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Encyclopædia Britannica

The Encyclopædia Britannica (Latin for "British Encyclopædia") is a general knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It is published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; the company has existed since the 18th century, although it has changed ownership various times through the centuries. The encyclopaedia is maintained by about 100 full-time editors and more than 4,000 contributors. The 2010 version of the 15th edition, which spans 32 volumes[1] and 32,640 pages, was the last printed edition. Since 2016, it has been published exclusively as an online encyclopaedia.

Encyclopædia Britannica
Britannica's thistle logo
AuthorAs of 2008, 4,411 named contributors
IllustratorSeveral; initial engravings by Andrew Bell
Country
LanguageBritish English
SubjectGeneral
Published
PublisherEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Publication date
1768–2010 (printed version)
Media type32 volumes, hardbound (15th edition, 2010); after 2012 unavailable in print
Pages32,640 (15th edition, 2010)
ISBN978-1-59339-292-5
031
LC ClassAE5 .E363 2007
TextEncyclopædia Britannica at Wikisource
Websitewww.britannica.com

Printed for 244 years, the Britannica was the longest running in-print encyclopaedia in the English language. It was first published between 1768 and 1771 in the Scottish capital of Edinburgh, as three volumes. The encyclopaedia grew in size: the second edition was 10 volumes,[2] and by its fourth edition (1801–1810) it had expanded to 20 volumes.[3] Its rising stature as a scholarly work helped recruit eminent contributors, and the 9th (1875–1889) and 11th editions (1911) are landmark encyclopaedias for scholarship and literary style. Starting with the 11th edition and following its acquisition by an American firm, the Britannica shortened and simplified articles to broaden its appeal to the North American market. In 1933, the Britannica became the first encyclopaedia to adopt "continuous revision", in which the encyclopaedia is continually reprinted, with every article updated on a schedule.[citation needed] In March 2012, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced it would no longer publish printed editions and would focus instead on the online version.[4]

The 15th edition has a three-part structure: a 12-volume Micropædia of short articles (generally fewer than 750 words), a 17-volume Macropædia of long articles (two to 310 pages), and a single Propædia volume to give a hierarchical outline of knowledge. The Micropædia was meant for quick fact-checking and as a guide to the Macropædia; readers are advised to study the Propædia outline to understand a subject's context and to find more detailed articles. Over 70 years, the size of the Britannica has remained steady, with about 40 million words on half a million topics. Though published in the United States since 1901, the Britannica has for the most part maintained British English spelling.

Present status

Print version

 
15th edition of the Britannica. The initial volume with the green spine is the Propædia; the red-spined and black-spined volumes are the Micropædia and the Macropædia, respectively. The last three volumes are the 2002 Book of the Year (black spine) and the two-volume index (cyan spine).

Since 1985, the Britannica had four parts: the Micropædia, the Macropædia, the Propædia, and a two-volume index. The Britannica's articles are found in the Micro- and Macropædia, which encompass 12 and 17 volumes, respectively, each volume having roughly one thousand pages. The 2007 Macropædia has 699 in-depth articles, ranging in length from 2 to 310 pages and having references and named contributors. In contrast, the 2007 Micropædia has roughly 65,000 articles, the vast majority (about 97%) of which contain fewer than 750 words, no references, and no named contributors.[5] The Micropædia articles are intended for quick fact-checking and to help in finding more thorough information in the Macropædia. The Macropædia articles are meant both as authoritative, well-written articles on their subjects and as storehouses of information not covered elsewhere.[6] The longest article (310 pages) is on the United States, and resulted from the merger of the articles on the individual states. A 2013 "Global Edition" of Britannica contained approximately forty thousand articles.[7]

Information can be found in the Britannica by following the cross-references in the Micropædia and Macropædia; however, these are sparse, averaging one cross-reference per page.[8] Hence, readers are recommended to consult instead the alphabetical index or the Propædia, which organizes the Britannica's contents by topic.[9]

The core of the Propædia is its "Outline of Knowledge", which aims to provide a logical framework for all human knowledge.[10] Accordingly, the Outline is consulted by the Britannica's editors to decide which articles should be included in the Micro- and Macropædia.[10] The Outline is also intended to be a study guide, to put subjects in their proper perspective, and to suggest a series of Britannica articles for the student wishing to learn a topic in depth.[10] However, libraries have found that it is scarcely used, and reviewers have recommended that it be dropped from the encyclopaedia.[11] The Propædia also has color transparencies of human anatomy and several appendices listing the staff members, advisors, and contributors to all three parts of the Britannica.

Taken together, the Micropædia and Macropædia comprise roughly 40 million words and 24,000 images.[9] The two-volume index has 2,350 pages, listing the 228,274 topics covered in the Britannica, together with 474,675 subentries under those topics.[8] The Britannica generally prefers British spelling over American;[8] for example, it uses colour (not color), centre (not center), and encyclopaedia (not encyclopedia). However, there are exceptions to this rule, such as defense rather than defence.[12] Common alternative spellings are provided with cross-references such as "Color: see Colour."

Since 1936, the articles of the Britannica have been revised on a regular schedule, with at least 10% of them considered for revision each year.[8][13] According to one Britannica website, 46% of its articles were revised over the past three years;[14] however, according to another Britannica website, only 35% of the articles were revised.[15]

The alphabetization of articles in the Micropædia and Macropædia follows strict rules.[16] Diacritical marks and non-English letters are ignored, while numerical entries such as "1812, War of" are alphabetized as if the number had been written out ("Eighteen-twelve, War of"). Articles with identical names are ordered first by persons, then by places, then by things. Rulers with identical names are organized first alphabetically by country and then by chronology; thus, Charles III of France precedes Charles I of England, listed in Britannica as the ruler of Great Britain and Ireland. (That is, they are alphabetized as if their titles were "Charles, France, 3" and "Charles, Great Britain and Ireland, 1".) Similarly, places that share names are organized alphabetically by country, then by ever-smaller political divisions.

In March 2012, the company announced that the 2010 edition would be the last printed version. This was announced as a move by the company to adapt to the times and focus on its future using digital distribution.[17] The peak year for the printed encyclopaedia was 1990 when 120,000 sets were sold, but it dropped to 40,000 in 1996.[18] 12,000 sets of the 2010 edition were printed, of which 8,000 had been sold as of 2012.[19] By late April 2012, the remaining copies of the 2010 edition had sold out at Britannica's online store. As of 2016, a replica of Britannica's 1768 first edition is sold on the online store.[20]

Related printed material

Britannica Junior was first published in 1934 as 12 volumes. It was expanded to 15 volumes in 1947, and renamed Britannica Junior Encyclopædia in 1963.[21] It was taken off the market after the 1984 printing.

 
Children's Britannica

A British Children's Britannica edited by John Armitage was issued in London in 1960.[22] Its contents were determined largely by the eleven-plus standardized tests given in Britain.[23] Britannica introduced the Children's Britannica to the US market in 1988, aimed at ages seven to 14.

In 1961, a 16 volume Young Children's Encyclopaedia was issued for children just learning to read.[23]

My First Britannica is aimed at children ages six to 12, and the Britannica Discovery Library is for children aged three to six (issued 1974 to 1991).[24]

There have been, and are, several abridged Britannica encyclopaedias. The single-volume Britannica Concise Encyclopædia has 28,000 short articles condensing the larger 32-volume Britannica;[25] there are authorized translations in languages such as Chinese[26] and Vietnamese.[27][28] Compton's by Britannica, first published in 2007, incorporating the former Compton's Encyclopedia, is aimed at 10- to 17-year-olds and consists of 26 volumes and 11,000 pages.[29]

Since 1938, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has published annually a Book of the Year covering the past year's events. A given edition of the Book of the Year is named in terms of the year of its publication, though the edition actually covers the events of the previous year. The company also publishes several specialized reference works, such as Shakespeare: The Essential Guide to the Life and Works of the Bard (Wiley, 2006).

Optical disc, online, and mobile versions

The Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite 2012 DVD contains over 100,000 articles.[30] This includes regular Britannica articles, as well as others drawn from the Britannica Student Encyclopædia, and the Britannica Elementary Encyclopædia. The package includes a range of supplementary content including maps, videos, sound clips, animations and web links. It also offers study tools and dictionary and thesaurus entries from Merriam-Webster.

Britannica Online is a website with more than 120,000 articles and is updated regularly.[31] It has daily features, updates and links to news reports from The New York Times and the BBC. As of 2009, roughly 60% of Encyclopædia Britannica's revenue came from online operations, of which around 15% came from subscriptions to the consumer version of the websites.[32] As of 2006, subscriptions were available on a yearly, monthly or weekly basis.[33] Special subscription plans are offered to schools, colleges and libraries; such institutional subscribers constitute an important part of Britannica's business. Beginning in early 2007, the Britannica made articles freely available if they are hyperlinked from an external site. Non-subscribers are served pop-ups and advertising.[34]

On 20 February 2007, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced that it was working with mobile phone search company AskMeNow to launch a mobile encyclopaedia.[35] Users will be able to send a question via text message, and AskMeNow will search Britannica's 28,000-article concise encyclopaedia to return an answer to the query. Daily topical features sent directly to users' mobile phones are also planned.

On 3 June 2008, an initiative to facilitate collaboration between online expert and amateur scholarly contributors for Britannica's online content (in the spirit of a wiki), with editorial oversight from Britannica staff, was announced.[36][37] Approved contributions would be credited,[38] though contributing automatically grants Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. perpetual, irrevocable license to those contributions.[39]

On 22 January 2009, Britannica's president, Jorge Cauz, announced that the company would be accepting edits and additions to the online Britannica website from the public. The published edition of the encyclopaedia will not be affected by the changes.[40] Individuals wishing to edit the Britannica website will have to register under their real name and address prior to editing or submitting their content.[41] All edits submitted will be reviewed and checked and will have to be approved by the encyclopaedia's professional staff.[41] Contributions from non-academic users will sit in a separate section from the expert-generated Britannica content,[42] as will content submitted by non-Britannica scholars.[43] Articles written by users, if vetted and approved, will also only be available in a special section of the website, separate from the professional articles.[40][43] Official Britannica material would carry a "Britannica Checked" stamp, to distinguish it from the user-generated content.[44]

On 14 September 2010, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced a partnership with mobile phone development company Concentric Sky to launch a series of iPhone products aimed at the K-12 market.[45] On 20 July 2011, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced that Concentric Sky had ported the Britannica Kids product line to Intel's Intel Atom-based Netbooks[46][47] and on 26 October 2011 that it had launched its encyclopedia as an iPad app.[48] In 2010, Britannica released Britannica ImageQuest, a database of images.[49]

In March 2012, it was announced that the company would cease printing the encyclopaedia set, and that it would focus more on its online version.[50][51]

On 7 June 2018, Britannica released a Google Chrome extension, Britannica Insights, which shows snippets of information from Britannica Online in a sidebar for Google Search results.[52] The Britannica sidebar does not replace Google's sidebar and is instead placed above Google's sidebar.[52] Britannica Insights was also available as a Firefox extension but this was taken down due to a code review issue.[53]

Personnel and management

Contributors

The print version of the Britannica has 4,411 contributors, many eminent in their fields, such as Nobel laureate economist Milton Friedman, astronomer Carl Sagan, and surgeon Michael DeBakey.[54] Roughly a quarter of the contributors are deceased, some as long ago as 1947 (Alfred North Whitehead), while another quarter are retired or emeritus. Most (approximately 98%[citation needed]) contribute to only a single article; however, 64 contributed to three articles, 23 contributed to four articles, 10 contributed to five articles, and 8 contributed to more than five articles. An exceptionally prolific contributor is Christine Sutton of the University of Oxford, who contributed 24 articles on particle physics.[55]

While Britannica's authors have included writers such as Albert Einstein,[56] Marie Curie,[57] and Leon Trotsky,[56] as well as notable independent encyclopaedists such as Isaac Asimov,[58] some have been criticized for lack of expertise. In 1911 the historian George L. Burr wrote:

With a temerity almost appalling, [the Britannica contributor, Mr. Philips] ranges over nearly the whole field of European history, political, social, ecclesiastical... The grievance is that [this work] lacks authority. This, too—this reliance on editorial energy instead of on ripe special learning—may, alas, be also counted an "Americanizing": for certainly nothing has so cheapened the scholarship of our American encyclopaedias.[59]

Staff

 
Portrait of Thomas Spencer Baynes, editor of the 9th edition. Painted in 1888, it now hangs in the Senate Room of the University of St Andrews in Scotland.

As of 2007 in the fifteenth edition of Britannica, Dale Hoiberg, a sinologist, was listed as Britannica's Senior Vice President and editor-in-chief.[60] Among his predecessors as editors-in-chief were Hugh Chisholm (1902–1924), James Louis Garvin (1926–1932), Franklin Henry Hooper (1932–1938),[61] Walter Yust (1938–1960), Harry Ashmore (1960–1963), Warren E. Preece (1964–1968, 1969–1975), Sir William Haley (1968–1969), Philip W. Goetz (1979–1991),[6] and Robert McHenry (1992–1997).[62] As of 2007 Anita Wolff was listed as the Deputy Editor and Theodore Pappas as Executive Editor.[60] Prior Executive Editors include John V. Dodge (1950–1964) and Philip W. Goetz.

Paul T. Armstrong remains the longest working employee of Encyclopædia Britannica. He began his career there in 1934, eventually earning the positions of treasurer, vice president, and chief financial officer in his 58 years with the company, before retiring in 1992.[63]

The 2007 editorial staff of the Britannica included five Senior Editors and nine Associate Editors, supervised by Dale Hoiberg and four others. The editorial staff helped to write the articles of the Micropædia and some sections of the Macropædia.[64]

Editorial advisors

The Britannica has an editorial board of advisors, which includes 12 distinguished scholars:[65][66] non-fiction author Nicholas Carr, religion scholar Wendy Doniger, political economist Benjamin M. Friedman, Council on Foreign Relations President Emeritus Leslie H. Gelb, computer scientist David Gelernter, Physics Nobel laureate Murray Gell-Mann, Carnegie Corporation of New York President Vartan Gregorian, philosopher Thomas Nagel, cognitive scientist Donald Norman, musicologist Don Michael Randel, Stewart Sutherland, Baron Sutherland of Houndwood, President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and cultural anthropologist Michael Wesch.

