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Annam (French protectorate)

Annam (chữ Nôm: 安南; alternate spelling: Anam), or Trung Kỳ (中圻), was a French protectorate and colony encompassing the territory of the Empire of Đại Nam in Central Vietnam. Before the protectorate's establishment, the name Annam was used in the West to refer to Vietnam as a whole; Vietnamese people were referred to as Annamites. The protectorate of Annam became a part of French Indochina in 1887, along with two other Vietnamese regions, Cochinchina (Vietnamese: Nam Kỳ) in the South and Tonkin (Bắc Kỳ) in the North. The region had a dual system of French and Vietnamese administration. The government of the Nguyễn Dynasty still nominally ruled Annam and Tonkin as the Empire of Đại Nam, with the emperor residing in Huế. In 1948, the protectorate was merged in the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam, which was replaced the next year by the newly established State of Vietnam. The French legally maintained the protectorate until they formally signed over sovereignty to the Bảo Đại and the government of the State of Vietnam in 1950 after signing the Élysée Accords in 1949.[1] The region was divided between communist North Vietnam and anti-communist South Vietnam under the terms of the Geneva Accord of 1954.

Protectorate of Annam
Protectorat d'Annam (French)
Xứ bảo hộ Trung Kỳ (Vietnamese)
處保護中圻 (Chữ Nôm)
1883–1945
1945–1948 (1950)
Motto: "Liberté, égalité, fraternité"
"Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"
Anthem: "La Marseillaise"
Royal anthem: Đăng đàn cung
(English: "The Emperor Mounts His Throne")
Imperial seal
皇帝之寶
(Hoàng Đế chi bảo)

(Until 1945)
Administrative divisions of the French Protectorate of Annam in 1920.
StatusProtectorate of France; constituent territory of French Indochina
CapitalHuế
Common languagesCham, Bahnar, Rade, Jarai, Stieng, Mnong, Koho, Chinese, French, Vietnamese
Religion
Mahayana Buddhism
Confucianism
Taoism
Catholicism
Folk religion
Hinduism
Islam
Demonym(s)Annamite
GovernmentAbsolute monarchy under colonial administration
Resident Superior 
• 1886–1888
Charles Dillon
• 1947–1949
Henri Pierre Joseph Marie Lebris
Emperor 
• 1884–1885
Hàm Nghi
• 1889–1907
Thành Thái
• 1916–1925
Khải Định
• 1925–1945
Bảo Đại
LegislatureNone (rule by decree)
House of Representatives (de jure advisory body)
History 
1883
6 June 1884
25 August 1945
1948
• Ratification of the Élysée Accords by the French, formally recognising the end of the protectorate over Vietnam[1]
1950
CurrencyVietnamese cash,
French Indochinese piastre
Today part ofVietnam

Etymology and pre-colonial usage

Annam means "Pacified South" in Sino-Vietnamese, the toponym being derived from the Chinese An Nan (Chinese: 安南; pinyin: Ānnán). In the history of Vietnam, the designation is one of several given by the Chinese to the Tonkin, the core territory of modern-day Vietnam surrounding the city of Hanoi, which included land from the Gulf of Tonkin to the mountains which surround the plains of the Red River.

The name has also been applied to the Annamite Range (French: la Chaîne Annamitique), a 1,100 km (680 mi) mountain range with a height ranging up to 2,958 metres (9,705 ft) that divides Vietnam and Laos. The Vietnamese language or its central dialects were called "Annamese", as in the seminal dictionary Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum.

An Nam is usually considered offensively demeaning to Vietnamese people, and mostly used in sarcastic manners.[citation needed] Trung Kỳ (also spelled Trung Kì) is used instead in formal contexts. At least one dictionary has translated Annamiticum as Việt.

Establishment

 
Map showing the Southward conquest by the Vietnamese over 900 years.

