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Geography

January 13, 2023

This article is about the science of Earth's surface. For the surface of other planetary bodies, see Planetary science. For the science of planetary material, see Geology. For other uses, see Geography (disambiguation) and Geo (disambiguation).

Geography (from Greek: γεωγραφία, geographia. Combination of Greek words ‘Geo’ (The Earth) and ‘Graphien’ (to describe), literally "earth description") is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth.[1] The first recorded use of the word γεωγραφία was as a title of a book by Greek scholar Eratosthenes (276–194 BC).[1] Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of Earth and its human and natural complexities—not merely where objects are, but also how they have changed and come to be. While geography is specific to Earth, many concepts can be applied more broadly to other celestial bodies in the field of planetary science.[2] One such concept, the first law of geography, proposed by Waldo Tobler, is "everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things."[3][4] Geography has been called "the world discipline" and "the bridge between the human and the physical sciences."

Physical map of Earth
Political map of Earth

Introduction

Geography is a systematic study of the Earth, its features, and phenomena that take place on it. For something to fall into the domain of geography, it generally needs some sort of spatial component that can be placed on a map, such as coordinates, place names, or addresses. This has led to geography being associated with cartography and place names. Although many geographers are trained in toponymy and cartology, this is not their main preoccupation. Geographers study the Earth's spatial and temporal distribution of phenomena, processes, and features as well as the interaction[disambiguation needed] of humans and their environment.[5] Because space and place affect a variety of topics, such as economics, health, climate, plants, and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary. The interdisciplinary nature of the geographical approach depends on an attentiveness to the relationship between physical and human phenomena and their spatial patterns.[6] Geography is specific to the planet Earth, and other celestial bodies are specified, such as "geography of Mars," or given another name, such as areography in the case of Mars.[7][8][9]

Names of places...are not geography...To know by heart a whole gazetteer full of them would not, in itself, constitute anyone a geographer. Geography has higher aims than this: it seeks to classify phenomena (alike of the natural and of the political world, in so far as it treats of the latter), to compare, to generalize, to ascend from effects to causes, and, in doing so, to trace out the laws of nature and to mark their influences upon man. This is 'a description of the world'—that is Geography. In a word, Geography is a Science—a thing not of mere names but of argument and reason, of cause and effect.[10]

— William Hughes, 1863

Just as all phenomena exist in time and thus have a history, they also exist in space and have a geography.[11]

— United States National Research Council, 1997

Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into three main branches: human geography, physical geography, and technical geography.[12] Human geography largely focuses on the built environment and how humans create, view, manage, and influence space.[12] Physical geography examines the natural environment, and how organisms, climate, soil, water, and landforms produce and interact.[13] The difference between these approaches led to the development of integrated geography, which combines physical and human geography and concerns the interactions between the environment and humans.[5] Technical geography involves studying and developing the tools and techniques used by geographers, such as remote sensing, cartography, and geographic information system.[14]

Core concepts

Space

Main article: Space
 
A right-handed three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system used to indicate positions in space.

For something to exist in the realm of geography, it must be able to be described spatially.[15] Thus, space is the most fundamental concept at the foundation of geography.[16][17] The concept is so basic, that geographers often have difficulty defining exactly what it is. absolute space is the exact site, or spatial coordinates, of objects, persons, places, or phenomena under investigation.[16] We exist in space.[18] Absolute space leads to the view of the world as a photograph, with everything frozen in place when the coordinates were recorded. Today, geographers are trained to remember that the world is not the static image that appears on a map; and instead, the dynamic space where all processes interact and take place.[16][19]

Place

Main articles: Location, Place identity, and Sense of place

Place is one of the most complex terms in geography.[18][20][21][22] In human geography, place is the synthesis of the coordinates on the Earth's surface, the activity and use that occurs, has occurred, and will occur at the coordinates, and the meaning ascribed to the space by human individuals and groups.[15][21] This can be extraordinarily complex, as different spaces may have different uses at different times and mean different things to different people. In physical geography, a place includes all of the physical phenomena that occur in space, including the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.[22] Places do not exist in a vacuum and instead have complex spatial relationships with each other, and place is concerned how a location is situated in relation to all other locations.[3][4] As a discipline then, the term place in geography includes all spatial phenomena occurring at a location, the diverse uses and meanings humans ascribe to that location, and how that location impacts and is impacted by all other locations on Earth.[21][22]

Time

Main articles: Time geography and Historical geography
 
Examples of the visual language of time geography: space-time cube, path, prism, bundle, and other concepts.

Time is usually thought to be within the domain of history, however, it is of significant concern in the discipline of geography.[23][24][25] In physics, space and time are not separated, and are combined into the concept of spacetime.[26] Geography is subject to the laws of physics, and in studying things that occur in space, time must be considered. Time in geography is more than just the historical record of events that occurred at various discrete coordinates; but also includes modeling the dynamic movement of people, organisms, and things through space.[18] Time facilitates movement through space, ultimately allowing things to flow through a system.[23] The amount of time an individual, or group of people, spends in a place will often shape their attachment and perspective to that place.[18] Time constrains the possible paths that can be taken through space, given a starting point, possible routes, and rate of travel.[27] Visualizing time over space is challenging in terms of cartography, and includes Space-Prism, advanced 3D geovisualizations, and animated maps.[27][28][19]

Scale

Main articles: Scale (ratio), Spatial scale, and Scale (map)
 
A graphical or bar scale. A map would also usually give its scale numerically ("1:50,000", for instance, means that one cm on the map represents 50,000cm of real space, which is 500 meters)

Scale in the context of a map is the ratio between a distance measured on the map and the corresponding distance as measured on the ground.[2][29] This concept is fundamental to the discipline of geography, not just cartography, in that phenomena being investigated appear different depending on the scale used.[30][31] Scale is the frame that geographers use to measure space, and ultimately to try and understand a place.[29]

Laws of geography

Main page: Category:Laws of geography
 
Waldo Tobler in front of the Newberry Library. Chicago, November 2007

In general, some dispute the entire concept of laws in geography and the social sciences.[3][32][33] These criticisms have been addressed by Tobler and others.[32][33] However, this is an ongoing source of debate in geography and is unlikely to be resolved anytime soon. Several laws have been proposed, and Tobler's first law of geography is the most generally accepted in geography. Some have argued that geographic laws do not need to be numbered. The existence of a first invites a second, and many have proposed themselves as that. It has also been proposed that Tobler's first law of geography should be moved to the second and replaced with another.[33] A few of the proposed laws of geography are below:

  • Tobler's first law of geography: "Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant"[3][32][33]
  • Tobler's second law of geography: "The phenomenon external to a geographic area of interest affects what goes on inside."[32]
  • Arbia's law of geography: "Everything is related to everything else, but things observed at a coarse spatial resolution are more related than things observed at a finer resolution."[30][32][31][34][35]
  • The uncertainty principle: "That the geographic world is infinitely complex and that any representation must therefore contain elements of uncertainty, that many definitions used in acquiring geographic data contain elements of vagueness, and that it is impossible to measure location on the Earth's surface exactly."[33]

