was a graphic pejorative,^[5] comparable to the Chinese name guǒran (猓然, 'a long-tailed ape'). Languages reforms in the PRC replaced the character in Luóluó twice—first by Luó (倮), with the "human radical" (亻) and the same phonetic, but that was a graphic variant for luǒ (裸, 'naked'), and later by Luó (罗, 'net for catching birds'). Paul K. Benedict noted, "a leading Chinese linguist, has remarked that the name 'Lolo' is offensive only when written with the 'dog' radical."^[6]
• Other. This group includes various other appellations of different groups of Yi. Some of them may be of other ethnic groups but are recognised as Yi by the Chinese. The "Pu" may be relevant to an ancient ethnic group Pu (濮). In the legends of the Northern Yi, the Yi people conquered Pu and its territory in the northeastern part of the modern Liangshan.

Groups listed below are sorted by their broad linguistic classification and the general geographic area where they live. Within each section, larger groups are listed first.

Classification	Approximate total population	Groups
Southern	1,082,120	Nisu, Southern Nasu, Muji, A Che, Southern Gaisu, Pula, Boka, Lesu, Chesu, Laowu, Alu, Azong, Xiuba
Southeastern	729,760	Poluo, Sani, Axi, Azhe, Southeastern Lolo, Jiasou, Puwa, Aluo, Awu, Digao, Meng, Xiqi, Ati, Daizhan, Asahei, Laba, Zuoke, Ani, Minglang, Long
Central	565,080	Lolopo, Dayao Lipo, Central Niesu, Enipu, Lopi, Popei
Eastern	1,456,270	Eastern Nasu, Panxian Nasu, Wusa Nasu, Shuixi Nosu, Wuding Lipo, Mangbu Nosu, Eastern Gepo, Naisu, Wumeng, Naluo, Samei, Sanie, Luowu, Guopu, Gese, Xiaohei Neisu, Dahei Neisu, Depo, Laka, Lagou, Aling, Tushu, Gouzou, Wopu, Eastern Samadu
Western	1,162,040	Mishaba Laluo, Western Lolo, Xiangtang, Xinping Lalu, Yangliu Lalu, Tusu, Gaiji, Jiantou Laluo, Xijima, Limi, Mili, Lawu, Qiangyi, Western Samadu, Western Gepo, Xuzhang Lalu, Eka, Western Gaisu, Suan, Pengzi
Northern	2,534,120	Shengba Nosu, Yinuo Nosu, Xiaoliangshan Nosu, Butuo Nosu, Suodi, Tianba Nosu, Bai Yi, Naruo, Naru, Talu, Mixisu, Liwu, Northern Awu, Tagu, Liude, Naza, Ta'er
Unclassified	55,490	Michi (Miqie), Jinghong Nasu, Apu, Muzi, Tanglang, Micha, Ayizi, Guaigun

History

 

Mu'ege and other Yi kingdoms contemporary to Southern Song

 

The Yi kingdom of Nanzhao

 

Carving of Yimouxun (r. 779–808) the ruler of Nanzhao

 

Yi silver headdress

According to Yi legend, all life originated in water and water was created by snowmelt, which as it dripped down, created a creature called the Ni. The Ni gave birth to all life. Ni is another name for the Yi people. It is sometimes translated as black because black is a revered color in Yi culture.^[7] Yi tradition tells us that their common ancestor was named Apu Dumu ꀉꁌꅋꃅ or ꀉꁌꐧꃅ (Axpu Ddutmu or Axpu Jjutmu). Apu Dumu had three wives, each of whom had two sons. The six sons migrated to the area that is now Zhaotong and spread out in the four directions, creating the Wu, Zha, Nuo, Heng, Bu, and Mo clans.^[8] The Yi practiced a lineage system where younger brothers were treated as slaves by their elders, which resulted in a culture of migration where younger brothers constantly left their villages to create their own domains.^[7]

Guizhou kingdoms

See also: Mu'ege and Ziqi

The Heng clan divided into two branches. One branch, known as the Wumeng, settled along the western slope of the Wumeng Mountain range, extending their control as far west as modern day Zhaotong, Yunnan. The other branch, known as the Chele, moved along the eastern slope of the Wumeng Mountain range and settled to the north of the Chishui River. By the Tang dynasty (618–907), the Chele occupied the area from today Xuyong county in Sichuan to Bijie city in Guizhou. The Bu clan fragmented into four branches. The Bole branch settled in Anshun, the Wusa branch settled in Weining, the Azouchi branch settled in Zhanyi, and the Gukuge branch settled in northeast Yunnan. The Mo clan, descended from Mujiji (慕齊齊), split into three branches. One branch known as the Awangren, led by Wualou, settled in southwest Guizhou and formed the Ziqi Kingdom. Wuake led the second branch, the Ayuxi, to settle near Ma'an Mountain south of Huize. Wuana led the third branch to settle in Hezhang. In the 3rd century AD, Wuana's branch split into the Mangbu branch in Zhenxiong, led by Tuomangbu, and Luodian (羅甸) in Luogen, led by Tuoazhe. By 300, Luodian covered over much of the Shuixi region. Its ruler, Mowang (莫翁), moved the capital to Mugebaizhage (modern Dafang), where he renamed his realm the Mu'ege kingdom, otherwise known as the Chiefdom of Shuixi.^[8]

Nasu Yi kingdoms by the Tang dynasty

Kingdom	Ruling clan	Modern area
Badedian	Mangbu	Zhenxiong
Luodian/Luoshi	Bole	Anshun
Mu'ege	Luo	Dafang
Ziqi/Yushi	Awangren	Southwest Guizhou

After the Eastern Han dynasty, the Shu of the Three Kingdoms conducted several wars against the ancestors of Yi under the lead of Zhuge Liang. They defeated the king of Yi, ꂽꉼ (Mot Hop, 孟获) and expanded their conquered territory in Yi area. After that, the Jin Dynasty succeeded Shu as the suzerain of Yi area but with weak control.