The Propædia and its Outline of Knowledge were produced by dozens of editorial advisors under the direction of Mortimer J. Adler.[67] Roughly half of these advisors have since died, including some of the Outline's chief architects – Rene Dubos (d. 1982), Loren Eiseley (d. 1977), Harold D. Lasswell (d. 1978), Mark Van Doren (d. 1972), Peter Ritchie Calder (d. 1982) and Mortimer J. Adler (d. 2001). The Propædia also lists just under 4,000 advisors who were consulted for the unsigned Micropædia articles.[68]

Corporate structure

In January 1996, the Britannica was purchased from the Benton Foundation by billionaire Swiss financier Jacqui Safra,[69] who serves as its current chair of the board. In 1997, Don Yannias, a long-time associate and investment advisor of Safra, became CEO of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.[70] In 1999, a new company, Britannica.com Inc., was created to develop digital versions of the Britannica; Yannias assumed the role of CEO in the new company, while his former position at the parent company remained vacant for two years. Yannias' tenure at Britannica.com Inc. was marked by missteps, considerable lay-offs, and financial losses.[71] In 2001, Yannias was replaced by Ilan Yeshua, who reunited the leadership of the two companies.[72] Yannias later returned to investment management, but remains on the Britannica's Board of Directors.

In 2003, former management consultant Jorge Aguilar-Cauz was appointed President of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Cauz is the senior executive and reports directly to the Britannica's Board of Directors. Cauz has been pursuing alliances with other companies and extending the Britannica brand to new educational and reference products, continuing the strategy pioneered by former CEO Elkan Harrison Powell in the mid-1930s.[73]

Under Safra's ownership, the company has experienced financial difficulties and has responded by reducing the price of its products and implementing drastic cost cuts. According to a 2003 report in the New York Post, the Britannica management has eliminated employee 401(k) accounts and encouraged the use of free images. These changes have had negative impacts, as freelance contributors have waited up to six months for checks and the Britannica staff have gone years without pay rises.[74]

In the fall of 2017, Karthik Krishnan was appointed global chief executive officer of the Encyclopædia Britannica Group. Krishnan brought a varied perspective to the role based on several high-level positions in digital media, including RELX (formerly known as Reed Elsevier, and one of the constituents of the FTSE 100 Index) and Rodale, in which he was responsible for "driving business and cultural transformation and accelerating growth".[75]

Taking the reins of the company as it was preparing to mark its 250th anniversary and define the next phase of its digital strategy for consumers and K-12 schools, Krishnan launched a series of new initiatives in his first year.

First was Britannica Insights,[76] a free, downloadable software extension to the Google Chrome browser that served up edited, fact-checked Britannica information with queries on search engines such as Google, Yahoo, and Bing. Its purpose, the company said, was to "provide trusted, verified information" in conjunction with search results that were thought to be increasingly unreliable in the era of misinformation and "fake news."

The product was quickly followed by Britannica School Insights, which provided similar content for subscribers to Britannica's online classroom solutions, and a partnership with YouTube[77] in which verified Britannica content appeared on the site as an antidote to user-generated video content that could be false or misleading.  

Krishnan, himself an educator at New York University's Stern School of Business, believes in the "transformative power of education"[78] and set steering the company toward solidifying its place among leaders in educational technology and supplemental curriculum. Krishnan aimed at providing more useful and relevant solutions to customer needs, extending and renewing Britannica's historical emphasis on "Utility",[79] which had been the watchword of its first edition in 1768.

Krishnan also is active in civic affairs, with organizations such as the Urban Enterprise Initiative and Urban Upbound, whose board he serves on.

Competition

As the Britannica is a general encyclopaedia, it does not seek to compete with specialized encyclopaedias such as the Encyclopaedia of Mathematics or the Dictionary of the Middle Ages, which can devote much more space to their chosen topics. In its first years, the Britannica's main competitor was the general encyclopaedia of Ephraim Chambers and, soon thereafter, Rees's Cyclopædia and Coleridge's Encyclopædia Metropolitana. In the 20th century, successful competitors included Collier's Encyclopedia, the Encyclopedia Americana, and the World Book Encyclopedia. Nevertheless, from the 9th edition onwards, the Britannica was widely considered to have the greatest authority of any general English-language encyclopaedia,[80] especially because of its broad coverage and eminent authors.[6][8] The print version of the Britannica was significantly more expensive than its competitors.[6][8]

Since the early 1990s, the Britannica has faced new challenges from digital information sources. The Internet, facilitated by the development of Web search engines, has grown into a common source of information for many people, and provides easy access to reliable original sources and expert opinions, thanks in part to initiatives such as Google Books, MIT's release of its educational materials and the open PubMed Central library of the National Library of Medicine.[81][82] In general, the Internet tends to provide more current coverage than print media, due to the ease with which material on the Internet can be updated.[83] In rapidly changing fields such as science, technology, politics, culture and modern history, the Britannica has struggled to stay up to date, a problem first analysed systematically by its former editor Walter Yust.[84] Eventually, the Britannica turned to focus more on its online edition.[85]

Print encyclopaedias

The Encyclopædia Britannica has been compared with other print encyclopaedias, both qualitatively and quantitatively.[5][6][8] A well-known comparison is that of Kenneth Kister, who gave a qualitative and quantitative comparison of the 1993 Britannica with two comparable encyclopaedias, Collier's Encyclopedia and the Encyclopedia Americana.[6] For the quantitative analysis, ten articles were selected at random—circumcision, Charles Drew, Galileo, Philip Glass, heart disease, IQ, panda bear, sexual harassment, Shroud of Turin and Uzbekistan—and letter grades of A–D or F were awarded in four categories: coverage, accuracy, clarity, and recency. In all four categories and for all three encyclopaedias, the four average grades fell between B− and B+, chiefly because none of the encyclopaedias had an article on sexual harassment in 1994. In the accuracy category, the Britannica received one "D" and seven "A"s, Encyclopedia Americana received eight "A"s, and Collier's received one "D" and seven "A"s; thus, Britannica received an average score of 92% for accuracy to Americana's 95% and Collier's 92%. In the timeliness category, Britannica averaged an 86% to Americana's 90% and Collier's 85%.[citation needed]

In 2013, the President of Encyclopædia Britannica announced that after 244 years, the encyclopedia would cease print production and all future editions would be entirely digital.[86]

Digital encyclopaedias on optical media

The most notable competitor of the Britannica among CD/DVD-ROM digital encyclopaedias was Encarta,[87] now discontinued, a modern, multimedia encyclopaedia that incorporated three print encyclopaedias: Funk & Wagnalls, Collier's and the New Merit Scholar's Encyclopedia. Encarta was the top-selling multimedia encyclopaedia, based on total US retail sales from January 2000 to February 2006.[88] Both occupied the same price range, with the 2007 Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate CD or DVD costing US$40–50[89][90] and the Microsoft Encarta Premium 2007 DVD costing US$45.[91] The Britannica contains 100,000 articles and Merriam-Webster's Dictionary and Thesaurus (US only), and offers Primary and Secondary School editions.[90] Encarta contained 66,000 articles, a user-friendly Visual Browser, interactive maps, math, language and homework tools, a US and UK dictionary, and a youth edition.[91] Like Encarta, the Britannica has been criticized for being biased towards United States audiences; the United Kingdom-related articles are updated less often, maps of the United States are more detailed than those of other countries, and it lacks a UK dictionary.[87] Like the Britannica, Encarta was available online by subscription, although some content could be accessed free.[92]

Wikipedia

The main online alternative to Britannica is Wikipedia.[93][94][95] The key differences between the two lie in accessibility; the model of participation they bring to an encyclopedic project; their respective style sheets and editorial policies; relative ages; the number of subjects treated; the number of languages in which articles are written and made available; and their underlying economic models: unlike Britannica, Wikipedia is a not-for-profit and is not connected with traditional profit- and contract-based publishing distribution networks.

The 699 printed Macropædia articles are generally written by identified contributors, and the roughly 65,000 printed Micropædia articles are the work of the editorial staff and identified outside consultants. Thus, a Britannica article either has known authorship or a set of possible authors (the editorial staff). With the exception of the editorial staff, most of the Britannica's contributors are experts in their field—some are Nobel laureates.[54] By contrast, the articles of Wikipedia are written by people of unknown degrees of expertise: most do not claim any particular expertise, and of those who do, many are anonymous and have no verifiable credentials.[96] It is for this lack of institutional vetting, or certification, that former Britannica editor-in-chief Robert McHenry notes his belief that Wikipedia cannot hope to rival the Britannica in accuracy.[97]

In 2005, the journal Nature chose articles from both websites in a wide range of science topics and sent them to what it called "relevant" field experts for peer review. The experts then compared the competing articles—one from each site on a given topic—side by side but were not told which article came from which site. Nature got back 42 usable reviews.

In the end, the journal found just eight serious errors, such as general misunderstandings of vital concepts: four from each site. It also discovered many factual errors, omissions or misleading statements: 162 in Wikipedia and 123 in Britannica, an average of 3.86 mistakes per article for Wikipedia and 2.92 for Britannica.[96][98]

Although Britannica was revealed as the more accurate encyclopedia, with fewer errors, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. in its rebuttal called Nature's study flawed and misleading[99] and called for a "prompt" retraction. It noted that two of the articles in the study were taken from a Britannica yearbook and not the encyclopaedia, and another two were from Compton's Encyclopedia (called the Britannica Student Encyclopedia on the company's website).

Nature defended its story and declined to retract, stating that, as it was comparing Wikipedia with the web version of Britannica, it used whatever relevant material was available on Britannica's website.[100] Interviewed in February 2009, the managing director of Britannica UK said:

Wikipedia is a fun site to use and has a lot of interesting entries on there, but their approach wouldn't work for Encyclopædia Britannica. My job is to create more awareness of our very different approaches to publishing in the public mind. They're a chisel, we're a drill, and you need to have the correct tool for the job.[32]

In a January 2016 press release, Britannica called Wikipedia "an impressive achievement."[101]

Critical and popular assessments

Reputation

Since the 3rd edition, the Britannica has enjoyed a popular and critical reputation for general excellence.[5][6][8] The 3rd and the 9th editions were pirated for sale in the United States,[102] beginning with Dobson's Encyclopaedia.[103] On the release of the 14th edition, Time magazine dubbed the Britannica the "Patriarch of the Library".[104] In a related advertisement, naturalist William Beebe was quoted as saying that the Britannica was "beyond comparison because there is no competitor."[105] References to the Britannica can be found throughout English literature, most notably in one of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's favourite Sherlock Holmes stories, "The Red-Headed League". The tale was highlighted by the Lord Mayor of London, Gilbert Inglefield, at the bicentennial of the Britannica.[106]

The Britannica has a reputation for summarising knowledge.[80] To further their education, some people have devoted themselves to reading the entire Britannica, taking anywhere from three to 22 years to do so.[102] When Fat'h Ali became the Shah of Persia in 1797, he was given a set of the Britannica's 3rd edition, which he read completely; after this feat, he extended his royal title to include "Most Formidable Lord and Master of the Encyclopædia Britannica".[106] Writer George Bernard Shaw claimed to have read the complete 9th edition—except for the science articles[102]—and Richard Evelyn Byrd took the Britannica as reading material for his five-month stay at the South Pole in 1934, while Philip Beaver read it during a sailing expedition. More recently, A.J. Jacobs, an editor at Esquire magazine, read the entire 2002 version of the 15th edition, describing his experiences in the well-received 2004 book, The Know-It-All: One Man's Humble Quest to Become the Smartest Person in the World. Only two people are known to have read two independent editions: the author C. S. Forester[102] and Amos Urban Shirk, an American businessman who read the 11th and 14th editions, devoting roughly three hours per night for four and a half years to read the 11th.[107]

Awards

The CD/DVD-ROM version of the Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite, received the 2004 Distinguished Achievement Award from the Association of Educational Publishers.[108] On 15 July 2009, Encyclopædia Britannica was awarded a spot as one of "Top Ten Superbrands in the UK" by a panel of more than 2,000 independent reviewers, as reported by the BBC.[109]

Coverage of topics

Topics are chosen in part by reference to the Propædia "Outline of Knowledge".[10] The bulk of the Britannica is devoted to geography (26% of the Macropædia), biography (14%), biology and medicine (11%), literature (7%), physics and astronomy (6%), religion (5%), art (4%), Western philosophy (4%), and law (3%).[6] A complementary study of the Micropædia found that geography accounted for 25% of articles, science 18%, social sciences 17%, biography 17%, and all other humanities 25%.[8] Writing in 1992, one reviewer judged that the "range, depth, and catholicity of coverage [of the Britannica] are unsurpassed by any other general Encyclopaedia."[110]

The Britannica does not cover topics in equivalent detail; for example, the whole of Buddhism and most other religions is covered in a single Macropædia article, whereas 14 articles are devoted to Christianity, comprising nearly half of all religion articles.[111] However, the Britannica has been lauded as the least biased of general Encyclopaedias marketed to Western readers[6] and praised for its biographies of important women of all eras.[8]

It can be stated without fear of contradiction that the 15th edition of the Britannica accords non-Western cultural, social, and scientific developments more notice than any general English-language encyclopedia currently on the market.

