fbpx
Wikipedia

War

March 11, 2023

This article is about war in general. For other uses, see War (disambiguation), The War (disambiguation), and Warring (disambiguation).
"Conflict zone" redirects here. For the 2001 video game, see Conflict Zone.
"Warfare" redirects here. For the racehorse, see Warfare (horse).

War is an intense armed conflict[a] between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries, insurgents, and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violence, destruction, and mortality, using regular or irregular military forces. Warfare refers to the common activities and characteristics of types of war, or of wars in general.[2] Total war is warfare that is not restricted to purely legitimate military targets, and can result in massive civilian or other non-combatant suffering and casualties.

Clockwise from top-left:
Ancient warfare: Stele of the Vultures, c. 2500 BC
Medieval warfare: Battle of Hastings, 1066
Early modern warfare: Retreat from Moscow, 1812
Industrial age warfare: Battle of the Somme, 1916
Modern warfare: Normandy landings, 1944
Nuclear warfare: Nuclear weapon test, 1954

While some war studies scholars consider war a universal and ancestral aspect of human nature,[3] others argue it is a result of specific socio-cultural, economic or ecological circumstances.[4]

Etymology

 
Mural of War (1896), by Gari Melchers

The English word war derives from the 11th-century Old English words wyrre and werre, from Old French werre (also guerre as in modern French), in turn from the Frankish *werra, ultimately deriving from the Proto-Germanic *werzō 'mixture, confusion'. The word is related to the Old Saxon werran, Old High German werran, and the modern German verwirren, meaning 'to confuse, to perplex, to bring into confusion'.[5]

History

Main article: Military history
 
The percentages of men killed in war in eight tribal societies, and Europe and the U.S. in the 20th century. (Lawrence H. Keeley, archeologist)
 
The Egyptian siege of Dapur in the 13th century BC, from Ramesseum, Thebes.

The earliest evidence of prehistoric warfare is a Mesolithic cemetery in Jebel Sahaba, which has been determined to be approximately 14,000 years old. About forty-five percent of the skeletons there displayed signs of violent death.[6] Since the rise of the state some 5,000 years ago,[7] military activity has occurred over much of the globe. The advent of gunpowder and the acceleration of technological advances led to modern warfare. Estimates for total deaths due to war vary wildly. For the period 3000 BCE until now stated estimates range from 145 million to 2 billion[8] In one estimate, primitive warfare prior to 3000 BCE has been thought to have claimed 400 million victims based on the assumption that it accounted for the 15.1% of all deaths.[9] For comparison, an estimated 1,680,000,000 people died from infectious diseases in the 20th century.[10]

In War Before Civilization, Lawrence H. Keeley, a professor at the University of Illinois, says approximately 90–95% of known societies throughout history engaged in at least occasional warfare,[11] and many fought constantly.[12]

Keeley describes several styles of primitive combat such as small raids, large raids, and massacres. All of these forms of warfare were used by primitive societies, a finding supported by other researchers.[13] Keeley explains that early war raids were not well organized, as the participants did not have any formal training. Scarcity of resources meant defensive works were not a cost-effective way to protect the society against enemy raids.[14]

William Rubinstein wrote "Pre-literate societies, even those organised in a relatively advanced way, were renowned for their studied cruelty.'"[15]

 
Japanese samurai attacking a Mongol ship, 13th century

In Western Europe, since the late 18th century, more than 150 conflicts and about 600 battles have taken place.[16] During the 20th century, war resulted in a dramatic intensification of the pace of social changes, and was a crucial catalyst for the emergence of the political Left as a force to be reckoned with.[17]

 
Finnish soldiers during the Winter War.

In 1947, in view of the rapidly increasingly destructive consequences of modern warfare, and with a particular concern for the consequences and costs of the newly developed atom bomb, Albert Einstein famously stated, "I know not with what weapons World War III will be fought, but World War IV will be fought with sticks and stones."[18]

Mao Zedong urged the socialist camp not to fear nuclear war with the United States since, even if "half of mankind died, the other half would remain while imperialism would be razed to the ground and the whole world would become socialist."[19]

A distinctive feature of war since 1945 is that combat has largely been a matter of civil wars and insurgencies.[20] The major exceptions were the Korean War, the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, the Iran–Iraq War, the Gulf War, the Eritrean–Ethiopian War, and the Russo-Ukrainian War.

 
American tanks moving in formation during the Gulf War.

The Human Security Report 2005 documented a significant decline in the number and severity of armed conflicts since the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s. However, the evidence examined in the 2008 edition of the Center for International Development and Conflict Management's "Peace and Conflict" study indicated the overall decline in conflicts had stalled.[21]

Types of warfare

Main article: Types of war
 
Soldiers of the Australian 4th Division equipped for chemical warfare in WWI, Ypres sector, 1917
  • Asymmetric warfare is a conflict between belligerents of drastically different levels of military capability or size.
  • Biological warfare, or germ warfare, is the use of weaponized biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
  • Chemical warfare involves the use of weaponized chemicals in combat. Poison gas as a chemical weapon was principally used during World War I, and resulted in over a million estimated casualties, including more than 100,000 civilians.[22]
  • Cold warfare is an intense international rivalry without direct military conflict, but with a sustained threat of it, including high levels of military preparations, expenditures, and development, and may involve active conflicts by indirect means, such as economic warfare, political warfare, covert operations, espionage, cyberwarfare, or proxy wars.
  • Conventional warfare is declared war between states in which nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons are not used or see limited deployment.
  • Cyberwarfare involves the actions by a nation-state or international organization to attack and attempt to damage another nation's information systems.
  • Insurgency is a rebellion against authority, when those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents (lawful combatants). An insurgency can be fought via counterinsurgency, and may also be opposed by measures to protect the population, and by political and economic actions of various kinds aimed at undermining the insurgents' claims against the incumbent regime.
  • Information warfare is the application of destructive force on a large scale against information assets and systems, against the computers and networks that support the four critical infrastructures (the power grid, communications, financial, and transportation).[23]
  • Nuclear warfare is warfare in which nuclear weapons are the primary, or a major, method of achieving capitulation.
  • Total war is warfare by any means possible, disregarding the laws of war, placing no limits on legitimate military targets, using weapons and tactics resulting in significant civilian casualties, or demanding a war effort requiring significant sacrifices by the friendly civilian population.
  • Unconventional warfare, the opposite of conventional warfare, is an attempt to achieve military victory through acquiescence, capitulation, or clandestine support for one side of an existing conflict.

Aims

Entities contemplating going to war and entities considering whether to end a war may formulate war aims as an evaluation/propaganda tool. War aims may stand as a proxy for national-military resolve.[24]

Definition

Fried defines war aims as "the desired territorial, economic, military or other benefits expected following successful conclusion of a war".[25]

Classification

Tangible/intangible aims:

  • Tangible war aims may involve (for example) the acquisition of territory (as in the German goal of Lebensraum in the first half of the 20th century) or the recognition of economic concessions (as in the Anglo-Dutch Wars).
  • Intangible war aims – like the accumulation of credibility or reputation[26] – may have more tangible expression ("conquest restores prestige, annexation increases power").[27]

Explicit/implicit aims:

  • Explicit war aims may involve published policy decisions.
  • Implicit war aims[28] can take the form of minutes of discussion, memoranda and instructions.[29]

Positive/negative aims:

  • "Positive war aims" cover tangible outcomes.
  • "Negative war aims" forestall or prevent undesired outcomes.[30]

War aims can change in the course of conflict and may eventually morph into "peace conditions"[31] – the minimal conditions under which a state may cease to wage a particular war.

Effects

 
Global deaths in conflicts since the year 1400.[32]
Main article: Effects of war

Military and civilian casualties modern human history

 
Disability-adjusted life year for war per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004[33]
  no data
  less than 100
  100–200
  200–600
  600–1000
  1000–1400
  1400–1800
  1800–2200
  2200–2600
  2600–3000
  3000–8000
  8000–8800
  more than 8800

Throughout the course of human history, the average number of people dying from war has fluctuated relatively little, being about 1 to 10 people dying per 100,000. However, major wars over shorter periods have resulted in much higher casualty rates, with 100-200 casualties per 100,000 over a few years. While conventional wisdom holds that casualties have increased in recent times due to technological improvements in warfare, this is not generally true. For instance, the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) had about the same number of casualties per capita as World War I, although it was higher during World War II (WWII). That said, overall the number of casualties from war has not significantly increased in recent times. Quite to the contrary, on a global scale the time since WWII has been unusually peaceful.[34]

Largest by death toll

Main articles: List of wars by death toll, Outline of war § Wars, and Casualty recording

The deadliest war in history, in terms of the cumulative number of deaths since its start, is World War II, from 1939 to 1945, with 70–85 million deaths, followed by the Mongol conquests[35] at up to 60 million. As concerns a belligerent's losses in proportion to its prewar population, the most destructive war in modern history may have been the Paraguayan War (see Paraguayan War casualties). In 2013 war resulted in 31,000 deaths, down from 72,000 deaths in 1990.[36] In 2003, Richard Smalley identified war as the sixth biggest problem (of ten) facing humanity for the next fifty years.[37] War usually results in significant deterioration of infrastructure and the ecosystem, a decrease in social spending, famine, large-scale emigration from the war zone, and often the mistreatment of prisoners of war or civilians.[38][39][40] For instance, of the nine million people who were on the territory of the Byelorussian SSR in 1941, some 1.6 million were killed by the Germans in actions away from battlefields, including about 700,000 prisoners of war, 500,000 Jews, and 320,000 people counted as partisans (the vast majority of whom were unarmed civilians).[41] Another byproduct of some wars is the prevalence of propaganda by some or all parties in the conflict,[42] and increased revenues by weapons manufacturers.[43]

Three of the ten most costly wars, in terms of loss of life, have been waged in the last century. These are the two World Wars, followed by the Second Sino-Japanese War (which is sometimes considered part of World War II, or as overlapping). Most of the others involved China or neighboring peoples. The death toll of World War II, being over 60 million, surpasses all other war-death-tolls.[44]

Deaths
(millions) 		Date War
70–85 1939–1945 World War II (see World War II casualties)
60 13th century Mongol Conquests (see Mongol invasions and Tatar invasions)[45][46][47]
40 1850–1864 Taiping Rebellion (see Dungan Revolt)[48]
39 1914–1918 World War I (see World War I casualties)[49]
36 755–763 An Lushan Rebellion (death toll uncertain)[50]
25 1616–1662 Qing dynasty conquest of Ming dynasty[44]
20 1937–1945 Second Sino-Japanese War[51]
20 1370–1405 Conquests of Tamerlane[52][53]
20.77 1862–1877 Dungan Revolt[54][55]
5–9 1917–1922 Russian Civil War and Foreign Intervention[56]

On military personnel

Military personnel subject to combat in war often suffer mental and physical injuries, including depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, disease, injury, and death.

In every war in which American soldiers have fought in, the chances of becoming a psychiatric casualty – of being debilitated for some period of time as a consequence of the stresses of military life – were greater than the chances of being killed by enemy fire.

— No More Heroes, Richard Gabriel[16]

Swank and Marchand's World War II study found that after sixty days of continuous combat, 98% of all surviving military personnel will become psychiatric casualties. Psychiatric casualties manifest themselves in fatigue cases, confusional states, conversion hysteria, anxiety, obsessional and compulsive states, and character disorders.[57]

One-tenth of mobilised American men were hospitalised for mental disturbances between 1942 and 1945, and after thirty-five days of uninterrupted combat, 98% of them manifested psychiatric disturbances in varying degrees.

— 14–18: Understanding the Great War, Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau, Annette Becker[16]

Additionally, it has been estimated anywhere from 18% to 54% of Vietnam war veterans suffered from posttraumatic stress disorder.[57]

Based on 1860 census figures, 8% of all white American males aged 13 to 43 died in the American Civil War, including about 6% in the North and approximately 18% in the South.[58] The war remains the deadliest conflict in American history, resulting in the deaths of 620,000 military personnel. United States military casualties of war since 1775 have totaled over two million. Of the 60 million European military personnel who were mobilized in World War I, 8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured.[59]

 
The remains of dead Crow Indians killed and scalped by Sioux c. 1874

During Napoleon's retreat from Moscow, more French military personnel died of typhus than were killed by the Russians.[60] Of the 450,000 soldiers who crossed the Neman on 25 June 1812, less than 40,000 returned. More military personnel were killed from 1500 to 1914 by typhus than from military action.[61] In addition, if it were not for modern medical advances there would be thousands more dead from disease and infection. For instance, during the Seven Years' War, the Royal Navy reported it conscripted 184,899 sailors, of whom 133,708 (72%) died of disease or were 'missing'.[62]

It is estimated that between 1985 and 1994, 378,000 people per year died due to war.[63]

On civilians

See also: Civilian casualties
 
Les Grandes Misères de la guerre depict the destruction unleashed on civilians during the Thirty Years' War.

Most wars have resulted in significant loss of life, along with destruction of infrastructure and resources (which may lead to famine, disease, and death in the civilian population). During the Thirty Years' War in Europe, the population of the Holy Roman Empire was reduced by 15 to 40 percent.[64][65] Civilians in war zones may also be subject to war atrocities such as genocide, while survivors may suffer the psychological aftereffects of witnessing the destruction of war. War also results in lower quality of life and worse health outcomes. A medium-sized conflict with about 2,500 battle deaths reduces civilian life expectancy by one year and increases infant mortality by 10% and malnutrition by 3.3%. Additionally, about 1.8% of the population loses access to drinking water.[66]

Most estimates of World War II casualties indicate around 60 million people died, 40 million of whom were civilians.[67] Deaths in the Soviet Union were around 27 million.[68] Since a high proportion of those killed were young men who had not yet fathered any children, population growth in the postwar Soviet Union was much lower than it otherwise would have been.[69]

Economic

See also: Military Keynesianism

Once a war has ended, losing nations are sometimes required to pay war reparations to the victorious nations. In certain cases, land is ceded to the victorious nations. For example, the territory of Alsace-Lorraine has been traded between France and Germany on three different occasions.[70]

Typically, war becomes intertwined with the economy and many wars are partially or entirely based on economic reasons. Following World War II, consensus opinion for many years amongst economists and historians was that war can stimulate a country's economy as evidenced by the U.S's emergence from the Great Depression,[71] though modern economic analysis has thrown significant doubt on these views. In most cases, such as the wars of Louis XIV, the Franco-Prussian War, and World War I, warfare primarily results in damage to the economy of the countries involved. For example, Russia's involvement in World War I took such a toll on the Russian economy that it almost collapsed and greatly contributed to the start of the Russian Revolution of 1917.[72]

World War II

 
Ruins of Warsaw's Napoleon Square in the aftermath of World War II

World War II was the most financially costly conflict in history; its belligerents cumulatively spent about a trillion U.S. dollars on the war effort (as adjusted to 1940 prices).[73][74] The Great Depression of the 1930s ended as nations increased their production of war materials.[75]

By the end of the war, 70% of European industrial infrastructure was destroyed.[76] Property damage in the Soviet Union inflicted by the Axis invasion was estimated at a value of 679 billion rubles. The combined damage consisted of complete or partial destruction of 1,710 cities and towns, 70,000 villages/hamlets, 2,508 church buildings, 31,850 industrial establishments, 40,000 mi (64,374 km) of railroad, 4100 railroad stations, 40,000 hospitals, 84,000 schools, and 43,000 public libraries.[77]

Theories of motivation

See also: International relations theory
 
The Ottoman campaign for territorial expansion in Europe in 1566

There are many theories about the motivations for war, but no consensus about which are most common.[78] Carl von Clausewitz said, 'Every age has its own kind of war, its own limiting conditions, and its own peculiar preconceptions.'[79]

Psychoanalytic

Dutch psychoanalyst Joost Meerloo held that, "War is often...a mass discharge of accumulated internal rage (where)...the inner fears of mankind are discharged in mass destruction."[80]

Other psychoanalysts such as E.F.M. Durban and John Bowlby have argued human beings are inherently violent.[81] This aggressiveness is fueled by displacement and projection where a person transfers his or her grievances into bias and hatred against other races, religions, nations or ideologies. By this theory, the nation state preserves order in the local society while creating an outlet for aggression through warfare.