Towards the end of the 18th century a rebellion overthrew the Nguyễn lords, but one of its members, Gia Long, by the aid of a French force, in 1801 acquired sway over the whole of present-day Vietnam (Annam, Tongking and Cochinchina). This force was procured for him by Pigneau Monsignor de Béhaine, Titular Bishop of Adran. The Monsignor saw in the political condition of Annam a means of establishing French influence in Indochina and counterbalancing British power in India. Before this, in 1787, Gia Long had concluded a treaty with Louis XVI, whereby in return for a promise of aid he ceded Tourane and Pulo-Condore to the French. That treaty marks the beginning of French influence in Indochina.[2]

After conquering Cochinchina in 1858–1862, the French resumed in 1883 their expansion in Southern Asia. The first protectorate treaty was signed in 1883, although it was replaced the next year by a slightly milder treaty. With the treaty of Tientsin, China recognised the French protectorate over Annam and Tonkin and implicitly abandoned her own claims to suzerainty over Vietnam. Annam and Tonkin became part of French Indochina in 1887. On 9 May 1889, they were split in two Résidences supérieures, each subordinated to the Governor-General of French Indochina. The Nguyễn dynasty still nominally ruled over both protectorates. Tonkin was de facto ruled directly by the French, while the imperial government maintained some degree of authority over Annam. On 27 September 1897, the Vietnamese imperial council in Annam was replaced by a council of ministers, presided de jure by the French representative.[3]

Geography

 
Map of the An Nam Empire by Jean-Louis Taberd.

Annam comprised a sinuous strip of territory measuring between 750 and 800 miles (1,300 km) in length, with an approximate area of 52,000 square miles (130,000 km2).[4] It had a rich, well-watered soil which yields tropical crops, and was rich in naturally occurring minerals.

The country consisted chiefly of a range of plateaus and wooded mountains, running north and south and declining on the coast to a narrow band of plains varying between 12 and 50 miles (80 km) in breadth. The mountains are cut transversely by short narrow valleys, through which run rivers, most of which are dry in summer and torrential in winter. The Song Ma and the Song Ca in the north, and the Song Ba, Don Nai and Se Bang Khan in the south, are the only rivers of any size in the region. The chief harbour is that afforded by the bay of Tourane (also known as Đà Nẵng) at the centre of the coastline. South of this point, the coast curves outwards and is broken by peninsulas and indentations; to the north it is concave and bordered in many places by dunes and lagoons.[4]

Climate

In Annam, the rainy season begins during September and lasts for three or four months, corresponding with the northeastern monsoon and also with a period of typhoons. During the rains the temperature varies from 59 degrees Fahrenheit (or even lower) to 75 °F (from 15 degrees Celsius to 24 °C). June, July and August are the hottest months, the thermometer often reaching 85 °F (29 °C) or 90 °F (30 °C or more), though the heat of the day is to some extent compensated by the freshness of the nights. The southwest monsoon which brings rain in Cochin China coincides with the dry season in Annam, the reason probably being that the mountains and lofty plateaus separating the two countries retain the precipitation.[4]

Economy

During the French period there was little industry. The economy was an agricultural one based on:

  • the cultivation of rice, which grows mainly in the small deltas along the coast and in some districts gives two crops a year.
  • fishing, fish salting and the preparation of fish sauce[5]

Silk spinning and weaving were carried on in what the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition called "antiquated lines ...silkworms [are] reared in a desultory fashion". Other crops were tea, tobacco, cotton, cinnamon, precious woods and rubber. Coffee, pepper, sugarcane and jute were also cultivated to a minor extent. The exports comprised tea, raw silk and small quantities of cotton, rice and sugarcane. The imports included rice, iron goods, flour, wine, opium and cotton goods. There were coal mines at Nong Son, near Da Nang, and as well as mining of gold, silver, lead, iron and other metals which occur in the mountains.[5] Human trafficking in Annamite women and children to China occurred from the 1870s to the 1940s.[6] Trade, which was controlled by the Chinese, was mostly carried out on the sea, with the chief ports being Da Nang and Qui Nhơn, open to European commerce.

Administration

 
Postcard of the Annam Tower, built in Marseilles for the 1906 Colonial Exhibition.