Sub-disciplines

Geography is a branch of inquiry that focuses on spatial information on Earth. It is an extremely broad topic and can be broken down multiple ways.[36] There have been several approaches to doing this, including "four traditions of geography" and into distinct branches. The Four traditions of geography are often used to divide the different historical approaches theories geographers have taken to the discipline. In contrast, geography's branches describe contemporary applied geographical approaches.[37]

Four traditions of geography

Main page: Category:Four traditions of geography

Geography is an extremely broad field. Because of this, many view the various definitions of geography proposed over the decades as inadequate. To address this, William D. Pattison proposed the concept of the "Four traditions of Geography" in 1964.[38][39][40] These traditions are the Spatial or Locational Tradition, the Man-Land or Human-Environment Interaction Tradition, the Area Studies or Regional Tradition, and the Earth Science Tradition.[38][39][40] These concepts are broad sets of geography philosophies bound together within the discipline. They are one of many ways geographers organize the major sets of thoughts and philosophies within the discipline. [38][39][40]

Spatial or locational tradition

Main article: Spatial Analysis

The spatial or locational tradition is concerned with employing quantitative methods to describe the spatial characteristics of a location.[38][39][40] The spatial tradition seeks to use the spatial characteristics of a location or phenomena to understand and explain it. The contributors to this tradition were historically cartographers, but it now encompasses what we call technical geography and geographic information science.[40]

Area studies or regional tradition

Main articles: Regional geography and Area studies

The area studies or regional tradition is concerned with the description of the unique characteristics of the earth's surface, resulting in each area from the combination of its complete natural or elements, as of physical and human environment.[38][39][40][41] The main aim is to understand, or define the uniqueness, or character of a particular region that consists of natural as well as human elements. Attention is paid also to regionalization, which covers the proper techniques of space delimitation into regions.

Human-Environment interaction tradition

Main article: Integrated geography

The Human Environment Interaction tradition (originally the Man-Land), also known as Integrated geography, is concerned with the description of the spatial interactions between humans and the natural world.[38][39][40][42] It requires an understanding of the traditional aspects of physical and human geography, like how human societies conceptualize the environment. Integrated geography has emerged as a bridge between human and physical geography due to the increasing specialization of the two sub-fields, or branches.[15] Since the changing of the human relationship with the environment as a result of globalization and technological change, a new approach was needed to understand the changing and dynamic relationship. Examples of areas of research in environmental geography include: emergency management, environmental management, sustainability, and political ecology.

Integrated geography has come to dominate modern geography as the need for holistic understanding has increased, even in disciplines once thought to be wholly human or physical geography in focus, such as the study of climate.[15]

Earth science tradition

Main article: Earth science

The Earth science tradition is largely concerned with what is generally referred to as physical geography.[38][39][40] The tradition focuses on understanding the spatial characteristics of natural phenomena. Some argue the Earth science tradition is a subset of the spatial tradition, however the two are different enough in their focus and objectives to warrant separation.[40]

Branches of geography

Main page: Category:Branches of geography

Research and careers in geography today are highly multidisciplinary, and the discipline is now dominated in many ways by the tradition of integrated geography, and focused on applied geography. Within the traditions mentioned above, geography is organized into applied branches. The UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems organizes geography into the three categories of human geography, physical geography, and technical geography.[15][14][1][43][44][37][36] Others include the terms integrated geography, geographic thought, or environmental geography, among others as branches, and others limit the number of branches to just physical and human.[15] Geographers rarely focus on just one of these topics, often using one as their primary focus and then incorporating data and methods from the other branches. Often, geographers are asked to describe what they do by individuals outside the discipline[20] and are likely to identify closely with a specific branch, or sub-branch, when describing themselves to lay people. Human geography is concerned with studying people and their communities, cultures, economies, and interactions with the environment by studying their relations with and across space and place.[15] Physical geography is concerned with the study of processes and patterns in the natural environment like the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere.[15] Technical geography is interested in studying and applying techniques and methods to store, process, analyze, visualize, and use spatial data. It is the newest of the branches, the most controversial, and often other terms are used in the literature to describe the emerging category. These branches use similar geographic philosophies, concepts, and tools and often overlap significantly.

Physical

Main article: Physical geography

Physical geography (or physiography) focuses on geography as an Earth science.[45][46][47] It aims to understand the physical problems and the issues of lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, pedosphere, and global flora and fauna patterns (biosphere). Physical geography is the study of earth's seasons, climate, atmosphere, soil, streams, landforms, and oceans.[48] Physical geographers will often work in identifying and monitoring the use of natural resources.

Human

Main article: Human geography

Human geography (or anthropogeography) is a branch of geography that focuses on studying patterns and processes that shape human society.[49] It encompasses the human, political, cultural, social, and economic aspects. In industry, human geographers often work in city planning, public health, or business analysis.

Various approaches to the study of human geography have also arisen through time and include:

Technical

Main article: Technical geography

Technical geography concerns studying and developing tools, techniques, and statistical methods employed to collect, analyze, use, and understand spatial data.[14][37][44][43] Technical geography is the most recently recognized, and controversial, of the branches. There are several other terms, often used interchangeably with technical geography to subdivide the discipline, including "techniques of geographic analysis,"[50] "Geographic Information Technology,"[1] "Geography method's and techniques"[51] Geographic Information Science, geoinformatics, and information geography. There are subtle differences to each concept and term; however, technical geography is one of the broadest, is consistent with the naming convention of the other two branches, and has been used by the UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems to divide geography into themes.[37][44] As academic fields increasingly specialize in their nature, technical geography has emerged as a branch of geography specializing in geographic methods and thought.[14] The emergence of technical geography has brought new relevance to the broad discipline of geography by serving as a set of unique methods for managing the interdisciplinary nature of the discipline. While human and physical geographers use the techniques employed by technical geographers, technical geography is more concerned with the fundamental spatial concepts and technologies than the nature of the data.[14] It is therefore closely associated with the spatial tradition of geography while being applied to the other two major branches. A technical geographer might work as a GIS analyst, a GIS developer working to make new software tools, or create general reference maps incorporating human and natural features.

Related fields

  • Planetary science: While the discipline of geography is normally concerned with the Earth, the term can also be informally used to describe the study of other worlds, such as the planets of the Solar System and even beyond. The study of systems larger than the Earth itself usually forms part of Astronomy or Cosmology. The study of other planets is usually called planetary science. Alternative terms such as areography (geography of Mars) have been employed to describe the study of other celestial objects. Ultimately, geography may be considered a subdiscipline within planetary science.

Techniques

All geographic research and analysis start with asking the question "where," followed by "why there." Geographers start with the fundamental assumption set forth in Tobler's first law of geography, that "everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things."[3][4] As spatial interrelationships are key to this synoptic science, maps are a key tool. Classical cartography has been joined by a more modern approach to geographical analysis, computer-based geographic information systems (GIS).

In their study, geographers use four interrelated approaches:

  • Analytical – Asks why we find features and populations in a specific geographic area.
  • Descriptive – Simply specifies the locations of features and populations.
  • Regional – Examines systematic relationships between categories for a specific region or location on the planet.
  • Systematic – Groups geographical knowledge into categories that can be explored globally.