To further solidify a buffer zone between itself and the expansionistic Nanzhao kingdom, in 846 the Tang bestowed upon the patriarch of the Bole patriclan the hereditary title King of the Luodian kingdom (Luodian guo wang). In the same year the Tang forged a relationship with the Awangren branch of the Mo patriclan, which had settled in the Panxian–Puan area of southwest Guizhou, and recognized the Awangren as leaders of the Yushi kingdom. A year later, in 847, the Tang acknowledged the formation of the Badedian kingdom located in northeast Yunnan and headed by the Mangbu branch of the Azhe patriclan. These four kingdoms, Zangge (Mu'ege), Luodian, Yushi, and Badedian formed an initial Tang defensive perimeter between Nanzhao-controlled territory to the southwest and Tang China.^[9]

— John E. Herman

Yunnan kingdoms

Main articles: Cuanman, Nanzhao, and Dali kingdom

Some historians believe that the majority of the kingdom of Nanzhao were of the Bai people,^[10] but that the elite spoke a variant of Nuosu (also called Yi), a Tibeto-Burman language closely related to Burmese.^[11] The Cuanman people came to power in Yunnan during Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign in 225. By the fourth century they had gained control of the region, but they rebelled against the Sui dynasty in 593 and were destroyed by a retaliatory expedition in 602. The Cuan split into two groups known as the Black and White Mywa.^[12] The White Mywa (Baiman) tribes, who are considered the predecessors of the Bai people, settled on the fertile land of western Yunnan around the alpine fault lake Erhai. The Black Mywa (Wuman), considered to be predecessors of the Yi people, settled in the mountainous regions of eastern Yunnan. These tribes were called Mengshe (蒙舍), Mengxi (蒙嶲), Langqiong (浪穹), Tengtan (邆賧), Shilang (施浪), and Yuexi (越析). Each tribe was known as a zhao.^[13] In academia, the ethnic composition of the Nanzhao kingdom's population has been debated for a century. Chinese scholars tend to favour the theory that the rulers came from the aforementioned Bai or Yi groups, while some non-Chinese scholars subscribed to the theory that the Tai ethnic group was a major component, that later moved south into modern-day Thailand and Laos.^[14]

In 649, the chieftain of the Mengshe tribe, Xinuluo (細奴邏), founded the Great Meng (大蒙) and took the title of Qijia Wang (奇嘉王; "Outstanding King"). He acknowledged Tang suzerainty.^[15] In 652, Xinuluo absorbed the White Mywa realm of Zhang Lejinqiu, who ruled Erhai Lake and Cang Mountain. This event occurred peacefully as Zhang made way for Xinuluo of his own accord. The agreement was consecrated under an iron pillar in Dali. Thereafter the Black and White Mywa acted as warriors and ministers respectively.^[13]

In 704 the Tibetan Empire made the White Mywa tribes into vassals or tributaries.^[12]

In the year 737 AD, with the support of the Tang dynasty, the great-grandson of Xinuluo, Piluoge (皮羅閣), united the six zhaos in succession, establishing a new kingdom called Nanzhao (Mandarin, "Southern Zhao"). The capital was established in 738 at Taihe, (the site of modern-day Taihe village, a few miles south of Dali). Located in the heart of the Erhai valley, the site was ideal: it could be easily defended against attack and it was in the midst of rich farmland.^[16] Under the reign of Piluoge, the White Mywa were removed from eastern Yunnan and resettled in the west. The Black and White Mywa were separated to create a more solidified caste system of ministers and warriors.^[13]

Nanzhao existed for 165 years until A.D. 902. After 35 years of tangled warfare, Duan Siping (段思平) of the Bai birth founded the Kingdom of Dali, succeeding the territory of Nanzhao. Most Yi of that time were under the ruling of Dali. Dali's sovereign reign lasted for 316 years until it was conquered by Kublai Khan. During the era of Dali, Yi people lived in the territory of Dali but had little communication with the royalty of Dali.

Kublai Khan included Dali in his domain. The Yuan emperors remained firmly in control of the Yi people and the area they inhabited as part of Kublai Khan's Yunnan Xingsheng (云南行省) at current Yunnan, Guizhou and part of Sichuan. In order to enhance its sovereign over the area, the Yuan dynasty set up a dominion for Yi, Luoluo Xuanweisi (罗罗宣慰司), the name of which means local appeasement government for Lolos. Although technically under the rule of the Yuan emperor, the Yi still had autonomy during the Yuan dynasty. The gulf between aristocrats and the common people increased during this time.

Ming and Qing dynasties

See also: She-An Rebellion

 

Canadian Methodist missionaries William John Mortimore and Charles Winfield Service among the Yi tribesmen of southern Sichuan, before 1911.

Beginning with the Ming dynasty, the Chinese empire expedited its cultural assimilation policy in Southwestern China, spreading the policy of gaitu guiliu (改土歸流, 'replacing tusi (local chieftains) with "normal" officials').^[17] The governing power of many Yi feudal lords had previously been expropriated by the successors of officials assigned by the central government. With the progress of gaitu guiliu, the Yi area was dismembered into many communities both large and small, and it was difficult for the communities to communicate with each other as there were often Han-ruled areas between them.

The Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty defeated Wu Sangui and took over the land of Yunnan and established a provincial government there. When Ortai became the Viceroy of Yunnan and Guizhou during the era of Yongzheng Emperor, the policy of gaitu guiliu and cultural assimilation against Yi were strengthened. Under these policies, Yi who lived near Kunming were forced to abandon their convention of traditional cremation and adopt burial, a policy which triggered rebellions among the Yi. The Qing dynasty suppressed these rebellions.