Annam was ruled in theory by its emperor (from the Nguyễn Phúc family, which was also the ruling dynasty of the previous Vietnamese state in the region), assisted by the "comat" or secret council. This council was composed of the heads of the six ministerial departments nominated by the emperor, namely interior, finance, war, ritual, justice, and public works. Formally the four protectorates of French Indochina were ruled by their respective monarchs, but in fact the protectorates were all under the close control of the French senior residents.[7] As the Governor-General of French Indochina Pierre Pasquier stated: “The King reigns but the Resident superior rules.”[8][7] The effective power in the protectorate was in the hands of the resident-superior with both the monarch and the local high officials playing a subordinate role to his office.[7]

The Resident Superior, stationed at Huế, was the representative of France and the virtual ruler of the country. He presided over a council (Conseil de Protectorat) composed of the chiefs of the French services in Annam, together with two members of the "comat"; this body deliberated on questions of taxation affecting the budget of Annam and on local public works. A native governor (Tong Doc or Tuan Phu), assisted by a native staff, administered each of the provinces into which the country was divided, and native officials of lower rank governed the areas into which these provinces were subdivided. The governors took their orders from the imperial government, but they were under the eye of French residents.[5]

Native officials were appointed by the court, but the Resident Superior had power to annul an appointment. The mandarinate or official class was recruited from all ranks of the people by competitive examination. In the province of Tourane (Da Nang), a French tribunal alone exercised jurisdiction, but it administered native law where natives were concerned. Outside this territory the native tribunals survived.[5]

From 1 January 1898, the French directly took over the right to collect all taxes in the protectorate of Annam and to allocate salaries to the Emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty and its mandarins.[9] In a notice dated 24 August 1898, the Resident-Superior of Annam wrote: "From now on, in the Kingdom of Annam there are no longer two governments, but only one" (meaning that the French government completely took over the administration).[9]

Education

 
An Indochinese primary school completion certificate (Bằng-Cấp Tiểu-Học Cụ-Thề Đông-Pháp) issued by the National Ministry of Education of the Nguyễn dynasty in the year 1939. It has a modern French design but displays traditional symbols like the seal of the minister and the usage of Classical Chinese alongside Romanised Vietnamese.

During the French period the Confucian-oriented education system was slowly being replaced with a localised version of the French education system.[10][11] Prior to French domination teachers were held in high regard in the Confucian system and as such one of the traditional values of the Vietnamese people is the promotion of learning and to have high respect for educators.[10][11] In this old system teachers were deemed to be "Only lower than the King" (Emperor) according to a 2010 report by the World Bank.[10][11] In order to become a teacher in Imperial Vietnam, the mandarins would request of those that applied to become teachers to already have both high grades in competitive Confucian-style exams as well as excellent prior learning achievements.[10][11] The 2010 report by the World Bank also noted that historically in Vietnam teachers would often be invited to reside together with well-to-do villagers so they would be able to tutor the children of these wealthy families as well as other children that lived in the village.[10][11]

Immediately after the establishment of the colony of French Cochinchina the French established schools to teach the Vietnamese French and the French Vietnamese in order to train interpreters for the army.[citation needed] In Cochinchina the French immediately began replacing the Nguyễn government apparatus with the French government apparatus and education formed an important part of this process.[citation needed] This education and training system that was established in French Cochinchina initially met the two basic goals that the French had set up in helping to train both interpreters and secretaries for the French military and colonial government, while organising a new form education for the indigenous population that popularised French words and romanised the local languages, the latter was done to gradually replace Chinese characters.[citation needed] Despite their efforts French words weren't easily adopted and Chinese script persisted as these goals only found limited success in French Cochinchina.[citation needed]

Following the establishment of two protectorates over the Nguyễn dynasty the French expanded the education system they had set up in Cochinchina to the rest of Vietnam.[citation needed] The new French-based education system was created in the hopes of training indigenous people that could serve French interests in the colonial system.[10][11] During the colonial period the French built elementary schools, primary schools, primary colleges, secondary schools, and three universities across Vietnam, all these places of education had the French language as the main language that was used for instruction.[10][11]

Education during the French protectorate period started at the primary school-level (小學, Tiểu học) as early childhood education would only become a concern in Vietnamese society following the abolition of the Nguyễn dynasty in 1945.[12] During most of the French protectorate period as well as before early childhood education was not considered to be a social task, and therefore, there existed no form of a formal educational system and curriculum for preschool children at during this period.[12]

In the year 1906, France enacted its first educational reform in French Indochina to expand their influence over the local populations.[citation needed] These reforms were aimed at controlling the spiritual lives of the people and limit the influence of the Confucian mandarins.[citation needed] The traditional mandarins were seen as a threat to French influence as they used Confucianism to promote Vietnamese nationalism.[citation needed] The 1906 reforms implemented French at every level.[citation needed] In the 1906 the basic subjects for boys were reading and writing, mathematics, history, geography, morality, and accounting, while the basic subjects for girls were reading and writing, mathematics, morality, hygiene, and housework.[citation needed] Vocational education was also established to train the indigenous population to work for French capitalists as skilled labourers.[citation needed]