Quantitative methods

Main article: Quantitative revolution

Quantitative methods in geography became particularly influential in the discipline during the 1950s and 60s. These methods revitalized the discipline in many ways, allowing scientific testing of hypotheses and proposing scientific geographic theories and laws.[52]

Geomatics

Main article: Geomatics
 
Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

Geomatics is concerned with the application of computers to the traditional spatial techniques used in cartography and topography. Similar to the terms geographic information science and technical geography, geomatics emerged from the quantitative revolution in geography in the mid-1950s. Today, geomatics methods include spatial analysis, geographic information systems (GIS), remote sensing, and global positioning systems (GPS). Geomatics has revitalized some geography departments, especially in Northern America, where the subject had a declining status during the 1950s. Because of this, many have proposed it may be a third branch in geography, in addition to physical and human.

Quantitative cartography

 
James Cook's 1770 chart of New Zealand
Main article: Cartography

Cartography is the art, science, and technology of making maps. Cartographers study the Earth's surface representation with abstract symbols (map making). Although other subdisciplines of geography rely on maps for presenting their analyses, the actual making of maps is abstract enough to be regarded separately. Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science.

Cartographers must learn cognitive psychology and ergonomics to understand which symbols convey information about the Earth most effectively and behavioural psychology to induce the readers of their maps to act on the information. They must learn geodesy and fairly advanced mathematics to understand how the shape of the Earth affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat surface for viewing. It can be said, without much controversy, that cartography is the seed from which the larger field of geography grew. Most geographers will cite a childhood fascination with maps as an early sign they would end up in the field.

Geographic information systems

Main article: Geographic information system

Geographic information systems (GIS) deal with storing information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a computer in an accurate manner appropriate to the information's purpose.[53] In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand computer science and database systems. GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography: nearly all mapmaking is now done with the assistance of some form of GIS software. The science of using GIS software and GIS techniques to represent, analyse, and predict the spatial relationships is called geographic information science (GISc).[54]

Remote sensing

Main article: Remote sensing

Remote sensing is the art, science, and technology of obtaining information about Earth's features from measurements made at a distance.[55] Remotely sensed data comes in many forms, such as satellite imagery, aerial photography, and data obtained from hand-held sensors.[55] Geographers increasingly use remotely sensed data to obtain information about the Earth's land surface, ocean, and atmosphere, because it: (a) supplies objective information at a variety of spatial scales (local to global), (b) provides a synoptic view of the area of interest, (c) allows access to distant and inaccessible sites, (d) provides spectral information outside the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, and (e) facilitates studies of how features/areas change over time. Remotely sensed data may be analyzed independently or in conjunction with other digital data layers (e.g., in a geographic information system). Remote sensing aids in land use, land cover (LULC) mapping, by helping to determine both what is naturally occurring on a piece of land and what human activities are taking place on it.[56]

Geostatistics

Main article: Geostatistics

Geostatistics deal with quantitative data analysis, specifically the application of a statistical methodology to the exploration of geographic phenomena.[57] Geostatistics is used extensively in a variety of fields, including hydrology, geology, petroleum exploration, weather analysis, urban planning, logistics, and epidemiology. The mathematical basis for geostatistics derives from cluster analysis, linear discriminant analysis and non-parametric statistical tests, and a variety of other subjects. Applications of geostatistics rely heavily on geographic information systems, particularly for the interpolation (estimate) of unmeasured points. Geographers are making notable contributions to the method of quantitative techniques.

Qualitative methods

Qualitative geography is descriptive rather than numerical or statistical in nature.[58][59] They add context to concepts, and explore human concepts like beliefs and perspective that are difficult or impossible to quantify.[59] Human geography is much more likely to employ qualitative methods than physical. Increasingly, technical geographers are attempting to employ GIS methods to qualitative datasets.[59][60]

Qualitative cartography

Qualitative cartography employs many of the same software and techniques as quantitative.[60] It may be employed to inform on map practices, or to visualize perspectives and ideas that are not strictly quantitative in nature.[60][59]

Ethnography

Main article: Ethnography

Ethnographical research techniques are used by human geographers.[61] In cultural geography, there is a tradition of employing qualitative research techniques, also used in anthropology and sociology. Participant observation and in-depth interviews provide human geographers with qualitative data.

History

Main article: History of geography

The concept of geography is present in all cultures, and therefore the history of the discipline is a series of competing narratives, with concepts emerging at various points across space and time.[62] The oldest known world maps date back to ancient Babylon from the 9th century BC.[63] The best known Babylonian world map, however, is the Imago Mundi of 600 BC.[64] The map as reconstructed by Eckhard Unger shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria, Urartu, and several cities, in turn surrounded by a "bitter river" (Oceanus), with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven-pointed star.[65] The accompanying text mentions seven outer regions beyond the encircling ocean. The descriptions of five of them have survived.[66] In contrast to the Imago Mundi, an earlier Babylonian world map dating back to the 9th century BC depicted Babylon as being further north from the center of the world, though it is not certain what that center was supposed to represent.[63]

The ideas of Anaximander (c. 610–545 BC): considered by later Greek writers to be the true founder of geography, come to us through fragments quoted by his successors.[67] Anaximander is credited with the invention of the gnomon, the simple, yet efficient Greek instrument that allowed the early measurement of latitude.[67] Thales is also credited with the prediction of eclipses. The foundations of geography can be traced to ancient cultures, such as the ancient, medieval, and early modern Chinese. The Greeks, who were the first to explore geography as both art and science, achieved this through Cartography, Philosophy, and Literature, or through Mathematics. There is some debate about who was the first person to assert that the Earth is spherical in shape, with the credit going either to Parmenides or Pythagoras. Anaxagoras was able to demonstrate that the profile of the Earth was circular by explaining eclipses. However, he still believed that the Earth was a flat disk, as did many of his contemporaries. One of the first estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by Eratosthenes.[68]

The first rigorous system of latitude and longitude lines is credited to Hipparchus. He employed a sexagesimal system that was derived from Babylonian mathematics. The meridians were subdivided into 360°, with each degree further subdivided into 60 (minutes). To measure the longitude at different locations on Earth, he suggested using eclipses to determine the relative difference in time.[69] The extensive mapping by the Romans as they explored new lands would later provide a high level of information for Ptolemy to construct detailed atlases. He extended the work of Hipparchus, using a grid system on his maps and adopting a length of 56.5 miles for a degree.[70]

From the 3rd century onwards, Chinese methods of geographical study and writing of geographical literature became much more comprehensive than what was found in Europe at the time (until the 13th century).[71] Chinese geographers such as Liu An, Pei Xiu, Jia Dan, Shen Kuo, Fan Chengda, Zhou Daguan, and Xu Xiake wrote important treatises, yet by the 17th century advanced ideas and methods of Western-style geography were adopted in China.