After the Second Opium War (1856–1860), many Christian missionaries from France and Great Britain visited the area in which the Yi lived. Although some missionaries believed that Yi of some areas such as Liangshan were not under the ruling of Qing dynasty and should be independent, most aristocrats insisted that Yi was a part of China despite their resentment against Qing rule.

Modern era

 

1891 map showing a "Lolo" enclave in modern Liangshan, Sichuan

Long Yun, a Yi, was the military governor of Yunnan, during the Republic of China rule on mainland China.

The Fourth Front Army of the CCP encountered the Yi people during the Long March and many Yi joined the communist forces.^[18]

After the establishment of the PRC, several Yi autonomous administrative districts of prefecture or county level were set up in Sichuan, Yunnan and Guizhou. With the development of automotive traffic and telecommunications, the communications among different Yi areas have been increasing sharply.

Yi people face systematic discrimination and abuse as migrant laborers in contemporary China.^[19]

Yi polities throughout history

• Cuanmans
• Mu'ege Kingdom (circa 300–1279), afterwards known as the Chiefdom of Shuixi from 1279 to 1698
• Nanzhao Empire (738–937)
• Luodian Kingdom (羅甸國) of the Bole clan in present-day Luodian County, Yunnan
• Badedian Kingdom of the Mangbu Azhe clan in present-day Zhenxiong^[20]
• Luogui Kingdom (羅鬼國) (10th century–1278) in Guizhou
• Ziqi Kingdom (Yushi) (自杞國) (1100–1260) of the Awangren clan in present-day Xingyi, Guizhou
• Kingdom of Shu (1621–1629), a short-lived state during the She-An Rebellion

Language

 

A religious document in ancient Yi script

 

Signpost in modern Yi

The Chinese government recognizes six mutually unintelligible Yi languages, from various branches of the Loloish family:^[21]

• Northern Yi (Nuosu 诺苏)
• Western Yi (Lalo 腊罗)
• Central Yi (Lolopo 倮倮泼)
• Southern Yi (Nisu 尼苏)
• Southeastern Yi (Sani 撒尼)
• Eastern Yi (Nasu 纳苏)

Northern Yi is the largest with some two million speakers and is the basis of the literary language. It is an analytic language.^[22] There are also ethnically Yi languages of Vietnam which use the Yi script, such as Mantsi.

Many Yi in Yunnan, Guizhou and Guangxi know Standard Chinese and code-switching between Yi and Chinese is common.

Script

The Yi script was originally logosyllabic like Chinese and dates to at least the 13th century, but seems to be completely independent of any other known script. Until the early 20th century, usage of this script was primarily the domain of bimo priests for transmitting ritual texts from generation to generation. It was not until the mid-twentieth century that elite families in Liangshan began to use the script for non-religious purposes, such as letter writing.^[23]

There were perhaps 10,000 characters, many of which were regional, since the script had never been standardized across the Yi peoples. A number of works of history, literature and medicine, as well as genealogies of the ruling families, written in the Old Yi script are still in use and there are Old Yi stone tablets and steles in the area.

An attempt to romanize the script was made in the 1950s but it failed to gain traction. In the 1970s and 1980s, the traditional script was standardized into a syllabary. Syllabic Yi is widely used in books, newspapers, street signs, and education, although with increasing influence from Chinese.^[24]

Culture

 

A Yi woman in traditional dress

 

Armor of Yi people, Qing dynasty

Gender

Descent and inheritance in Yi society was traditionally patrilineal and men were generally considered superior to women. Men practiced polygamy and levirate marriage. Women were excluded from oral genealogies.^[25] In certain locales, Yi women still lag behind men in terms of primary education and very few Yi women become educational instructors or political leaders. Yi women noticeably drank and smoked more than Han Chinese women.^[26]

Names

The Yi use a son-father patronymic naming system. The last character of the father's name transfers to become the first character of the son's name. The last character of the son's name is then used as the first character of the grandson's name. A complete Yi name is composed of the clan name, the branch clan name, the father's name, and the person's own name (ex. Aho Bbujji Jjiha Lomusse). Aho is the name of a tribe, Bbuji is the name of a clan, Jjiha is the father's name, and Lomusse is a personal name. The name therefore means Lomusse the son of Jjiha of the Bbujji clan of the Aho tribe. Within the clan he would just be called Lomusse and within the tribe he would be called Jjiha Lomusse.^[27]

This system can also be seen in the names of Nanzhao's rulers:^[28]

• Xinuluo
• Luosheng
• Shengluopi
• Piluoge
• Geluofeng
• Fengjiayi
• Yimouxun
• Xungequan
• Quanfengyou – sought to imitate Chinese practices and only went by Fengyou; broke tradition and named his son Shilong^[29]
• Shilong
• Longshun
• Shunhuazhen

This is a tradition closely tied to Tibeto-Burman traditions and suggests that the rulers of Nanzhao were not Tai people.^[28]

Slavery

Traditional Yi society was divided into four castes, the aristocratic nuohuo/nzymo Black Yi, the commoner qunuo/quho White Yi, the ajia/mgajie, and the xiaxi/gaxy. The Black Yi made up around 7 per cent of the population while the White Yi made up 50 per cent of the population. The two castes did not intermarry and the Black Yi were always considered of higher status than the White Yi, even if the White Yi was wealthier or owned more slaves. The White and Black Yi also lived in separate villages. The Black Yi did not farm, which was traditionally done by White Yi and slaves. Black Yi were responsible only for administration and military activities. The White Yi were not technically slaves but lived as indentured servants to the Black Yi. The Ajia made up 33 per cent of the population. They were owned by both the Black and White Yi and worked as indentured laborers lower than the White Yi. The Xiaxi were the lowest caste. They were slaves who lived with their owners' livestock and had no rights. They could be beaten, sold, and killed for sport. Membership of all four castes was through patrilineal descent.^{[30][31][32][33][34][35]} The prevalence of the slave culture was so great that sometimes children were named after how many slaves they owned. For example: Lurbbu (many slaves), Lurda (strong slaves), Lurshy (commander of slaves), Lurnji (origin of slaves), Lurpo (slave lord), Lurha, (hundred slaves), Jjinu (lots of slaves).^[27]