The Italian psychoanalyst Franco Fornari, a follower of Melanie Klein, thought war was the paranoid or projective "elaboration" of mourning.[82] Fornari thought war and violence develop out of our "love need": our wish to preserve and defend the sacred object to which we are attached, namely our early mother and our fusion with her. For the adult, nations are the sacred objects that generate warfare. Fornari focused upon sacrifice as the essence of war: the astonishing willingness of human beings to die for their country, to give over their bodies to their nation.

Despite Fornari's theory that man's altruistic desire for self-sacrifice for a noble cause is a contributing factor towards war, few wars have originated from a desire for war among the general populace.[83] Far more often the general population has been reluctantly drawn into war by its rulers. One psychological theory that looks at the leaders is advanced by Maurice Walsh.[84] He argues the general populace is more neutral towards war and wars occur when leaders with a psychologically abnormal disregard for human life are placed into power. War is caused by leaders who seek war such as Napoleon and Hitler. Such leaders most often come to power in times of crisis when the populace opts for a decisive leader, who then leads the nation to war.

Naturally, the common people don't want war; neither in Russia nor in England nor in America, nor for that matter in Germany. That is understood. But, after all, it is the leaders of the country who determine the policy and it is always a simple matter to drag the people along, whether it is a democracy or a fascist dictatorship or a Parliament or a Communist dictatorship. ... the people can always be brought to the bidding of the leaders. That is easy. All you have to do is tell them they are being attacked and denounce the pacifists for lack of patriotism and exposing the country to danger. It works the same way in any country.

— Hermann Göring at the Nuremberg trials, 18 April 1946[85]

Evolutionary

See also: Prehistoric warfare
 
Women and priests retrieve the dead bodies of Swabian soldiers just outside the city gates of Constance after the battle of Schwaderloh. (Luzerner Schilling)

Several theories concern the evolutionary origins of warfare. There are two main schools: One sees organized warfare as emerging in or after the Mesolithic as a result of complex social organization and greater population density and competition over resources; the other sees human warfare as a more ancient practice derived from common animal tendencies, such as territoriality and sexual competition.[86]

The latter school argues that since warlike behavior patterns are found in many primate species such as chimpanzees,[87] as well as in many ant species,[88] group conflict may be a general feature of animal social behavior. Some proponents of the idea argue that war, while innate, has been intensified greatly by developments of technology and social organization such as weaponry and states.[89]

Psychologist and linguist Steven Pinker argued that war-related behaviors may have been naturally selected in the ancestral environment due to the benefits of victory.[b] He also argued that in order to have credible deterrence against other groups (as well as on an individual level), it was important to have a reputation for retaliation, causing humans to develop instincts for revenge as well as for protecting a group's (or an individual's) reputation ("honor").[b]

 
Increasing population and constant warfare among the Maya city-states over resources may have contributed to the eventual collapse of the Maya civilization by AD 900.

Crofoot and Wrangham have argued that warfare, if defined as group interactions in which "coalitions attempt to aggressively dominate or kill members of other groups", is a characteristic of most human societies. Those in which it has been lacking "tend to be societies that were politically dominated by their neighbors".[91]

Ashley Montagu strongly denied universalistic instinctual arguments, arguing that social factors and childhood socialization are important in determining the nature and presence of warfare. Thus, he argues, warfare is not a universal human occurrence and appears to have been a historical invention, associated with certain types of human societies.[92] Montagu's argument is supported by ethnographic research conducted in societies where the concept of aggression seems to be entirely absent, e.g. the Chewong and Semai of the Malay peninsula.[93] Bobbi S. Low has observed correlation between warfare and education, noting societies where warfare is commonplace encourage their children to be more aggressive.[94]

Economic

 
Kuwaiti oil wells on fire, during the Gulf War, 1 March 1991
See also: Resource war

War can be seen as a growth of economic competition in a competitive international system. In this view wars begin as a pursuit of markets for natural resources and for wealth. War has also been linked to economic development by economic historians and development economists studying state-building and fiscal capacity.[95] While this theory has been applied to many conflicts, such counter arguments become less valid as the increasing mobility of capital and information level the distributions of wealth worldwide, or when considering that it is relative, not absolute, wealth differences that may fuel wars. There are those on the extreme right of the political spectrum who provide support, fascists in particular, by asserting a natural right of a strong nation to whatever the weak cannot hold by force.[96][97] Some centrist, capitalist, world leaders, including Presidents of the United States and U.S. Generals, expressed support for an economic view of war.

Marxist

Main article: Marxist explanations of warfare

The Marxist theory of war is quasi-economic in that it states all modern wars are caused by competition for resources and markets between great (imperialist) powers, claiming these wars are a natural result of capitalism. Marxist economists Karl Kautsky, Rosa Luxemburg, Rudolf Hilferding and Vladimir Lenin theorized that imperialism was the result of capitalist countries needing new markets. Expansion of the means of production is only possible if there is a corresponding growth in consumer demand. Since the workers in a capitalist economy would be unable to fill the demand, producers must expand into non-capitalist markets to find consumers for their goods, hence driving imperialism.[98]

Demographic

Demographic theories can be grouped into two classes, Malthusian and youth bulge theories:

Malthusian

 
U.S. Marine helicopter on patrol in Somalia as part of the Unified Task Force, 1992

Malthusian theories see expanding population and scarce resources as a source of violent conflict.

Pope Urban II in 1095, on the eve of the First Crusade, advocating Crusade as a solution to European overpopulation, said:

For this land which you now inhabit, shut in on all sides by the sea and the mountain peaks, is too narrow for your large population; it scarcely furnishes food enough for its cultivators. Hence it is that you murder and devour one another, that you wage wars, and that many among you perish in civil strife. Let hatred, therefore, depart from among you; let your quarrels end. Enter upon the road to the Holy Sepulchre; wrest that land from a wicked race, and subject it to yourselves.[99]

This is one of the earliest expressions of what has come to be called the Malthusian theory of war, in which wars are caused by expanding populations and limited resources. Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) wrote that populations always increase until they are limited by war, disease, or famine.[100]

The violent herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria, Mali, Sudan and other countries in the Sahel region have been exacerbated by land degradation and population growth.[101][102][103]

Youth bulge

 
Median age by country. War reduces life expectancy. A youth bulge is evident for Africa, and to a lesser extent in some countries in West Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and Central America.

According to Heinsohn, who proposed youth bulge theory in its most generalized form, a youth bulge occurs when 30 to 40 percent of the males of a nation belong to the "fighting age" cohorts from 15 to 29 years of age. It will follow periods with total fertility rates as high as 4–8 children per woman with a 15–29-year delay.[104][105]

Heinsohn saw both past "Christianist" European colonialism and imperialism, as well as today's Islamist civil unrest and terrorism as results of high birth rates producing youth bulges.[106] Among prominent historical events that have been attributed to youth bulges are the role played by the historically large youth cohorts in the rebellion and revolution waves of early modern Europe, including the French Revolution of 1789,[107] and the effect of economic depression upon the largest German youth cohorts ever in explaining the rise of Nazism in Germany in the 1930s.[108] The 1994 Rwandan genocide has also been analyzed as following a massive youth bulge.[109]

Youth bulge theory has been subjected to statistical analysis by the World Bank,[110] Population Action International,[111] and the Berlin Institute for Population and Development.[112] Youth bulge theories have been criticized as leading to racial, gender and age discrimination.[113]

Cultural

Geoffrey Parker argues that what distinguishes the "Western way of war" based in Western Europe chiefly allows historians to explain its extraordinary success in conquering most of the world after 1500:

The Western way of war rests upon five principal foundations: technology, discipline, a highly aggressive military tradition, a remarkable capacity to innovate and to respond rapidly to the innovation of others and—from about 1500 onward—a unique system of war finance. The combination of all five provided a formula for military success....The outcome of wars has been determined less by technology, then by better war plans, the achievement of surprise, greater economic strength, and above all superior discipline. [114]

Parker argues that Western armies were stronger because they emphasized discipline, that is, "the ability of a formation to stand fast in the face of the enemy, where they're attacking or being attacked, without giving way to the natural impulse of fear and panic." Discipline came from drills and marching in formation, target practice, and creating small "artificial kinship groups: such as the company and the platoon, to enhance psychological cohesion and combat efficiency.[115]

Rationalist

 
U.S. soldiers directing artillery on enemy trucks in A Shau Valley, April 1968

Rationalism is an international relations theory or framework. Rationalism (and Neorealism (international relations)) operate under the assumption that states or international actors are rational, seek the best possible outcomes for themselves, and desire to avoid the costs of war.[116] Under one game theory approach, rationalist theories posit all actors can bargain, would be better off if war did not occur, and likewise seek to understand why war nonetheless reoccurs. Under another rationalist game theory without bargaining, the peace war game, optimal strategies can still be found that depend upon number of iterations played. In "Rationalist Explanations for War", James Fearon examined three rationalist explanations for why some countries engage in war:

"Issue indivisibility" occurs when the two parties cannot avoid war by bargaining, because the thing over which they are fighting cannot be shared between them, but only owned entirely by one side or the other.

 
U.S. Marines direct a concentration of fire at their opponents, Vietnam, 8 May 1968

"Information asymmetry with incentives to misrepresent" occurs when two countries have secrets about their individual capabilities, and do not agree on either: who would win a war between them, or the magnitude of state's victory or loss. For instance, Geoffrey Blainey argues that war is a result of miscalculation of strength. He cites historical examples of war and demonstrates, "war is usually the outcome of a diplomatic crisis which cannot be solved because both sides have conflicting estimates of their bargaining power."[117] Thirdly, bargaining may fail due to the states' inability to make credible commitments.[118]

Within the rationalist tradition, some theorists have suggested that individuals engaged in war suffer a normal level of cognitive bias,[119] but are still "as rational as you and me".[120] According to philosopher Iain King, "Most instigators of conflict overrate their chances of success, while most participants underrate their chances of injury...."[121] King asserts that "Most catastrophic military decisions are rooted in GroupThink" which is faulty, but still rational.[122]

The rationalist theory focused around bargaining is currently under debate. The Iraq War proved to be an anomaly that undercuts the validity of applying rationalist theory to some wars.[123]

Political science

The statistical analysis of war was pioneered by Lewis Fry Richardson following World War I. More recent databases of wars and armed conflict have been assembled by the Correlates of War Project, Peter Brecke and the Uppsala Conflict Data Program.[124]

The following subsections consider causes of war from system, societal, and individual levels of analysis. This kind of division was first proposed by Kenneth Waltz in Man, the State, and War and has been often used by political scientists since then.[125]: 143 

System-level

There are several different international relations theory schools. Supporters of realism in international relations argue that the motivation of states is the quest for security, and conflicts can arise from the inability to distinguish defense from offense, which is called the security dilemma.[125]: 145 

Within the realist school as represented by scholars such as Henry Kissinger and Hans Morgenthau, and the neorealist school represented by scholars such as Kenneth Waltz and John Mearsheimer, two main sub-theories are:

  1. Balance of power theory: States have the goal of preventing a single state from becoming a hegemon, and war is the result of the would-be hegemon's persistent attempts at power acquisition. In this view, an international system with more equal distribution of power is more stable, and "movements toward unipolarity are destabilizing."[125]: 147  However, evidence has shown power polarity is not actually a major factor in the occurrence of wars.[125]: 147–48 
  2. Power transition theory: Hegemons impose stabilizing conditions on the world order, but they eventually decline, and war occurs when a declining hegemon is challenged by another rising power or aims to preemptively suppress them.[125]: 148  On this view, unlike for balance-of-power theory, wars become more probable when power is more equally distributed. This "power preponderance" hypothesis has empirical support.[125]: 148 

The two theories are not mutually exclusive and may be used to explain disparate events according to the circumstance.[125]: 148 

Liberalism as it relates to international relations emphasizes factors such as trade, and its role in disincentivizing conflict which will damage economic relations. Realists[who?] respond that military force may sometimes be at least as effective as trade at achieving economic benefits, especially historically if not as much today.[125]: 149  Furthermore, trade relations which result in a high level of dependency may escalate tensions and lead to conflict.[125]: 150  Empirical data on the relationship of trade to peace are mixed, and moreover, some evidence suggests countries at war don't necessarily trade less with each other.[125]: 150 

Societal-level

  • Diversionary theory, also known as the "scapegoat hypothesis", suggests the politically powerful may use war to as a diversion or to rally domestic popular support.[125]: 152  This is supported by literature showing out-group hostility enhances in-group bonding, and a significant domestic "rally effect" has been demonstrated when conflicts begin.[125]: 152–13  However, studies examining the increased use of force as a function of need for internal political support are more mixed.[125]: 152–53  U.S. war-time presidential popularity surveys taken during the presidencies of several recent U.S. leaders have supported diversionary theory.[126]

Individual-level

These theories suggest differences in people's personalities, decision-making, emotions, belief systems, and biases are important in determining whether conflicts get out of hand.[125]: 157  For instance, it has been proposed that conflict is modulated by bounded rationality and various cognitive biases,[125]: 157  such as prospect theory.[127]

Ethics

 
Morning after the Battle of Waterloo, by John Heaviside Clark, 1816

The morality of war has been the subject of debate for thousands of years.[128]

The two principal aspects of ethics in war, according to the just war theory, are jus ad bellum and jus in bello.[129]

Jus ad bellum (right to war), dictates which unfriendly acts and circumstances justify a proper authority in declaring war on another nation. There are six main criteria for the declaration of a just war: first, any just war must be declared by a lawful authority; second, it must be a just and righteous cause, with sufficient gravity to merit large-scale violence; third, the just belligerent must have rightful intentions – namely, that they seek to advance good and curtail evil; fourth, a just belligerent must have a reasonable chance of success; fifth, the war must be a last resort; and sixth, the ends being sought must be proportional to means being used.[130][131]

Jus in bello (right in war), is the set of ethical rules when conducting war. The two main principles are proportionality and discrimination. Proportionality regards how much force is necessary and morally appropriate to the ends being sought and the injustice suffered.[132] The principle of discrimination determines who are the legitimate targets in a war, and specifically makes a separation between combatants, who it is permissible to kill, and non-combatants, who it is not.[132] Failure to follow these rules can result in the loss of legitimacy for the just-war-belligerent.[133]

 
In besieged Leningrad. "Hitler ordered that Moscow and Leningrad were to be razed to the ground; their inhabitants were to be annihilated or driven out by starvation. These intentions were part of the 'General Plan East'." – The Oxford Companion to World War II.[134]

The just war theory was foundational in the creation of the United Nations and in international law's regulations on legitimate war.[128]

Lewis Coser, U.S. conflict theorist and sociologist, argued conflict provides a function and a process whereby a succession of new equilibriums are created. Thus, the struggle of opposing forces, rather than being disruptive, may be a means of balancing and maintaining a social structure or society.[135]

Limiting and stopping

 
Anti-war rally in Washington, D.C., 15 March 2003
Main article: Anti-war movement

Religious groups have long formally opposed or sought to limit war as in the Second Vatican Council document Gaudiem et Spes: "Any act of war aimed indiscriminately at the destruction of entire cities of extensive areas along with their population is a crime against God and man himself. It merits unequivocal and unhesitating condemnation."[136]

Anti-war movements have existed for every major war in the 20th century, including, most prominently, World War I, World War II, and the Vietnam War. In the 21st century, worldwide anti-war movements occurred in response to the United States invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq. Protests opposing the War in Afghanistan occurred in Europe, Asia, and the United States.