 
The Ptolemy world map, reconstituted from Ptolemy's Geographia, written c. 150

During the Middle Ages, the fall of the Roman empire led to a shift in the evolution of geography from Europe to the Islamic world.[71] Muslim geographers such as Muhammad al-Idrisi produced detailed world maps (such as Tabula Rogeriana), while other geographers such as Yaqut al-Hamawi, Abu Rayhan Biruni, Ibn Battuta, and Ibn Khaldun provided detailed accounts of their journeys and the geography of the regions they visited. Turkish geographer Mahmud al-Kashgari drew a world map on a linguistic basis, and later so did Piri Reis (Piri Reis map). Further, Islamic scholars translated and interpreted the earlier works of the Romans and the Greeks and established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad for this purpose.[72] Abū Zayd al-Balkhī, originally from Balkh, founded the "Balkhī school" of terrestrial mapping in Baghdad.[73] Suhrāb, a late tenth century Muslim geographer accompanied a book of geographical coordinates, with instructions for making a rectangular world map with equirectangular projection or cylindrical equidistant projection.[74]

Abu Rayhan Biruni (976–1048) first described a polar equi-azimuthal equidistant projection of the celestial sphere.[75] He was regarded as the most skilled when it came to mapping cities and measuring the distances between them, which he did for many cities in the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent. He often combined astronomical readings and mathematical equations to develop methods of pin-pointing locations by recording degrees of latitude and longitude. He also developed similar techniques when it came to measuring the heights of mountains, depths of the valleys, and expanse of the horizon. He also discussed human geography and the planetary habitability of the Earth. He also calculated the latitude of Kath, Khwarezm, using the maximum altitude of the Sun, and solved a complex geodesic equation to accurately compute the Earth's circumference, which was close to modern values of the Earth's circumference.[76] His estimate of 6,339.9 km for the Earth radius was only 16.8 km less than the modern value of 6,356.7 km. In contrast to his predecessors, who measured the Earth's circumference by sighting the Sun simultaneously from two different locations, al-Biruni developed a new method of using trigonometric calculations based on the angle between a plain and mountain top, which yielded more accurate measurements of the Earth's circumference, and made it possible for it to be measured by a single person from a single location.[77]

 
Self portrait of Alexander von Humboldt, one of the early pioneers of geography as an academic subject in modern sense

The European Age of Discovery during the 16th and the 17th centuries, where many new lands were discovered and accounts by European explorers such as Christopher Columbus, Marco Polo, and James Cook revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail and more solid theoretical foundations in Europe. The problem facing both explorers and geographers was finding the latitude and longitude of a geographic location. The problem of latitude was solved long ago, but that of longitude remained; agreeing on what zero meridians should be was only part of the problem. It was left to John Harrison to solve it by inventing the chronometer H-4 in 1760, and later in 1884 for the International Meridian Conference to adopt by convention the Greenwich meridian as zero meridians.[76]

The 18th and 19th centuries were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete academic discipline, and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and Berlin). The development of many geographic societies also occurred during the 19th century, with the foundations of the Société de Géographie in 1821, the Royal Geographical Society in 1830, Russian Geographical Society in 1845, American Geographical Society in 1851, and the National Geographic Society in 1888. The influence of Immanuel Kant, Alexander von Humboldt, Carl Ritter, and Paul Vidal de la Blache can be seen as a major turning point in geography from philosophy to an academic subject.[78][79][80][81][82]

Over the past two centuries, the advancements in technology with computers have led to the development of geomatics and new practices such as participant observation and geostatistics being incorporated into geography's portfolio of tools. In the West during the 20th century, the discipline of geography went through four major phases: environmental determinism, regional geography, the quantitative revolution, and critical geography. The strong interdisciplinary links between geography and the sciences of geology and botany, as well as economics, sociology, and demographics, have also grown greatly, especially as a result of earth system science that seeks to understand the world in a holistic view. New concepts and philosophies have emerged from the rapid advancement of computers, quantitative methods, and interdisciplinary approaches. In 1970, Waldo Tobler proposed the first law of geography, "everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things."[3][4] This law summarizes the first assumption geographers make about the world.

Notable geographers

Main articles: List of geographers and List of Graeco-Roman geographers

Institutions and societies

Main category: Geography Organizations

Publications

Main category: Geography Journals

See also

References

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External links

  • Definition of geography at Dictionary.com
  • Origin and meaning of geography by Online Etymology Dictionary
  • Topic Dictionaries at Oxford Learner's Dictionaries