— Kenneth Kister, in Kister's Best Encyclopedias (1994)

Criticism of editorial decisions

On rare occasions, the Britannica has been criticized for its editorial choices. Given its roughly constant size, the encyclopaedia has needed to reduce or eliminate some topics to accommodate others, resulting in controversial decisions. The initial 15th edition (1974–1985) was faulted for having reduced or eliminated coverage of children's literature, military decorations, and the French poet Joachim du Bellay; editorial mistakes were also alleged, such as inconsistent sorting of Japanese biographies.[112] Its elimination of the index was condemned, as was the apparently arbitrary division of articles into the Micropædia and Macropædia.[6][113] Summing up, one critic called the initial 15th edition a "qualified failure...[that] cares more for juggling its format than for preserving."[112] More recently, reviewers from the American Library Association were surprised to find that most educational articles had been eliminated from the 1992 Macropædia, along with the article on psychology.[11]

Some very few Britannica-appointed contributors are mistaken. A notorious instance from the Britannica's early years is the rejection of Newtonian gravity by George Gleig, the chief editor of the 3rd edition (1788–1797), who wrote that gravity was caused by the classical element of fire.[102] The Britannica has also staunchly defended a scientific approach to cultural topics, as it did with William Robertson Smith's articles on religion in the 9th edition, particularly his article stating that the Bible was not historically accurate (1875).[102]

Other criticisms

The Britannica has received criticism, especially as editions become outdated. It is expensive to produce a completely new edition of the Britannica,[a] and its editors delay for as long as fiscally sensible (usually about 25 years).[13] For example, despite continuous revision, the 14th edition became outdated after 35 years (1929–1964). When American physicist Harvey Einbinder detailed its failings in his 1964 book, The Myth of the Britannica,[114] the encyclopaedia was provoked to produce the 15th edition, which required 10 years of work.[6] It is still difficult to keep the Britannica current; one recent critic writes, "it is not difficult to find articles that are out-of-date or in need of revision", noting that the longer Macropædia articles are more likely to be outdated than the shorter Micropædia articles.[6] Information in the Micropædia is sometimes inconsistent with the corresponding Macropædia article(s), mainly because of the failure to update one or the other.[5][8] The bibliographies of the Macropædia articles have been criticized for being more out-of-date than the articles themselves.[5][6][8]

In 2005, 12-year-old schoolboy Lucian George found several inaccuracies in the Britannica's entries on Poland and wildlife in Eastern Europe.[115]

In 2010, an inaccurate entry about the Irish Civil War was discussed in the Irish press following a decision of the Department of Education and Science to pay for online access.[116][117]

Writing about the 3rd edition (1788–1797), Britannica's chief editor George Gleig observed that "perfection seems to be incompatible with the nature of works constructed on such a plan, and embracing such a variety of subjects."[118] In March 2006, the Britannica wrote, "we in no way mean to imply that Britannica is error-free; we have never made such a claim"[99] (although in 1962 Britannica's sales department famously said of the 14th edition "It is truth. It is unquestionable fact.")[119] The sentiment is expressed by its original editor, William Smellie:

With regard to errors in general, whether falling under the denomination of mental, typographical or accidental, we are conscious of being able to point out a greater number than any critic whatever. Men who are acquainted with the innumerable difficulties attending the execution of a work of such an extensive nature will make proper allowances. To these we appeal, and shall rest satisfied with the judgment they pronounce.[120]

However, Jorge Cauz (president of Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.) asserted in 2012 that "Britannica [...] will always be factually correct."[1]

History

 
Title page of the first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, 1771

Past owners have included, in chronological order, the Edinburgh, Scotland printers Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, Scottish bookseller Archibald Constable, Scottish publisher A & C Black, Horace Everett Hooper, Sears Roebuck and William Benton.

The present owner of Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. is Jacqui Safra, a Brazilian billionaire and actor. Recent advances in information technology and the rise of electronic encyclopaedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite, Encarta and Wikipedia have reduced the demand for print encyclopaedias.[121] To remain competitive, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has stressed the reputation of the Britannica, reduced its price and production costs, and developed electronic versions on CD-ROM, DVD, and the World Wide Web. Since the early 1930s, the company has promoted spin-off reference works.[13]

Editions

The Britannica has been issued in 15 editions, with multi-volume supplements to the 3rd and 4th editions (see the Table below). The 5th and 6th editions were reprints of the 4th, and the 10th edition was only a supplement to the 9th, just as the 12th and 13th editions were supplements to the 11th. The 15th underwent massive reorganization in 1985, but the updated, current version is still known as the 15th. The 14th and 15th editions were edited every year throughout their runs, so that later printings of each were entirely different from early ones.

Throughout history, the Britannica has had two aims: to be an excellent reference book, and to provide educational material.[122] In 1974, the 15th edition adopted a third goal: to systematize all human knowledge.[10] The history of the Britannica can be divided into five eras, punctuated by changes in management, or reorganization of the dictionary.

1768–1826

 
The early 19th-century editions of Encyclopædia Britannica included influential, original research such as Thomas Young's article on Egypt, which included the translation of the hieroglyphs on the Rosetta Stone (pictured).

In the first era (1st–6th editions, 1768–1826), the Britannica was managed and published by its founders, Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, by Archibald Constable, and by others. The Britannica was first published between December 1768[123] and 1771 in Edinburgh as the Encyclopædia Britannica, or, A Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, compiled upon a New Plan. In part, it was conceived in reaction to the French Encyclopédie of Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (published 1751–72), which had been inspired by Chambers's Cyclopaedia (first edition 1728). It went on sale 10 December.[124]

The Britannica of this period was primarily a Scottish enterprise, and it is one of the most enduring legacies of the Scottish Enlightenment.[125] In this era, the Britannica moved from being a three-volume set (1st edition) compiled by one young editor—William Smellie[126]—to a 20-volume set written by numerous authorities.[127] Several other encyclopaedias competed throughout this period, among them editions of Abraham Rees's Cyclopædia and Coleridge's Encyclopædia Metropolitana and David Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopædia.

1827–1901

During the second era (7th–9th editions, 1827–1901), the Britannica was managed by the Edinburgh publishing firm A & C Black. Although some contributors were again recruited through friendships of the chief editors, notably Macvey Napier, others were attracted by the Britannica's reputation. The contributors often came from other countries and included the world's most respected authorities in their fields. A general index of all articles was included for the first time in the 7th edition, a practice maintained until 1974.

Production of the 9th edition was overseen by Thomas Spencer Baynes, the first English-born editor-in-chief. Dubbed the "Scholar's Edition", the 9th edition is the most scholarly of all Britannicas.[6][102] After 1880, Baynes was assisted by William Robertson Smith.[128] No biographies of living persons were included.[129] James Clerk Maxwell and Thomas Huxley were special advisors on science.[130] However, by the close of the 19th century, the 9th edition was outdated, and the Britannica faced financial difficulties.

1901–1973

 
US advertisement for the 11th edition from the May 1913 issue of National Geographic Magazine

In the third era (10th–14th editions, 1901–1973), the Britannica was managed by American businessmen who introduced direct marketing and door-to-door sales. The American owners gradually simplified articles, making them less scholarly for a mass market. The 10th edition was an eleven-volume supplement (including one each of maps and an index) to the 9th, numbered as volumes 25–35, but the 11th edition was a completely new work, and is still praised for excellence; its owner, Horace Hooper, lavished enormous effort on its perfection.[102]

When Hooper fell into financial difficulties, the Britannica was managed by Sears Roebuck for 18 years (1920–1923, 1928–1943). In 1932, the vice-president of Sears, Elkan Harrison Powell, assumed presidency of the Britannica; in 1936, he began the policy of continuous revision. This was a departure from earlier practice, in which the articles were not changed until a new edition was produced, at roughly 25-year intervals, some articles unchanged from earlier editions.[13] Powell developed new educational products that built upon the Britannica's reputation.

 
A wooden shipping crate for the 14th edition of the Britannica

In 1943, Sears donated the Encyclopædia Britannica to the University of Chicago. William Benton, then a vice president of the university, provided the working capital for its operation. The stock was divided between Benton and the university, with the university holding an option on the stock.[131] Benton became chairman of the board and managed the Britannica until his death in 1973.[132] Benton set up the Benton Foundation, which managed the Britannica until 1996, and whose sole beneficiary was the University of Chicago.[133] In 1968, near the end of this era, the Britannica celebrated its bicentennial.

1974–1994

In the fourth era (1974–94), the Britannica introduced its 15th edition, which was reorganized into three parts: the Micropædia, the Macropædia, and the Propædia. Under Mortimer J. Adler (member of the Board of Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica since its inception in 1949, and its chair from 1974; director of editorial planning for the 15th edition of Britannica from 1965),[134] the Britannica sought not only to be a good reference work and educational tool, but to systematize all human knowledge. The absence of a separate index and the grouping of articles into parallel encyclopaedias (the Micro- and Macropædia) provoked a "firestorm of criticism" of the initial 15th edition.[6][113] In response, the 15th edition was completely reorganized and indexed for a re-release in 1985. This second version of the 15th edition continued to be published and revised until the 2010 print version. The official title of the 15th edition is the New Encyclopædia Britannica, although it has also been promoted as Britannica 3.[6]

On 9 March 1976 the US Federal Trade Commission entered an opinion and order enjoining Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. from using: a) deceptive advertising practices in recruiting sales agents and obtaining sales leads, and b) deceptive sales practices in the door-to-door presentations of its sales agents.[135]

1994–present

 
Advertisement for the 9th edition (1898)

In the fifth era (1994–present), digital versions have been developed and released on optical media and online. In 1996, the Britannica was bought by Jacqui Safra at well below its estimated value, owing to the company's financial difficulties. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. split in 1999. One part retained the company name and developed the print version, and the other, Britannica.com Inc., developed digital versions. Since 2001, the two companies have shared a CEO, Ilan Yeshua, who has continued Powell's strategy of introducing new products with the Britannica name. In March 2012, Britannica's president, Jorge Cauz, announced that it would not produce any new print editions of the encyclopaedia, with the 2010 15th edition being the last. The company will focus only on the online edition and other educational tools.[1][136]

Britannica's final print edition was in 2010, a 32-volume set.[1] Britannica Global Edition was also printed in 2010, containing 30 volumes and 18,251 pages, with 8,500 photographs, maps, flags, and illustrations in smaller "compact" volumes, as well as over 40,000 articles written by scholars from across the world, including Nobel Prize winners. Unlike the 15th edition, it did not contain Macro- and Micropædia sections, but ran A through Z as all editions up through the 14th had. The following is Britannica's description of the work:[7]

The editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, the world standard in reference since 1768, present the Britannica Global Edition. Developed specifically to provide comprehensive and global coverage of the world around us, this unique product contains thousands of timely, relevant, and essential articles drawn from the Encyclopædia Britannica itself, as well as from the Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, the Britannica Encyclopedia of World Religions, and Compton's by Britannica. Written by international experts and scholars, the articles in this collection reflect the standards that have been the hallmark of the leading English-language encyclopedia for over 240 years.

In 2020, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. released the Britannica All New Children's Encyclopedia: What We Know and What We Don't, an encyclopedia aimed primarily at younger readers, covering major topics. The encyclopedia was widely praised for bringing back the print format. It was Britannica's first encyclopedia for children since 1984.[137][138][139]

Dedications

The Britannica was dedicated to the reigning British monarch from 1788 to 1901 and then, upon its sale to an American partnership, to the British monarch and the President of the United States.[6] Thus, the 11th edition is "dedicated by Permission to His Majesty George the Fifth, King of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, Emperor of India, and to William Howard Taft, President of the United States of America."[140] The order of the dedications has changed with the relative power of the United States and Britain, and with relative sales; the 1954 version of the 14th edition is "Dedicated by Permission to the Heads of the Two English-Speaking Peoples, Dwight David Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, and Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth the Second."[84] Consistent with this tradition, the 2007 version of the current 15th edition was "dedicated by permission to the current President of the United States of America, George W. Bush, and Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth II",[141] while the 2010 version of the current 15th edition is "dedicated by permission to Barack Obama, President of the United States of America, and Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II."[142]

Edition summary

Edition / supplement Publication years Size Sales Chief editor(s) Notes
1st 1768–1771 3 volumes, 2,391 pages,[b] 160 plates 3,000[c] William Smellie Largely the work of one editor, Smellie; An estimated 3,000 sets were eventually sold, priced at £12 apiece; 30 articles longer than three pages. The pages were bound in three equally sized volumes covering Aa–Bzo, Caaba–Lythrum, and Macao–Zyglophyllum.
2nd 1777–1784 10 volumes, 8,595 pages, 340 plates 1,500[102] James Tytler Largely the work of one editor, Tytler; 150 long articles; pagination errors; all maps under "Geography" article; 1,500 sets sold[102]
3rd 1788–1797 18 volumes, 14,579 pages, 542 plates 10,000 or 13,000[d] Colin Macfarquhar and George Gleig £42,000 profit on 10,000 copies sold; first dedication to monarch; pirated by Moore in Dublin and Thomas Dobson in Philadelphia
supplement to 3rd 1801, revised in 1803 2 volumes, 1,624 pages, 50 plates George Gleig Copyright owned by Thomas Bonar
4th 1801–1810 20 volumes, 16,033 pages, 581 plates 4,000[146] James Millar Authors first allowed to retain copyright. Material in the supplement to 3rd not incorporated due to copyright issues.
5th 1815–1817 20 volumes, 16,017 pages, 582 plates James Millar Reprint of the 4th edition. Financial losses by Millar and Andrew Bell's heirs; EB rights sold to Archibald Constable
supplement to 5th 1816–1824 6 volumes, 4,933 pages, 125 plates1 10,500[102] Macvey Napier Famous contributors recruited, such as Sir Humphry Davy, Sir Walter Scott, Malthus
6th 1820–1823 20 volumes Charles Maclaren Reprint of the 4th and 5th editions with modern font. Constable went bankrupt on 19 January 1826; EB rights eventually secured by Adam Black
7th 1830–1842 21 volumes, 17,101 pages, 506 plates, plus a 187-page index volume 5,000[102] Macvey Napier, assisted by James Browne, LLD Widening network of famous contributors, such as Sir David Brewster, Thomas de Quincey, Antonio Panizzi; 5,000 sets sold[102]
8th 1853–1860 21 volumes, 17,957 pages, 402 plates; plus a 239-page index volume, published 18612 8,000 Thomas Stewart Traill Many long articles were copied from the 7th edition; 344 contributors including William Thomson; authorized American sets printed by Little, Brown in Boston; 8,000 sets sold altogether
9th 1875–1889 24 volumes, plus a 499-page index volume labeled Volume 25 55,000 authorized[e] plus 500,000 pirated sets Thomas Spencer Baynes (1875–80); then W. Robertson Smith Some carry-over from 8th edition, but mostly a new work; high point of scholarship; 10,000 sets sold by Britannica and 45,000 authorized sets made in the US by Little, Brown in Boston and Schribners' Sons in NY, but pirated widely (500,000 sets) in the US.3
10th,
supplement to 9th
1902–1903 11 volumes, plus the 24 volumes of the 9th. Volume 34 containing 124 detailed country maps with index of 250,000 names 4 70,000 Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace and Hugh Chisholm in London; Arthur T. Hadley and Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City American partnership bought EB rights on 9 May 1901; high-pressure sales methods
11th 1910–1911 28 volumes, plus volume 29 index 1,000,000 Hugh Chisholm in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City Another high point of scholarship and writing; more articles than the 9th, but shorter and simpler; financial difficulties for owner, Horace Everett Hooper; EB rights sold to Sears Roebuck in 1920
12th,
supplement to 11th
1921–1922 3 volumes with own index, plus the 29 volumes of the 11th5 Hugh Chisholm in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City Summarized state of the world before, during, and after World War I
13th,
supplement to 11th
1926 3 volumes with own index, plus the 29 volumes of the 11th6 James Louis Garvin in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City Replaced 12th edition volumes; improved perspective of the events of 1910–1926
14th 1929–1933 24 volumes 7 James Louis Garvin in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City Publication just before Great Depression was financially catastrophic[citation needed]
revised 14th 1933–1973 24 volumes 7 Franklin Henry Hooper until 1938; then Walter Yust, Harry Ashmore, Warren E. Preece, William Haley Began continuous revision in 1936: every article revised at least twice every decade
15th 1974–1984 30 volumes 8 Warren E. Preece, then Philip W. Goetz Introduced three-part structure; division of articles into Micropædia and Macropædia; Propædia Outline of Knowledge; separate index eliminated
1985–2010 32 volumes 9 Philip W. Goetz, then Robert McHenry, currently Dale Hoiberg Restored two-volume index; some Micropædia and Macropædia articles merged; slightly longer overall; new versions were issued every few years. This edition is the last printed edition.
Global 2009 30 compact volumes Dale Hoiberg Unlike the 15th edition, it did not contain Macro- and Micropedia sections, but ran A through Z as all editions up to the 14th had.
Edition notes

1Supplement to the fourth, fifth, and sixth editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica. With preliminary dissertations on the history of the sciences.