Cases of the caste slavery system's influence could be found as late as the 1980s and early 1990s, when nuohuo clans prevented marriage with qunuo or punished members who did.^[36]

I once asked a nuoho friend, a highly educated man completely at home in the Chinese scholarly world, what he would do if his daughter, then about fourteen, were to want to marry a quho. He said he would oppose it. I asked him if this were not an old-fashioned attitude. He admitted that it was, but gave two explanations. First, he said, he just wouldn't feel right inside. More important, other nuoho might boycott his family for marrying out, and they would thenceforth have trouble marrying within the nuoho caste. This had happened to some of his affinal relatives in another county.
It is important to point out at the same time, however, that caste stratification in Liangshan has never, as far as I can tell, included notions of pollution or automatic deference, which are so important in the Indian caste system. In areas where there are both nuoho and quho, they socialize freely with one another, eating at each other's houses and often becoming close friends. None of this, however, breaks down the marriage barrier; only among highly educated urbanites is intermarriage ever considered, and then it is usually decided against; most nuoho would rather have their daughters marry a Hxiemga (Han Chinese) than a quho.^[37]

— Stevan Harrell

Folklore

The most famous hero in Yi mythology is Zhyge Alu. He was the son of a dragon and an eagle who possessed supernatural strength, anti-magic, and anti-ghost powers. He rode a nine-winged flying horse called "long heavenly wings." He also had the help of a magical peacock and python. The magical peacock was called Shuotnyie Voplie and could deafen the ears of those who heard its cry, but if invited into one's house, would consume evil and expel leprosy. The python, called Bbahxa Ayuosse, was defeated by Zhyge Alu, who wrestled with it in the ocean after transforming into a dragon. It was said to be able to detect leprosy, cure tuberculosis, and eradicate epidemics. Like the Chinese mythological archer, Hou Yi, Zhyge Alu shoots down the suns to save the people.^[38] In the Yi religion Bimoism, Zhyge Alu aids the bimo priests in curing leprosy and fighting ghosts.^[39]

Jiegujienuo was a ghost that caused dizziness, slowness in action, dementia and anxiety. The ghost was blamed for ailments and exorcism rituals were conducted to combat the ghost. The bimo erected small sticks considered to be sacred, the kiemobbur, at the ritual site in preparation.^[39]

Torch Festival

The Torch Festival is one of the Yi people's main holidays. According to Yi legend, there were once two men of great strength, Sireabi and Atilaba. Sireabi lived in heaven while Atilaba on earth. When Sireabi heard of Atilaba's strength, he challenged Atilaba to a wrestling match. After suffering two defeats, Sireabi was killed in a bout, which greatly angered the bodhisattavas, who sent a plague of locusts to punish the earth. On the 24th day of the 6th month of the lunar calendar, Atilaba cut down many pine trees and used them as torches to kill the locusts, protecting the crops from destruction. The Torch Festival is thus held in his honor.^[40]

Music

The Yi play a number of traditional musical instruments, including large plucked and bowed string instruments,^[41] as well as wind instruments called bawu (巴乌) and mabu (马布). The Yi also play the hulu sheng, though unlike other minority groups in Yunnan, the Yi do not play the hulu sheng for courtship or love songs (aiqing). The kouxian, a small four-pronged instrument similar to the Jew's harp, is another commonly found instrument among the Liangshan Yi. Kouxian songs are most often improvised and are supposed to reflect the mood of the player or the surrounding environment. Kouxian songs can also occasionally function in the aiqing form. Yi dance is perhaps the most commonly recognized form of musical performance, as it is often performed during publicly sponsored holidays and/or festival events.

Literature

Artist Colette Fu, great-granddaughter of Long Yun has spent time from 1996 till present photographing the Yi community in Yunnan Province. Her series of pop-up books, titled We are Tiger Dragon People, includes images of many Yi groups.^[42][43]

•  

  Yi woman in traditional dress

•  

  Yi woman in traditional dress with a child

•  

  Yi woman in traditional dress

•  

  Yi man in traditional dress

•  

  Yi man in traditional dress

Religion

 

Yi clothing (male)

Bimoism

This section is an excerpt from Bimoism.[edit]

 

A symbol used to represent the Bimoist faith

Bimoism^[44] (Chinese: 毕摩教; pinyin: Bìmójiào, Yi: ꀘꂾ) is the indigenous religion of the Yi people, the largest ethnic group in Yunnan after the Han Chinese. It takes its name from the bimo, shaman-priests who are also masters of Yi language and scriptures, wearing distinctive black robes and large hats.

Other religions

In Yunnan, some of the Yi have adopted Buddhism as a result of exchanges with other predominantly Buddhist ethnic groups present in Yunnan, such as the Dai and the Tibetans. The most important god of Yi Buddhism is Mahākāla, a wrathful deity found in Vajrayana and Tibetan Buddhism. In the 20th century, many Yi people in China converted to Christianity, after the arrival of Gladstone Porteous in 1904 and, later, medical missionaries such as Alfred James Broomhall, Janet Broomhall, Ruth Dix and Joan Wales of the China Inland Mission. According to missionary organization OMF International, the exact number of Yi Christians is not known. In 1991 it was reported that there were as many as 1,500,000 Yi Christians in Yunnan Province, especially in Luquan County where there are more than 20 churches.