January 13, 2023
geography, this, article, about, science, earth, surface, surface, other, planetary, bodies, planetary, science, science, planetary, material, geology, other, uses, disambiguation, disambiguation, from, greek, γεωγραφία, geographia, combination, greek, words, . This article is about the science of Earth s surface For the surface of other planetary bodies see Planetary science For the science of planetary material see Geology For other uses see Geography disambiguation and Geo disambiguation Geography from Greek gewgrafia geographia Combination of Greek words Geo The Earth and Graphien to describe literally earth description is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands features inhabitants and phenomena of Earth 1 The first recorded use of the word gewgrafia was as a title of a book by Greek scholar Eratosthenes 276 194 BC 1 Geography is an all encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of Earth and its human and natural complexities not merely where objects are but also how they have changed and come to be While geography is specific to Earth many concepts can be applied more broadly to other celestial bodies in the field of planetary science 2 One such concept the first law of geography proposed by Waldo Tobler is everything is related to everything else but near things are more related than distant things 3 4 Geography has been called the world discipline and the bridge between the human and the physical sciences Physical map of Earth Political map of Earth Contents 1 Introduction 2 Core concepts 2 1 Space 2 2 Place 2 3 Time 2 4 Scale 2 5 Laws of geography 3 Sub disciplines 3 1 Four traditions of geography 3 1 1 Spatial or locational tradition 3 1 2 Area studies or regional tradition 3 1 3 Human Environment interaction tradition 3 1 4 Earth science tradition 3 2 Branches of geography 3 2 1 Physical 3 2 2 Human 3 2 3 Technical 3 3 Related fields 4 Techniques 4 1 Quantitative methods 4 1 1 Geomatics 4 1 2 Quantitative cartography 4 1 3 Geographic information systems 4 1 4 Remote sensing 4 1 5 Geostatistics 4 2 Qualitative methods 4 2 1 Qualitative cartography 4 2 2 Ethnography 5 History 6 Notable geographers 7 Institutions and societies 8 Publications 9 See also 10 References 11 External linksIntroductionGeography is a systematic study of the Earth its features and phenomena that take place on it For something to fall into the domain of geography it generally needs some sort of spatial component that can be placed on a map such as coordinates place names or addresses This has led to geography being associated with cartography and place names Although many geographers are trained in toponymy and cartology this is not their main preoccupation Geographers study the Earth s spatial and temporal distribution of phenomena processes and features as well as the interaction disambiguation needed of humans and their environment 5 Because space and place affect a variety of topics such as economics health climate plants and animals geography is highly interdisciplinary The interdisciplinary nature of the geographical approach depends on an attentiveness to the relationship between physical and human phenomena and their spatial patterns 6 Geography is specific to the planet Earth and other celestial bodies are specified such as geography of Mars or given another name such as areography in the case of Mars 7 8 9 Names of places are not geography To know by heart a whole gazetteer full of them would not in itself constitute anyone a geographer Geography has higher aims than this it seeks to classify phenomena alike of the natural and of the political world in so far as it treats of the latter to compare to generalize to ascend from effects to causes and in doing so to trace out the laws of nature and to mark their influences upon man This is a description of the world that is Geography In a word Geography is a Science a thing not of mere names but of argument and reason of cause and effect 10 William Hughes 1863 Just as all phenomena exist in time and thus have a history they also exist in space and have a geography 11 United States National Research Council 1997 Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into three main branches human geography physical geography and technical geography 12 Human geography largely focuses on the built environment and how humans create view manage and influence space 12 Physical geography examines the natural environment and how organisms climate soil water and landforms produce and interact 13 The difference between these approaches led to the development of integrated geography which combines physical and human geography and concerns the interactions between the environment and humans 5 Technical geography involves studying and developing the tools and techniques used by geographers such as remote sensing cartography and geographic information system 14 Core conceptsSpace Main article Space A right handed three dimensional Cartesian coordinate system used to indicate positions in space For something to exist in the realm of geography it must be able to be described spatially 15 Thus space is the most fundamental concept at the foundation of geography 16 17 The concept is so basic that geographers often have difficulty defining exactly what it is absolute space is the exact site or spatial coordinates of objects persons places or phenomena under investigation 16 We exist in space 18 Absolute space leads to the view of the world as a photograph with everything frozen in place when the coordinates were recorded Today geographers are trained to remember that the world is not the static image that appears on a map and instead the dynamic space where all processes interact and take place 16 19 Place Main articles Location Place identity and Sense of place Place is one of the most complex terms in geography 18 20 21 22 In human geography place is the synthesis of the coordinates on the Earth s surface the activity and use that occurs has occurred and will occur at the coordinates and the meaning ascribed to the space by human individuals and groups 15 21 This can be extraordinarily complex as different spaces may have different uses at different times and mean different things to different people In physical geography a place includes all of the physical phenomena that occur in space including the lithosphere atmosphere hydrosphere and biosphere 22 Places do not exist in a vacuum and instead have complex spatial relationships with each other and place is concerned how a location is situated in relation to all other locations 3 4 As a discipline then the term place in geography includes all spatial phenomena occurring at a location the diverse uses and meanings humans ascribe to that location and how that location impacts and is impacted by all other locations on Earth 21 22 Time Main articles Time geography and Historical geography Examples of the visual language of time geography space time cube path prism bundle and other concepts Time is usually thought to be within the domain of history however it is of significant concern in the discipline of geography 23 24 25 In physics space and time are not separated and are combined into the concept of spacetime 26 Geography is subject to the laws of physics and in studying things that occur in space time must be considered Time in geography is more than just the historical record of events that occurred at various discrete coordinates but also includes modeling the dynamic movement of people organisms and things through space 18 Time facilitates movement through space ultimately allowing things to flow through a system 23 The amount of time an individual or group of people spends in a place will often shape their attachment and perspective to that place 18 Time constrains the possible paths that can be taken through space given a starting point possible routes and rate of travel 27 Visualizing time over space is challenging in terms of cartography and includes Space Prism advanced 3D geovisualizations and animated maps 27 28 19 Scale Main articles Scale ratio Spatial scale and Scale map A graphical or bar scale A map would also usually give its scale numerically 1 50 000 for instance means that one cm on the map represents 50 000cm of real space which is 500 meters Scale in the context of a map is the ratio between a distance measured on the map and the corresponding distance as measured on the ground 2 29 This concept is fundamental to the discipline of geography not just cartography in that phenomena being investigated appear different depending on the scale used 30 31 Scale is the frame that geographers use to measure space and ultimately to try and understand a place 29 Laws of geography Main page Category Laws of geography Waldo Tobler in front of the Newberry Library Chicago November 2007 In general some dispute the entire concept of laws in geography and the social sciences 3 32 33 These criticisms have been addressed by Tobler and others 32 33 However this is an ongoing source of debate in geography and is unlikely to be resolved anytime soon Several laws have been proposed and Tobler s first law of geography is the most generally accepted in geography Some have argued that geographic laws do not need to be numbered The existence of a first invites a second and many have proposed themselves as that It has also been proposed that Tobler s first law of geography should be moved to the second and replaced with another 33 A few of the proposed laws of geography are below Tobler s first law of geography Everything is related to everything else but near things are more related than distant 3 32 33 Tobler s second law of geography The phenomenon external to a geographic area of interest affects what goes on inside 32 Arbia s law of geography Everything is related to everything else but things observed at a coarse spatial resolution are more related than things observed at a finer resolution 30 32 31 34 35 The uncertainty principle That the geographic world is infinitely complex and that any representation must therefore contain elements of uncertainty that many definitions used in acquiring geographic data contain elements of vagueness and that it is impossible to measure location on the Earth s surface exactly 33 Sub disciplinesGeography is a branch of inquiry that focuses on spatial information on Earth It is an extremely broad topic and can be broken down multiple ways 36 There have been several approaches to doing this including four traditions of geography and into