Because only a small number of schools were constructed across Vietnam access to these schools was extremely limited and as much as 95% of the Vietnamese population would remain illiterate during most of the period of French domination showing the inefficiency of the education system.[10][11]

In the year 1917 clear educational guidelines were established for French Indochina and at the primary school and elementary school level Vietnamese classes were given with instructions written in Chữ Quốc Ngữ to replace Chinese characters.[citation needed] The Quốc Ngữ alphabet was used to turn Vietnamese into "a vehicle used to transport French ideology and interests in Indochina".[citation needed]

While apologists for the French colonial regime would claim that French rule led to vast improvements to Vietnamese education system.[13] The official statistics that were compiled and kept by the French authorities in Indochina cast doubt on such assertions.[13]

In the year 1939 no more than 15% of all school-age children had received any amount of education while still 80% of the general Vietnamese populace remained illiterate.[13] This was in contrast to pre-colonial times when the majority of the Vietnamese people were in possession of at least some degree of literacy.[13]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Le Monde illustré - Le Vietnam à cessé d'être protectorat français cérémonie à l'hôtel de ville de Saïgon avec l'empereur Bao Daï et le commissaire de la République M. Pignon (Vietnam ceased to be a French protectorate, ceremony at Saigon City Hall with Emperor Bao Dai and the Commissioner of the Republic, Mr Pignon.) Published: 1950. Quote: "Au cours d'une cérémonie qui s'est déroulée à l'hôtel de ville de Saigon, S.M. l'empereur Bao Daï et le haut commisaire de la République M. Pignon, ont signé la coxcation pour l'application des accords du 8 mars 1949, qui transfère au Vietnam, indépendant au sein de l'Union française, les pouvoies drenus par la France et remet au souverain le contrôle de l'administracion.". (in French).
  2. ^ Chisholm 1911, p. 63.
  3. ^ Pierre Brocheux and Daniel Hémery, Indochine : la colonisation ambiguë 1858–1954, La Découverte, 2004, p. 78-89
  4. ^ a b c Chisholm 1911, p. 61.
  5. ^ a b c d Chisholm 1911, p. 62.
  6. ^ Lessard, Micheline (2015). Human Trafficking in Colonial Vietnam. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. ISBN 9781138848184.
  7. ^ a b c Claire Thi Liên Trân (11 January 2022). "Indochina (Version 1.0)". 1914-1918-online - International Encyclopedie of the First World War (Free University of Berlin, Bavarian State Library, and Deutsch-Französische Gymnasium, among others). Retrieved 17 August 2022.
  8. ^ Edwards, Penny: Cambodia. The Cultivation of a Nation 1860-1945, Honolulu (2007), p. 86.
  9. ^ a b Thu Nhuần (tổng hợp) (28 July 2016). "Nhà Nguyễn và những tháng 7 biến động. – Phải chăng tháng 7 với triều Nguyễn là một sự trùng hợp, khi Pháp mở đầu cuộc tấn công 1/9/1885 (nhằm vào 24/7/1858 âm lịch) và trận chiến đấu cuối cùng dưới sự lãnh đạo của triều đình nhà Nguyễn cũng diễn ra vào 5/7/1885" (in Vietnamese). Bảo tàng Lịch sử Quốc gia. Retrieved 7 August 2021. Trong một thông tri ngày 24/8/1898, Khâm sứ Trung kỳ đã viết "Từ nay, trên vương quốc An Nam không còn tồn tại hai chính quyền nữa mà chỉ tồn tại một chính quyền thôi" (tức chính quyền Pháp).
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h Kathryn Lattman (2011). "History of Education § Educational Roots: Feudal Period (Up to the late 19th century)". Middlebury Institute of International Studies at Monterey. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h World Bank (World Bank Group) – “Education in Vietnam”. Published: 2010.
  12. ^ a b Vu, Thao Thi (2021). "Early childhood education in Vietnam, history, and development". International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy. 15: 3. doi:10.1186/s40723-020-00080-4.
  13. ^ a b c d "Vietnam – Effects of French colonial rule.". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2021. Retrieved 31 May 2021.
  •   This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domainChisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Annam". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 61–63.
  • Legrand de la Liraye, Notes historiques sur la nation annamite (Paris, 1866?)
  • C. Gosselin, L'Empire d'Annam (Paris, 1904)
  • E. Sombsthay, Cours de législation et d' administration annamites (Paris, 1898).