Medicine

The Yi are known for the extent of their inter-generational transmission of traditional medicine through oral tradition and written records. Their traditional medicine system has been academically inventoried.^[45] Since the prefecture the Yi medicinal data was collected from also contains the cave containing human-infectable SARS clades and it is known that people living in the vicinity SARS caves show serological signs of past infection,^[46][47] it has been suggested that the Yi were repeatably exposed to coronavirus over their history, passively learned to medicinally fend off coronavirus infection centuries ago, and committed the results into their inter-generational record of medicinal indications.^[48]

Distribution

 

Yi autonomous prefectures and counties in China

 

Yi population by counties

County-level distribution of the Yi 2000 census in China.

(Only includes counties or county-equivalents containing >1% of county population.)

County/city	Yi %	Yi population	Total population
Sichuan province	2.58	2,122,389	82,348,296
Panzhihua city	10.11	110,326	1,091,657
Dong district	1.25	3,945	315,707
Xi district	1.84	3,148	170,862
Renhe district	19.06	38,907	204,170
Miyi county	13.21	27,381	207,300
Yanbian county	19.08	36,945	193,618
Leshan city	3.53	117,355	3,324,139
Jinkouhe district	10.15	5,373	52,916
Ebian Yi autonomous county	30.65	43,269	141,166
Mabian Yi autonomous county	39.15	66,723	170,425
Pingshan county	2.00	5,004	250,620
Yaan city	2.04	31,013	1,522,845
Hanyuan county	4.51	15,686	347,471
Shimian county	11.17	13,769	123,261
Garze Tibetan autonomous prefecture	2.56	22,946	897,239
Luding county	4.40	3,424	77,855
Jiulong county	37.01	18,806	50,816
Liangshan Yi autonomous prefecture	44.43	1,813,683	4,081,697
Xichang city	16.48	101,369	615,212
Muli Tibetan autonomous county	27.71	34,489	124,462
Yanyuan county	47.67	149,568	313,765
Dechang county	23.18	43,810	188,980
Huili county	17.33	75,064	433,185
Huidong county	6.91	24,279	351,310
Ningnan county	21.85	37,134	169,962
Puge county	76.55	106,521	139,156
Butuo county	95.44	132,285	138,604
Jinyang county	78.42	109,813	140,028
Zhaojue county	96.75	200,951	207,712
Xide county	85.74	118,048	137,676
Mianning county	33.39	108,289	324,332
Yuexi county	72.54	172,505	237,800
Ganluo county	68.66	120,445	175,426
Meigu county	97.81	172,356	176,214
Leibo county	51.36	106,757	207,873
Guizhou province	2.39	843,554	35,247,695
Baiyun district	1.04	1,961	187,695
Qingzhen city	1.65	7,761	471,305
Liupanshui city	9.56	262,308	2,744,085
Zhongshan district	5.64	25,549	453,293
Liuzhi special district	11.32	61,319	541,762
Shuicheng county	11.70	79,339	678,228
Pan county	8.97	96,101	1,070,802
Qianxi'nan Bouyei Miao autonomous prefecture	2.05	58,766	2,864,920
Xingyi city	2.02	14,521	719,605
Xingren county	2.44	10,372	425,091
Puan county	2.66	6,905	259,881
Qinglong county	6.76	17,436	258,031
Anlong county	2.28	9,094	399,384
Bijie prefecture	7.41	468,800	6,327,471
Bijie city	4.26	48,094	1,128,230
Dafang county	10.84	92,295	851,729
Qianxi county	8.67	60,420	697,075
Jinsha county	4.17	20,696	496,063
Zhijin county	3.81	31,420	825,350
Nayong county	5.72	37,840	661,772
Weining Yi Hui Miao autonomous county	9.06	95,629	1,056,009
Hezhang county	13.48	82,406	611,243
Yunnan province	11.11	4,705,658	42,360,089
Kunming city	6.65	384,531	5,781,294
Wuhua district	2.56	10,580	413,420
Panlong district	1.59	5,468	344,754
Guandu district	3.38	47,311	1,398,305
Xishan district	5.07	30,617	603,363
Dongchuan district	3.26	8,984	275,564
Chenggong county	1.22	2,202	180,685
Jinning county	7.64	20,443	267,739
Fumin county	7.44	10,422	140,046
Yiliang county	6.06	24,051	396,677
Shilin Yi autonomous county	32.49	72,779	223,978
Luquan Yi Miao autonomous county	22.45	96,388	429,355
Xundian Hui Yi autonomous county	8.91	42,934	481,721
Anning city	3.34	9,872	295,173
Qujing city	3.85	210,351	5,466,089
Qilin district	2.16	14,041	648,956
Malong county	3.41	6,326	185,766
Shizong county	6.21	21,718	349,770
Luoping county	6.44	33,159	515,211
Fuyuan county	7.16	47,076	657,474
Huize county	2.00	16,910	844,485
Zhanyi county	2.16	8,406	389,838
Xuanwei city	4.46	57,708	1,292,825
Yuxi city	19.32	400,412	2,073,005
Hongta district	9.02	36,905	409,044
Jiangchuan county	5.48	14,087	257,078
Chengjiang county	1.82	2,726	149,748
Tonghai county	5.82	16,017	275,063
Huaning county	21.29	41,844	196,519
Yimen county	26.75	45,362	169,581
Eshan Yi autonomous county	52.36	79,289	151,426
Xinping Yi Dai autonomous county	46.20	122,259	264,615