distinct branches The Four traditions of geography are often used to divide the different historical approaches theories geographers have taken to the discipline In contrast geography s branches describe contemporary applied geographical approaches 37 Four traditions of geography Main page Category Four traditions of geography Geography is an extremely broad field Because of this many view the various definitions of geography proposed over the decades as inadequate To address this William D Pattison proposed the concept of the Four traditions of Geography in 1964 38 39 40 These traditions are the Spatial or Locational Tradition the Man Land or Human Environment Interaction Tradition the Area Studies or Regional Tradition and the Earth Science Tradition 38 39 40 These concepts are broad sets of geography philosophies bound together within the discipline They are one of many ways geographers organize the major sets of thoughts and philosophies within the discipline 38 39 40 Spatial or locational tradition Main article Spatial Analysis The spatial or locational tradition is concerned with employing quantitative methods to describe the spatial characteristics of a location 38 39 40 The spatial tradition seeks to use the spatial characteristics of a location or phenomena to understand and explain it The contributors to this tradition were historically cartographers but it now encompasses what we call technical geography and geographic information science 40 Area studies or regional tradition Main articles Regional geography and Area studies The area studies or regional tradition is concerned with the description of the unique characteristics of the earth s surface resulting in each area from the combination of its complete natural or elements as of physical and human environment 38 39 40 41 The main aim is to understand or define the uniqueness or character of a particular region that consists of natural as well as human elements Attention is paid also to regionalization which covers the proper techniques of space delimitation into regions Human Environment interaction tradition Main article Integrated geography The Human Environment Interaction tradition originally the Man Land also known as Integrated geography is concerned with the description of the spatial interactions between humans and the natural world 38 39 40 42 It requires an understanding of the traditional aspects of physical and human geography like how human societies conceptualize the environment Integrated geography has emerged as a bridge between human and physical geography due to the increasing specialization of the two sub fields or branches 15 Since the changing of the human relationship with the environment as a result of globalization and technological change a new approach was needed to understand the changing and dynamic relationship Examples of areas of research in environmental geography include emergency management environmental management sustainability and political ecology Integrated geography has come to dominate modern geography as the need for holistic understanding has increased even in disciplines once thought to be wholly human or physical geography in focus such as the study of climate 15 Earth science tradition Main article Earth science The Earth science tradition is largely concerned with what is generally referred to as physical geography 38 39 40 The tradition focuses on understanding the spatial characteristics of natural phenomena Some argue the Earth science tradition is a subset of the spatial tradition however the two are different enough in their focus and objectives to warrant separation 40 Branches of geography Main page Category Branches of geography Research and careers in geography today are highly multidisciplinary and the discipline is now dominated in many ways by the tradition of integrated geography and focused on applied geography Within the traditions mentioned above geography is organized into applied branches The UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems organizes geography into the three categories of human geography physical geography and technical geography 15 14 1 43 44 37 36 Others include the terms integrated geography geographic thought or environmental geography among others as branches and others limit the number of branches to just physical and human 15 Geographers rarely focus on just one of these topics often using one as their primary focus and then incorporating data and methods from the other branches Often geographers are asked to describe what they do by individuals outside the discipline 20 and are likely to identify closely with a specific branch or sub branch when describing themselves to lay people Human geography is concerned with studying people and their communities cultures economies and interactions with the environment by studying their relations with and across space and place 15 Physical geography is concerned with the study of processes and patterns in the natural environment like the atmosphere hydrosphere biosphere and geosphere 15 Technical geography is interested in studying and applying techniques and methods to store process analyze visualize and use spatial data It is the newest of the branches the most controversial and often other terms are used in the literature to describe the emerging category These branches use similar geographic philosophies concepts and tools and often overlap significantly Physical Main article Physical geography Physical geography or physiography focuses on geography as an Earth science 45 46 47 It aims to understand the physical problems and the issues of lithosphere hydrosphere atmosphere pedosphere and global flora and fauna patterns biosphere Physical geography is the study of earth s seasons climate atmosphere soil streams landforms and oceans 48 Physical geographers will often work in identifying and monitoring the use of natural resources Physical geography can be divided into many broad categories including Biogeography Climatology and meteorology Coastal geography Environmental management Geomorphology Glaciology Hydrology and hydrography Landscape ecology Oceanography Palaeogeography Pedology Quaternary scienceHuman Main article Human geography Human geography or anthropogeography is a branch of geography that focuses on studying patterns and processes that shape human society 49 It encompasses the human political cultural social and economic aspects In industry human geographers often work in city planning public health or business analysis Human geography can be divided into many broad categories such as Cognitive geography Cultural geography Development geography Economic geography Health geography Historical geography Internet geography Political geography and Geopolitics Population geography or Demography Religion geography Social geography Transportation geography Tourism geography Urban geographyVarious approaches to the study of human geography have also arisen through time and include Behavioral geography Culture theory Feminist geography GeosophyTechnical Main article Technical geography Technical geography concerns studying and developing tools techniques and statistical methods employed to collect analyze use and understand spatial data 14 37 44 43 Technical geography is the most recently recognized and controversial of the branches There are several other terms often used interchangeably with technical geography to subdivide the discipline including techniques of geographic analysis 50 Geographic Information Technology 1 Geography method s and techniques 51 Geographic Information Science geoinformatics and information geography There are subtle differences to each concept and term however technical geography is one of the broadest is consistent with the naming convention of the other two branches and has been used by the UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems to divide geography into themes 37 44 As academic fields increasingly specialize in their nature technical geography has emerged as a branch of geography specializing in geographic methods and thought 14 The emergence of technical geography has brought new relevance to the broad discipline of geography by serving as a set of unique methods for managing the interdisciplinary nature of the discipline While human and physical geographers use the techniques employed by technical geographers technical geography is more concerned with the fundamental spatial concepts and technologies than the nature of the data 14 It is therefore closely associated with the spatial tradition of geography while being applied to the other two major branches A technical geographer might work as a GIS analyst a GIS developer working to make new software tools or create general reference maps incorporating human and natural features Technical geography can be divided into many broad categories such as Geodesign Geodesy Geoinformatics Geographic information science Geomatics Statistical geography Spatial analysis Time geographyRelated fields Planetary science While the discipline of geography is normally concerned with the Earth the term can also be informally used to describe the study of other worlds such as the planets of the Solar System and even beyond The study of systems larger than the Earth itself usually forms part of Astronomy or Cosmology The study of other planets is usually called planetary science Alternative terms such as areography geography of Mars have been employed to describe the study of other celestial objects Ultimately geography may be considered a subdiscipline within planetary science TechniquesThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed August 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message All geographic research and analysis start with asking the question where followed by why there Geographers start with the fundamental assumption set forth in Tobler s first law of geography that everything is related to everything else but near things are more related than distant things 3 4 As spatial interrelationships are key to this synoptic science maps are a key tool Classical cartography has been joined by a more modern approach to geographical analysis computer based geographic information systems GIS In their study geographers use four interrelated approaches Analytical Asks why we find features and populations in a specific geographic area Descriptive Simply specifies the locations of features and populations Regional Examines systematic relationships between categories for a