annam, french, protectorate, chinese, province, annan, tang, protectorate, other, uses, annam, disambiguation, this, article, includes, list, general, references, lacks, sufficient, corresponding, inline, citations, please, help, improve, this, article, introd. For the Chinese province see Annan Tang protectorate For other uses see Annam disambiguation This article includes a list of general references but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations March 2013 Learn how and when to remove this template message Annam chữ Nom 安南 alternate spelling Anam or Trung Kỳ 中圻 was a French protectorate and colony encompassing the territory of the Empire of Đại Nam in Central Vietnam Before the protectorate s establishment the name Annam was used in the West to refer to Vietnam as a whole Vietnamese people were referred to as Annamites The protectorate of Annam became a part of French Indochina in 1887 along with two other Vietnamese regions Cochinchina Vietnamese Nam Kỳ in the South and Tonkin Bắc Kỳ in the North The region had a dual system of French and Vietnamese administration The government of the Nguyễn Dynasty still nominally ruled Annam and Tonkin as the Empire of Đại Nam with the emperor residing in Huế In 1948 the protectorate was merged in the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam which was replaced the next year by the newly established State of Vietnam The French legally maintained the protectorate until they formally signed over sovereignty to the Bảo Đại and the government of the State of Vietnam in 1950 after signing the Elysee Accords in 1949 1 The region was divided between communist North Vietnam and anti communist South Vietnam under the terms of the Geneva Accord of 1954 Protectorate of AnnamProtectorat d Annam French Xứ bảo hộ Trung Kỳ Vietnamese 處保護中圻 Chữ Nom 1883 19451945 1948 1950 Top Protectorate flag Bottom Civil flag Coat of armsMotto Liberte egalite fraternite Liberty Equality Fraternity Anthem La Marseillaise source source track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track Royal anthem Đăng đan cung English The Emperor Mounts His Throne source source Imperial seal皇帝之寶 Hoang Đế chi bảo Until 1945 Administrative divisions of the French Protectorate of Annam in 1920 StatusProtectorate of France constituent territory of French IndochinaCapitalHuếCommon languagesCham Bahnar Rade Jarai Stieng Mnong Koho Chinese French VietnameseReligionMahayana BuddhismConfucianismTaoismCatholicismFolk religionHinduismIslamDemonym s AnnamiteGovernmentAbsolute monarchy under colonial administrationResident Superior 1886 1888Charles Dillon 1947 1949Henri Pierre Joseph Marie LebrisEmperor 1884 1885Ham Nghi 1889 1907Thanh Thai 1916 1925Khải Định 1925 1945Bảo ĐạiLegislatureNone rule by decree House of Representatives de jure advisory body History Harmand Treaty1883 Patenotre Treaty6 June 1884 Abolition of the Nguyễn dynasty25 August 1945 Creation of the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam1948 Ratification of the Elysee Accords by the French formally recognising the end of the protectorate over Vietnam 1 1950CurrencyVietnamese cash French Indochinese piastrePreceded by Succeeded by1883 Empire of Đại Nam1945 Democratic Republic of Vietnam 1945 Empire of Vietnam1948 Provisional Central Government of VietnamToday part ofVietnam Contents 1 Etymology and pre colonial usage 2 Establishment 3 Geography 4 Climate 5 Economy 6 Administration 7 Education 8 See also 9 ReferencesEtymology and pre colonial usage EditFurther information Names of Vietnam Annam means Pacified South in Sino Vietnamese the toponym being derived from the Chinese An Nan Chinese 安南 pinyin Annan In the history of Vietnam the designation is one of several given by the Chinese to the Tonkin the core territory of modern day Vietnam surrounding the city of Hanoi which included land from the Gulf of Tonkin to the mountains which surround the plains of the Red River The name has also been applied to the Annamite Range French la Chaine Annamitique a 1 100 km 680 mi mountain range with a height ranging up to 2 958 metres 9 705 ft that divides Vietnam and Laos The Vietnamese language or its central dialects were called Annamese as in the seminal dictionary Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum An Nam is usually considered offensively demeaning to Vietnamese people and mostly used in sarcastic manners citation needed Trung Kỳ also spelled Trung Ki is used instead in formal contexts At least one dictionary has translated Annamiticum as Việt Establishment Edit Map showing the Southward conquest by the Vietnamese over 900 years See also History of Vietnam Tonkin campaign Sino French war Treaty of Huế 1883 Treaty of Huế 1884 and Treaty of Tientsin 1885 Towards the end of the 18th century a rebellion overthrew the Nguyễn lords but one of its members Gia Long by the aid of a French force in 1801 acquired sway over the whole of present day Vietnam Annam Tongking and Cochinchina This force was procured for