Yuanjiang Hani Yi Dai autonomous county	20.97	41,923	199,931
Zhaotong prefecture	3.23	148,521	4,592,388
Zhaotong city	2.58	18,758	727,959
Ludian county	2.51	8,686	345,740
Qiaojia county	2.86	13,183	461,034
Daguan county	1.98	4,667	235,802
Yongshan county	4.72	17,130	362,943
Zhenxiong county	5.78	63,463	1,097,093
Yiliang county	4.24	20,269	477,811
Chuxiong Yi autonomous prefecture	26.31	668,937	2,542,530
Chuxiong city	19.05	95,959	503,682
Shuangbai county	43.10	66,110	153,403
Mouding county	22.03	43,032	195,322
Nanhua county	36.07	82,223	227,970
Yaoan county	25.38	50,526	199,071
Dayao county	29.52	82,620	279,838
Yongren county	49.44	51,223	103,606
Yuanmou county	24.25	49,179	202,779
Wuding county	30.18	79,254	262,601
Lufeng county	16.61	68,811	414,258
Honghe Hani Yi autonomous prefecture	23.57	973,732	4,130,463
Gejiu city	20.27	91,902	453,311
Kaiyuan city	33.09	96,647	292,039
Mengzi county	29.38	99,917	340,051
Pingbian Miao autonomous county	18.51	27,596	149,088
Jianshui county	29.02	149,071	513,712
Shiping county	53.67	148,987	277,580
Mile county	30.92	153,235	495,642
Luxi county	7.99	29,202	365,585
Yuanyang county	24.01	87,137	362,950
Honghe county	14.23	38,086	267,627
Jinping Miao Yao Dai autonomous county	11.97	37,837	316,171
Lüchun county	4.92	9,894	201,256
Hekou Yao autonomous county	4.42	4,221	95,451
Wenshan Zhuang Miao autonomous prefecture	10.62	347,194	3,268,553
Wenshan county	17.28	74,255	429,639
Yanshan county	21.11	92,356	437,508
Xichou county	3.95	9,332	236,120
Malipo county	2.25	6,036	267,986
Maguan county	9.16	32,056	350,002
Qiubei county	18.05	78,327	434,009
Guangnan county	5.84	42,675	730,376
Funing county	3.17	12,157	382,913
Pu'er city	16.58	411,120	2,480,346
Simao district	15.12	34,904	230,834
Ning'er Hani Yi autonomous county	19.45	36,589	188,106
Mojiang Hani autonomous county	9.23	32,812	355,364
Jingdong Yi autonomous county	39.92	140,556	352,089
Jinggu Dai Yi autonomous county	20.59	59,476	288,794
Zhenyuan Yi Hani Lahu autonomous county	27.28	56,119	205,709
Jiangcheng Hani Yi autonomous county	13.47	13,503	100,243
Menglian Dai Lahu Va autonomous county	2.40	4,999	208,593
Lancang Lahu autonomous county	6.74	31,255	464,016
Ximeng Va autonomous county	1.05	907	86,598
Xishuangbanna Dai autonomous prefecture	5.61	55,772	993,397
Jinghong city	5.56	24,673	443,672
Menghai county	2.28	7,175	314,068
Mengla county	10.15	23,924	235,657
Dali Bai autonomous prefecture	12.94	426,634	3,296,552
Dali city	2.95	15,385	521,169
Yangbi Yi autonomous county	46.09	48,565	105,380
Xiangyun county	7.26	31,733	437,371
Binchuan county	6.27	20,332	324,412
Midu county	8.35	24,791	296,860
Nanjian Yi autonomous county	47.24	99,159	209,887
Weishan Yi Hui autonomous county	34.07	100,879	296,124
Yongping county	26.56	47,391	178,438
Yunlong county	5.45	10,739	196,978
Eryuan county	3.00	9,443	315,003
Jianchuan county	2.88	4,771	165,900
Heqing county	5.40	13,446	249,030
Baoshan prefecture	3.23	75,877	2,348,315
Baoshan city	4.61	39,025	846,865
Shidian county	3.62	11,360	314,187
Longling county	1.83	4,758	260,097
Changning county	6.04	20,123	333,241
Lijiang prefecture	18.68	210,431	1,126,646
Lijiang Naxi autonomous county	2.42	8,871	366,705
Yongsheng county	12.43	46,703	375,769
Huaping county	8.26	12,808	154,968
Ninglang Yi autonomous county	61.97	142,049	229,204
Nujiang Lisu autonomous prefecture	1.99	9,805	491,824
Lushui county	2.28	3,915	171,974
Lanping Bai Pumi autonomous county	2.91	5,727	196,977
Diqing Tibetan autonomous prefecture	3.29	11,616	353,518
Zhongdian county	6.50	9,586	147,416
Weixi Lisu autonomous county	1.38	2,016	146,017
Lincang prefecture	15.77	367,880	2,332,570
Lincang county	5.43	15,478	285,163
Fengqing county	27.61	117,883	426,943
Yun county	37.96	158,099	416,507
Yongde county	8.68	29,521	339,918
Zhenkang county	17.19	31,334	182,258
Shuangjiang Lahu Va Blang Dai autonomous county	1.57	2,605	165,982
Gengma Dai Va autonomous county	3.57	11,193	313,220
Longlin autonomous county (Guangxi)	1.03	3,563	347,462

Notable people

• He Jie (1986–), singer
• Wu Jinghua (1931-2007), former Communist Party Secretary of Tibet Autonomous Region
• Long Zhiyi (1929-2021), former Chairman of the Guizhou Provincial Committee of the CPPCC
• Zhang Chong (1900-1980), former Vice Chairman of the CPPCC
• Zhang Liyin (1989–), singer
• Jike Junyi (1988–), singer
• Long Yun (1884–1962), governor and warlord of Yunnan Province
• Lu Han (1895–1974), general and governor of Yunnan Province
• Yang Likun (1941–2000), actress

Gallery

•  

  Yi girls in Lijiang (1989)