Pauses

During a war, brief pauses of violence may be called for, and further agreed to— ceasefire, temporary cessation, humanitarian pauses and corridors, days of tranquility, de-confliction arrangements.[137] There a number of disadvantages, obstacles and hesitations against implementing such pauses such as a humanitarian corridor.[138][139] Pauses in conflict can also be ill-advised, for reasons such as "delay of defeat" and the "weakening of credibility".[140] Natural causes for a pause may include events such as the 2019 coronavirus pandemic.[141][142]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The term "armed conflict" is used instead of, or in addition to, the term "war" with the former being more general in scope. The International Committee of the Red Cross differentiates between international and non-international armed conflict in their definition, "International armed conflicts exist whenever there is resort to armed force between two or more States.... Non-international armed conflicts are protracted armed confrontations occurring between governmental armed forces and the forces of one or more armed groups, or between such groups arising on the territory of a State [party to the Geneva Conventions]. The armed confrontation must reach a minimum level of intensity and the parties involved in the conflict must show a minimum of organisation."[1]
  2. ^ a b The argument is made from pages 314 to 332 of The Blank Slate.[90] Relevant quotes include on p332 "The first step in understanding violence is to set aside our abhorrence of it long enough to examine why it can sometimes pay off in evolutionary terms.", "Natural selection is powered by competition, which means that the products of natural selection - survival machines, in Richard Dawkins metaphor - should, by default, do whatever helps them survive and reproduce.". On p323 "If an obstacle stands in the way of something an organism needs, it should neutralize the obstacle by disabling or eliminating it.", "Another human obstacle consists of men monopolozing women who could otherwise be taken as wives.", "The competition can be violent". On p324 "So people have invented, and perhaps evolved, an alternate defense: the advertised deterrence policy known as lex talionis, the law of retaliation, familiar from the biblical injunction "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth." If you can credibly say to potential adversaries, "We won't attack first, but if we are attacked, we will survive and strike back," you removee Hobbes's first two incentives for quarrel, gain and mistrust.". On p326 "Also necessary for vengeance to work as a deterrent is that the willingness to pursue it be made public, because the whole point of deterrence is to give would-be attackers second thoughts beforehand. And this brings us to Hobbes's final reason for quarrel. Thirdly, glory - though a more accurate word would be "honor"."

References

  1. ^ "How is the Term "Armed Conflict" Defined in International Humanitarian Law?" (PDF). International Committee of the Red Cross. March 2008. (PDF) from the original on 1 November 2018. Retrieved 7 December 2020.
  2. ^ "Warfare". Cambridge Dictionary. from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
  3. ^ Šmihula, Daniel (2013): The Use of Force in International Relations, p. 67, ISBN 978-80-224-1341-1.
  4. ^ James, Paul; Friedman, Jonathan (2006). Globalization and Violence, Vol. 3: Globalizing War and Intervention. London: Sage Publications. from the original on 11 January 2020. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
  5. ^ "war". Online Etymology Dictionary. 2010. from the original on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 24 April 2011.
  6. ^ Keeley, Lawrence H: War Before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage. p. 37.
  7. ^ Diamond, Jared, Guns, Germs and Steel
  8. ^ Eckhardt, William (1991). "War-related deaths since 3000 BC". Bulletin of Peace Proposals. 22 (4): 437–443. doi:10.1177/096701069102200410. S2CID 144946896.
  9. ^ Matthew White, 'Primitive War' 14 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  10. ^ David McCandless, '20th Century Death' 17 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine
  11. ^ . Brneurosci.org. 4 September 2006. Archived from the original on 21 November 2010. Retrieved 24 January 2011.
  12. ^ Spengler (4 July 2006). . Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 6 July 2006. Retrieved 8 June 2009.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  13. ^ Martin, Debra L.; Harrod, Ryan P.; Pérez, Ventura R., eds. (2012). The Bioarchaeology of Violence. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. from the original on 4 November 2013. Retrieved 10 January 2013.
  14. ^ Keeley, Lawrence H: War Before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage. p. 55.
  15. ^ W. D. Rubinstein (2004). Genocide: A History. Pearson Longman. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-582-50601-5. from the original on 8 August 2013. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
  16. ^ a b c World War One – A New Kind of War | Part II 27 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine, From 14 – 18 Understanding the Great War, by Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau, Annette Becker
  17. ^ Kolko 1994, p. xvii–xviii: "War in this century became an essential precondition for the emergence of a numerically powerful Left, moving it from the margins to the very center of European politics during 1917–18 and of all world affairs after 1941".
  18. ^ . 1947. Archived from the original on 4 June 2010. Retrieved 3 February 2010. Nuclear Age Peace Foundation paper
  19. ^ "Instant Wisdom: Beyond the Little Red Book". Time. 20 September 1976. from the original on 29 September 2013. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
  20. ^ Robert J. Bunker and Pamela Ligouri Bunker, "The modern state in epochal transition: The significance of irregular warfare, state deconstruction, and the rise of new warfighting entities beyond neo-medievalism." Small Wars & Insurgencies 27.2 (2016): 325–344.
  21. ^ Hewitt, Joseph, J. Wilkenfield and T. Gurr , Paradigm Publishers, 2007
  22. ^ D. Hank Ellison (24 August 2007). Handbook of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents, Second Edition. CRC Press. pp. 567–70. ISBN 978-0-8493-1434-6.
  23. ^ Lewis, Brian C. . Federation of American Scientist. Archived from the original on 17 June 1997. Retrieved 27 February 2017.
  24. ^ Sullivan, Patricia (16 July 2012). "War Aims and War Outcomes". Who Wins?: Predicting Strategic Success and Failure in Armed Conflict. Oxford University Press, USA (published 2012). p. 17. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199878338.003.0003. ISBN 9780199878338. from the original on 13 September 2015. Retrieved 25 August 2015. A state with greater military capacity than its adversary is more likely to prevail in wars with 'total' war aims—the overthrow of a foreign government or annexation of territory—than in wars with more limited objectives.
  25. ^ Fried, Marvin Benjamin (1 July 2014). Austro-Hungarian War Aims in the Balkans During World War I. Palgrave Macmillan (published 2014). p. 4. ISBN 9781137359018. from the original on 17 October 2015. Retrieved 24 August 2015. War aims are the desired territorial, economic, military or other benefits expected following successful conclusion of a war.
  26. ^ Welch distinguishes: "tangible goods such as arms, wealth, and – provided they are strategically or economically valuable – territory and resources" from "intangible goods such as credibility and reputation" – Welch, David A. (10 August 1995). Justice and the Genesis of War. Cambridge Studies in International Relations. Cambridge University Press (published 1995). p. 17. ISBN 9780521558686. from the original on 18 September 2015. Retrieved 24 August 2015.
  27. ^ Fried, Marvin Benjamin (1 July 2014). Austro-Hungarian War Aims in the Balkans During World War I. Palgrave Macmillan (published 2014). p. 4. ISBN 9781137359018. from the original on 17 October 2015. Retrieved 24 August 2015. Intangibles, such as prestige or power, can also represent war aims, though often (albeit not always) their achievement is framed within a more tangible context (e.g. conquest restores prestige, annexation increases power, etc.).
  28. ^ Compare:Katwala, Sunder (13 February 2005). "Churchill by Paul Addison". Books. The Guardian. Guardian News and Media Limited. from the original on 28 September 2016. Retrieved 24 August 2015. [Churchill] took office and declared he had 'not become the King's First Minister to oversee the liquidation of the British empire'. [...] His view was that an Anglo-American English-speaking alliance would seek to preserve the empire, though ending it was among Roosevelt's implicit war aims.
  29. ^ Compare Fried, Marvin Benjamin (1 July 2014). Austro-Hungarian War Aims in the Balkans During World War I. Palgrave Macmillan (published 2014). p. 4. ISBN 9781137359018. from the original on 17 October 2015. Retrieved 24 August 2015. At times, war aims were explicitly stated internally or externally in a policy decision, while at other times [...] the war aims were merely discussed but not published, remaining instead in the form of memoranda or instructions.
  30. ^ Fried, Marvin Benjamin (1 July 2015). "'A Life and Death Question': Austro-Hungarian War Aims in the First World War". In Afflerbach, Holger (ed.). The Purpose of the First World War: War Aims and Military Strategies. Schriften des Historischen Kollegs. Vol. 91. Berlin/Boston: Walter de Gruyter GmbH (published 2015). p. 118. ISBN 9783110443486. from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 24 August 2015. [T]he [Austrian] Foreign Ministry [...] and the Military High Command [...] were in agreement that political and military hegemony over Serbia and the Western Balkans was a vital war aim. The Hungarian Prime Minister István Count Tisza, by contrast, was more preoccupied with so-called 'negative war aims', notably warding off hostile Romanian, Italian, and even Bulgarian intervention.
  31. ^ Haase, Hugo (1932). "The Debate in the Reichstag on Internal Political Conditions, April 5–6, 1916". In Lutz, Ralph Haswell (ed.). Fall of the German Empire, 1914–1918. Hoover War Library publications. Stanford University Press. p. 233. ISBN 9780804723800. from the original on 25 October 2015. Retrieved 25 August 2015. Gentlemen, when it comes time to formulate peace conditions, it is time to think of another thing than war aims.
  32. ^ Roser, Max (15 November 2017). "War and Peace". Our World in Data. from the original on 16 November 2017. Retrieved 15 November 2017.
  33. ^ "Mortality and Burden of Disease Estimates for WHO Member States in 2004". World Health Organization. from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
  34. ^ "War and Peace". Our World in Data. from the original on 16 November 2017. Retrieved 16 November 2017.
  35. ^ *The Cambridge History of China: Alien regimes and border states, 907–1368, 1994, p. 622, cited by White
    *Matthew White (2011-11-07). The Great Big Book of Horrible Things: The Definitive Chronicle of History's 100 Worst Atrocities.
  36. ^ Murray, Christopher JL; Vos, Theo; Lopez, Alan D (17 December 2014). "Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013". Lancet. 385 (9963): 117–71. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2. PMC 4340604. PMID 25530442.
  37. ^ "Top Ten Problems of Humanity for Next 50 Years", Professor R. E. Smalley, Energy & NanoTechnology Conference, Rice University, 3 May 2003.
  38. ^ Tanton, John (2002). The Social Contract. p. 42.
  39. ^ Moore, John (1992). The pursuit of happiness. p. 304.
  40. ^ Baxter, Richard (2013). Humanizing the Laws of War. p. 344.
  41. ^ Timothy Snyder, Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin, Basic Books, 2010, p. 250.
  42. ^ Dying and Death: Inter-disciplinary Perspectives. p. 153, Asa Kasher (2007)
  43. ^ Chew, Emry (2012). Arming the Periphery. p. 49.
  44. ^ a b McFarlane, Alan: The Savage Wars of Peace: England, Japan and the Malthusian Trap, Blackwell 2003, ISBN 0-631-18117-2, ISBN 978-0-631-18117-0 – cited by White 20 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  45. ^ Ping-ti Ho, "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in Études Song, Series 1, No 1, (1970) pp. 33–53.
  46. ^ "Mongol Conquests". Users.erols.com. from the original on 20 December 2017. Retrieved 24 January 2011.
  47. ^ . 1987. Archived from the original on 17 May 2003. Retrieved 24 January 2011.
  48. ^ . Britannica. Archived from the original on 15 December 2007. Retrieved 24 January 2011.
  49. ^ Michael Duffy (22 August 2009). "Military Casualties of World War One". Firstworldwar.com. from the original on 28 June 2018. Retrieved 24 January 2011.
  50. ^ "Selected Death Tolls for Wars, Massacres and Atrocities Before the 20th Century". Users.erols.com. from the original on 20 December 2017. Retrieved 24 January 2011.
  51. ^ "Nuclear Power: The End of the War Against Japan". BBC News. from the original on 28 November 2015. Retrieved 24 January 2011.
  52. ^ "Timur Lenk (1369–1405)". Users.erols.com. from the original on 20 December 2017. Retrieved 24 January 2011.
  53. ^ Matthew White's website 20 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine (a compilation of scholarly death toll estimates)
  54. ^ 曹树基. 《中国人口史》 (in Chinese). Vol. 5《清时期》. p. 635.[full citation needed]
  55. ^ 路伟东. "同治光绪年间陕西人口的损失" (in Chinese).[full citation needed]
  56. ^ "Russian Civil War". Spartacus-Educational.com. from the original on 5 December 2010. Retrieved 26 February 2019.
  57. ^ a b Lt. Col. Dave Grossman (1996). On Killing – The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War & Society. Little, Brown & Co.
  58. ^ Maris Vinovskis (28 September 1990). Toward a Social History of the American Civil War: Exploratory Essays. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-39559-5. from the original on 26 May 2013. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
  59. ^ Kitchen, Martin (2000), The Treaty of Versailles and its Consequences 12 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine, New York: Longman
  60. ^ . Joseph M. Conlon.
  61. ^ . TIME.
  62. ^ A. S. Turberville (2006). Johnson's England: An Account of the Life & Manners of His Age. p. 53. ISBN 1-4067-2726-1
  63. ^ Obermeyer Z, Murray CJ, Gakidou E (June 2008). "Fifty years of violent war deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia: analysis of data from the world health survey programme". BMJ. 336 (7659): 1482–86. doi:10.1136/bmj.a137. PMC 2440905. PMID 18566045.
  64. ^ The Thirty Years War (1618–48) 20 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Alan McFarlane, The Savage Wars of Peace: England, Japan and the Malthusian Trap (2003)
  65. ^ History of Europe – Demographics 23 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Encyclopædia Britannica.
  66. ^ Davenport, Christian; Mokleiv Nygård, Håvard; Fjelde, Hanne; Armstrong, David (2019). "The Consequences of Contention: Understanding the Aftereffects of Political Conflict and Violence". Annual Review of Political Science. 22: 361–377. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-064057.
  67. ^ . Archived from the original on 22 April 2007. Retrieved 20 April 2007.
  68. ^ "Leaders mourn Soviet wartime dead". BBC News. 9 May 2005. from the original on 22 December 2019. Retrieved 6 January 2010.
  69. ^ Hosking, Geoffrey A. (2006). Rulers And Victims: The Russians in the Soviet Union. Harvard University Press. pp. 242–. ISBN 978-0-674-02178-5. from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
  70. ^ "Alsace-Lorraine". Encyclopædia Britannica (Online ed.). from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 21 March 2022.
  71. ^ Higgs, Robert (March 1992). "Wartime Prosperity? A Reassessment of the U.S. Economy in the 1940s" (PDF). The Journal of Economic History. 52 (1): 41–60. doi:10.1017/S0022050700010251. S2CID 154484756. Retrieved 29 October 2022.
  72. ^ Gatrell, Peter (2014). Russia's First World War : A Social and Economic History. Hoboken, New Jersey: Routledge. p. 270. ISBN 9781317881391.
  73. ^ Mayer, E. (2000). . Emayzine.com. Victorville, California: Victor Valley College. Archived from the original on 1 March 2009. Retrieved 4 July 2014.
  74. ^ Coleman, P. (1999) World War II Resource Guide (Gardena, California: The American War Library)
  75. ^ . Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 4 July 2014.
  76. ^ Marc Pilisuk; Jennifer Achord Rountree (2008). Who Benefits from Global Violence and War: Uncovering a Destructive System. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 136–. ISBN 978-0-275-99435-8. from the original on 26 May 2013. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
  77. ^ The New York Times, 9 February 1946, Volume 95, Number 32158.
  78. ^ Levy, Jack S. (1989). Tetlock, Philip E.; Husbands, Jo L.; Jervis, Robert; Stern, Paul C.; Tilly, Charles (eds.). (PDF). Behavior, Society and Nuclear War. I: 295. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 September 2013. Retrieved 4 May 2012.
  79. ^ Clausewitz, Carl Von (1976), On War (Princeton University Press) p. 593
  80. ^ | A. M. Meerloo, M.D. The Rape of the Mind (2009) p. 134, Progressive Press, ISBN 978-1-61577-376-3
  81. ^ Durbin, E.F.L. and John Bowlby. Personal Aggressiveness and War 1939.
  82. ^ (Fornari 1975)
  83. ^ Blanning, T.C.W. "The Origin of Great Wars." The Origins of the French Revolutionary Wars. p. 5
  84. ^ Walsh, Maurice N. War and the Human Race. 1971.
  85. ^ "In an interview with Gilbert in Göring's jail cell during the Nuremberg War Crimes Trials (18 April 1946)". 18 April 2017. Retrieved 5 August 2015.
  86. ^ Peter Meyer. Social Evolution in Franz M. Wuketits and Christoph Antweiler (eds.) Handbook of Evolution The Evolution of Human Societies and Cultures Wiley-VCH Verlag
  87. ^ O'Connell, Sanjida (7 January 2004). "Apes of war...is it in our genes?". The Daily Telegraph. London. from the original on 4 September 2018. Retrieved 6 February 2010. Analysis of chimpanzee war behavior
  88. ^ Anderson, Kenneth (1996). "Warrior Ants: The Enduring Threat of the Small War and the Land-mine". SSRN 935783. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Scholarly comparisons between human and ant wars
  89. ^ Johan M.G. van der Dennen. 1995. The Origin of War: Evolution of a Male-Coalitional Reproductive Strategy. Origin Press, Groningen, 1995 chapters 1 & 2
  90. ^ Pinker, Steven (2002). The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature. London: The Penguin Group. p. 314-332. ISBN 0-713-99256-5.
  91. ^ Mind the Gap: Tracing the Origins of Human Universals By Peter M. Kappeler, Joan B. Silk, 2009, Chapter 8, "Intergroup Aggression in Primates and Humans; The Case for a Unified Theory", Margaret C. Crofoot and Richard W. Wrangham
  92. ^ Montagu, Ashley (1976), The Nature of Human Aggression (Oxford University Press)
  93. ^ Howell, Signe and Roy Willis, eds. (1989) Societies at Peace: Anthropological Perspectives. London: Routledge
  94. ^ "An Evolutionary Perspective on War" 16 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Bobbi S. Low, published in Behavior, Culture, and Conflict in World Politics, The University of Michigan Press, p. 22
  95. ^ Johnson, Noel D.; Koyama, Mark (April 2017). "States and economic growth: Capacity and constraints". Explorations in Economic History. 64: 1–20. doi:10.1016/j.eeh.2016.11.002.
  96. ^ Roger Griffin and Matthew Feldman, eds., Fascism: Fascism and Culture, New York: Routledge, 2004.
  97. ^ Hawkins, Mike. Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860–1945: Nature as Model and Nature as Threat, Cambridge University Press, 1997.
  98. ^ O'Callaghan, Einde (25 October 2007). "The Marxist Theory of Imperialism and its Critics". Marxists Internet Archive. from the original on 8 July 2017. Retrieved 24 April 2011.
  99. ^ Safire, William (2004). Lend me your ears: great speeches in history. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-393-05931-1.
  100. ^ Waugh, David (2000). Geography: an integrated approach. Nelson Thornes. p. 378. ISBN 978-0-17-444706-1.
  101. ^ "In Mali, waning fortunes of Fulani herders play into Islamist hands". Reuters. 20 November 2016. from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
  102. ^ "How Climate Change Is Spurring Land Conflict in Nigeria". Time. 28 June 2018. from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
  103. ^ "The Deadliest Conflict You've Never Heard of". Foreign Policy. 23 January 2019. from the original on 18 February 2019. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
  104. ^ Helgerson, John L. (2002): "The National Security Implications of Global Demographic Trends"[1] 10 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  105. ^ Heinsohn, G. (2006): "Demography and War" (online) 12 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  106. ^ Heinsohn, G. (2005): "Population, Conquest and Terror in the 21st Century" (online) 13 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  107. ^ Jack A. Goldstone (4 March 1993). Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-08267-0. from the original on 26 May 2013. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
  108. ^ Moller, Herbert (1968): 'Youth as a Force in the Modern World', Comparative Studies in Society and History 10: 238–60; 240–44
  109. ^ Diessenbacher, Hartmut (1994): Kriege der Zukunft: Die Bevölkerungsexplosion gefährdet den Frieden. Muenchen: Hanser 1998; see also (criticizing youth bulge theory) Marc Sommers (2006): "Fearing Africa´s Young Men: The Case of Rwanda." The World Bank: Social Development Papers – Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction, Paper No. 32, January 2006 [2] 10 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  110. ^ Urdal, Henrik (2004): "The Devil in the Demographics: The Effect of Youth Bulges on Domestic Armed Conflict," ,
  111. ^ Population Action International: "The Security Demographic: Population and Civil Conflict after the Cold War"[4] 10 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  112. ^ Kröhnert, Steffen (2004): "Warum entstehen Kriege? Welchen Einfluss haben demografische Veränderungen auf die Entstehung von Konflikten?" [5] 4 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine
  113. ^ Hendrixson, Anne: "Angry Young Men, Veiled Young Women: Constructing a New Population Threat" [6] 30 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  114. ^ Geoffrey Parker, “Introduction” in Parker, ed. The Cambridge illustrated history of warfare (Cambridge University Press 1995) pp 2-11, online
  115. ^ Parker, :Introduction: pp 2, 3.
  116. ^ a b Fearon, James D. (Summer 1995). "Rationalist Explanations for War". International Organization. 49 (3): 379–414. doi:10.1017/s0020818300033324. JSTOR 2706903. S2CID 38573183.
  117. ^ Geoffrey Blainey (1988). Causes of War (3rd ed.). p. 114. ISBN 9780029035917. from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
  118. ^ Powell, Robert (2002). "Bargaining Theory and International Conflict". Annual Review of Political Science. 5: 1–30. doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.5.092601.141138.
  119. ^ Chris Cramer, 'Civil War is Not a Stupid Thing', ISBN 978-1850658214
  120. ^ From point 10 of Modern Conflict is Not What You Think (article) 22 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine, accessed 16 December 2014.
  121. ^ Quote from Iain King, in Modern Conflict is Not What You Think 22 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  122. ^ Point 6 in Modern Conflict is Not What You Think 22 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  123. ^ Lake, David A. (November 2010). "Two Cheers for Bargaining Theory: Assessing Rationalist Explanations of the Iraq War". International Security. 35 (3): 7–52. doi:10.1162/isec_a_00029. S2CID 1096131.
  124. ^ "Uppsala Conflict Data Program - About". from the original on 3 April 2019. Retrieved 9 April 2019.
  125. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Levy, Jack S. (June 1998). "The Causes of War and the Conditions of Peace". Annual Review of Political Science. 1: 139–65. doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.1.1.139.
  126. ^ . 2001. Archived from the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 7 February 2010. More recently studies (Lebow 2008, Lindemann 2010) demonstrated that striving for self-esteem (i.e. virile self images), and recognition as a Great Power or non-recognition (exclusion and punishment of great powers, denying traumatic historical events) is a principal cause of international conflict and war.
  127. ^ Levy, Jack S. (March 1997). (PDF). International Studies Quarterly. 41 (1): 87–112. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00034. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015.
  128. ^ a b DeForrest, Mark Edward. . JUST WAR THEORY AND THE RECENT U.S. AIR STRIKES AGAINST IRAQ. Gonzaga Journal of International Law. Archived from the original on 2 April 2010. Retrieved 1 August 2011.
  129. ^ Lazar, Seth (21 March 2020). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "War". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
  130. ^ Aquinas, Thomas. . The Summa Theologica. Benziger Bros. edition, 1947. Archived from the original on 12 February 2002. Retrieved 1 August 2011.
  131. ^ Mosley, Alexander. "The Jus Ad Bellum Convention". Just War Theory. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. from the original on 16 April 2010. Retrieved 1 August 2011.
  132. ^ a b Moseley, Alexander. "The Principles of Jus in Bello". Just War Theory. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. from the original on 16 April 2010. Retrieved 1 August 2011.
  133. ^ Codevilla, Seabury, Angelo, Paul (1989). War: Ends and Means. New York, NY: Basic Books. p. 304. ISBN 978-0-465-09067-9.
  134. ^ Ian Dear, Michael Richard Daniell Foot (2001). The Oxford Companion to World War II. Oxford University Press. p. 88. ISBN 0-19-860446-7
  135. ^ Ankony, Robert C., "Sociological and Criminological Theory: Brief of Theorists, Theories, and Terms," CFM Research, Jul. 2012.
  136. ^ "PASTORAL CONSTITUTION ON THE CHURCH IN THE MODERN WORLD GAUDIUM ET SPES PROMULGATED BY HIS HOLINESS, POPE PAUL VI ON DECEMBER 7, 1965 11 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine"
  137. ^ Glossary of Terms: Pauses During Conflict (PDF), United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, June 2011, (PDF) from the original on 6 March 2022, retrieved 6 March 2022
  138. ^ "Why humanitarians wary of "humanitarian corridors"". The New Humanitarian. 19 March 2012. from the original on 6 March 2022. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
  139. ^ Reindorp, Nicola; Wiles, Peter (June 2001). "Humanitarian Coordination: Lessons from Recent Field Experience" (PDF). Overseas Development Institute, London. (PDF) from the original on 6 March 2022. Retrieved 6 March 2022 – via UNHCR.
  140. ^ Nemeth, Maj Lisa A. (2009). "The Use of Pauses in Coercion: An Examination in Theory" (PDF). Monograph. School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Army Command and General Staff College. (PDF) from the original on 6 March 2022.
  141. ^ Laura Wise, Sanja Badanjak, Christine Bell and Fiona Knäussel (2021). "Pandemic Pauses: Understanding Ceasefires in a Time of Covid-19" (PDF). politicalsettlements.org. Political Settlements Research Programme. (PDF) from the original on 18 May 2022. Retrieved 6 March 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
  142. ^ Drexler, Madeline (10 September 2021). "When a Virus Strikes, Can the World Pause Its Wars? –". The Wire Science. from the original on 6 March 2022. Retrieved 6 March 2022.