him by Pigneau Monsignor de Behaine Titular Bishop of Adran The Monsignor saw in the political condition of Annam a means of establishing French influence in Indochina and counterbalancing British power in India Before this in 1787 Gia Long had concluded a treaty with Louis XVI whereby in return for a promise of aid he ceded Tourane and Pulo Condore to the French That treaty marks the beginning of French influence in Indochina 2 After conquering Cochinchina in 1858 1862 the French resumed in 1883 their expansion in Southern Asia The first protectorate treaty was signed in 1883 although it was replaced the next year by a slightly milder treaty With the treaty of Tientsin China recognised the French protectorate over Annam and Tonkin and implicitly abandoned her own claims to suzerainty over Vietnam Annam and Tonkin became part of French Indochina in 1887 On 9 May 1889 they were split in two Residences superieures each subordinated to the Governor General of French Indochina The Nguyễn dynasty still nominally ruled over both protectorates Tonkin was de facto ruled directly by the French while the imperial government maintained some degree of authority over Annam On 27 September 1897 the Vietnamese imperial council in Annam was replaced by a council of ministers presided de jure by the French representative 3 Geography Edit Map of the An Nam Empire by Jean Louis Taberd Annam comprised a sinuous strip of territory measuring between 750 and 800 miles 1 300 km in length with an approximate area of 52 000 square miles 130 000 km2 4 It had a rich well watered soil which yields tropical crops and was rich in naturally occurring minerals The country consisted chiefly of a range of plateaus and wooded mountains running north and south and declining on the coast to a narrow band of plains varying between 12 and 50 miles 80 km in breadth The mountains are cut transversely by short narrow valleys through which run rivers most of which are dry in summer and torrential in winter The Song Ma and the Song Ca in the north and the Song Ba Don Nai and Se Bang Khan in the south are the only rivers of any size in the region The chief harbour is that afforded by the bay of Tourane also known as Đa Nẵng at the centre of the coastline South of this point the coast curves outwards and is broken by peninsulas and indentations to the north it is concave and bordered in many places by dunes and lagoons 4 Climate EditIn Annam the rainy season begins during September and lasts for three or four months corresponding with the northeastern monsoon and also with a period of typhoons During the rains the temperature varies from 59 degrees Fahrenheit or even lower to 75 F from 15 degrees Celsius to 24 C June July and August are the hottest months the thermometer often reaching 85 F 29 C or 90 F 30 C or more though the heat of the day is to some extent compensated by the freshness of the nights The southwest monsoon which brings rain in Cochin China coincides with the dry season in Annam the reason probably being that the mountains and lofty plateaus separating the two countries retain the precipitation 4 Economy EditDuring the French period there was little industry The economy was an agricultural one based on the cultivation of rice which grows mainly in the small deltas along the coast and in some districts gives two crops a year fishing fish salting and the preparation of fish sauce 5 Silk spinning and weaving were carried on in what the Encyclopaedia Britannica Eleventh Edition called antiquated lines silkworms are reared in a desultory fashion Other crops were tea tobacco cotton cinnamon precious woods and rubber Coffee pepper sugarcane and jute were also cultivated to a minor extent The exports comprised tea raw silk and small quantities of cotton rice and sugarcane The imports included rice iron goods flour wine opium and cotton goods There were coal mines at Nong Son near Da Nang and as well as mining of gold silver lead iron and other metals which occur in the mountains 5 Human trafficking in Annamite women and children to China occurred from the 1870s to the 1940s 6 Trade which was controlled by the Chinese was mostly carried out on the sea with the chief ports being Da Nang and Qui Nhơn open to European commerce Administration Edit Postcard of the Annam Tower built in Marseilles for the 1906 Colonial Exhibition Annam was ruled in theory by its emperor from the Nguyễn Phuc family which was also the ruling dynasty of the previous Vietnamese state in the region assisted by the comat or secret council This council was composed of the heads of the six ministerial departments nominated by the emperor namely interior finance war ritual justice and public works Formally the four protectorates of French Indochina were ruled by their respective monarchs but in fact the protectorates were all under the close control of the French senior residents 7 As the Governor General of French Indochina Pierre Pasquier stated The King reigns but the Resident superior