specific region or location on the planet Systematic Groups geographical knowledge into categories that can be explored globally Quantitative methods Main article Quantitative revolution Quantitative methods in geography became particularly influential in the discipline during the 1950s and 60s These methods revitalized the discipline in many ways allowing scientific testing of hypotheses and proposing scientific geographic theories and laws 52 Geomatics Main article Geomatics Digital Elevation Model DEM Geomatics is concerned with the application of computers to the traditional spatial techniques used in cartography and topography Similar to the terms geographic information science and technical geography geomatics emerged from the quantitative revolution in geography in the mid 1950s Today geomatics methods include spatial analysis geographic information systems GIS remote sensing and global positioning systems GPS Geomatics has revitalized some geography departments especially in Northern America where the subject had a declining status during the 1950s Because of this many have proposed it may be a third branch in geography in addition to physical and human Quantitative cartography James Cook s 1770 chart of New Zealand Main article Cartography Cartography is the art science and technology of making maps Cartographers study the Earth s surface representation with abstract symbols map making Although other subdisciplines of geography rely on maps for presenting their analyses the actual making of maps is abstract enough to be regarded separately Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science Cartographers must learn cognitive psychology and ergonomics to understand which symbols convey information about the Earth most effectively and behavioural psychology to induce the readers of their maps to act on the information They must learn geodesy and fairly advanced mathematics to understand how the shape of the Earth affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat surface for viewing It can be said without much controversy that cartography is the seed from which the larger field of geography grew Most geographers will cite a childhood fascination with maps as an early sign they would end up in the field Geographic information systems Main article Geographic information system Geographic information systems GIS deal with storing information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a computer in an accurate manner appropriate to the information s purpose 53 In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography GIS specialists must understand computer science and database systems GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography nearly all mapmaking is now done with the assistance of some form of GIS software The science of using GIS software and GIS techniques to represent analyse and predict the spatial relationships is called geographic information science GISc 54 Remote sensing Main article Remote sensing Remote sensing is the art science and technology of obtaining information about Earth s features from measurements made at a distance 55 Remotely sensed data comes in many forms such as satellite imagery aerial photography and data obtained from hand held sensors 55 Geographers increasingly use remotely sensed data to obtain information about the Earth s land surface ocean and atmosphere because it a supplies objective information at a variety of spatial scales local to global b provides a synoptic view of the area of interest c allows access to distant and inaccessible sites d provides spectral information outside the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum and e facilitates studies of how features areas change over time Remotely sensed data may be analyzed independently or in conjunction with other digital data layers e g in a geographic information system Remote sensing aids in land use land cover LULC mapping by helping to determine both what is naturally occurring on a piece of land and what human activities are taking place on it 56 Geostatistics Main article Geostatistics Geostatistics deal with quantitative data analysis specifically the application of a statistical methodology to the exploration of geographic phenomena 57 Geostatistics is used extensively in a variety of fields including hydrology geology petroleum exploration weather analysis urban planning logistics and epidemiology The mathematical basis for geostatistics derives from cluster analysis linear discriminant analysis and non parametric statistical tests and a variety of other subjects Applications of geostatistics rely heavily on geographic information systems particularly for the interpolation estimate of unmeasured points Geographers are making notable contributions to the method of quantitative techniques Qualitative methods This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it August 2022 Qualitative geography is descriptive rather than numerical or statistical in nature 58 59 They add context to concepts and explore human concepts like beliefs and perspective that are difficult or impossible to quantify 59 Human geography is much more likely to employ qualitative methods than physical Increasingly technical geographers are attempting to employ GIS methods to qualitative datasets 59 60 Qualitative cartography Qualitative cartography employs many of the same software and techniques as quantitative 60 It may be employed to inform on map practices or to visualize perspectives and ideas that are not strictly quantitative in nature 60 59 Ethnography Main article Ethnography Ethnographical research techniques are used by human geographers 61 In cultural geography there is a tradition of employing qualitative research techniques also used in anthropology and sociology Participant observation and in depth interviews provide human geographers with qualitative data HistoryMain article History of geography The concept of geography is present in all cultures and therefore the history of the discipline is a series of competing narratives with concepts emerging at various points across space and time 62 The oldest known world maps date back to ancient Babylon from the 9th century BC 63 The best known Babylonian world map however is the Imago Mundi of 600 BC 64 The map as reconstructed by Eckhard Unger shows Babylon on the Euphrates surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria Urartu and several cities in turn surrounded by a bitter river Oceanus with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven pointed star 65 The accompanying text mentions seven outer regions beyond the encircling ocean The descriptions of five of them have survived 66 In contrast to the Imago Mundi an earlier Babylonian world map dating back to the 9th century BC depicted Babylon as being further north from the center of the world though it is not certain what that center was supposed to represent 63 The ideas of Anaximander c 610 545 BC considered by later Greek writers to be the true founder of geography come to us through fragments quoted by his successors 67 Anaximander is credited with the invention of the gnomon the simple yet efficient Greek instrument that allowed the early measurement of latitude 67 Thales is also credited with the prediction of eclipses The foundations of geography can be traced to ancient cultures such as the ancient medieval and early modern Chinese The Greeks who were the first to explore geography as both art and science achieved this through Cartography Philosophy and Literature or through Mathematics There is some debate about who was the first person to assert that the Earth is spherical in shape with the credit going either to Parmenides or Pythagoras Anaxagoras was able to demonstrate that the profile of the Earth was circular by explaining eclipses However he still believed that the Earth was a flat disk as did many of his contemporaries One of the first estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by Eratosthenes 68 The first rigorous system of latitude and longitude lines is credited to Hipparchus He employed a sexagesimal system that was derived from Babylonian mathematics The meridians were subdivided into 360 with each degree further subdivided into 60 minutes To measure the longitude at different locations on Earth he suggested using eclipses to determine the relative difference in time 69 The extensive mapping by the Romans as they explored new lands would later provide a high level of information for Ptolemy to construct detailed atlases He extended the work of Hipparchus using a grid system on his maps and adopting a length of 56 5 miles for a degree 70 From the 3rd century onwards Chinese methods of geographical study and writing of geographical literature became much more comprehensive than what was found in Europe at the time until the 13th century 71 Chinese geographers such as Liu An Pei Xiu Jia Dan Shen Kuo Fan Chengda Zhou Daguan and Xu Xiake wrote important treatises yet by the 17th century advanced ideas and methods of Western style geography were adopted in China The Ptolemy world map reconstituted from Ptolemy s Geographia written c 150 During the Middle Ages the fall of the Roman empire led to a shift in the evolution of geography from Europe to the Islamic world 71 Muslim geographers such as Muhammad al Idrisi produced detailed world maps such as Tabula Rogeriana while other geographers such as Yaqut al Hamawi Abu Rayhan Biruni Ibn Battuta and Ibn Khaldun provided detailed accounts of their journeys and the geography of the regions they visited Turkish geographer Mahmud al Kashgari drew a world map on a linguistic basis and later so did Piri Reis Piri Reis map Further Islamic scholars translated and interpreted the earlier works of the Romans and the Greeks and established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad for this purpose 72 Abu Zayd al Balkhi originally from Balkh founded the Balkhi school of terrestrial mapping in Baghdad 73 Suhrab a late tenth century Muslim geographer accompanied a book of geographical coordinates with instructions for making a rectangular world map with equirectangular projection or cylindrical equidistant projection 74 Abu Rayhan Biruni 976 1048 first described a polar equi azimuthal equidistant projection of the celestial sphere 75 He was regarded as the most skilled when it came to mapping cities and measuring the distances between them which he did for many cities in the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent He often