Bibliography

  • Barzilai, Gad (1996). Wars, Internal Conflicts and Political Order: A Jewish Democracy in the Middle East. Albany: State University of New York Press.
  • Beer, Francis A. (1974). How Much War in History: Definitions, Estimates, Extrapolations, and Trends. Beverly Hills: SAGE.
  • Beer, Francis A. (1981). Peace against War: The Ecology of International Violence. San Francisco: W.H.Freeman.
  • Beer, Francis A. (2001). Meanings of War and Peace. College Station: Texas A&M University Press.
  • Blainey, Geoffrey (1973). The Causes of War. Simon and Schuster.
  • Butler, Smedley (1935). War is a Racket.
  • Chagnon, N. (1983). The Yanomamo. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
  • Clausewitz, Carl Von (1976). On War, Princeton University Press
  • Codevilla, Angelo (2005). No Victory, No Peace. Rowman and Littlefield
  • Codevilla, Angelo; Seabury, Paul (2006). War: Ends and Means (2 ed.). Potomac Books.
  • Fog, Agner (2017). Warlike and Peaceful Societies: The Interaction of Genes and Culture. Open Book Publishers. doi:10.11647/OBP.0128. ISBN 978-1-78374-403-9.
  • Fornari, Franco (1974). The Psychoanalysis of War. Translated by Pfeifer, Alenka. NY: Doubleday Anchor Press. ISBN 9780385043472.
  • Fry, Douglas (2004). "Conclusion: Learning from Peaceful Societies". In Kemp, Graham (ed.). Keeping the Peace. Routledge. pp. 185–204.
  • Fry, Douglas (2005). The Human Potential for Peace: An Anthropological Challenge to Assumptions about War and Violence. Oxford University Press.
  • Fry, Douglas (2009). Beyond War. Oxford University Press.
  • Gat, Azar (2006). War in Human Civilization. Oxford University Press.
  • Heinsohn, Gunnar (2003). Söhne und Weltmacht: Terror im Aufstieg und Fall der Nationen [Sons and Imperial Power: Terror and the Rise and Fall of Nations] (PDF) (in German). Orell Füssl. (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
  • Howell, Signe; Willis, Roy (1990). Societies at Peace: Anthropological Perspectives. London: Routledge.
  • James, Paul; Friedman, Jonathan (2006). Globalization and Violence, Vol. 3: Globalizing War and Intervention. London: Sage Publications. from the original on 11 January 2020. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
  • James, Paul; Sharma, RR (2006). Globalization and Violence, Vol. 4: Transnational Conflict. London: Sage Publications. from the original on 18 August 2021. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
  • Keegan, John (1994). A History of Warfare. Pimlico.
  • Keeley, Lawrence (1996). War Before Civilization, Oxford University Press.
  • Keen, David (2012). Useful Enemies: When Waging Wars Is More Important Than Winning Them. Yale University Press.
  • Kelly, Raymond C. (2000). Warless Societies and the Origin of War, University of Michigan Press.
  • Kemp, Graham; Fry, Douglas (2004). Keeping the Peace. New York: Routledge.
  • Kolko, Gabriel (1994). Century of War: Politics, Conflicts, and Society since 1914. New York, NY: The New Press.
  • Lebow, Richard Ned (2008). A Cultural Theory of International Relations. Cambridge University Press.
  • Lindemann, Thomas (2010). Causes of War. The Struggle for Recognition. Colchester, ECPR Press
  • Maniscalco, Fabio (2007). World heritage and war: linee guida per interventi a salvaguardia dei beni culturali nelle aree a rischio bellico. Massa. ISBN 978-88-87835-89-2. from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  • McIntosh, Jane (2002). A Peaceful Realm: The Rise and Fall of the Indus Civilization. Oxford, UK: Westview Press.
  • Metz, Steven and Cuccia, Philip R. (2011). Defining War for the 21st Century, 30 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College. ISBN 978-1-58487-472-0
  • Montagu, Ashley (1978). Learning Nonaggression. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Otterbein, Keith (2004). How War Began. College Station TX: Texas A&M University Press.
  • Parker, Geoffrey, ed. (2008) The Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare: The Triumph of the West (Cambridge University Press, 1995, revised 2008) online
  • Pauketat, Timothy (2005). North American Archaeology. Blackwell Publishing.
  • Small, Melvin; Singer, Joel David (1982). Resort to arms: international and civil wars, 1816–1980. Sage Publications. ISBN 978-0-8039-1776-7. from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  • Smith, David Livingstone (February 2009). The Most Dangerous Animal: Human Nature and the Origins of War. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-53744-9. from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  • Sponsel, Leslie; Gregor, Thomas (1994). Anthropology of Peace and Nonviolence. Lynne Rienner Publishing.
  • Strachan, Hew (2013). The Direction of War. Cambridge University Press.
  • Turchin, P. (2005). War and Peace and War: Life Cycles of Imperial Nations. NY: Pi Press.
  • Van Creveld, Martin. The Art of War: War and Military Thought London: Cassell, Wellington House
  • Wade, Nicholas (2006). Before the Dawn, New York: Penguin.
  • Walzer, Michael (1977). Just and Unjust Wars. Basic Books.