•  

  Yi people in Shilin County, Yunnan Province

•  

  Yi woman, Butuo County, Sichuan Province

•  

  Huayao Yi women, Shiping County, Yunan Province

•  

  A family tree document in Yi script

•  

  A Yi bracelet, Central Yunnan

•  

  Yi musical instrument: bamboo harmonica

•  

  Yi musical instrument: three-strings

•  

  Yi musical instrument: phambe

•  

  Fire Festival, Eshan County

•  

  Yi warrior, 1910

See also

• Torch Festival
• Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture
• Honghe Hani and Yi Autonomous Prefecture
• Chuxiong Yi Autonomous Prefecture
• Hani people
• Bai people
• Yiminaspis, a prehistoric fish named in honor of the Yi.
• The Art of Not Being Governed

Notes

References

Citations

1. "Report on Results of the 2019 Census". General Statistics Office of Vietnam. Retrieved 1 May 2020.
2. "Ethnic Groups – china.org.cn". China.org.cn. Retrieved 8 August 2014.
3. Some scholars, however, argue that the Nuosu-series appellations are from the word "black" instead (ꆈ, Nuo).
4. #5560 PTB *k-la TIGER in Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus
5. Ramsey, Robert S. (1987). The Languages of China, p. 160. Princeton University Press.
6. Benedict, Paul K. (1987). "Autonyms: ought or ought not." Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 10: 188. Italics in original.
7. "Perspectives on the Yi of Southwest China".
8. Cosmo 2003, p. 248-249.
9. Cosmo 2003, p. 249.
10. Joe Cummings, Robert Storey (1991). China, Volume 10 (3, illustrated ed.). the University of California: Lonely Planet Publications. p. 705. ISBN 0-86442-123-0.
11. C. X. George Wei (2002). Exploring nationalisms of China: themes and conflicts. Indiana University: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 195. ISBN 0-313-31512-4.
12. Beckwith 1987, p. 65.
13. "The Faded Buddhist Country: A Brief History of Ancient Yunnan Constitution". 19 August 2018.
14. Zhou, Zhenhe; You, Rujie (2017). Chinese Dialects and Culture. American Academic Press. p. 187. ISBN 9781631818844.
15. "Nanzhao 南詔 (www.chinaknowledge.de)".
16. Blackmore 1960.
17. Ulrich Theobald, ChinaKnowledge.de: An Encyclopedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art, s.v. "gaitu guiliu", http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Terms/gaituguiliu.html
18. Edgar, Snow. "Red Star Over China," 225. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1972.
19. Scattered Sand: The Story of China's Rural Migrants. Verso Books. June 2013. ISBN 9781781680902.
20. Herman, John E. (2020). Amid the Clouds and Mist: China's Colonization of Guizhou, 1200–1700. Brill. p. 34. ISBN 978-1-68417-463-8.
21. Andrew West, The Yi People and Language
22. 向晓红; 曹幼南 (2006). "英语和彝语的语法比较研究". -西南民族大学学报(人文社科版). doi:10.3969/j.issn.1004-3926.2006.08.014.
23. Harrell 2001, p. 100.
24. Harrell 2001, p. 101.
25. "Perspectives on the Yi of Southwest China".
26. Harrell 2001, p. 99.
27. "Perspectives on the Yi of Southwest China".
28. Lloyd 2003, p. 15.
29. Bryson 2015, p. 70.
30. Martin Schoenhals Intimate Exclusion: Race and Caste Turned Inside Out 2003– Page 26 "A non-slave-owning Black Yi, or a poor one, was nonetheless always higher in caste status than any White Yi, even a wealthy one or one owning slaves, and the Black Yi manifested this superiority by refusing to marry White Yi even if the latter ..."
31. Barbara A. West Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania 2009 – Page 910 "Yi society prior to the revolution in 1949 was divided into four ranked classes or castes: Nuohuo, or Black Yi; Qunuo, or White Yi; Ajia; and Xiaxi. The Nuohuo, or Black Yi, was the highest and smallest caste at just about 7 percent of the ..."
32. Yongming Zhou Anti-Drug Crusades in Twentieth-Century – China: Nationalism, ... – 1999 – Page 150 "The black Yi (about 7 percent of the population) made up the aristocratic ruling class, and the white Yi held subordinate status. Within the white Yi, however, there were three subgroups: Qunuo, Anjia, and Jiaxi. Qunuo (about 50 percent of the ...")
33. S. Robert Ramsey The Languages of China 1987– Page 253 "The Black Yi looked down on farming, and all cultivation was traditionally done by White Yi and slaves. The Black Yi were responsible only for administration and military protection. Even so, however, they usually took great care to tend to their ..."
34. Stevan Harrell Perspectives on the Yi of Southwest China 2001 – Page 174 "One village is for Black Yi, who speak Black Yi language. One village is for White Yi, who speak White Yi language. One place is for Red Yi, who speak Red Yi language. One village is for Gan Yi, who speak Gan Yi language. One village is for ..."
35. Daniel H. Bays Christianity in China: From the Eighteenth Century to the Present 1999– Page 144 "In the local hierarchy of ethnic groups, they ranked near the bottom, below the Chinese, the Yi aristocracy (Black Yi) and free men (White Yi), and the Hui, closer to the Yi slave caste."
36. Harrell 2001, p. 94.
37. Harrell 2001, p. 94-95.
38. Lihui, Yang, and An Deming. "The World of Chinese Mythology: An Introduction". In: China's Creation and Origin Myths. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2011. p. 52. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004194854.i-354.18
39. "Spirit Pictures | Mountain Patterns – Burke Museum".
40. South of the Clouds, 114–115
41. "彝族人网-中国彝族文化网络博物馆，创建最早，规模最大的彝族文化门户网站-网站地图". yizuren.com. Retrieved 8 August 2014.
42. Fu, Colette (2013). Yi costume festival. Colette Fu. OCLC 881525220.
43. Fu, Colette; Wasserman, Krystyna (2016). Wanderer/Wonderer: Pop-Ups by Colette Fu : October 14, 2016 – February 26, 2017. National Museum of Women in the Arts. OCLC 962923876.
44. Pan Jiao, 2011
45. Long, C.; Li, S.; Long, B.; Shi, Y.; Liu, B. (2009). "Medicinal plants used by the Yi ethnic group: A case study in central Yunnan". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 5: 13. doi:10.1186/1746-4269-5-13. PMC 2679000. PMID 19389251.
46. Wang, Ning; Li, Shi-Yue; Yang, Xing-Lou; Huang, Hui-Min; Zhang, Yu-Ji; Guo, Hua; Luo, Chu-Ming; Miller, Maureen; Zhu, Guangjian; Chmura, Aleksei A.; Hagan, Emily; Zhou, Ji-Hua; Zhang, Yun-Zhi; Wang, Lin-Fa; Daszak, Peter; Shi, Zheng-Li (2018). "Serological Evidence of Bat SARS-Related Coronavirus Infection in Humans, China". Virologica Sinica. 33 (1): 104–107. doi:10.1007/s12250-018-0012-7. PMC 6178078. PMID 29500691.
47. Li, Hongying; Mendelsohn, Emma; Zong, Chen; Zhang, Wei; Hagan, Emily; Wang, Ning; Li, Shiyue; Yan, Hong; Huang, Huimin; Zhu, Guangjian; Ross, Noam; Chmura, Aleksei; Terry, Philip; Fielder, Mark; Miller, Maureen; Shi, Zhengli; Daszak, Peter (2019). "Human-animal interactions and bat coronavirus spillover potential among rural residents in Southern China". Biosafety and Health. 1 (2): 84–90. doi:10.1016/j.bsheal.2019.10.004. PMC 7148670. PMID 32501444.
48. Sheridan, R. "The forgotten legacy of Traditional Medicine in the age of coronavirus"