combined astronomical readings and mathematical equations to develop methods of pin pointing locations by recording degrees of latitude and longitude He also developed similar techniques when it came to measuring the heights of mountains depths of the valleys and expanse of the horizon He also discussed human geography and the planetary habitability of the Earth He also calculated the latitude of Kath Khwarezm using the maximum altitude of the Sun and solved a complex geodesic equation to accurately compute the Earth s circumference which was close to modern values of the Earth s circumference 76 His estimate of 6 339 9 km for the Earth radius was only 16 8 km less than the modern value of 6 356 7 km In contrast to his predecessors who measured the Earth s circumference by sighting the Sun simultaneously from two different locations al Biruni developed a new method of using trigonometric calculations based on the angle between a plain and mountain top which yielded more accurate measurements of the Earth s circumference and made it possible for it to be measured by a single person from a single location 77 Self portrait of Alexander von Humboldt one of the early pioneers of geography as an academic subject in modern sense The European Age of Discovery during the 16th and the 17th centuries where many new lands were discovered and accounts by European explorers such as Christopher Columbus Marco Polo and James Cook revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail and more solid theoretical foundations in Europe The problem facing both explorers and geographers was finding the latitude and longitude of a geographic location The problem of latitude was solved long ago but that of longitude remained agreeing on what zero meridians should be was only part of the problem It was left to John Harrison to solve it by inventing the chronometer H 4 in 1760 and later in 1884 for the International Meridian Conference to adopt by convention the Greenwich meridian as zero meridians 76 The 18th and 19th centuries were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete academic discipline and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe especially Paris and Berlin The development of many geographic societies also occurred during the 19th century with the foundations of the Societe de Geographie in 1821 the Royal Geographical Society in 1830 Russian Geographical Society in 1845 American Geographical Society in 1851 and the National Geographic Society in 1888 The influence of Immanuel Kant Alexander von Humboldt Carl Ritter and Paul Vidal de la Blache can be seen as a major turning point in geography from philosophy to an academic subject 78 79 80 81 82 Over the past two centuries the advancements in technology with computers have led to the development of geomatics and new practices such as participant observation and geostatistics being incorporated into geography s portfolio of tools In the West during the 20th century the discipline of geography went through four major phases environmental determinism regional geography the quantitative revolution and critical geography The strong interdisciplinary links between geography and the sciences of geology and botany as well as economics sociology and demographics have also grown greatly especially as a result of earth system science that seeks to understand the world in a holistic view New concepts and philosophies have emerged from the rapid advancement of computers quantitative methods and interdisciplinary approaches In 1970 Waldo Tobler proposed the first law of geography everything is related to everything else but near things are more related than distant things 3 4 This law summarizes the first assumption geographers make about the world Notable geographersMain articles List of geographers and List of Graeco Roman geographers Gerardus Mercator Alexander von Humboldt 1769 1859 published Cosmos and founder of the sub field biogeography Anne Kelly Knowles Born 1957 influential in the use of GIS and geographic methods in History Arnold Henry Guyot 1807 1884 noted the structure of glaciers and advanced understanding in glacier motion especially in fast ice flow Carl O Sauer 1889 1975 cultural geographer Carl Ritter 1779 1859 occupied the first chair of geography at Berlin University Cynthia Brewer cartographic theorist that created the Apache 2 0 licensed web application ColorBrewer Dana Tomlin 1779 1859 originator of map algebra David Harvey born 1935 Marxist geographer and author of theories on spatial and urban geography winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize Doreen Massey 1944 2016 scholar in the space and places of globalization and its pluralities winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize Edward Soja 1940 2015 worked on regional development planning and governance and coined the terms Synekism and Postmetropolis winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize Ellen Churchill Semple 1863 1932 first female president of the Association of American Geographers Eratosthenes c 276 c 195 194 BC calculated the size of the Earth Ernest Burgess 1886 1966 creator of the concentric zone model Gerardus Mercator 1512 1594 cartographer who produced the mercator projection John Francon Williams 1854 1911 author of The Geography of the Oceans Karl Butzer 1934 2016 German American geographer cultural ecologist and environmental archaeologist Mark Monmonier born 1943 cartographic theorist that wrote numerous books contributing to Geographic Information Systems Mei Po Kwan born 1962 contributed significantly to the use of GPS and real time mapping within GIS Michael Frank Goodchild born 1944 GIS scholar and winner of the RGS founder s medal in 2003 Muhammad al Idrisi Arabic أبو عبد الله محمد الإدريسي Latin Dreses 1100 1165 author of Nuzhatul Mushtaq Nigel Thrift born 1949 originator of non representational theory Paul Vidal de La Blache 1845 1918 founder of the French school of geopolitics wrote the principles of human geography Ptolemy c 100 c 170 compiled Greek and Roman knowledge into the book Geographia Radhanath Sikdar 1813 1870 calculated the height of Mount Everest Roger Tomlinson 1933 2014 the primary originator of modern geographic information systems Sir Halford Mackinder 1861 1947 co founder of the LSE Geographical Association Strabo 64 63 BC c AD 24 wrote Geographica one of the first books outlining the study of geography Waldo Tobler 1930 2018 coined the first law of geography and second law of geography Walter Christaller 1893 1969 human geographer and inventor of Central place theory William Morris Davis 1850 1934 father of American geography and developer of the cycle of erosion Yi Fu Tuan 1930 2022 Chinese American scholar credited with starting Humanistic Geography as a discipline Institutions and societiesMain category Geography Organizations American Association of Geographers AAG 83 American Geographical Society US 84 Anton Melik Geographical Institute Slovenia Gamma Theta Upsilon international Institute of Geographical Information Systems Pakistan International Geographical Union International Karachi Geographical Society Pakistan National Geographic Society US 85 Royal Canadian Geographical Society Canada Royal Danish Geographical Society Denmark Royal Geographical Society UK 86 Russian Geographical Society Russia PublicationsMain category Geography Journals Annals of the American Association of Geographers Antipode Applied Geography Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography Dialogues in Human Geography Economic Geography Geographia Technica Geographical Review Geographical Bulletin Geography Compass GeoHumanities International Journal of Geographical Information Science Journal of Maps Journal of Rural Studies Journal of Transport Geography National Geographic Professional Geographer Progress in Human Geography The Geographical Journal The Professional GeographerSee alsoAmerican Association of Geographers Arbia s law of geography Areography geography of Mars Biogeography Cartography Climatology Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography Cultural geography Demography Development geography Economic geography Gamma Theta Upsilon Geodesy Geographic information science Geographic information systems Geographical space Geomatics Geomorphology Geovisualization Glaciology Global Positioning System Health geography Historical geography Hydrology Landscape ecology National Council for Geographic Education 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plain beneath it thus improving on Eratosthenes method of sighting the sun simultaneously from two different sites applied in the ninth century by astronomers of the Khalif al Ma mun Societe de Geographie 2016 Societe de Geographie Paris France Who are we Society of Geography socgeo com in French Societe de Geographie Archived from the original on 6 November 2016 Retrieved 10 November 2016 About Us rgs org Royal Geographical Society Archived from the original on 18 October 2016 Retrieved 10 November 2016 Russkoe Geograficheskoe Obshestvo osnovano v 1845 g Russian Geographical Society rgo ru in Russian Russian Geographical Society Archived from the original on 24 May 2012 Retrieved 10 November 2016 History amergeog org The American Geographical Society Archived from the original on 17 October 2016 Retrieved 10 November 2016 National Geographic Society state gov U S Department of State Archived from the original on 23 December 2019 Retrieved 10 November 2016 Freeman T W James Preston E Martin Geoffrey J July 1980 The Association of American Geographers The First Seventy Five Years 1904 1979 The Geographical Journal 146 2 298 doi 10 2307 632894 ISSN 0016 7398 JSTOR 632894 AGS History 26 February 2009 Archived from the original on 26 February 2009 Retrieved 11 October 2021 National Geographic Society U S Department of State Archived from the original on 23 December 2019 Retrieved 11 October 2021 Royal Geographical Society Royal Geographical Society with IBG www rgs org Archived from the original on 12 May 2020 Retrieved 11 October 2021 External linksGeography at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikidata Definition of geography at Dictionary com Definition of geography by Lexico Origin and meaning of geography by Online Etymology Dictionary Topic Dictionaries at Oxford Learner s Dictionaries Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Geography amp oldid 1132808922, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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