2 The 7th to 14th editions included a separate index volume.

3 The 9th edition featured articles by notables of the day, such as James Clerk Maxwell on electricity and magnetism, and William Thomson (who became Lord Kelvin) on heat.

4 The 10th edition included a maps volume and a cumulative index volume for the 9th and 10th edition volumes: the new volumes, constituting, in combination with the existing volumes of the 9th ed., the 10th ed. ... and also supplying a new, distinctive, and independent library of reference dealing with recent events and developments

5 Vols. 30–32 ... the New volumes constituting, in combination with the twenty-nine volumes of the eleventh edition, the twelfth edition

6 This supplement replaced the previous supplement: The three new supplementary volumes constituting, with the volumes of the latest standard edition, the thirteenth edition.

7 At this point Encyclopædia Britannica began almost annual revisions. New revisions of the 14th edition appeared every year between 1929 and 1973 with the exceptions of 1931, 1934 and 1935.[148]

8 Annual revisions were published every year between 1974 and 2007 with the exceptions of 1996, 1999, 2000, 2004 and 2006.[148] The 15th edition (introduced as "Britannica 3") was published in three parts: a 10-volume Micropædia (which contained short articles and served as an index), a 19-volume Macropædia, plus the Propædia (see text).

9 In 1985, the system was modified by adding a separate two-volume index; the Macropædia articles were further consolidated into fewer, larger ones (for example, the previously separate articles about the 50 US states were all included into the "United States of America" article), with some medium-length articles moved to the Micropædia. The Micropædia had 12 vols. and the Macropædia 17.

The first CD-ROM edition was issued in 1994. At that time also an online version was offered for paid subscription. In 1999 this was offered free, and no revised print versions appeared. The experiment was ended in 2001 and a new printed set was issued in 2001.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ According to Kister, the initial 15th edition (1974) required over $32 million to produce.[6]
  2. ^ Vol. I has (viii), 697, (i) pages, but 10 unpaginated pages are added between pages 586 and 587. Vol. II has (iii), 1009, (ii) pages, but page numbers 175–176 as well as page numbers 425–426 were used twice; additionally page numbers 311–410 were not used. Vol. III has (iii), 953, (i) pages, but page numbers 679–878 were not used.[143]
  3. ^ Archibald Constable estimated in 1812 that there had been 3,500 copies printed, but revised his estimate to 3,000 in 1821.[144]
  4. ^ According to Smellie, it was 10,000, as quoted by Robert Kerr in his "Memoirs of William Smellie." Archibald Constable was quoted as saying the production started at 5,000 and concluded at 13,000.[145]
  5. ^ 10,000 sets sold by Britannica plus 45,000 genuine American reprints by Scribner's Sons, and "several hundred thousand sets of mutilated and fraudulent 9th editions were sold..."[147] Most sources estimate there were 500,000 pirated sets.

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Further reading

External links

  • Official website
  • Works by or about Encyclopædia Britannica at Internet Archive
  • Works by Encyclopædia Britannica at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)  
  • Encyclopaedia Britannica at the National Library of Scotland, first ten editions (and supplements) in PDF format.
  • Encyclopaedia Britannica at the Online Books Page, currently including the 1st-13th editions in multiple formats.
  • 3rd edition, (1797, first volume, use search facility for others) at Bavarian State Library MDZ-Reader | Band | Encyclopaedia Britannica; or, a dictionary of arts, sciences, and miscellaneous literature | Encyclopaedia Britannica; or, a dictionary of arts, sciences, and miscellaneous literature
  • 7th edition (1842), fulltext via Hathi Trust
  • 8th edition (1860, index volume, use search facility for others) at Bavarian State Library MDZ-Reader | Band | The Encyclopaedia Britannica, or Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature | The Encyclopaedia Britannica, or Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature
  • Scribner's 9th Edition (1878) archive.org
  • 9th and 10th (1902) editions 1902Encyclopedia.com