External links

  • An Interactive map of all the battles fought around the world in the last 4,000 years
  • Timeline of wars on Histropedia
  •   War zone safety travel guide from Wikivoyage

March 11, 2023
this, article, about, general, other, uses, disambiguation, disambiguation, ring, disambiguation, conflict, zone, redirects, here, 2001, video, game, conflict, zone, fare, redirects, here, racehorse, fare, horse, intense, armed, conflict, between, states, gove. This article is about war in general For other uses see War disambiguation The War disambiguation and Warring disambiguation Conflict zone redirects here For the 2001 video game see Conflict Zone Warfare redirects here For the racehorse see Warfare horse War is an intense armed conflict a between states governments societies or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries insurgents and militias It is generally characterized by extreme violence destruction and mortality using regular or irregular military forces Warfare refers to the common activities and characteristics of types of war or of wars in general 2 Total war is warfare that is not restricted to purely legitimate military targets and can result in massive civilian or other non combatant suffering and casualties Clockwise from top left Ancient warfare Stele of the Vultures c 2500 BCMedieval warfare Battle of Hastings 1066Early modern warfare Retreat from Moscow 1812Industrial age warfare Battle of the Somme 1916Modern warfare Normandy landings 1944Nuclear warfare Nuclear weapon test 1954 While some war studies scholars consider war a universal and ancestral aspect of human nature 3 others argue it is a result of specific socio cultural economic or ecological circumstances 4 Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Types of warfare 4 Aims 4 1 Definition 4 2 Classification 5 Effects 5 1 Military and civilian casualties modern human history 5 2 Largest by death toll 5 3 On military personnel 5 4 On civilians 5 5 Economic 5 5 1 World War II 6 Theories of motivation 6 1 Psychoanalytic 6 2 Evolutionary 6 3 Economic 6 4 Marxist 6 5 Demographic 6 5 1 Malthusian 6 5 2 Youth bulge 6 6 Cultural 6 7 Rationalist 6 8 Political science 6 8 1 System level 6 8 2 Societal level 6 8 3 Individual level 7 Ethics 8 Limiting and stopping 9 Pauses 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 12 1 Bibliography 13 External linksEtymology Mural of War 1896 by Gari Melchers The English word war derives from the 11th century Old English words wyrre and werre from Old French werre also guerre as in modern French in turn from the Frankish werra ultimately deriving from the Proto Germanic werzō mixture confusion The word is related to the Old Saxon werran Old High German werran and the modern German verwirren meaning to confuse to perplex to bring into confusion 5 HistoryMain article Military history The percentages of men killed in war in eight tribal societies and Europe and the U S in the 20th century Lawrence H Keeley archeologist The Egyptian siege of Dapur in the 13th century BC from Ramesseum Thebes The earliest evidence of prehistoric warfare is a Mesolithic cemetery in Jebel Sahaba which has been determined to be approximately 14 000 years old About forty five percent of the skeletons there displayed signs of violent death 6 Since the rise of the state some 5 000 years ago 7 military activity has occurred over much of the globe The advent of gunpowder and the acceleration of technological advances led to modern warfare Estimates for total deaths due to war vary wildly For the period 3000 BCE until now stated estimates range from 145 million to 2 billion 8 In one estimate primitive warfare prior to 3000 BCE has been thought to have claimed 400 million victims based on the assumption that it accounted for the 15 1 of all deaths 9 For comparison an estimated 1 680 000 000 people died from infectious diseases in the 20th century 10 In War Before Civilization Lawrence H Keeley a professor at the University of Illinois says approximately 90 95 of known societies throughout history engaged in at least occasional warfare 11 and many fought constantly 12 Keeley describes several styles of primitive combat such as small raids large raids and massacres All of these forms of warfare were used by primitive societies a finding supported by other researchers 13 Keeley explains that early war raids were not well organized as the participants did not have any formal training Scarcity of resources meant defensive works were not a cost effective way to protect the society against enemy raids 14 William Rubinstein wrote Pre literate societies even those organised in a relatively advanced way were renowned for their studied cruelty 15 Japanese samurai attacking a Mongol ship 13th century In Western Europe since the late 18th century more than 150 conflicts and about 600 battles have taken place 16 During the 20th century war resulted in a dramatic intensification of the pace of social changes and was a crucial catalyst for the emergence of the political Left as a force to be reckoned with 17 Finnish soldiers during the Winter War In 1947 in view of the rapidly increasingly destructive consequences of modern warfare and with a particular concern for the consequences and costs of the newly developed atom bomb Albert Einstein famously stated I know not with what weapons World War III will be fought but World War IV will be fought with sticks and stones 18 Mao Zedong urged the socialist camp not to fear nuclear war with the United States since even if half of mankind died the other half would remain while imperialism would be razed to the ground and the whole world would become socialist 19 A distinctive feature of war since 1945 is that combat has largely been a matter of civil wars and insurgencies 20 The major exceptions were the Korean War the Indo Pakistani War of 1971 the Iran Iraq War the Gulf War the Eritrean Ethiopian War and the Russo Ukrainian War American tanks moving in formation during the Gulf War The Human Security Report 2005 documented a significant decline in the number and severity of armed conflicts since the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s However the evidence examined in the 2008 edition of the Center for International Development and Conflict Management s Peace and Conflict study indicated the overall decline in conflicts had stalled 21 Types of warfareMain article Types of war Soldiers of the Australian 4th Division equipped for chemical warfare in WWI Ypres sector 1917 Asymmetric warfare is a conflict between belligerents of drastically different levels of military capability or size Biological warfare or germ warfare is the use of weaponized biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria viruses and fungi Chemical warfare involves the use of weaponized chemicals in combat Poison gas as a chemical weapon was principally used during World War I and resulted in over a million estimated casualties including more than 100 000 civilians 22 Cold warfare is an intense international rivalry without direct military conflict but with a sustained threat of it including high levels of military preparations expenditures and development and may involve active conflicts by indirect means such as economic warfare political warfare covert operations espionage cyberwarfare or proxy wars Conventional warfare is declared war between states in which nuclear biological or chemical weapons are not used or see limited deployment Cyberwarfare involves the actions by a nation state or international organization to attack and attempt to damage another nation s information systems Insurgency is a rebellion against authority when those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents lawful combatants An insurgency can be fought via counterinsurgency and may also be opposed by measures to protect the population and by political and economic actions of various kinds aimed at undermining the insurgents claims against the incumbent regime Information warfare is the application of destructive force on a large scale against information assets and systems against the computers and networks that support the four critical infrastructures the power grid communications financial and transportation 23 Nuclear warfare is warfare in which nuclear weapons are the primary or a major method of achieving capitulation Total war is warfare by any means possible disregarding the laws of war placing no limits on legitimate military targets using weapons and tactics resulting in significant civilian casualties or demanding a war effort requiring significant sacrifices by the friendly civilian population Unconventional warfare the opposite of conventional warfare is an attempt to achieve military victory through acquiescence capitulation or clandestine support for one side of an existing conflict AimsEntities contemplating going to war and entities considering whether to end a war may formulate war aims as an evaluation propaganda tool War aims may stand as a proxy for national military resolve 24 Definition Fried defines war aims as the desired territorial economic military or other benefits expected following successful conclusion of a war 25 Classification Tangible intangible aims Tangible war aims may involve for example the acquisition of territory as in the German goal of Lebensraum in the first half of the 20th century or the recognition of economic concessions as in the Anglo Dutch Wars Intangible war aims like the accumulation of credibility or reputation 26 may have more tangible expression conquest restores prestige annexation increases power 27 Explicit implicit aims Explicit war aims may involve published policy decisions Implicit war aims 28 can take the form of minutes of discussion memoranda and instructions 29 Positive negative aims Positive war aims cover tangible outcomes Negative war aims forestall or prevent undesired outcomes 30 War aims can change in the course of conflict and may eventually morph into peace conditions 31 the minimal conditions under which a state may cease to wage a particular war Effects Global deaths in conflicts since the year 1400 32 Main article Effects of war Military and civilian casualties modern human history Disability adjusted life year for war per 100 000 inhabitants in 2004 33 no data less than 100 100 200 200 600 600 1000 1000 1400 1400 1800 1800 2200 2200 2600 2600 3000 3000 8000 8000 8800 more than 8800 Throughout the course of human history the average number of people dying from war has fluctuated relatively little being about 1 to 10 people dying per 100 000 However major wars over shorter periods have resulted in much higher casualty rates with 100 200 casualties per 100 000 over a few years While conventional wisdom holds that casualties have increased in recent times due to technological improvements in warfare this is not generally true For instance the Thirty Years War 1618 1648 had about the same number of casualties per capita as World War I although it was higher during World War II WWII That said overall the number of casualties from war has not significantly increased in recent times Quite to the contrary on a global scale the time since WWII has been unusually peaceful 34 Largest by death toll Main articles List of wars by death toll Outline of war Wars and Casualty recording The deadliest war in history in terms of the cumulative number of deaths since its start is World War II from 1939 to 1945 with 70 85 million deaths followed by the Mongol conquests 35 at up to 60 million As concerns a belligerent s losses in proportion to its prewar population the most destructive war in modern history may have been the Paraguayan War see Paraguayan War casualties In 2013 war resulted in 31 000 deaths down from 72 000 deaths in 1990 36 In 2003 Richard Smalley identified war as the sixth biggest problem of ten facing humanity for the next fifty years 37 War usually results in significant deterioration of infrastructure and the ecosystem a decrease in social spending famine large scale emigration from the war zone and often the mistreatment of prisoners of war or civilians 38 39 40 For instance of the nine million people who were on the territory of the Byelorussian SSR in 1941 some 1 6 million were killed by the Germans in actions away from battlefields including about 700 000 prisoners of war 500 000 Jews and 320 000 people counted as partisans the vast majority of whom were unarmed civilians 41 Another byproduct of some wars is the prevalence of propaganda by some or all parties in the conflict 42 and increased revenues by weapons manufacturers 43 Three of the ten most costly wars in terms of loss of life have been waged in the last century These are the two World Wars followed by the Second Sino Japanese War which is sometimes considered part of World War II or as overlapping Most of the others involved China or neighboring peoples The death toll of World War II being over 60 million surpasses all other war death tolls 44 Deaths millions Date War70 85 1939 1945 World War II see World War II casualties 60 13th century Mongol Conquests see Mongol invasions and Tatar invasions 45 46 47 40 1850 1864 Taiping Rebellion see Dungan Revolt 48 39 1914 1918 World War I see World War I casualties 49 36 755 763 An Lushan Rebellion death toll uncertain 50 25 1616 1662 Qing dynasty conquest of Ming dynasty 44 20 1937 1945 Second Sino Japanese War 51 20 1370 1405 Conquests of Tamerlane 52 53 20 77 1862 1877 Dungan Revolt 54 55 5 9 1917 1922 Russian Civil War and Foreign Intervention 56 On military personnel Military personnel subject to combat in war often suffer mental and physical injuries including depression posttraumatic stress disorder disease injury and death In every war in which American soldiers have fought in the chances of becoming a psychiatric casualty of being debilitated for some period of time as a consequence of the stresses of military life were greater than the chances of being killed by enemy fire No More Heroes Richard Gabriel 16 Swank and Marchand s World War II study found that after sixty days of continuous combat 98 of all surviving military personnel will become psychiatric casualties Psychiatric casualties manifest themselves in fatigue cases confusional states conversion hysteria anxiety obsessional and compulsive states and character disorders 57 One tenth of mobilised American men were hospitalised for mental disturbances between 1942 and 1945 and after thirty five days of uninterrupted combat 98 of them manifested psychiatric disturbances in varying degrees 14 18 Understanding the Great War Stephane Audoin Rouzeau Annette Becker 16 The Apotheosis of War 1871 by Vasily Vereshchagin Additionally it has been estimated anywhere from 18 to 54 of Vietnam war veterans suffered from posttraumatic stress disorder 57 Based on 1860 census figures 8 of all white American males aged 13 to 43 died in the American Civil War including about 6 in the North and approximately 18 in the South 58 The war remains the deadliest conflict in American history resulting in the deaths of 620 000 military personnel United States military casualties of war since 1775 have totaled over two million Of the 60 million European military personnel who were mobilized in World War I 8 million were killed 7 million were permanently disabled and 15 million were seriously injured 59 The remains of dead Crow Indians killed and scalped by Sioux c 1874 During Napoleon s retreat from Moscow more French military personnel died of typhus than were killed by the Russians 60 Of the 450 000 soldiers who crossed the Neman on 25 June 1812 less than 40 000 returned More military personnel were killed from 1500 to 1914 by typhus than from military action 61 In addition if it were not for modern medical advances there would be thousands more dead from disease and infection For instance during the Seven Years War the Royal Navy reported it conscripted 184 899 sailors of whom 133 708 72 died of disease or were missing 62 It is estimated that between 1985 and 1994 378 000 people per year died due to war 63 On civilians See also Civilian casualties Les Grandes Miseres de la guerre depict the destruction unleashed on civilians during the Thirty Years War Most wars have resulted in significant loss of life along with destruction of infrastructure and resources which may lead to famine disease and death in the civilian population During the Thirty Years War in Europe the population of the Holy Roman Empire was reduced by 15 to 40 percent 64 65 Civilians in war zones may also be subject to war atrocities such as genocide while survivors may suffer the psychological aftereffects of witnessing the destruction of war War also results in lower quality of life and worse health outcomes A medium sized conflict with about 2 500 battle deaths reduces civilian life expectancy by one year and increases infant mortality by 10 and malnutrition by 3 3 Additionally about 1 8 of the population loses access to drinking water 66 Most estimates of World War II casualties indicate around 60 million people died 40 million of whom were civilians 67 Deaths in the Soviet Union were around 27 million 68 Since a high proportion of those killed were young men who had not yet fathered any children population growth in the postwar Soviet Union was much lower than it otherwise would have been 69 Economic See also Military Keynesianism Once a war has ended losing nations are sometimes required to pay war reparations to the victorious nations In certain cases land is ceded to the victorious nations For example the territory of Alsace Lorraine has been traded between France and Germany on three different