Sources

• Beckwith, Christopher I. (1987). The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages. Princeton University Press.
• Blackmore, M. (1960). "The Rise of Nan-Chao in Yunnan". Journal of Southeast Asian History. 1 (2): 47–61. doi:10.1017/S0217781100000132.
• Bryson, Megan (2015), Tsenpo Chung, Yunnan wang, Mahārāja:: Royal Titles in Narratives of Nanzhao Kingship between Tibet and Tang China
• Cheng Xiamin. A Survey of the Demographic Problems of the Yi Nationality in the Greater and Lesser Liang Mountains. Social Sciences in China. 3: Autumn 1984, 207–231.
• Clements, Ronald. Point Me to the Skies: the amazing story of Joan Wales. (Monarch Publications, 2007), ISBN 978-0-8254-6157-6.
• Cosmo, Nicola di (2003), Political Frontiers, Ethnic Boundaries, and Human Geographies in Chinese History
• Dessaint, Alain Y. Minorities of Southwest China: An Introduction to the Yi (Lolo) and Related Peoples. (New Haven: HRAF Press, 1980).
• Du Ruofu and Vip, Vincent F. Ethnic Groups in China. (Beijing: Science Press, 1993).
• Goullart, Peter. Princes of the Black Bone. (John Murray, London, 1959).
• Grimes, Barbara F. Ethnologue. (Dallas: Wycliffe Bible Translators, 1988).
• Harrell, Stevan (2001), Ways of Being Ethnic in Southwest China
• Lloyd, John C. (2003), Toponyms of the Nanzhao periphery
• Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic Frontiers. The History of the History of the Yi. Edited by Stevan Harrell. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995).
• Perspectives on the Yi of Southwest China. Edited by Stevan Harrell. (Berkeley / Los Angeles / London: University of California Press, 2001), ISBN 0-520-21988-0.
• China's Minority Nationalities. Edited by Ma Yin. (Beijing: Foreign Language Press, 1994).
• Zhang Weiwen and Zeng Qingnan. In Search of China's Minorities. (Beijing: New World Press).
• Ritual for Expelling Ghosts: A religious Classic of the Yi nationality in Liangshan Prefecture, Sichuan (The Taipei Ricci Institute, Nov. 1998), ISBN 957-9185-60-3.

Further reading

• Benoît Vermander. L'enclos à moutons: un village nuosu du sud-ouest de la Chine. Paris: Les Indes savantes (2007).
• Ollone, Henri d', vicomte (1912) In Forbidden China: the d'Ollone mission, 1906–1909, China—Tibet—Mongolia; translated from the French of the second edition by Bernard Miall. Chapters II-V & VII. London: T. Fisher Unwin.
• Pollard, S. (1921) In Unknown China: Record of the Observations, Adventures and Experiences of a Pioneer Missionary During a Prolonged Sojourn Amongst the Wild and Unknown Nosu Tribe of Western China London: Seeley Service and Co. Limited.
• Wang, Zhen. "Out of the Mountains: Changing Landscapes in Rural China," RCC Perspectives: Transformations in Environment and Society 2018, no. 2. doi.org/10.5282/rcc/8523.

External links

 

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Yi people.

 

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Lolos".

• China.org.cn. "The Yi ethnic minority".
• Yu-Hsiu Lu. "The Dishi septet Traditional music and dance Documentation."
• Peoples.org. "".
• Yizuren.com. "Huge string instruments of the Yi".
• Vermander, B. "The Yis of Liangshan Prefecture".
• Vermander, B. "Nuosu Religion: Rituals, Agents and Belief".
• Ayi Bamo. "The Bi-mox in The Liangshan Yi Society."
• Perspectives on the Yi of Southwest China. Edited by Stevan Harrell.
• Map share of ethnic by county of China