encyclopædia, britannica, britannica, redirects, here, other, uses, britannica, disambiguation, latin, british, encyclopædia, general, knowledge, english, language, encyclopaedia, published, company, existed, since, 18th, century, although, changed, ownership,. Britannica redirects here For other uses see Britannica disambiguation The Encyclopaedia Britannica Latin for British Encyclopaedia is a general knowledge English language encyclopaedia It is published by Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc the company has existed since the 18th century although it has changed ownership various times through the centuries The encyclopaedia is maintained by about 100 full time editors and more than 4 000 contributors The 2010 version of the 15th edition which spans 32 volumes 1 and 32 640 pages was the last printed edition Since 2016 it has been published exclusively as an online encyclopaedia Encyclopaedia BritannicaBritannica s thistle logoAuthorAs of 2008 update 4 411 named contributorsIllustratorSeveral initial engravings by Andrew BellCountryUnited Kingdom 1768 1901 United States 1901 present LanguageBritish EnglishSubjectGeneralPublished1st through 6th editions 1768 1826 private publishers such as Andrew Bell Archibald Constable and Colin Macfarquhar 7th through 9th editions 1827 1901 A amp C Black 10th through 14th editions 1901 1973 American businesses including Sears Roebuck and the Benton Foundation 15th edition Benton Foundation and Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc as a separate entity alongside Britannica com Inc PublisherEncyclopaedia Britannica Inc Publication date1768 2010 printed version Media type32 volumes hardbound 15th edition 2010 after 2012 unavailable in printPages32 640 15th edition 2010 ISBN978 1 59339 292 5Dewey Decimal031LC ClassAE5 E363 2007TextEncyclopaedia Britannica at WikisourceWebsitewww wbr britannica wbr comPrinted for 244 years the Britannica was the longest running in print encyclopaedia in the English language It was first published between 1768 and 1771 in the Scottish capital of Edinburgh as three volumes The encyclopaedia grew in size the second edition was 10 volumes 2 and by its fourth edition 1801 1810 it had expanded to 20 volumes 3 Its rising stature as a scholarly work helped recruit eminent contributors and the 9th 1875 1889 and 11th editions 1911 are landmark encyclopaedias for scholarship and literary style Starting with the 11th edition and following its acquisition by an American firm the Britannica shortened and simplified articles to broaden its appeal to the North American market In 1933 the Britannica became the first encyclopaedia to adopt continuous revision in which the encyclopaedia is continually reprinted with every article updated on a schedule citation needed In March 2012 Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc announced it would no longer publish printed editions and would focus instead on the online version 4 The 15th edition has a three part structure a 12 volume Micropaedia of short articles generally fewer than 750 words a 17 volume Macropaedia of long articles two to 310 pages and a single Propaedia volume to give a hierarchical outline of knowledge The Micropaedia was meant for quick fact checking and as a guide to the Macropaedia readers are advised to study the Propaedia outline to understand a subject s context and to find more detailed articles Over 70 years the size of the Britannica has remained steady with about 40 million words on half a million topics Though published in the United States since 1901 the Britannica has for the most part maintained British English spelling Contents 1 Present status 1 1 Print version 1 2 Related printed material 1 3 Optical disc online and mobile versions 2 Personnel and management 2 1 Contributors 2 2 Staff 2 3 Editorial advisors 2 4 Corporate structure 3 Competition 3 1 Print encyclopaedias 3 2 Digital encyclopaedias on optical media 3 3 Wikipedia 4 Critical and popular assessments 4 1 Reputation 4 2 Awards 4 3 Coverage of topics 4 4 Criticism of editorial decisions 4 5 Other criticisms 5 History 5 1 Editions 5 1 1 1768 1826 5 1 2 1827 1901 5 1 3 1901 1973 5 1 4 1974 1994 5 1 5 1994 present 5 2 Dedications 6 Edition summary 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External linksPresent status EditPrint version Edit 15th edition of the Britannica The initial volume with the green spine is the Propaedia the red spined and black spined volumes are the Micropaedia and the Macropaedia respectively The last three volumes are the 2002 Book of the Year black spine and the two volume index cyan spine Since 1985 the Britannica had four parts the Micropaedia the Macropaedia the Propaedia and a two volume index The Britannica s articles are found in the Micro and Macropaedia which encompass 12 and 17 volumes respectively each volume having roughly one thousand pages The 2007 Macropaedia has 699 in depth articles ranging in length from 2 to 310 pages and having references and named contributors In contrast the 2007 Micropaedia has roughly 65 000 articles the vast majority about 97 of which contain fewer than 750 words no references and no named contributors 5 The Micropaedia articles are intended for quick fact checking and to help in finding more thorough information in the Macropaedia The Macropaedia articles are meant both as authoritative well written articles on their subjects and as storehouses of information not covered elsewhere 6 The longest article 310 pages is on the United States and resulted from the merger of the articles on the individual states A 2013 Global Edition of Britannica contained approximately forty thousand articles 7 Information can be found in the Britannica by following the cross references in the Micropaedia and Macropaedia however these are sparse averaging one cross reference per page 8 Hence readers are recommended to consult instead the alphabetical index or the Propaedia which organizes the Britannica s contents by topic 9 The core of the Propaedia is its Outline of Knowledge which aims to provide a logical framework for all human knowledge 10 Accordingly the Outline is consulted by the Britannica s editors to decide which articles should be included in the Micro and Macropaedia 10 The Outline is also intended to be a study guide to put subjects in their proper perspective and to suggest a series of Britannica articles for the student wishing to learn a topic in depth 10 However libraries have found that it is scarcely used and reviewers have recommended that it be dropped from the encyclopaedia 11 The Propaedia also has color transparencies of human anatomy and several appendices listing the staff members advisors and contributors to all three parts of the Britannica Taken together the Micropaedia and Macropaedia comprise roughly 40 million words and 24 000 images 9 The two volume index has 2 350 pages listing the 228 274 topics covered in the Britannica together with 474 675 subentries under those topics 8 The Britannica generally prefers British spelling over American 8 for example it uses colour not color centre not center and encyclopaedia not encyclopedia However there are exceptions to this rule such as defense rather than defence 12 Common alternative spellings are provided with cross references such as Color see Colour Since 1936 the articles of the Britannica have been revised on a regular schedule with at least 10 of them considered for revision each year 8 13 According to one Britannica website 46 of its articles were revised over the past three years 14 however according to another Britannica website only 35 of the articles were revised 15 The alphabetization of articles in the Micropaedia and Macropaedia follows strict rules 16 Diacritical marks and non English letters are ignored while numerical entries such as 1812 War of are alphabetized as if the number had been written out Eighteen twelve War of Articles with identical names are ordered first by persons then by places then by things Rulers with identical names are organized first alphabetically by country and then by chronology thus Charles III of France precedes Charles I of England listed in Britannica as the ruler of Great Britain and Ireland That is they are alphabetized as if their titles were Charles France 3 and Charles Great Britain and Ireland 1 Similarly places that share names are organized alphabetically by country then by ever smaller political divisions In March 2012 the company announced that the 2010 edition would be the last printed version This was announced as a move by the company to adapt to the times and focus on its future using digital distribution 17 The peak year for the printed encyclopaedia was 1990 when 120 000 sets were sold but it dropped to 40 000 in 1996 18 12 000 sets of the 2010 edition were printed of which 8 000 had been sold as of 2012 update 19 By late April 2012 the remaining copies of the 2010 edition had sold out at Britannica s online store As of 2016 update a replica of Britannica s 1768 first edition is sold on the online store 20 Related printed material Edit Britannica Junior was first published in 1934 as 12 volumes It was expanded to 15 volumes in 1947 and renamed Britannica Junior Encyclopaedia in 1963 21 It was taken off the market after the 1984 printing Children s Britannica A British Children s Britannica edited by John Armitage was issued in London in 1960 22 Its contents were determined largely by the eleven plus standardized tests given in Britain 23 Britannica introduced the Children s Britannica to the US market in 1988 aimed at ages seven to 14 In 1961 a 16 volume Young Children s Encyclopaedia was issued for children just learning to read 23 My First Britannica is aimed at children ages six to 12 and the Britannica Discovery Library is for children aged three to six issued 1974 to 1991 24 There have been and are several abridged Britannica encyclopaedias The single volume Britannica Concise Encyclopaedia has 28 000 short articles condensing the larger 32 volume Britannica 25 there are authorized translations in languages such as Chinese 26 and Vietnamese 27 28 Compton s by Britannica first published in 2007 incorporating the former Compton s Encyclopedia is aimed at 10 to 17 year olds and consists of 26 volumes and 11 000 pages 29 Since 1938 Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc has published annually a Book of the Year covering the past year s events A given edition of the Book of the Year is named in terms of the year of its publication though the edition actually covers the events of the previous year The company also publishes several specialized reference works such as Shakespeare The Essential Guide to the Life and Works of the Bard Wiley 2006 Optical disc online and mobile versions Edit The Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite 2012 DVD contains over 100 000 articles 30 This includes regular Britannica articles as well as others drawn from the Britannica Student Encyclopaedia and the Britannica Elementary Encyclopaedia The package includes a range of supplementary content including maps videos sound clips animations and web links It also offers study tools and dictionary and thesaurus entries from Merriam Webster Britannica Online is a website with more than 120 000 articles and is updated regularly 31 It has daily features updates and links to news reports from The New York Times and the BBC As of 2009 update roughly 60 of Encyclopaedia Britannica s revenue came from online operations of which around 15 came from subscriptions to the consumer version of the websites 32 As of 2006 update subscriptions were available on a yearly monthly or weekly basis 33 Special subscription plans are offered to schools colleges and libraries such institutional subscribers constitute an important part of Britannica s business Beginning in early 2007 the Britannica made articles freely available if they are hyperlinked from an external site Non subscribers are served pop ups and advertising 34 On 20 February 2007 Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc announced that it was working with mobile phone search company AskMeNow to launch a mobile encyclopaedia 35 Users will be able to send a question via text message and AskMeNow will search Britannica s 28 000 article concise encyclopaedia to return an answer to the query Daily topical features sent directly to users mobile phones are also planned On 3 June 2008 an initiative to facilitate collaboration between online expert and amateur scholarly contributors for Britannica s online content in the spirit of a wiki with editorial oversight from Britannica staff was announced 36 37 Approved contributions would be credited 38 though contributing automatically grants Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc perpetual irrevocable license to those contributions 39 On 22 January 2009 Britannica s president Jorge Cauz announced that the company would be accepting edits and additions to the online Britannica website from the public The published edition of the encyclopaedia will not be affected by the changes 40 Individuals wishing to edit the Britannica website will have to register under their real name and address prior to editing or submitting their content 41 All edits submitted will be reviewed and checked and will have to be approved by the encyclopaedia s professional staff 41 Contributions from non academic users will sit in a separate section from the expert generated Britannica content 42 as will content submitted by non Britannica scholars 43 Articles written by users if vetted and approved will also only be available in a special section of the website separate from the professional articles 40 43 Official Britannica material would carry a Britannica Checked stamp to distinguish it from the user generated content 44 On 14 September 2010 Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc announced a partnership with mobile phone development company Concentric Sky to launch a series of iPhone products aimed at the K 12 market 45 On 20 July 2011 Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc announced that Concentric Sky had ported the Britannica Kids product line to Intel s Intel Atom based Netbooks 46 47 and on 26 October 2011 that it had launched its encyclopedia as an iPad app 48 In 2010 Britannica released Britannica ImageQuest a database of images 49 In March 2012 it was announced that the company would cease printing the encyclopaedia set and that it would focus more on its online version 50 51 On 7 June 2018 Britannica released a Google Chrome extension Britannica Insights which shows snippets of information from Britannica Online in a sidebar for Google Search results 52 The Britannica sidebar does not replace Google s sidebar and is instead placed above Google s sidebar 52 Britannica Insights was also available as a Firefox extension but this was taken down due to a code review issue 53 Personnel and management EditContributors Edit The print version of the Britannica has 4 411 contributors many eminent in their fields such as Nobel laureate economist Milton Friedman astronomer Carl Sagan and surgeon Michael DeBakey 54 Roughly a quarter of the contributors are deceased some as long ago as 1947 Alfred North Whitehead while another quarter are retired or emeritus Most approximately 98 citation needed contribute to only a single article however 64 contributed to three articles 23 contributed to four articles 10 contributed to five articles and 8 contributed to more than five articles An exceptionally prolific contributor is Christine Sutton of the University of Oxford who contributed 24 articles on particle physics 55 While Britannica s authors have included writers such as Albert Einstein 56 Marie Curie 57 and Leon Trotsky 56 as well as notable independent encyclopaedists such as Isaac Asimov 58 some have been criticized for lack of expertise In 1911 the historian George L Burr wrote With a temerity almost appalling the Britannica contributor Mr Philips ranges over nearly the whole field of European history political social ecclesiastical The grievance is that this work lacks authority This too this reliance on editorial energy instead of on ripe special learning may alas be also counted an Americanizing for certainly nothing has so cheapened the scholarship of our American encyclopaedias 59 Staff Edit Portrait of Thomas Spencer Baynes editor of the 9th edition Painted in 1888 it now hangs in the Senate Room of the University of St Andrews in Scotland As of 2007 update in the fifteenth edition of Britannica Dale Hoiberg a sinologist was listed as Britannica s Senior Vice President and editor in chief 60 Among his predecessors as editors in chief were Hugh Chisholm 1902 1924 James Louis Garvin 1926 1932 Franklin Henry Hooper 1932 1938 61 Walter Yust 1938 1960 Harry Ashmore 1960 1963 Warren E Preece 1964 1968 1969 1975 Sir William Haley 1968 1969 Philip W Goetz 1979 1991 6 and Robert McHenry 1992 1997 62 As of 2007 update Anita Wolff was listed as the Deputy Editor and Theodore Pappas as Executive Editor 60 Prior Executive Editors include John V Dodge 1950 1964 and Philip W Goetz Paul T Armstrong remains the longest working employee of Encyclopaedia Britannica He began his career there in 1934 eventually earning the positions of treasurer vice president and chief financial officer in his 58 years with the company before retiring in 1992 63 The 2007 editorial staff of the Britannica included five Senior Editors and nine Associate Editors supervised by Dale Hoiberg and four others The editorial staff helped to write the articles of the Micropaedia and some sections of the Macropaedia 64 Editorial advisors Edit The Britannica has an editorial board of advisors which includes 12 distinguished scholars 65 66 non fiction author Nicholas Carr religion scholar Wendy Doniger political economist Benjamin M Friedman Council on Foreign Relations President Emeritus Leslie H Gelb computer scientist David Gelernter Physics Nobel laureate Murray Gell Mann Carnegie Corporation of New York President Vartan Gregorian philosopher Thomas Nagel cognitive scientist Donald Norman musicologist Don Michael Randel Stewart Sutherland Baron Sutherland of Houndwood President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and cultural anthropologist Michael Wesch The Propaedia and its Outline of Knowledge were produced by dozens of editorial advisors under the direction of Mortimer J Adler 67 Roughly half of these advisors have since died including some of the Outline s chief architects Rene Dubos d 1982 Loren Eiseley d 1977 Harold D Lasswell d 1978 Mark Van Doren d 1972 Peter Ritchie Calder d 1982 and Mortimer J Adler d 2001 The Propaedia also lists just under 4 000 advisors who were consulted for the unsigned Micropaedia articles 68 Corporate structure Edit In January 1996 the Britannica was purchased from the Benton Foundation by billionaire Swiss financier Jacqui Safra 69 who serves as its current chair of the board In 1997 Don Yannias a long time associate and investment advisor of Safra became CEO of Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 70 In 1999 a new company Britannica com Inc was created to develop digital versions of the Britannica Yannias assumed the role of CEO in the new company while his former position at the parent company remained vacant for two years Yannias tenure at Britannica com Inc was marked by missteps considerable lay offs and financial losses 71 In 2001 Yannias was replaced by Ilan Yeshua who reunited the leadership of the two companies 72 Yannias later returned to investment management but remains on the Britannica s Board of Directors In 2003 former management consultant Jorge Aguilar Cauz was appointed President of Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc Cauz is the senior executive and reports directly to the Britannica s Board of Directors Cauz has been pursuing alliances with other companies and extending the Britannica brand to new educational and reference products continuing the strategy pioneered by