occasions 70 Typically war becomes intertwined with the economy and many wars are partially or entirely based on economic reasons Following World War II consensus opinion for many years amongst economists and historians was that war can stimulate a country s economy as evidenced by the U S s emergence from the Great Depression 71 though modern economic analysis has thrown significant doubt on these views In most cases such as the wars of Louis XIV the Franco Prussian War and World War I warfare primarily results in damage to the economy of the countries involved For example Russia s involvement in World War I took such a toll on the Russian economy that it almost collapsed and greatly contributed to the start of the Russian Revolution of 1917 72 World War II Ruins of Warsaw s Napoleon Square in the aftermath of World War II World War II was the most financially costly conflict in history its belligerents cumulatively spent about a trillion U S dollars on the war effort as adjusted to 1940 prices 73 74 The Great Depression of the 1930s ended as nations increased their production of war materials 75 By the end of the war 70 of European industrial infrastructure was destroyed 76 Property damage in the Soviet Union inflicted by the Axis invasion was estimated at a value of 679 billion rubles The combined damage consisted of complete or partial destruction of 1 710 cities and towns 70 000 villages hamlets 2 508 church buildings 31 850 industrial establishments 40 000 mi 64 374 km of railroad 4100 railroad stations 40 000 hospitals 84 000 schools and 43 000 public libraries 77 Theories of motivationSee also International relations theory The Ottoman campaign for territorial expansion in Europe in 1566 There are many theories about the motivations for war but no consensus about which are most common 78 Carl von Clausewitz said Every age has its own kind of war its own limiting conditions and its own peculiar preconceptions 79 Psychoanalytic Dutch psychoanalyst Joost Meerloo held that War is often a mass discharge of accumulated internal rage where the inner fears of mankind are discharged in mass destruction 80 Other psychoanalysts such as E F M Durban and John Bowlby have argued human beings are inherently violent 81 This aggressiveness is fueled by displacement and projection where a person transfers his or her grievances into bias and hatred against other races religions nations or ideologies By this theory the nation state preserves order in the local society while creating an outlet for aggression through warfare The Italian psychoanalyst Franco Fornari a follower of Melanie Klein thought war was the paranoid or projective elaboration of mourning 82 Fornari thought war and violence develop out of our love need our wish to preserve and defend the sacred object to which we are attached namely our early mother and our fusion with her For the adult nations are the sacred objects that generate warfare Fornari focused upon sacrifice as the essence of war the astonishing willingness of human beings to die for their country to give over their bodies to their nation Despite Fornari s theory that man s altruistic desire for self sacrifice for a noble cause is a contributing factor towards war few wars have originated from a desire for war among the general populace 83 Far more often the general population has been reluctantly drawn into war by its rulers One psychological theory that looks at the leaders is advanced by Maurice Walsh 84 He argues the general populace is more neutral towards war and wars occur when leaders with a psychologically abnormal disregard for human life are placed into power War is caused by leaders who seek war such as Napoleon and Hitler Such leaders most often come to power in times of crisis when the populace opts for a decisive leader who then leads the nation to war Naturally the common people don t want war neither in Russia nor in England nor in America nor for that matter in Germany That is understood But after all it is the leaders of the country who determine the policy and it is always a simple matter to drag the people along whether it is a democracy or a fascist dictatorship or a Parliament or a Communist dictatorship the people can always be brought to the bidding of the leaders That is easy All you have to do is tell them they are being attacked and denounce the pacifists for lack of patriotism and exposing the country to danger It works the same way in any country Hermann Goring at the Nuremberg trials 18 April 1946 85 Evolutionary See also Prehistoric warfare Women and priests retrieve the dead bodies of Swabian soldiers just outside the city gates of Constance after the battle of Schwaderloh Luzerner Schilling Several theories concern the evolutionary origins of warfare There are two main schools One sees organized warfare as emerging in or after the Mesolithic as a result of complex social organization and greater population density and competition over resources the other sees human warfare as a more ancient practice derived from common animal tendencies such as territoriality and sexual competition 86 The latter school argues that since warlike behavior patterns are found in many primate species such as chimpanzees 87 as well as in many ant species 88 group conflict may be a general feature of animal social behavior Some proponents of the idea argue that war while innate has been intensified greatly by developments of technology and social organization such as weaponry and states 89 Psychologist and linguist Steven Pinker argued that war related behaviors may have been naturally selected in the ancestral environment due to the benefits of victory b He also argued that in order to have credible deterrence against other groups as well as on an individual level it was important to have a reputation for retaliation causing humans to develop instincts for revenge as well as for protecting a group s or an individual s reputation honor b Increasing population and constant warfare among the Maya city states over resources may have contributed to the eventual collapse of the Maya civilization by AD 900 Crofoot and Wrangham have argued that warfare if defined as group interactions in which coalitions attempt to aggressively dominate or kill members of other groups is a characteristic of most human societies Those in which it has been lacking tend to be societies that were politically dominated by their neighbors 91 Ashley Montagu strongly denied universalistic instinctual arguments arguing that social factors and childhood socialization are important in determining the nature and presence of warfare Thus he argues warfare is not a universal human occurrence and appears to have been a historical invention associated with certain types of human societies 92 Montagu s argument is supported by ethnographic research conducted in societies where the concept of aggression seems to be entirely absent e g the Chewong and Semai of the Malay peninsula 93 Bobbi S Low has observed correlation between warfare and education noting societies where warfare is commonplace encourage their children to be more aggressive 94 Economic Kuwaiti oil wells on fire during the Gulf War 1 March 1991 See also Resource war War can be seen as a growth of economic competition in a competitive international system In this view wars begin as a pursuit of markets for natural resources and for wealth War has also been linked to economic development by economic historians and development economists studying state building and fiscal capacity 95 While this theory has been applied to many conflicts such counter arguments become less valid as the increasing mobility of capital and information level the distributions of wealth worldwide or when considering that it is relative not absolute wealth differences that may fuel wars There are those on the extreme right of the political spectrum who provide support fascists in particular by asserting a natural right of a strong nation to whatever the weak cannot hold by force 96 97 Some centrist capitalist world leaders including Presidents of the United States and U S Generals expressed support for an economic view of war Marxist Main article Marxist explanations of warfare The Marxist theory of war is quasi economic in that it states all modern wars are caused by competition for resources and markets between great imperialist powers claiming these wars are a natural result of capitalism Marxist economists Karl Kautsky Rosa Luxemburg Rudolf Hilferding and Vladimir Lenin theorized that imperialism was the result of capitalist countries needing new markets Expansion of the means of production is only possible if there is a corresponding growth in consumer demand Since the workers in a capitalist economy would be unable to fill the demand producers must expand into non capitalist markets to find consumers for their goods hence driving imperialism 98 Demographic Demographic theories can be grouped into two classes Malthusian and youth bulge theories Malthusian U S Marine helicopter on patrol in Somalia as part of the Unified Task Force 1992 Malthusian theories see expanding population and scarce resources as a source of violent conflict Pope Urban II in 1095 on the eve of the First Crusade advocating Crusade as a solution to European overpopulation said For this land which you now inhabit shut in on all sides by the sea and the mountain peaks is too narrow for your large population it scarcely furnishes food enough for its cultivators Hence it is that you murder and devour one another that you wage wars and that many among you perish in civil strife Let hatred therefore depart from among you let your quarrels end Enter upon the road to the Holy Sepulchre wrest that land from a wicked race and subject it to yourselves 99 This is one of the earliest expressions of what has come to be called the Malthusian theory of war in which wars are caused by expanding populations and limited resources Thomas Malthus 1766 1834 wrote that populations always increase until they are limited by war disease or famine 100 The violent herder farmer conflicts in Nigeria Mali Sudan and other countries in the Sahel region have been exacerbated by land degradation and population growth 101 102 103 Youth bulge Median age by country War reduces life expectancy A youth bulge is evident for Africa and to a lesser extent in some countries in West Asia South Asia Southeast Asia and Central America According to Heinsohn who proposed youth bulge theory in its most generalized form a youth bulge occurs when 30 to 40 percent of the males of a nation belong to the fighting age cohorts from 15 to 29 years of age It will follow periods with total fertility rates as high as 4 8 children per woman with a 15 29 year delay 104 105 Heinsohn saw both past Christianist European colonialism and imperialism as well as today s Islamist civil unrest and terrorism as results of high birth rates producing youth bulges 106 Among prominent historical events that have been attributed to youth bulges are the role played by the historically large youth cohorts in the rebellion and revolution waves of early modern Europe including the French Revolution of 1789 107 and the effect of economic depression upon the largest German youth cohorts ever in explaining the rise of Nazism in Germany in the 1930s 108 The 1994 Rwandan genocide has also been analyzed as following a massive youth bulge 109 Youth bulge theory has been subjected to statistical analysis by the World Bank 110 Population Action International 111 and the Berlin Institute for Population and Development 112 Youth bulge theories have been criticized as leading to racial gender and age discrimination 113 Cultural Geoffrey Parker argues that what distinguishes the Western way of war based in Western Europe chiefly allows historians to explain its extraordinary success in conquering most of the world after 1500 The Western way of war rests upon five principal foundations technology discipline a highly aggressive military tradition a remarkable capacity to innovate and to respond rapidly to the innovation of others and from about 1500 onward a unique system of war finance The combination of all five provided a formula for military success The outcome of wars has been determined less by technology then by better war plans the achievement of surprise greater economic strength and above all superior discipline 114 Parker argues that Western armies were stronger because they emphasized discipline that is the ability of a formation to stand fast in the face of the enemy where they re attacking or being attacked without giving way to the natural impulse of fear and panic Discipline came from drills and marching in formation target practice and creating small artificial kinship groups such as the company and the platoon to enhance psychological cohesion and combat efficiency 115 Rationalist U S soldiers directing artillery on enemy trucks in A Shau Valley April 1968 Rationalism is an international relations theory or framework Rationalism and Neorealism international relations operate under the assumption that states or international actors are rational seek the best possible outcomes for themselves and desire to avoid the costs of war 116 Under one game theory approach rationalist theories posit all actors can bargain would be better off if war did not occur and likewise seek to understand why war nonetheless reoccurs Under another rationalist game theory without bargaining the peace war game optimal strategies can still be found that depend upon number of iterations played In Rationalist Explanations for War James Fearon examined three rationalist explanations for why some countries engage in war Issue indivisibilities Incentives to misrepresent or information asymmetry Commitment problems 116 Issue indivisibility occurs when the two parties cannot avoid war by bargaining because the thing over which they are fighting cannot be shared between them but only owned entirely by one side or the other U S Marines direct a concentration of fire at their opponents Vietnam 8 May 1968 Information asymmetry with incentives to misrepresent occurs when two countries have secrets about their individual capabilities and do not agree on either who would win a war between them or the magnitude of state s victory or loss For instance Geoffrey Blainey argues that war is a result of miscalculation of strength He cites historical examples of war and demonstrates war is usually the outcome of a diplomatic crisis which cannot be solved because both sides have conflicting estimates of their bargaining power 117 Thirdly bargaining may fail due to the states inability to make credible commitments 118 Within the rationalist tradition some theorists have suggested that individuals engaged in war suffer a normal level of cognitive bias 119 but are still as rational as you and me 120 According to philosopher Iain King Most instigators of conflict overrate their chances of success while most participants underrate their chances of injury 121 King asserts that Most catastrophic military decisions are rooted in GroupThink which is faulty but still rational 122 The rationalist theory focused around bargaining is currently under debate The Iraq War proved to be an anomaly that undercuts the validity of applying rationalist theory to some wars 123 Political science The statistical analysis of war was pioneered by Lewis Fry Richardson following World War I More recent databases of wars and armed conflict have been assembled by the Correlates of War Project Peter Brecke and the Uppsala Conflict Data Program 124 The following subsections consider causes of war from system societal and individual levels of analysis This kind of division was first proposed by Kenneth Waltz in Man the State and War and has been often used by political scientists since then 125 143 System level There are several different international relations theory schools Supporters of realism in international relations argue that the motivation of states is the quest for security and conflicts can arise from the inability to distinguish defense from offense which is called the security dilemma 125 145 Within the realist school as represented by scholars such as Henry Kissinger and Hans Morgenthau and the neorealist school represented by scholars such as Kenneth Waltz and John Mearsheimer two main sub theories are Balance of power theory States have the goal of preventing a single state from becoming a hegemon and war is the result of the would be hegemon s persistent attempts at power acquisition In this view an international system with more equal distribution of power is more stable and movements toward unipolarity are destabilizing 125 147 However evidence has shown power polarity is not actually a major factor in the occurrence of wars 125 147 48 Power transition theory Hegemons impose stabilizing conditions on the world order but they eventually decline and war occurs when a declining hegemon is challenged by another rising power or aims to preemptively suppress them 125 148 On this view unlike for balance of power theory wars become more probable when power is more equally distributed This power preponderance hypothesis has empirical support 125 148 The two theories are not mutually exclusive and may be used to explain disparate events according to the circumstance 125 148 Liberalism as it relates to international relations emphasizes factors such as trade and its role in disincentivizing conflict which will damage economic relations Realists who respond that military force may sometimes be at least as effective as trade at achieving economic benefits especially