former CEO Elkan Harrison Powell in the mid 1930s 73 Under Safra s ownership the company has experienced financial difficulties and has responded by reducing the price of its products and implementing drastic cost cuts According to a 2003 report in the New York Post the Britannica management has eliminated employee 401 k accounts and encouraged the use of free images These changes have had negative impacts as freelance contributors have waited up to six months for checks and the Britannica staff have gone years without pay rises 74 In the fall of 2017 Karthik Krishnan was appointed global chief executive officer of the Encyclopaedia Britannica Group Krishnan brought a varied perspective to the role based on several high level positions in digital media including RELX formerly known as Reed Elsevier and one of the constituents of the FTSE 100 Index and Rodale in which he was responsible for driving business and cultural transformation and accelerating growth 75 Taking the reins of the company as it was preparing to mark its 250th anniversary and define the next phase of its digital strategy for consumers and K 12 schools Krishnan launched a series of new initiatives in his first year First was Britannica Insights 76 a free downloadable software extension to the Google Chrome browser that served up edited fact checked Britannica information with queries on search engines such as Google Yahoo and Bing Its purpose the company said was to provide trusted verified information in conjunction with search results that were thought to be increasingly unreliable in the era of misinformation and fake news The product was quickly followed by Britannica School Insights which provided similar content for subscribers to Britannica s online classroom solutions and a partnership with YouTube 77 in which verified Britannica content appeared on the site as an antidote to user generated video content that could be false or misleading Krishnan himself an educator at New York University s Stern School of Business believes in the transformative power of education 78 and set steering the company toward solidifying its place among leaders in educational technology and supplemental curriculum Krishnan aimed at providing more useful and relevant solutions to customer needs extending and renewing Britannica s historical emphasis on Utility 79 which had been the watchword of its first edition in 1768 Krishnan also is active in civic affairs with organizations such as the Urban Enterprise Initiative and Urban Upbound whose board he serves on Competition EditAs the Britannica is a general encyclopaedia it does not seek to compete with specialized encyclopaedias such as the Encyclopaedia of Mathematics or the Dictionary of the Middle Ages which can devote much more space to their chosen topics In its first years the Britannica s main competitor was the general encyclopaedia of Ephraim Chambers and soon thereafter Rees s Cyclopaedia and Coleridge s Encyclopaedia Metropolitana In the 20th century successful competitors included Collier s Encyclopedia the Encyclopedia Americana and the World Book Encyclopedia Nevertheless from the 9th edition onwards the Britannica was widely considered to have the greatest authority of any general English language encyclopaedia 80 especially because of its broad coverage and eminent authors 6 8 The print version of the Britannica was significantly more expensive than its competitors 6 8 Since the early 1990s the Britannica has faced new challenges from digital information sources The Internet facilitated by the development of Web search engines has grown into a common source of information for many people and provides easy access to reliable original sources and expert opinions thanks in part to initiatives such as Google Books MIT s release of its educational materials and the open PubMed Central library of the National Library of Medicine 81 82 In general the Internet tends to provide more current coverage than print media due to the ease with which material on the Internet can be updated 83 In rapidly changing fields such as science technology politics culture and modern history the Britannica has struggled to stay up to date a problem first analysed systematically by its former editor Walter Yust 84 Eventually the Britannica turned to focus more on its online edition 85 Print encyclopaedias Edit The Encyclopaedia Britannica has been compared with other print encyclopaedias both qualitatively and quantitatively 5 6 8 A well known comparison is that of Kenneth Kister who gave a qualitative and quantitative comparison of the 1993 Britannica with two comparable encyclopaedias Collier s Encyclopedia and the Encyclopedia Americana 6 For the quantitative analysis ten articles were selected at random circumcision Charles Drew Galileo Philip Glass heart disease IQ panda bear sexual harassment Shroud of Turin and Uzbekistan and letter grades of A D or F were awarded in four categories coverage accuracy clarity and recency In all four categories and for all three encyclopaedias the four average grades fell between B and B chiefly because none of the encyclopaedias had an article on sexual harassment in 1994 In the accuracy category the Britannica received one D and seven A s Encyclopedia Americana received eight A s and Collier s received one D and seven A s thus Britannica received an average score of 92 for accuracy to Americana s 95 and Collier s 92 In the timeliness category Britannica averaged an 86 to Americana s 90 and Collier s 85 citation needed In 2013 the President of Encyclopaedia Britannica announced that after 244 years the encyclopedia would cease print production and all future editions would be entirely digital 86 Digital encyclopaedias on optical media Edit The most notable competitor of the Britannica among CD DVD ROM digital encyclopaedias was Encarta 87 now discontinued a modern multimedia encyclopaedia that incorporated three print encyclopaedias Funk amp Wagnalls Collier s and the New Merit Scholar s Encyclopedia Encarta was the top selling multimedia encyclopaedia based on total US retail sales from January 2000 to February 2006 88 Both occupied the same price range with the 2007 Encyclopaedia Britannica Ultimate CD or DVD costing US 40 50 89 90 and the Microsoft Encarta Premium 2007 DVD costing US 45 91 The Britannica contains 100 000 articles and Merriam Webster s Dictionary and Thesaurus US only and offers Primary and Secondary School editions 90 Encarta contained 66 000 articles a user friendly Visual Browser interactive maps math language and homework tools a US and UK dictionary and a youth edition 91 Like Encarta the Britannica has been criticized for being biased towards United States audiences the United Kingdom related articles are updated less often maps of the United States are more detailed than those of other countries and it lacks a UK dictionary 87 Like the Britannica Encarta was available online by subscription although some content could be accessed free 92 Wikipedia Edit The main online alternative to Britannica is Wikipedia 93 94 95 The key differences between the two lie in accessibility the model of participation they bring to an encyclopedic project their respective style sheets and editorial policies relative ages the number of subjects treated the number of languages in which articles are written and made available and their underlying economic models unlike Britannica Wikipedia is a not for profit and is not connected with traditional profit and contract based publishing distribution networks The 699 printed Macropaedia articles are generally written by identified contributors and the roughly 65 000 printed Micropaedia articles are the work of the editorial staff and identified outside consultants Thus a Britannica article either has known authorship or a set of possible authors the editorial staff With the exception of the editorial staff most of the Britannica s contributors are experts in their field some are Nobel laureates 54 By contrast the articles of Wikipedia are written by people of unknown degrees of expertise most do not claim any particular expertise and of those who do many are anonymous and have no verifiable credentials 96 It is for this lack of institutional vetting or certification that former Britannica editor in chief Robert McHenry notes his belief that Wikipedia cannot hope to rival the Britannica in accuracy 97 In 2005 the journal Nature chose articles from both websites in a wide range of science topics and sent them to what it called relevant field experts for peer review The experts then compared the competing articles one from each site on a given topic side by side but were not told which article came from which site Nature got back 42 usable reviews In the end the journal found just eight serious errors such as general misunderstandings of vital concepts four from each site It also discovered many factual errors omissions or misleading statements 162 in Wikipedia and 123 in Britannica an average of 3 86 mistakes per article for Wikipedia and 2 92 for Britannica 96 98 Although Britannicawas revealed as the more accurate encyclopedia with fewer errors Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc in its rebuttal called Nature s study flawed and misleading 99 and called for a prompt retraction It noted that two of the articles in the study were taken from a Britannica yearbook and not the encyclopaedia and another two were from Compton s Encyclopedia called the Britannica Student Encyclopedia on the company s website Nature defended its story and declined to retract stating that as it was comparing Wikipedia with the web version of Britannica it used whatever relevant material was available on Britannica s website 100 Interviewed in February 2009 the managing director of Britannica UK said Wikipedia is a fun site to use and has a lot of interesting entries on there but their approach wouldn t work for Encyclopaedia Britannica My job is to create more awareness of our very different approaches to publishing in the public mind They re a chisel we re a drill and you need to have the correct tool for the job 32 In a January 2016 press release Britannica called Wikipedia an impressive achievement 101 Critical and popular assessments EditReputation Edit A copperplate by Andrew Bell from the 1st edition Since the 3rd edition the Britannica has enjoyed a popular and critical reputation for general excellence 5 6 8 The 3rd and the 9th editions were pirated for sale in the United States 102 beginning with Dobson s Encyclopaedia 103 On the release of the 14th edition Time magazine dubbed the Britannica the Patriarch of the Library 104 In a related advertisement naturalist William Beebe was quoted as saying that the Britannica was beyond comparison because there is no competitor 105 References to the Britannica can be found throughout English literature most notably in one of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle s favourite Sherlock Holmes stories The Red Headed League The tale was highlighted by the Lord Mayor of London Gilbert Inglefield at the bicentennial of the Britannica 106 The Britannica has a reputation for summarising knowledge 80 To further their education some people have devoted themselves to reading the entire Britannica taking anywhere from three to 22 years to do so 102 When Fat h Ali became the Shah of Persia in 1797 he was given a set of the Britannica s 3rd edition which he read completely after this feat he extended his royal title to include Most Formidable Lord and Master of the Encyclopaedia Britannica 106 Writer George Bernard Shaw claimed to have read the complete 9th edition except for the science articles 102 and Richard Evelyn Byrd took the Britannica as reading material for his five month stay at the South Pole in 1934 while Philip Beaver read it during a sailing expedition More recently A J Jacobs an editor at Esquire magazine read the entire 2002 version of the 15th edition describing his experiences in the well received 2004 book The Know It All One Man s Humble Quest to Become the Smartest Person in the World Only two people are known to have read two independent editions the author C S Forester 102 and Amos Urban Shirk an American businessman who read the 11th and 14th editions devoting roughly three hours per night for four and a half years to read the 11th 107 Awards Edit The CD DVD ROM version of the Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite received the 2004 Distinguished Achievement Award from the Association of Educational Publishers 108 On 15 July 2009 Encyclopaedia Britannica was awarded a spot as one of Top Ten Superbrands in the UK by a panel of more than 2 000 independent reviewers as reported by the BBC 109 Coverage of topics Edit Topics are chosen in part by reference to the Propaedia Outline of Knowledge 10 The bulk of the Britannica is devoted to geography 26 of the Macropaedia biography 14 biology and medicine 11 literature 7 physics and astronomy 6 religion 5 art 4 Western philosophy 4 and law 3 6 A complementary study of the Micropaedia found that geography accounted for 25 of articles science 18 social sciences 17 biography 17 and all other humanities 25 8 Writing in 1992 one reviewer judged that the range depth and catholicity of coverage of the Britannica are unsurpassed by any other general Encyclopaedia 110 The Britannica does not cover topics in equivalent detail for example the whole of Buddhism and most other religions is covered in a single Macropaedia article whereas 14 articles are devoted to Christianity comprising nearly half of all religion articles 111 However the Britannica has been lauded as the least biased of general Encyclopaedias marketed to Western readers 6 and praised for its biographies of important women of all eras 8 It can be stated without fear of contradiction that the 15th edition of the Britannica accords non Western cultural social and scientific developments more notice than any general English language encyclopedia currently on the market Kenneth Kister in Kister s Best Encyclopedias 1994 Criticism of editorial decisions Edit On rare occasions the Britannica has been criticized for its editorial choices Given its roughly constant size the encyclopaedia has needed to reduce or eliminate some topics to accommodate others resulting in controversial decisions The initial 15th edition 1974 1985 was faulted for having reduced or eliminated coverage of children s literature military decorations and the French poet Joachim du Bellay editorial mistakes were also alleged such as inconsistent sorting of Japanese biographies 112 Its elimination of the index was condemned as was the apparently arbitrary division of articles into the Micropaedia and Macropaedia 6 113 Summing up one critic called the initial 15th edition a qualified failure that cares more for juggling its format than for preserving 112 More recently reviewers from the American Library Association were surprised to find that most educational articles had been eliminated from the 1992 Macropaedia along with the article on psychology 11 Some very few Britannica appointed contributors are mistaken A notorious instance from the Britannica s early years is the rejection of Newtonian gravity by George Gleig the chief editor of the 3rd edition 1788 1797 who wrote that gravity was caused by the classical element of fire 102 The Britannica has also staunchly defended a scientific approach to cultural topics as it did with William Robertson Smith s articles on religion in the 9th edition particularly his article stating that the Bible was not historically accurate 1875 102 Other criticisms Edit The Britannica has received criticism especially as editions become outdated It is expensive to produce a completely new edition of the Britannica a and its editors delay for as long as fiscally sensible usually about 25 years 13 For example despite continuous revision the 14th edition became outdated after 35 years 1929 1964 When American physicist Harvey Einbinder detailed its failings in his 1964 book The Myth of the Britannica 114 the encyclopaedia was provoked to produce the 15th edition which required 10 years of work 6 It is still difficult to keep the Britannica current one recent critic writes it is not difficult to find articles that are out of date or in need of revision noting that the longer Macropaedia articles are more likely to be outdated than the shorter Micropaedia articles 6 Information in the Micropaedia is sometimes inconsistent with the corresponding Macropaedia article s mainly because of the failure to update one or the other 5 8 The bibliographies of the Macropaedia articles have been criticized for being more out of date than the articles themselves 5 6 8 In 2005 12 year old schoolboy Lucian George found several inaccuracies in the Britannica s entries on Poland and wildlife in Eastern Europe 115 In 2010 an inaccurate entry about the Irish Civil War was discussed in the Irish press following a decision of the Department of Education and Science to pay for online access 116 117 Writing about the 3rd edition 1788 1797 Britannica s chief editor George Gleig observed that perfection seems to be incompatible with the nature of works constructed on such a plan and embracing such a variety of subjects 118 In March 2006 the Britannica wrote we in no way mean to imply that Britannica is error free we have never made such a claim 99 although in 1962 Britannica s sales department famously said of the 14th edition It is truth It is unquestionable fact 119 The sentiment is expressed by its original editor William Smellie With regard to errors in general whether falling under the denomination of mental typographical or accidental we are conscious of being able to point out a greater number than any critic whatever Men who are acquainted with the innumerable difficulties attending the execution of a work of such an extensive nature will make proper allowances To these we appeal and shall rest satisfied with the judgment they pronounce 120 However Jorge Cauz president of Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc asserted in 2012 that Britannica will always be factually correct 1 History EditMain article History of the Encyclopaedia Britannica Title page of the first edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica 1771 Past owners have included in chronological order the Edinburgh Scotland printers Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell Scottish bookseller Archibald Constable Scottish publisher A amp C Black Horace Everett Hooper Sears Roebuck and William Benton The present owner of Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc is Jacqui Safra a Brazilian billionaire and actor Recent advances in information technology and the rise of electronic encyclopaedias such as Encyclopaedia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite Encarta and Wikipedia have reduced the demand for print encyclopaedias 121 To remain competitive Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc has stressed the reputation of the Britannica reduced its price and production costs and developed electronic versions on CD ROM DVD and the World Wide Web Since the early 1930s the company has promoted spin off reference works 13 Editions Edit The Britannica has been issued in 15 editions with multi volume supplements to the 3rd and 4th editions see the Table below The 5th and 6th editions were reprints of the 4th and the 10th edition was only a supplement to the 9th just as the 12th and 13th editions were supplements to the 11th The 15th underwent massive reorganization in 1985 but the updated current version is still known as the 15th The 14th and 15th editions were edited every year throughout their runs so that later printings of each were entirely different from early ones Throughout history the Britannica has had two aims to be an excellent reference book and to provide educational material 122 In 1974 the 15th edition adopted a third goal to systematize all human knowledge 10 The history of the Britannica can be divided into five eras punctuated by changes in management or reorganization of the dictionary 1768 1826 Edit The early 19th century editions of Encyclopaedia Britannica included influential original research such as Thomas Young s article on Egypt which included the translation of the hieroglyphs on the Rosetta Stone pictured In the first era 1st 6th editions 1768 1826 the Britannica was managed and published by its founders Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell by Archibald Constable and by others The Britannica was first published between December 1768 123 and 1771 in Edinburgh as the Encyclopaedia Britannica or A Dictionary of Arts and Sciences compiled upon a New Plan In part it was conceived in reaction to the French Encyclopedie of Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d Alembert published 1751 72 which had been inspired by Chambers s Cyclopaedia first edition 1728 It went on sale 10 December 124 The Britannica of this period was primarily a Scottish enterprise and it is one of the most enduring legacies of the Scottish Enlightenment 125 In this era the Britannica moved from being a three volume set 1st edition compiled by one young editor William Smellie 126 to a 20 volume set written by numerous authorities 127 Several other encyclopaedias competed throughout this period among them editions of Abraham Rees s Cyclopaedia and Coleridge s Encyclopaedia Metropolitana and David Brewster s Edinburgh Encyclopaedia 1827 1901 Edit During the second era 7th 9th editions 1827 1901 the Britannica was managed by the Edinburgh publishing firm A amp C Black Although some contributors were again recruited through friendships of the chief editors notably Macvey Napier others were attracted by the Britannica s reputation The contributors often came from other countries and included the world s most respected authorities in their fields A general index of all articles was included for the first time in the 7th edition a practice maintained until 1974 Production of the 9th edition was overseen by Thomas Spencer Baynes the first English born editor in chief Dubbed the Scholar s Edition the 9th edition is the most scholarly of all Britannicas 6 102 After 1880 Baynes was assisted by William Robertson Smith 128 No biographies of living persons were included 129 James Clerk Maxwell and Thomas Huxley were special advisors on science 130 However by the close of the 19th century the 9th edition was outdated and the Britannica faced financial difficulties 1901 1973 Edit US advertisement for the 11th edition from the May 1913 issue of National Geographic Magazine In the third era 10th 14th editions 1901 1973 the Britannica was managed by American businessmen who introduced direct marketing and door to door sales The American owners gradually simplified articles making them less scholarly for a mass market The 10th edition was an eleven volume supplement including one each of maps and an index to the 9th numbered as volumes 25 35 but the 11th edition was a completely new work and is still praised for excellence its owner Horace Hooper lavished enormous effort on its perfection 102 When Hooper fell into financial difficulties the Britannica was managed by Sears Roebuck for 18 years 1920 1923 1928 1943 In 1932 the vice president of Sears Elkan Harrison Powell assumed presidency of the Britannica in 1936 he began the policy of continuous revision This was a departure from earlier practice in which the articles were not changed until a new edition was produced at roughly 25 year intervals some articles unchanged from earlier editions 13 Powell developed new educational products that built upon the Britannica s reputation A wooden shipping crate for the 14th edition of the Britannica In 1943 Sears donated the Encyclopaedia Britannica to the University of Chicago William Benton then a vice president of the university provided the working capital for its operation The stock was divided between Benton and the university with the university holding an option on the stock 131 Benton became chairman of the board and managed the Britannica until his death in 1973 132 Benton set up the Benton Foundation which managed the Britannica until 1996 and whose sole beneficiary was the University of Chicago 133 In 1968 near the end of this era the Britannica celebrated its bicentennial 1974 1994 Edit In the fourth era 1974 94 the Britannica introduced its 15th edition which was reorganized into three parts the Micropaedia the Macropaedia and the Propaedia Under Mortimer J Adler member of the Board of Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica since its inception in 1949 and its chair from 1974 director of editorial planning for the 15th edition of Britannica from 1965 134 the Britannica sought not only to be a good reference work and educational tool but to systematize all human knowledge The absence of a separate index and the grouping of articles into parallel encyclopaedias the Micro and Macropaedia provoked a firestorm of criticism of the initial 15th edition 6 113 In response the 15th edition was completely reorganized and indexed for a re release in 1985 This second version of the 15th edition continued to be published and revised until the 2010 print version The official title of the 15th edition is the New Encyclopaedia Britannica although it has also been promoted as Britannica 3 6 On 9 March 1976 the US Federal Trade Commission entered an opinion and order enjoining Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc from using a deceptive advertising practices in recruiting sales agents and obtaining sales leads and b deceptive sales practices in the door to door presentations of its sales agents 135 1994 present Edit Advertisement for the 9th edition 1898 In the fifth era 1994 present digital versions have been developed and released on optical media and online In 1996 the Britannica was bought by Jacqui Safra at well below its estimated value owing to the company s financial difficulties Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc split in 1999 One part retained the company name and developed the print version and the other Britannica com Inc developed digital versions Since 2001 the two companies have shared a CEO Ilan Yeshua who has continued Powell s strategy of introducing new products with the Britannica name In March 2012 Britannica s president Jorge Cauz announced that it would not produce any new print editions of the encyclopaedia with the 2010 15th edition being the last The company will focus only on the online edition and other educational tools 1 136 Britannica s final print edition was in 2010 a 32 volume set 1 Britannica Global Edition was also printed in 2010 containing 30 volumes and 18 251 pages with 8 500 photographs maps flags and illustrations in smaller compact volumes as well as over 40 000 articles written by scholars from across the world including Nobel Prize winners Unlike the 15th edition it did not contain Macro and Micropaedia sections but ran A through Z as all editions up through the 14th had The following is Britannica s description of the work 7 The editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica the world standard in reference since 1768 present the Britannica Global Edition Developed specifically to provide comprehensive and global coverage of the world around us this unique product contains thousands of timely relevant and essential articles drawn from the Encyclopaedia Britannica itself as well as from the Britannica Concise Encyclopedia the Britannica Encyclopedia of World Religions and Compton s by Britannica Written by international experts and scholars the articles in this collection reflect the standards that have been the hallmark of the leading English language encyclopedia for over 240 years In 2020 Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc released the Britannica All New Children s Encyclopedia What We Know and What We Don t an encyclopedia aimed primarily at younger readers covering major topics The encyclopedia was widely praised for bringing back the print format It was Britannica s first encyclopedia for children since 1984 137 138 139 Dedications Edit The Britannica was dedicated to the reigning British monarch from 1788 to 1901 and then upon its sale to an American partnership to the British monarch and the President of the United States 6 Thus the 11th edition is dedicated by Permission to His Majesty George the Fifth King of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas Emperor of India and to William Howard Taft President of the United States of America 140 The order of the dedications has changed with the relative power of the United States and Britain and with relative sales the 1954 version of the 14th edition is Dedicated by Permission to the Heads of the Two English Speaking Peoples Dwight David Eisenhower President of the United States of America and Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second 84 Consistent with this tradition the 2007 version of the current 15th edition was dedicated by permission to the current President of the United States of America George W Bush and Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 141 while the 2010 version of the current 15th edition is dedicated by permission to Barack Obama President of the United States of America and Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 142 Edition summary EditMain article History of the Encyclopaedia Britannica Edition supplement Publication years Size Sales Chief editor s Notes1st 1768 1771 3 volumes 2 391 pages b 160 plates 3 000 c William Smellie Largely the work of one editor Smellie An estimated 3 000 sets were eventually sold priced at 12 apiece 30 articles longer than three pages The pages were bound in three equally sized volumes covering Aa Bzo Caaba Lythrum and Macao Zyglophyllum 2nd 1777 1784 10 volumes 8 595 pages 340 plates 1 500 102 James Tytler Largely the work of one editor Tytler 150 long articles pagination errors all maps under Geography article 1 500 sets sold 102 3rd 1788 1797 18 volumes 14 579 pages 542 plates 10 000 or 13 000 d Colin Macfarquhar and George Gleig 42 000 profit on 10 000 copies sold first dedication to monarch pirated by Moore in Dublin and Thomas Dobson in Philadelphiasupplement to 3rd 1801 revised in 1803 2 volumes 1 624 pages 50 plates George Gleig Copyright owned by Thomas Bonar4th 1801 1810 20 volumes 16 033 pages 581 plates 4 000 146 James Millar Authors first allowed to retain copyright Material in the supplement to 3rd not incorporated due to copyright issues 5th 1815 1817 20 volumes 16 017 pages 582 plates James Millar Reprint of the 4th edition Financial losses by Millar and Andrew Bell s heirs EB rights sold to Archibald Constablesupplement to 5th 1816 1824 6 volumes 4 933 pages 125 plates1 10 500 102 Macvey Napier Famous contributors recruited such as Sir Humphry Davy Sir Walter Scott Malthus6th 1820 1823 20 volumes Charles Maclaren Reprint of the 4th and 5th editions with modern font Constable went bankrupt on 19 January 1826 EB rights eventually secured by Adam Black7th 1830 1842 21 volumes 17 101 pages 506 plates plus a 187 page index volume 5 000 102 Macvey Napier assisted by James Browne LLD Widening network of famous contributors such as Sir David Brewster Thomas de Quincey Antonio Panizzi 5 000 sets sold 102 8th 1853 1860 21 volumes 17 957 pages 402 plates plus a 239 page index volume published 18612 8 000 Thomas Stewart Traill Many long articles were copied from the 7th edition 344 contributors including William Thomson authorized American sets printed by Little Brown in Boston 8 000 sets sold altogether9th 1875 1889 24 volumes plus a 499 page index volume labeled Volume 25 55 000 authorized e plus 500 000 pirated sets Thomas Spencer Baynes 1875 80 then W Robertson Smith Some carry over from 8th edition but mostly a new work high point of scholarship 10 000 sets sold by Britannica and 45 000 authorized sets made in the US by Little Brown in Boston and Schribners Sons in NY but pirated widely 500 000 sets in the US 310th supplement to 9th 1902 1903 11 volumes plus the 24 volumes of the 9th Volume 34 containing 124 detailed country maps with index of 250 000 names 4 70 000 Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace and Hugh Chisholm in London Arthur T Hadley and Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City American partnership bought EB rights on 9 May 1901 high pressure sales methods11th 1910 1911 28 volumes plus volume 29 index 1 000 000 Hugh Chisholm in London Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City Another high point of scholarship and writing more articles than the 9th but shorter and simpler financial difficulties for owner Horace Everett Hooper EB rights sold to Sears Roebuck in 192012th supplement to 11th 1921 1922 3 volumes with own index plus the 29 volumes of the 11th5 Hugh Chisholm in London Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City Summarized state of the world before during and after World War I13th supplement to 11th 1926 3 volumes with own index plus the 29 volumes of the 11th6 James Louis Garvin in London Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City Replaced 12th edition volumes improved perspective of the events of 1910 192614th 1929 1933 24 volumes 7 James Louis Garvin in London Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City Publication just before Great Depression was financially catastrophic citation needed revised 14th 1933 1973 24 volumes 7 Franklin Henry Hooper until 1938 then Walter Yust Harry Ashmore Warren E Preece William Haley Began continuous revision in 1936 every article revised at least twice every decade15th 1974 1984 30 volumes 8 Warren E Preece then Philip W Goetz Introduced three part structure division of articles into Micropaedia and Macropaedia Propaedia Outline of Knowledge separate index eliminated1985 2010 32 volumes 9 Philip W Goetz then Robert McHenry currently Dale Hoiberg Restored two volume index some MicropaediaandMacropaedia articles merged slightly longer overall new versions were issued every few years This edition is the last printed edition Global 2009 30 compact volumes Dale Hoiberg Unlike the 15th edition it did not contain Macro and Micropedia sections but ran A through Z as all editions up to the 14th had Edition notes 1Supplement to the fourth fifth and sixth editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica With preliminary dissertations on the history of the sciences 2 The 7th to 14th editions included a separate index volume 3 The 9th edition featured articles by notables of the day such as James Clerk Maxwell on electricity and magnetism and William Thomson who became Lord Kelvin on heat 4 The 10th edition included a maps volume and a cumulative index volume for the 9th and 10th edition volumes the new volumes constituting in combination with the existing volumes of the 9th ed the 10th ed and also supplying a new distinctive and independent library of reference dealing with recent events and developments5 Vols 30 32 the New volumes constituting in combination with the twenty nine volumes of the eleventh edition the twelfth edition6 This supplement replaced the previous supplement The three new supplementary volumes constituting with the volumes of the latest standard edition the thirteenth edition 7 At this point Encyclopaedia Britannica began almost annual revisions New revisions of the 14th edition appeared every year between 1929 and 1973 with the exceptions of 1931 1934 and 1935 148 8 Annual revisions were published every year between 1974 and 2007 with the exceptions of 1996 1999 2000 2004 and 2006 148 The 15th edition introduced as Britannica 3 was published in three parts a 10 volume Micropaedia which contained short articles and served as an index a 19 volume Macropaedia plus the Propaedia see text 9 In 1985 the system was modified by adding a separate two volume index the Macropaedia articles were further consolidated into fewer larger ones for example the previously separate articles about the 50 US states were all included into the United States of America article with some medium length articles moved to the Micropaedia The Micropaedia had 12 vols and the Macropaedia 17 The first CD ROM edition was issued in 1994 At that time also an online version was offered for paid subscription In 1999 this was offered free and no revised print versions appeared The experiment was ended in 2001 and a new printed set was issued in 2001 See also Edit Scotland portal Chicago portal Books portalEncyclopaedia Britannica Films Great Books of the Western World List of encyclopedias by branch of knowledge List of encyclopedias by date List of encyclopedias by language English List of online encyclopediasNotes Edit According to Kister the initial 15th edition 1974 required over 32 million to produce 6 Vol I has viii 697 i pages but 10 unpaginated pages are added between pages 586 and 587 Vol II has iii 1009 ii pages but page numbers 175 176 as well as page numbers 425 426 were used twice additionally page numbers 311 410 were not used Vol III has iii 953 i pages but page numbers 679 878 were not used 143 Archibald Constable estimated in 1812 that there had been 3 500 copies printed but revised his estimate to 3 000 in 1821 144 According to Smellie it was 10 000 as quoted by Robert Kerr in his Memoirs of William Smellie Archibald Constable was quoted as saying the production started at 5 000 and concluded at 13 000 145 10 000 sets sold by Britannica plus 45 000 genuine American reprints by Scribner s Sons and several hundred thousand sets of mutilated and fraudulent 9th editions were sold 147 Most sources estimate there were 500 000 pirated sets References Edit a b c d Bosman Julie 13 March 2012 After 244 Years Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses The New York Times Archived from the original on 14 March 2012 Retrieved 13 March 2012 History of Encyclopaedia Britannica and Britannica Online Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc Archived from the original on 20 October 2006 Retrieved 31 May 2019 History of Encyclopaedia Britannica and Britannica com Britannica com Archived from the original on 9 June 2001 Retrieved 31 May 2019 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint unfit URL link Kearney Christine 14 March 2012 Encyclopaedia Britannica After 244 years in print only digital copies sold The Christian Science Monitor Archived from the original on 31 May 2019 Retrieved 31 May 2019 a b c d e reviews by the Editorial Board of Reference Books Bulletin revised introduction by Sandy Whiteley 1996 Purchasing an Encyclopedia 12 Points to Consider 5th ed Booklist Publications American Library Association ISBN 978 0 8389 7823 8 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Kister KF 1994 Kister s Best Encyclopedias A Comparative Guide to General and Specialized Encyclopedias 2nd ed Phoenix Arizona Oryx Press ISBN 978 0 89774 744 8 a b Britannica Global Edition Encyclopaedia Britannica Store Archived from the original on 5 July 2014 a b c d e f g h i j k l Sader Marian Lewis Amy 1995 Encyclopedias Atlases and Dictionaries New Providence New Jersey R R Bowker A Reed Reference Publishing Company ISBN 978 0 8352 3669 0 a b Goetz Philip W 2007 The New Encyclopaedia Britannica Chicago Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 15th edition Index preface ed Bibcode 1991neb book G a b c d e Goetz Philip W 2007 The New Encyclopaedia Britannica Chicago Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 15th edition Propaedia ed 5 8 Bibcode 1991neb book G a b reviews by the Editorial Board of Reference Books Bulletin revised introduction by Sandy Whiteley 1992 Purchasing an Encyclopedia 12 Points to Consider 4th ed Booklist Publications American Library Association ISBN 978 0 8389 5754 7 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Defense mechanism Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 3 15th ed Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 2007 p 957 a b c d Encyclopaedia Encyclopaedia Britannica 