historically if not as much today 125 149 Furthermore trade relations which result in a high level of dependency may escalate tensions and lead to conflict 125 150 Empirical data on the relationship of trade to peace are mixed and moreover some evidence suggests countries at war don t necessarily trade less with each other 125 150 Societal level Diversionary theory also known as the scapegoat hypothesis suggests the politically powerful may use war to as a diversion or to rally domestic popular support 125 152 This is supported by literature showing out group hostility enhances in group bonding and a significant domestic rally effect has been demonstrated when conflicts begin 125 152 13 However studies examining the increased use of force as a function of need for internal political support are more mixed 125 152 53 U S war time presidential popularity surveys taken during the presidencies of several recent U S leaders have supported diversionary theory 126 Individual level These theories suggest differences in people s personalities decision making emotions belief systems and biases are important in determining whether conflicts get out of hand 125 157 For instance it has been proposed that conflict is modulated by bounded rationality and various cognitive biases 125 157 such as prospect theory 127 Ethics Morning after the Battle of Waterloo by John Heaviside Clark 1816 The morality of war has been the subject of debate for thousands of years 128 The two principal aspects of ethics in war according to the just war theory are jus ad bellum and jus in bello 129 Jus ad bellum right to war dictates which unfriendly acts and circumstances justify a proper authority in declaring war on another nation There are six main criteria for the declaration of a just war first any just war must be declared by a lawful authority second it must be a just and righteous cause with sufficient gravity to merit large scale violence third the just belligerent must have rightful intentions namely that they seek to advance good and curtail evil fourth a just belligerent must have a reasonable chance of success fifth the war must be a last resort and sixth the ends being sought must be proportional to means being used 130 131 Jus in bello right in war is the set of ethical rules when conducting war The two main principles are proportionality and discrimination Proportionality regards how much force is necessary and morally appropriate to the ends being sought and the injustice suffered 132 The principle of discrimination determines who are the legitimate targets in a war and specifically makes a separation between combatants who it is permissible to kill and non combatants who it is not 132 Failure to follow these rules can result in the loss of legitimacy for the just war belligerent 133 In besieged Leningrad Hitler ordered that Moscow and Leningrad were to be razed to the ground their inhabitants were to be annihilated or driven out by starvation These intentions were part of the General Plan East The Oxford Companion to World War II 134 The just war theory was foundational in the creation of the United Nations and in international law s regulations on legitimate war 128 Lewis Coser U S conflict theorist and sociologist argued conflict provides a function and a process whereby a succession of new equilibriums are created Thus the struggle of opposing forces rather than being disruptive may be a means of balancing and maintaining a social structure or society 135 Limiting and stopping Anti war rally in Washington D C 15 March 2003 Main article Anti war movementReligious groups have long formally opposed or sought to limit war as in the Second Vatican Council document Gaudiem et Spes Any act of war aimed indiscriminately at the destruction of entire cities of extensive areas along with their population is a crime against God and man himself It merits unequivocal and unhesitating condemnation 136 Anti war movements have existed for every major war in the 20th century including most prominently World War I World War II and the Vietnam War In the 21st century worldwide anti war movements occurred in response to the United States invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq Protests opposing the War in Afghanistan occurred in Europe Asia and the United States PausesDuring a war brief pauses of violence may be called for and further agreed to ceasefire temporary cessation humanitarian pauses and corridors days of tranquility de confliction arrangements 137 There a number of disadvantages obstacles and hesitations against implementing such pauses such as a humanitarian corridor 138 139 Pauses in conflict can also be ill advised for reasons such as delay of defeat and the weakening of credibility 140 Natural causes for a pause may include events such as the 2019 coronavirus pandemic 141 142 See also War portalOutline of war Grey zone international relations Notes The term armed conflict is used instead of or in addition to the term war with the former being more general in scope The International Committee of the Red Cross differentiates between international and non international armed conflict in their definition International armed conflicts exist whenever there is resort to armed force between two or more States Non international armed conflicts are protracted armed confrontations occurring between governmental armed forces and the forces of one or more armed groups or between such groups arising on the territory of a State party to the Geneva Conventions The armed confrontation must reach a minimum level of intensity and the parties involved in the conflict must show a minimum of organisation 1 a b The argument is made from pages 314 to 332 of The Blank Slate 90 Relevant quotes include on p332 The first step in understanding violence is to set aside our abhorrence of it long enough to examine why it can sometimes pay off in evolutionary terms Natural selection is powered by competition which means that the products of natural selection survival machines in Richard Dawkins metaphor should by default do whatever helps them survive and reproduce On p323 If an obstacle stands in the way of something an organism needs it should neutralize the obstacle by disabling or eliminating it Another human obstacle consists of men monopolozing women who could otherwise be taken as wives The competition can be violent On p324 So people have invented and perhaps evolved an alternate defense the advertised deterrence policy known as lex talionis the law of retaliation familiar from the biblical injunction An eye for an eye a tooth for a tooth If you can credibly say to potential adversaries We won t attack first but if we are attacked we will survive and strike back you removee Hobbes s first two incentives for quarrel gain and mistrust On p326 Also necessary for vengeance to work as a deterrent is that the willingness to pursue it be made public because the whole point of deterrence is to give would be attackers second thoughts beforehand And this brings us to Hobbes s final reason for quarrel Thirdly glory though a more accurate word would be honor References How is the Term Armed Conflict Defined in International Humanitarian Law PDF International Committee of the Red Cross March 2008 Archived PDF from the original on 1 November 2018 Retrieved 7 December 2020 Warfare Cambridge Dictionary Archived from the original on 24 February 2021 Retrieved 1 August 2016 Smihula Daniel 2013 The Use of Force in International Relations p 67 ISBN 978 80 224 1341 1 James Paul Friedman Jonathan 2006 Globalization and Violence Vol 3 Globalizing War and Intervention London Sage Publications Archived from the original on 11 January 2020 Retrieved 3 December 2017 war Online Etymology Dictionary 2010 Archived from the original on 11 January 2012 Retrieved 24 April 2011 Keeley Lawrence H War Before Civilization The Myth of the Peaceful Savage p 37 Diamond Jared Guns Germs and Steel Eckhardt William 1991 War related deaths since 3000 BC Bulletin of Peace Proposals 22 4 437 443 doi 10 1177 096701069102200410 S2CID 144946896 Matthew White Primitive War Archived 14 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine David McCandless 20th Century Death Archived 17 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine Review War Before Civilization Brneurosci org 4 September 2006 Archived from the original on 21 November 2010 Retrieved 24 January 2011 Spengler 4 July 2006 The fraud of primitive authenticity Asia Times Online Archived from the original on 6 July 2006 Retrieved 8 June 2009 a href Template Cite news html title Template Cite news cite news a CS1 maint unfit URL link Martin Debra L Harrod Ryan P Perez Ventura R eds 2012 The Bioarchaeology of Violence Gainesville University Press of Florida Archived from the original on 4 November 2013 Retrieved 10 January 2013 Keeley Lawrence H War Before Civilization The Myth of the Peaceful Savage p 55 W D Rubinstein 2004 Genocide A History Pearson Longman p 22 ISBN 978 0 582 50601 5 Archived from the original on 8 August 2013 Retrieved 31 May 2012 a b c World War One A New Kind of War Part II Archived 27 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine From 14 18 Understanding the Great War by Stephane Audoin Rouzeau Annette Becker Kolko 1994 p xvii xviii War in this century became an essential precondition for the emergence of a numerically powerful Left moving it from the margins to the very center of European politics during 1917 18 and of all world affairs after 1941 Albert Einstein Man of Imagination 1947 Archived from the original on 4 June 2010 Retrieved 3 February 2010 Nuclear Age Peace Foundation paper Instant Wisdom Beyond the Little Red Book Time 20 September 1976 Archived from the original on 29 September 2013 Retrieved 14 April 2013 Robert J Bunker and Pamela Ligouri Bunker The modern state in epochal transition The significance of irregular warfare state deconstruction and the rise of new warfighting entities beyond neo medievalism Small Wars amp Insurgencies 27 2 2016 325 344 Hewitt Joseph J Wilkenfield and T Gurr Peace and Conflict 2008 Paradigm Publishers 2007 D Hank Ellison 24 August 2007 Handbook of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents Second Edition CRC Press pp 567 70 ISBN 978 0 8493 1434 6 Lewis Brian C Information Warfare Federation of American Scientist Archived from the original on 17 June 1997 Retrieved 27 February 2017 Sullivan Patricia 16 July 2012 War Aims and War Outcomes Who Wins Predicting Strategic Success and Failure in Armed Conflict Oxford University Press USA published 2012 p 17 doi 10 1093 acprof oso 9780199878338 003 0003 ISBN 9780199878338 Archived from the original on 13 September 2015 Retrieved 25 August 2015 A state with greater military capacity than its adversary is more likely to prevail in wars with total war aims the overthrow of a foreign government or annexation of territory than in wars with more limited objectives Fried Marvin Benjamin 1 July 2014 Austro Hungarian War Aims in the Balkans During World War I Palgrave Macmillan published 2014 p 4 ISBN 9781137359018 Archived from the original on 17 October 2015 Retrieved 24 August 2015 War aims are the desired territorial economic military or other benefits expected following successful conclusion of a war Welch distinguishes tangible goods such as arms wealth and provided they are strategically or economically valuable territory and resources from intangible goods such as credibility and reputation Welch David A 10 August 1995 Justice and the Genesis of War Cambridge Studies in International Relations Cambridge University Press published 1995 p 17 ISBN 9780521558686 Archived from the original on 18 September 2015 Retrieved 24 August 2015 Fried Marvin Benjamin 1 July 2014 Austro Hungarian War Aims in the Balkans During World War I Palgrave Macmillan published 2014 p 4 ISBN 9781137359018 Archived from the original on 17 October 2015 Retrieved 24 August 2015 Intangibles such as prestige or power can also represent war aims though often albeit not always their achievement is framed within a more tangible context e g conquest restores prestige annexation increases power etc Compare Katwala Sunder 13 February 2005 Churchill by Paul Addison Books The Guardian Guardian News and Media Limited Archived from the original on 28 September 2016 Retrieved 24 August 2015 Churchill took office and declared he had not become the King s First Minister to oversee the liquidation of the British empire His view was that an Anglo American English speaking alliance would seek to preserve the empire though ending it was among Roosevelt s implicit war aims Compare Fried Marvin Benjamin 1 July 2014 Austro Hungarian War Aims in the Balkans During World War I Palgrave Macmillan published 2014 p 4 ISBN 9781137359018 Archived from the original on 17 October 2015 Retrieved 24 August 2015 At times war aims were explicitly stated internally or externally in a policy decision while at other times the war aims were merely discussed but not published remaining instead in the form of memoranda or instructions Fried Marvin Benjamin 1 July 2015 A Life and Death Question Austro Hungarian War Aims in the First World War In Afflerbach Holger ed The Purpose of the First World War War Aims and Military Strategies Schriften des Historischen Kollegs Vol 91 Berlin Boston Walter de Gruyter GmbH published 2015 p 118 ISBN 9783110443486 Archived from the original on 16 October 2015 Retrieved 24 August 2015 T he Austrian Foreign Ministry and the Military High Command were in agreement that political and military hegemony over Serbia and the Western Balkans was a vital war aim The Hungarian Prime Minister Istvan Count Tisza by contrast was more preoccupied with so called negative war aims notably warding off hostile Romanian Italian and even Bulgarian intervention Haase Hugo 1932 The Debate in the Reichstag on Internal Political Conditions April 5 6 1916 In Lutz Ralph Haswell ed Fall of the German Empire 1914 1918 Hoover War Library publications Stanford University Press p 233 ISBN 9780804723800 Archived from the original on 25 October 2015 Retrieved 25 August 2015 Gentlemen when it comes time to formulate peace conditions it is time to think of another thing than war aims Roser Max 15 November 2017 War and Peace Our World in Data Archived from the original on 16 November 2017 Retrieved 15 November 2017 Mortality and Burden of Disease Estimates for WHO Member States in 2004 World Health Organization Archived from the original on 28 August 2021 Retrieved 5 October 2020 War and Peace Our World in Data Archived from the original on 16 November 2017 Retrieved 16 November 2017 The Cambridge History of China Alien regimes and border states 907 1368 1994 p 622 cited by White Matthew White 2011 11 07 The Great Big Book of Horrible Things The Definitive Chronicle of History s 100 Worst Atrocities Murray Christopher JL Vos Theo Lopez Alan D 17 December 2014 Global regional and national age sex specific all cause and cause specific mortality for 240 causes of death 1990 2013 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 Lancet 385 9963 117 71 doi 10 1016 S0140 6736 14 61682 2 PMC 4340604 PMID 25530442 Top Ten Problems of Humanity for Next 50 Years Professor R E Smalley Energy amp NanoTechnology Conference Rice University 3 May 2003 Tanton John 2002 The Social Contract p 42 Moore John 1992 The pursuit of happiness p 304 Baxter Richard 2013 Humanizing the Laws of War p 344 Timothy Snyder Bloodlands Europe Between Hitler and Stalin Basic Books 2010 p 250 Dying and Death Inter disciplinary Perspectives p 153 Asa Kasher 2007 Chew Emry 2012 Arming the Periphery p 49 a b McFarlane Alan The Savage Wars of Peace England Japan and the Malthusian Trap Blackwell 2003 ISBN 0 631 18117 2 ISBN 978 0 631 18117 0 cited by White Archived 20 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine Ping ti Ho An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung Chin China in Etudes Song Series 1 No 1 1970 pp 33 53 Mongol Conquests Users erols com Archived from the original on 20 December 2017 Retrieved 24 January 2011 The world s worst massacres Whole Earth Review 1987 Archived from the original on 17 May 2003 Retrieved 24 January 2011 Taiping Rebellion Britannica Concise Britannica Archived from the original on 15 December 2007 Retrieved 24 January 2011 Michael Duffy 22 August 2009 Military Casualties of World War One Firstworldwar com Archived from the original on 28 June 2018 Retrieved 24 January 2011 Selected Death Tolls for Wars Massacres and Atrocities Before the 20th Century Users erols com Archived from the original on 20 December 2017 Retrieved 24 January 2011 Nuclear Power The End of the War Against Japan BBC News Archived from the original on 28 November 2015 Retrieved 24 January 2011 Timur Lenk 1369 1405 Users erols com Archived from the original on 20 December 2017 Retrieved 24 January 2011 Matthew White s website Archived 20 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine a compilation of scholarly death toll estimates 曹树基 中国人口史 in Chinese Vol 5 清时期 p 635 full citation needed 路伟东 同治光绪年间陕西人口的损失 in Chinese full citation needed Russian Civil War Spartacus Educational com Archived from the original on 5 December 2010 Retrieved 26 February 2019 a b Lt Col Dave Grossman 1996 On Killing The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War amp Society Little Brown amp Co Maris Vinovskis 28 September 1990 Toward a Social History of the American Civil War Exploratory Essays Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 39559 5 Archived from the original on 26 May 2013 Retrieved 31 May 2012 Kitchen Martin 2000 The Treaty of Versailles and