14th ed 1954 Aside from providing an excellent summary of the Britannica s history and early spin off products this article also describes the life cycle of a typical Britannica edition A new edition typically begins with strong sales that decay as the encyclopaedia becomes outdated When work on a new edition is begun sales of the old edition stop just when fiscal needs are greatest a new editorial staff must be assembled articles commissioned Elkan Harrison Powell identified this fluctuation of income as a danger to any encyclopaedia one he hoped to overcome with continuous revision Encyclopaedia Britannica School amp Library Site promotional materials for the 2007 Britannica Archived from the original on 22 March 2007 Retrieved 11 April 2007 Australian Encyclopaedia Britannica promotional materials for the 2007 Britannica Archived from the original on 30 August 2007 Retrieved 10 April 2007 Goetz Philip W 2007 The New Encyclopaedia Britannica Chicago Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 15th edition Micropaedia preface ed Bibcode 1991neb book G Change It s OK Really Encyclopaedia Britannica 13 March 2012 Archived from the original on 7 May 2021 Retrieved 14 November 2016 Encyclopaedia Britannica to end print editions Fox News Associated Press 14 March 2012 Archived from the original on 24 September 2015 Retrieved 17 February 2022 Bosman Julie 13 March 2012 After 244 Years Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses The New York Times Archived from the original on 24 January 2022 Retrieved 17 February 2022 1768 Encyclopaedia Britannica Replica Set Archived 21 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 18 April 2016 Britannica Junior Encyclopaedia 1984 Children s Britannica 1960 Encyclopaedia Britannica Ltd London a b Encyclopaedia Britannica 1988 Britannica Discovery Library issued 1974 1991 Encyclopaedia Britannica UK Ltd Archived from the original on 28 September 2007 Retrieved 11 April 2007 2003 Britannica Concise Encyclopedia Encyclopaedia Britannica UK Ltd Archived from the original on 28 September 2007 Retrieved 11 April 2007 Phạm Hoang Quan 25 July 2015 Ten theo chủ Qua vụ Google va vụ Britannica tiếng Việt Naming by authority the cases of Google and the Vietnamese Britannica in Vietnamese Archived from the original on 29 July 2015 Retrieved 11 August 2015 Britannica Concise Encyclopedia rendered into Vietnamese Tuổi Trẻ News 13 January 2015 Archived from the original on 5 July 2015 Retrieved 11 August 2015 Nguyễn Việt Long 9 July 2015 Chuyện kể từ người tham gia lam Britannica tiếng Việt Stories from contributors to the Vietnamese Britannica in Vietnamese Archived from the original on 23 August 2015 Retrieved 11 August 2015 2007 Compton s by Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica UK Ltd Retrieved 11 April 2007 dead link Britannica 2012 Ultimate Reference DVD Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on 27 October 2013 Retrieved 15 November 2013 Webmaster and Blogger Tools Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc Corporate Site 2014 Archived from the original on 3 October 2019 Retrieved 1 December 2019 a b Graham Charlton 10 February 2009 Q amp A Ian Grant of Encyclopaedia Britannica UK interview Econsultancy Archived from the original on 13 February 2009 Retrieved 10 February 2009 Britannica Online Store BT Click amp Buy Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on 14 August 2006 Retrieved 27 September 2006 Instructions for linking to the Britannica articles Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on 15 March 2007 Retrieved 26 March 2007 Encyclopaedia Britannica Selects AskMeNow to Launch Mobile Encyclopedia Press release AskMeNow Inc 21 February 2007 Archived from the original on 27 September 2007 Retrieved 26 March 2007 Jorge Cauz 3 June 2008 Collaboration and the Voices of Experts Britannica Blog Britannica com Archived from the original on 5 June 2008 Retrieved 19 June 2015 Van Buskirk Eliot 9 June 2008 Encyclopaedia Britannica To Follow Modified Wikipedia Model Wired Archived from the original on 12 April 2009 Retrieved 30 June 2011 Stuart Turton 9 June 2008 Encyclopaedia Britannica dips toe in Wiki waters Alphr Archived from the original on 20 June 2015 Retrieved 19 June 2015 Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc Corporate Site Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on 8 July 2011 Retrieved 30 June 2011 a b Moore Matthew 23 January 2009 Encyclopaedia Britannica fights back against Wikipedia The Telegraph London Archived from the original on 11 January 2022 Retrieved 19 June 2015 a b Samantha Rose Hunt 23 January 2009 Britannica looking to give Wikipedia a run for its money with online editing Tgdaily Archived from the original on 29 January 2009 Retrieved 30 June 2011 Naved Akhtar 25 January 2009 Encyclopaedia Britannica takes on Wikipedia Digital Journal Archived from the original on 28 July 2011 Retrieved 30 June 2011 a b Sweeney Claire 22 January 2009 Britannica 2 0 shows Wikipedia how it s done Times Online Archived from the original on 15 October 2009 Retrieved 26 January 2016 Britannica reaches out to the web BBC News 24 January 2009 Archived from the original on 31 July 2020 Retrieved 19 June 2015 New Britannica Kids Apps Make Learning Fun Press release Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 14 September 2010 Archived from the original on 17 September 2010 Retrieved 28 November 2010 Encyclopaedia Britannica to supply world leading educational apps to Intel AppUp center Press release Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 20 July 2011 Archived from the original on 30 September 2011 Retrieved 20 July 2011 About Mobile Web and Enterprise Design and Development Concentricsky com Archived from the original on 8 August 2012 Retrieved 19 June 2015 Encyclopaedia Britannica App Now Available for iPad Encyclopaedia Britannica 26 October 2011 Archived from the original on 12 September 2016 Retrieved 18 September 2016 Britannica ImageQuest One image database to rule them all Reference Online School Library Journal 2015 Archived from the original on 15 May 2021 Retrieved 17 February 2022 Encyclopaedia Britannica stops printing after more than 200 years The Telegraph 14 March 2012 Archived from the original on 11 January 2022 Retrieved 30 October 2017 McCarthy Tom 13 March 2012 Encyclopedia Britannica halts print publication after 244 years The Guardian Archived from the original on 3 December 2017 Retrieved 30 October 2017 a b Encyclopedia Britannica s new Chrome extension is a simple fix to Google misinformation The Verge Archived from the original on 22 November 2018 Retrieved 22 November 2018 Britannica Insights Firefox extension missing Issue 6081 mozilla addons frontend GitHub Archived from the original on 17 December 2020 Retrieved 5 February 2021 a b Goetz Philip W 2007 The New Encyclopaedia Britannica Chicago Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 15th edition Propaedia ed 531 674 Bibcode 1991neb book G Christine Sutton Britannica www britannica com Britannica Group Archived from the original on 8 February 2022 Retrieved 8 February 2022 a b Brenner Michael 1998 The Renaissance of Jewish Culture in Weimar Germany Yale University Press p 117 ISBN 9780300077209 Archived from the original on 17 February 2022 Retrieved 10 October 2020 Keen Andrew 2007 The Cult of the Amateur How Blogs MySpace YouTube and the Rest of Today s User generated Media are Destroying Our Economy Our Culture and Our Values Doubleday p 44 ISBN 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Look Under M for Mess Company Business and Marketing The Industry Standard Archived from the original on 13 October 2007 Retrieved 26 March 2007 Ilan Yeshua Named Britannica CEO Veteran Executive to Consolidate Operations of Encyclopaedia Britannica and Britannica com Press release Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 16 May 2001 Goetz Philip W 2007 The New Encyclopaedia Britannica Chicago Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 15th edition Propaedia ed 2 Bibcode 1991neb book G Cash shy Britannica New York Post 11 September 2003 p 6 Retrieved 26 March 2007 permanent dead link Group Encyclopaedia Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica Group Appoints Karthik Krishnan as Global Chief Executive Officer www prnewswire com Archived from the original on 3 December 2018 Retrieved 3 December 2018 Marotti Ally Google results aren t always accurate Encyclopaedia Britannica s new Chrome extension could help chicagotribune com Archived from the original on 3 December 2018 Retrieved 3 December 2018 YouTube now displays facts below conspiracy theory videos Big Think 8 August 2018 Archived from the original on 3 December 2018 Retrieved 3 December 2018 NYU Stern Karthik Krishnan Adjunct Assistant Professor www stern nyu edu Archived from the original on 6 October 2021 Retrieved 3 December 2018 Exclusive Interview Encyclopaedia Britannica CEO Karthik Krishnan Asia Outlook Magazine Asia Outlook Magazine Archived from the original on 3 December 2018 Retrieved 3 December 2018 a b Thomas Gillian 1992 A Position to Command Respect Women and the Eleventh Britannica Scarecrow Press ISBN 978 0 8108 2567 3 Lawrence S Giles C 1999 Accessibility of information on the web Nature 400 6740 107 9 Bibcode 1999Natur 400 107L doi 10 1038 21987 PMID 10428673 S2CID 4347646 Lawrence S Giles C 1999 Searching the Web general and scientific information access IEEE Communications Magazine 37 1 116 122 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 118 3636 doi 10 1109 35 739314 S2CID 10947844 Electronic publishing takes journals into a new realm American 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20 million unique monthly visitors in the past year making it the top online news and information destination according to Nielsen NetRatings a b Giles J 2005 Internet encyclopaedias go head to head Jimmy Wales Wikipedia comes close to Britannica in terms of the accuracy of its science entries Nature 438 7070 900 1 Bibcode 2005Natur 438 900G doi 10 1038 438900a PMID 16355180 McHenry Robert 15 November 2004 The Faith Based Encyclopedia TCS Daily Archived from the original on 4 December 2010 a href Template Cite news html title Template Cite news cite news a CS1 maint unfit URL link Terdiman Daniel Study Wikipedia as accurate as Britannica Staff Writer CNET News CNET News Archived from the original on 9 August 2012 Retrieved 5 July 2011 a b Fatally Flawed Refuting the recent study on encyclopedic accuracy by the journal Nature PDF Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc March 2006 Archived PDF from the original on 2 December 2018 Retrieved 30 June 2011 Encyclopaedia Britannica and Nature a response PDF Nature Press release 23 March 2006 Archived from the original PDF on 25 March 2006 Retrieved 21 October 2006 nature com s own archive is under nature com Archived 19 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine inside Press release archives zip 2006 Archived 27 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine by filename Encyclopaedia Britannica and Nature a response pdf As of 20 November 2021 the PDF creation date is 2 August 2019 Our Letter to the Telegraph Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc Corporate Site 20 January 2016 Archived from the original on 28 April 2021 Retrieved 28 April 2021 a b c d e f g h i j k l m Kogan Herman 1958 The Great EB The Story of the Encyclopaedia Britannica Chicago The University of Chicago Press LCCN 58008379 Arner Robert D 1991 Dobson s Encyclopaedia The Publisher Text and Publication of America s First Britannica 1789 1803 Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 978 0 8122 3092 5 Patriarch Revised Time Vol XIV no 13 23 September 1929 pp 66 69 Archived from the original on 13 October 2007 A Completely New Encyclopaedia sic Britannica Time Vol XIV no 12 16 September 1929 pp 2 3 a b Banquet at Guildhall in the City of London Tuesday 15 October 1968 Celebrating the 200th Anniversary of theEncyclopaedia Britannicaand the 25th Anniversary of the Honorable William Benton as its Chair and publisher United Kingdom Encyclopaedia Britannica International Ltd 1968 Reader The New Yorker Vol 9 3 March 1934 p 17 2004 Distinguished Achievement Awards Winners Technology Association of Educational Publishers 1 August 2003 Archived from the original on 17 October 2006 Retrieved 11 April 2007 Top Ten Superbrands 2009 2010 BBC 14 July 2009 Archived from the original on 17 February 2022 Retrieved 15 July 2009 Lang JP 1992 Reference Sources for Small and Medium Sized Libraries 5th ed Chicago American Library Association p 34 ISBN 978 0 8389 3406 7 Goetz Philip W 2007 The New Encyclopaedia Britannica Chicago Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 15th edition Macropaedia ed 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Two Years Later Publishers Weekly pp 44 45 Wolff Geoffrey November 1976 Britannica 3 Failures of The Atlantic pp 107 110 It is called the Micropaedia for little knowledge and little knowledge is what it provides It has proved to be grotesquely inadequate as an index radically constricting the utility of the Macropaedia Einbinder Harvey 1964 The Myth of the Britannica New York Grove Press ISBN 978 0 384 14050 9 Schoolboy spots errors in Encyclopaedia Britannica The Guardian 26 January 2005 Archived from the original on 15 August 2021 Retrieved 10 April 2021 Cunningham Grainne 3 February 2010 Britannica errors spark unholy row Irish Independent Archived from the original on 13 April 2010 Retrieved 30 August 2010 Sheehy Clodagh 4 February 2010 Are they taking the Mick It s the encyclopedia that thinks the Civil War was between the north and south Archived 12 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine Evening Herald Dublin Supplement to the Encyclopaedia or Dictionary of Arts Sciences and Miscellaneous Literature 1803 pp iv Stockwell Foster A History of Information Storage and Retrieval p 116 William Smellie in the Preface to the 1st edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica Day Peter 17 December 1997 Encyclopaedia Britannica changes to survive BBC News Archived from the original on 12 April 2006 Retrieved 27 March 2007 Sales plummeted from 100 000 a year to just 20 000 Encyclopedias and Dictionaries Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 18 15th ed Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 2007 pp 257 286 Chisholm Hugh ed 1911 Encyclopaedia Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 9 11th ed Cambridge University Press p 377 Britannica 6 December 2017 Our early history is described in our Encyclopaedia Britannica entry Tweet Retrieved 6 December 2017 via Twitter Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived 2 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine Herman Arthur 2002 How the Scots Invented the Modern World Three Rivers Press ISBN 978 0 609 80999 0 Krapp Philip Balou Patricia K 1992 Collier s Encyclopedia Vol 9 New York Macmillan Educational Company p 135 LCCN 91061165 The Britannica s 1st edition is described as deplorably inaccurate and unscientific in places Frank Kafker Jeff Loveland eds 2009 The Early Britannica Oxford University Press Cousin John William 1910 Baynes Thomas Spencer A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature London J M Dent amp Sons via Wikisource Baynes T S ed 1878 Editor s Advertisement Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 1 9th ed New York Charles Scribner s Sons Baynes T S ed 1875 1889 Prefatory Notice Encyclopaedia Britannica 9th ed New York Charles Scribner s Sons Chicago Tribune 22 February 1945 Chicago Tribune 28 January 1943 Feder Barnaby J 19 December 1995 Deal Is Set for Encyclopaedia Britannica The New York Times Archived from the original on 21 May 2020 Retrieved 2 May 2020 Mortimer J Adler A Guidebook to Learning for the lifelong pursuit of wisdom Macmillan Publishing Company New York 1986 p 88 In the Matter of Encyclopedia Britannica Inc et al PDF pp 421 541 Archived PDF from the original on 25 October 2015 Retrieved 11 December 2015 Pepitone Julianne 13 March 2012 Encyclopedia Britannica to stop printing books CNN Archived from the original on 14 March 2012 Retrieved 14 March 2012 The new Children s Britannica a fantastic voyage through the history of the world www telegraph co uk Archived from the original on 11 January 2022 Why printed encyclopedias for children are more important than ever The Independent 19 November 2020 Archived from the original on 10 January 2021 Retrieved 6 January 2021 Britannica All New Children s Encyclopedia edited by Christopher Lloyd The School Reading List 8 October 2020 Archived from the original on 14 December 2021 Retrieved 17 July 2021 Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th ed 1910 p 3 Goetz Philip W 1991 The New Encyclopaedia Britannica Chicago Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 15th edition Propaedia ed 3 Bibcode 1991neb book G The New Encyclopaedia Britannica Propaedia Outline of Knowledge and Guide to the Britannica 15th edition 2010 Kafker amp Loveland 2009 p 22 sfnp error no target CITEREFKafkerLoveland2009 help Kafker amp Loveland 2009 p 58 sfnp error no target CITEREFKafkerLoveland2009 help Encyclopedia Britannica Vol 8 14th ed p 374 Baynes T S ed 1878 Encyclopedia Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 8 9th ed New York Charles Scribner s Sons Encyclopedia Britannica Vol 8 14th ed p 376 a b Encyclopaedia Britannica 15th ed Chicago Encyclopaedia Britannica 2007 interior flap a href Template Cite encyclopedia html title Template Cite encyclopedia cite encyclopedia a Missing or empty title help Further reading EditBoyles Denis 2016 Everything Explained That Is Explainable On the Creation of theEncyclopaedia Britannica s Celebrated Eleventh Edition 1910 1911 2016 online review Archived 7 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine Einbinder Harvey 1964 The Myth of the Britannica New York Grove Press ISBN 978 0 384 14050 9 Greenstein Shane and Michelle Devereux 2006 The Crisis at Encyclopaedia Britannica case history Kellogg School of Management Northwestern University Jacobs Arnold Stephen Jr 2004 The Know It All One Man s Humble Quest to Become the Smartest Person in the World New York Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 0 7432 5062 7 Kister Kenneth F 1994 Kister s Best Encyclopedias A Comparative Guide to General and Specialized Encyclopedias 2nd ed Phoenix Arizona Oryx Press ISBN 978 0 89774 744 8 Kogan Herman 1958 The Great EB The Story of the Encyclopaedia Britannica Chicago University of Chicago Press LCCN 58008379 Lee Timothy Techdirt Interviews Britannica President Jorge Cauz Techdirt com 2 June 2008External links EditEncyclopaedia Britannica at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Official website Works by or about Encyclopaedia Britannica at Internet Archive Works by Encyclopaedia Britannica at LibriVox public domain audiobooks Encyclopaedia Britannica at the National Library of Scotland first ten editions and supplements in PDF format Encyclopaedia Britannica at the Online Books Page currently including the 1st 13th editions in multiple formats 3rd edition 1797 first volume use search facility for others at Bavarian State Library MDZ Reader Band Encyclopaedia Britannica or a dictionary of arts sciences and miscellaneous literature Encyclopaedia Britannica or a dictionary of arts sciences and miscellaneous literature 7th edition 1842 fulltext via Hathi Trust 8th edition 1860 index volume use search facility for others at Bavarian State Library MDZ Reader Band The Encyclopaedia Britannica or Dictionary of Arts Sciences and General Literature The Encyclopaedia Britannica or Dictionary of Arts Sciences and General Literature Scribner s 9th Edition 1878 archive org 9th and 10th 1902 editions 1902Encyclopedia com Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Encyclopaedia Britannica amp oldid 1127337962, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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