its Consequences Archived 12 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine New York Longman The Historical Impact of Epidemic Typhus Joseph M Conlon War and Pestilence TIME A S Turberville 2006 Johnson s England An Account of the Life amp Manners of His Age p 53 ISBN 1 4067 2726 1 Obermeyer Z Murray CJ Gakidou E June 2008 Fifty years of violent war deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia analysis of data from the world health survey programme BMJ 336 7659 1482 86 doi 10 1136 bmj a137 PMC 2440905 PMID 18566045 The Thirty Years War 1618 48 Archived 20 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine Alan McFarlane The Savage Wars of Peace England Japan and the Malthusian Trap 2003 History of Europe Demographics Archived 23 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopaedia Britannica Davenport Christian Mokleiv Nygard Havard Fjelde Hanne Armstrong David 2019 The Consequences of Contention Understanding the Aftereffects of Political Conflict and Violence Annual Review of Political Science 22 361 377 doi 10 1146 annurev polisci 050317 064057 World War II Fatalities Archived from the original on 22 April 2007 Retrieved 20 April 2007 Leaders mourn Soviet wartime dead BBC News 9 May 2005 Archived from the original on 22 December 2019 Retrieved 6 January 2010 Hosking Geoffrey A 2006 Rulers And Victims The Russians in the Soviet Union Harvard University Press pp 242 ISBN 978 0 674 02178 5 Archived from the original on 5 September 2015 Retrieved 31 May 2012 Alsace Lorraine Encyclopaedia Britannica Online ed Archived from the original on 20 March 2022 Retrieved 21 March 2022 Higgs Robert March 1992 Wartime Prosperity A Reassessment of the U S Economy in the 1940s PDF The Journal of Economic History 52 1 41 60 doi 10 1017 S0022050700010251 S2CID 154484756 Retrieved 29 October 2022 Gatrell Peter 2014 Russia s First World War A Social and Economic History Hoboken New Jersey Routledge p 270 ISBN 9781317881391 Mayer E 2000 World War II course lecture notes Emayzine com Victorville California Victor Valley College Archived from the original on 1 March 2009 Retrieved 4 July 2014 Coleman P 1999 Cost of the War World War II Resource Guide Gardena California The American War Library Great Depression and World War II 1929 1945 Library of Congress Archived from the original on 12 October 2007 Retrieved 4 July 2014 Marc Pilisuk Jennifer Achord Rountree 2008 Who Benefits from Global Violence and War Uncovering a Destructive System Greenwood Publishing Group pp 136 ISBN 978 0 275 99435 8 Archived from the original on 26 May 2013 Retrieved 31 May 2012 The New York Times 9 February 1946 Volume 95 Number 32158 Levy Jack S 1989 Tetlock Philip E Husbands Jo L Jervis Robert Stern Paul C Tilly Charles eds The Causes of War A Review of Theories and Evidence PDF Behavior Society and Nuclear War I 295 Archived from the original PDF on 22 September 2013 Retrieved 4 May 2012 Clausewitz Carl Von 1976 On War Princeton University Press p 593 A M Meerloo M D The Rape of the Mind 2009 p 134 Progressive Press ISBN 978 1 61577 376 3 Durbin E F L and John Bowlby Personal Aggressiveness and War 1939 Fornari 1975 Blanning T C W The Origin of Great Wars The Origins of the French Revolutionary Wars p 5 Walsh Maurice N War and the Human Race 1971 In an interview with Gilbert in Goring s jail cell during the Nuremberg War Crimes Trials 18 April 1946 18 April 2017 Retrieved 5 August 2015 Peter Meyer Social Evolution in Franz M Wuketits and Christoph Antweiler eds Handbook of Evolution The Evolution of Human Societies and Cultures Wiley VCH Verlag O Connell Sanjida 7 January 2004 Apes of war is it in our genes The Daily Telegraph London Archived from the original on 4 September 2018 Retrieved 6 February 2010 Analysis of chimpanzee war behavior Anderson Kenneth 1996 Warrior Ants The Enduring Threat of the Small War and the Land mine SSRN 935783 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Scholarly comparisons between human and ant wars Johan M G van der Dennen 1995 The Origin of War Evolution of a Male Coalitional Reproductive Strategy Origin Press Groningen 1995 chapters 1 amp 2 Pinker Steven 2002 The Blank Slate The Modern Denial of Human Nature London The Penguin Group p 314 332 ISBN 0 713 99256 5 Mind the Gap Tracing the Origins of Human Universals By Peter M Kappeler Joan B Silk 2009 Chapter 8 Intergroup Aggression in Primates and Humans The Case for a Unified Theory Margaret C Crofoot and Richard W Wrangham Montagu Ashley 1976 The Nature of Human Aggression Oxford University Press Howell Signe and Roy Willis eds 1989 Societies at Peace Anthropological Perspectives London Routledge An Evolutionary Perspective on War Archived 16 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine Bobbi S Low published in Behavior Culture and Conflict in World Politics The University of Michigan Press p 22 Johnson Noel D Koyama Mark April 2017 States and economic growth Capacity and constraints Explorations in Economic History 64 1 20 doi 10 1016 j eeh 2016 11 002 Roger Griffin and Matthew Feldman eds Fascism Fascism and Culture New York Routledge 2004 Hawkins Mike Social Darwinism in European and American Thought 1860 1945 Nature as Model and Nature as Threat Cambridge University Press 1997 O Callaghan Einde 25 October 2007 The Marxist Theory of Imperialism and its Critics Marxists Internet Archive Archived from the original on 8 July 2017 Retrieved 24 April 2011 Safire William 2004 Lend me your ears great speeches in history W W Norton amp Company p 94 ISBN 978 0 393 05931 1 Waugh David 2000 Geography an integrated approach Nelson Thornes p 378 ISBN 978 0 17 444706 1 In Mali waning fortunes of Fulani herders play into Islamist hands Reuters 20 November 2016 Archived from the original on 30 March 2019 Retrieved 31 March 2019 How Climate Change Is Spurring Land Conflict in Nigeria Time 28 June 2018 Archived from the original on 4 March 2021 Retrieved 31 March 2019 The Deadliest Conflict You ve Never Heard of Foreign Policy 23 January 2019 Archived from the original on 18 February 2019 Retrieved 31 March 2019 Helgerson John L 2002 The National Security Implications of Global Demographic Trends 1 Archived 10 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine Heinsohn G 2006 Demography and War online Archived 12 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine Heinsohn G 2005 Population Conquest and Terror in the 21st Century online Archived 13 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine Jack A Goldstone 4 March 1993 Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 08267 0 Archived from the original on 26 May 2013 Retrieved 31 May 2012 Moller Herbert 1968 Youth as a Force in the Modern World Comparative Studies in Society and History 10 238 60 240 44 Diessenbacher Hartmut 1994 Kriege der Zukunft Die Bevolkerungsexplosion gefahrdet den Frieden Muenchen Hanser 1998 see also criticizing youth bulge theory Marc Sommers 2006 Fearing Africa s Young Men The Case of Rwanda The World Bank Social Development Papers Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction Paper No 32 January 2006 2 Archived 10 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine Urdal Henrik 2004 The Devil in the Demographics The Effect of Youth Bulges on Domestic Armed Conflict 3 Population Action International The Security Demographic Population and Civil Conflict after the Cold War 4 Archived 10 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine Krohnert Steffen 2004 Warum entstehen Kriege Welchen Einfluss haben demografische Veranderungen auf die Entstehung von Konflikten 5 Archived 4 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine Hendrixson Anne Angry Young Men Veiled Young Women Constructing a New Population Threat 6 Archived 30 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine Geoffrey Parker Introduction in Parker ed The Cambridge illustrated history of warfare Cambridge University Press 1995 pp 2 11 online Parker Introduction pp 2 3 a b Fearon James D Summer 1995 Rationalist Explanations for War International Organization 49 3 379 414 doi 10 1017 s0020818300033324 JSTOR 2706903 S2CID 38573183 Geoffrey Blainey 1988 Causes of War 3rd ed p 114 ISBN 9780029035917 Archived from the original on 1 January 2016 Retrieved 19 March 2016 Powell Robert 2002 Bargaining Theory and International Conflict Annual Review of Political Science 5 1 30 doi 10 1146 annurev polisci 5 092601 141138 Chris Cramer Civil War is Not a Stupid Thing ISBN 978 1850658214 From point 10 of Modern Conflict is Not What You Think article Archived 22 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine accessed 16 December 2014 Quote from Iain King in Modern Conflict is Not What You Think Archived 22 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine Point 6 in Modern Conflict is Not What You Think Archived 22 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine Lake David A November 2010 Two Cheers for Bargaining Theory Assessing Rationalist Explanations of the Iraq War International Security 35 3 7 52 doi 10 1162 isec a 00029 S2CID 1096131 Uppsala Conflict Data Program About Archived from the original on 3 April 2019 Retrieved 9 April 2019 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Levy Jack S June 1998 The Causes of War and the Conditions of Peace Annual Review of Political Science 1 139 65 doi 10 1146 annurev polisci 1 1 139 Peace Economics Peace Science and Public Policy p 19 2001 Archived from the original on 7 July 2011 Retrieved 7 February 2010 More recently studies Lebow 2008 Lindemann 2010 demonstrated that striving for self esteem i e virile self images and recognition as a Great Power or non recognition exclusion and punishment of great powers denying traumatic historical events is a principal cause of international conflict and war Levy Jack S March 1997 Prospect Theory Rational Choice and International Relations PDF International Studies Quarterly 41 1 87 112 doi 10 1111 0020 8833 00034 Archived from the original PDF on 24 September 2015 a b DeForrest Mark Edward Conclusion JUST WAR THEORY AND THE RECENT U S AIR STRIKES AGAINST IRAQ Gonzaga Journal of International Law Archived from the original on 2 April 2010 Retrieved 1 August 2011 Lazar Seth 21 March 2020 Zalta Edward N ed War The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Retrieved 4 October 2022 Aquinas Thomas Part II Question 40 The Summa Theologica Benziger Bros edition 1947 Archived from the original on 12 February 2002 Retrieved 1 August 2011 Mosley Alexander The Jus Ad Bellum Convention Just War Theory Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on 16 April 2010 Retrieved 1 August 2011 a b Moseley Alexander The Principles of Jus in Bello Just War Theory Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archived from the original on 16 April 2010 Retrieved 1 August 2011 Codevilla Seabury Angelo Paul 1989 War Ends and Means New York NY Basic Books p 304 ISBN 978 0 465 09067 9 Ian Dear Michael Richard Daniell Foot 2001 The Oxford Companion to World War II Oxford University Press p 88 ISBN 0 19 860446 7 Ankony Robert C Sociological and Criminological Theory Brief of Theorists Theories and Terms CFM Research Jul 2012 PASTORAL CONSTITUTION ON THE CHURCH IN THE MODERN WORLD GAUDIUM ET SPES PROMULGATED BY HIS HOLINESS POPE PAUL VI ON DECEMBER 7 1965 Archived 11 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine Glossary of Terms Pauses During Conflict PDF United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs June 2011 archived PDF from the original on 6 March 2022 retrieved 6 March 2022 Why humanitarians wary of humanitarian corridors The New Humanitarian 19 March 2012 Archived from the original on 6 March 2022 Retrieved 6 March 2022 Reindorp Nicola Wiles Peter June 2001 Humanitarian Coordination Lessons from Recent Field Experience PDF Overseas Development Institute London Archived PDF from the original on 6 March 2022 Retrieved 6 March 2022 via UNHCR Nemeth Maj Lisa A 2009 The Use of Pauses in Coercion An Examination in Theory PDF Monograph School of Advanced Military Studies United States Army Command and General Staff College Archived PDF from the original on 6 March 2022 Laura Wise Sanja Badanjak Christine Bell and Fiona Knaussel 2021 Pandemic Pauses Understanding Ceasefires in a Time of Covid 19 PDF politicalsettlements org Political Settlements Research Programme Archived PDF from the original on 18 May 2022 Retrieved 6 March 2022 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint uses authors parameter link Drexler Madeline 10 September 2021 When a Virus Strikes Can the World Pause Its Wars The Wire Science Archived from the original on 6 March 2022 Retrieved 6 March 2022 Bibliography Barzilai Gad 1996 Wars Internal Conflicts and Political Order A Jewish Democracy in the Middle East Albany State University of New York Press Beer Francis A 1974 How Much War in History Definitions Estimates Extrapolations and Trends Beverly Hills SAGE Beer Francis A 1981 Peace against War The Ecology of International Violence San Francisco W H Freeman Beer Francis A 2001 Meanings of War and Peace College Station Texas A amp M University Press Blainey Geoffrey 1973 The Causes of War Simon and Schuster Butler Smedley 1935 War is a Racket Chagnon N 1983 The Yanomamo Holt Rinehart amp Winston Clausewitz Carl Von 1976 On War Princeton University Press Codevilla Angelo 2005 No Victory No Peace Rowman and Littlefield Codevilla Angelo Seabury Paul 2006 War Ends and Means 2 ed Potomac Books Fog Agner 2017 Warlike and Peaceful Societies The Interaction of Genes and Culture Open Book Publishers doi 10 11647 OBP 0128 ISBN 978 1 78374 403 9 Fornari Franco 1974 The Psychoanalysis of War Translated by Pfeifer Alenka NY Doubleday Anchor Press ISBN 9780385043472 Fry Douglas 2004 Conclusion Learning from Peaceful Societies In Kemp Graham ed Keeping the Peace Routledge pp 185 204 Fry Douglas 2005 The Human Potential for Peace An Anthropological Challenge to Assumptions about War and Violence Oxford University Press Fry Douglas 2009 Beyond War Oxford University Press Gat Azar 2006 War in Human Civilization Oxford University Press Heinsohn Gunnar 2003 Sohne und Weltmacht Terror im Aufstieg und Fall der Nationen Sons and Imperial Power Terror and the Rise and Fall of Nations PDF in German Orell Fussl Archived PDF from the original on 4 March 2016 Retrieved 19 March 2016 Howell Signe Willis Roy 1990 Societies at Peace Anthropological Perspectives London Routledge James Paul Friedman Jonathan 2006 Globalization and Violence Vol 3 Globalizing War and Intervention London Sage Publications Archived from the original on 11 January 2020 Retrieved 3 December 2017 James Paul Sharma RR 2006 Globalization and Violence Vol 4 Transnational Conflict London Sage Publications Archived from the original on 18 August 2021 Retrieved 3 December 2017 Keegan John 1994 A History of Warfare Pimlico Keeley Lawrence 1996 War Before Civilization Oxford University Press Keen David 2012 Useful Enemies When Waging Wars Is More Important Than Winning Them Yale University Press Kelly Raymond C 2000 Warless Societies and the Origin of War University of Michigan Press Kemp Graham Fry Douglas 2004 Keeping the Peace New York Routledge Kolko Gabriel 1994 Century of War Politics Conflicts and Society since 1914 New York NY The New Press Lebow Richard Ned 2008 A Cultural Theory of International Relations Cambridge University Press Lindemann Thomas 2010 Causes of War The Struggle for Recognition Colchester ECPR Press Maniscalco Fabio 2007 World heritage and war linee guida per interventi a salvaguardia dei beni culturali nelle aree a rischio bellico Massa ISBN 978 88 87835 89 2 Archived from the original on 1 January 2016 Retrieved 19 October 2015 McIntosh Jane 2002 A Peaceful Realm The Rise and Fall of the Indus Civilization Oxford UK Westview Press Metz Steven and Cuccia Philip R 2011 Defining War for the 21st Century Archived 30 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine Strategic Studies Institute U S Army War College ISBN 978 1 58487 472 0 Montagu Ashley 1978 Learning Nonaggression New York Oxford University Press Otterbein Keith 2004 How War Began College Station TX Texas A amp M University Press Parker Geoffrey ed 2008 The Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare The Triumph of the West Cambridge University Press 1995 revised 2008 onlinePauketat Timothy 2005 North American Archaeology Blackwell Publishing Small Melvin Singer Joel David 1982 Resort to arms international and civil wars 1816 1980 Sage Publications ISBN 978 0 8039 1776 7 Archived from the original on 1 January 2016 Retrieved 19 October 2015 Smith David Livingstone February 2009 The Most Dangerous Animal Human Nature and the Origins of War Macmillan ISBN 978 0 312 53744 9 Archived from the original on 1 January 2016 Retrieved 19 October 2015 Sponsel Leslie Gregor Thomas 1994 Anthropology of Peace and Nonviolence Lynne Rienner Publishing Strachan Hew 2013 The Direction of War Cambridge University Press Turchin P 2005 War and Peace and War Life Cycles of Imperial Nations NY Pi Press Van Creveld Martin The Art of War War and Military Thought London Cassell Wellington House Wade Nicholas 2006 Before the Dawn New York Penguin Walzer Michael 1977 Just and Unjust Wars Basic Books External linksWar at Wikipedia s sister projects Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks An Interactive map of all the battles fought around the world in the last 4 000 years Timeline of wars on Histropedia War zone safety travel guide from Wikivoyage Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title War amp oldid 1143962674, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.