rules 8 7 The effective power in the protectorate was in the hands of the resident superior with both the monarch and the local high officials playing a subordinate role to his office 7 The Resident Superior stationed at Huế was the representative of France and the virtual ruler of the country He presided over a council Conseil de Protectorat composed of the chiefs of the French services in Annam together with two members of the comat this body deliberated on questions of taxation affecting the budget of Annam and on local public works A native governor Tong Doc or Tuan Phu assisted by a native staff administered each of the provinces into which the country was divided and native officials of lower rank governed the areas into which these provinces were subdivided The governors took their orders from the imperial government but they were under the eye of French residents 5 Native officials were appointed by the court but the Resident Superior had power to annul an appointment The mandarinate or official class was recruited from all ranks of the people by competitive examination In the province of Tourane Da Nang a French tribunal alone exercised jurisdiction but it administered native law where natives were concerned Outside this territory the native tribunals survived 5 From 1 January 1898 the French directly took over the right to collect all taxes in the protectorate of Annam and to allocate salaries to the Emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty and its mandarins 9 In a notice dated 24 August 1898 the Resident Superior of Annam wrote From now on in the Kingdom of Annam there are no longer two governments but only one meaning that the French government completely took over the administration 9 Education EditFurther information Confucian court examination system in Vietnam See also Education in Vietnam and Imperial examination An Indochinese primary school completion certificate Bằng Cấp Tiểu Học Cụ Thề Đong Phap issued by the National Ministry of Education of the Nguyễn dynasty in the year 1939 It has a modern French design but displays traditional symbols like the seal of the minister and the usage of Classical Chinese alongside Romanised Vietnamese During the French period the Confucian oriented education system was slowly being replaced with a localised version of the French education system 10 11 Prior to French domination teachers were held in high regard in the Confucian system and as such one of the traditional values of the Vietnamese people is the promotion of learning and to have high respect for educators 10 11 In this old system teachers were deemed to be Only lower than the King Emperor according to a 2010 report by the World Bank 10 11 In order to become a teacher in Imperial Vietnam the mandarins would request of those that applied to become teachers to already have both high grades in competitive Confucian style exams as well as excellent prior learning achievements 10 11 The 2010 report by the World Bank also noted that historically in Vietnam teachers would often be invited to reside together with well to do villagers so they would be able to tutor the children of these wealthy families as well as other children that lived in the village 10 11 Immediately after the establishment of the colony of French Cochinchina the French established schools to teach the Vietnamese French and the French Vietnamese in order to train interpreters for the army citation needed In Cochinchina the French immediately began replacing the Nguyễn government apparatus with the French government apparatus and education formed an important part of this process citation needed This education and training system that was established in French Cochinchina initially met the two basic goals that the French had set up in helping to train both interpreters and secretaries for the French military and colonial government while organising a new form education for the indigenous population that popularised French words and romanised the local languages the latter was done to gradually replace Chinese characters citation needed Despite their efforts French words weren t easily adopted and Chinese script persisted as these goals only found limited success in French Cochinchina citation needed Following the establishment of two protectorates over the Nguyễn dynasty the French expanded the education system they had set up in Cochinchina to the rest of Vietnam citation needed The new French based education system was created in the hopes of training indigenous people that could serve French interests in the colonial system 10 11 During the colonial period the French built elementary schools primary schools primary colleges secondary schools and three universities across Vietnam all these places of education had the French language as the main language that was used for instruction 10 11 Education during the French protectorate period started at the primary school level 小學 Tiểu học as early childhood education would only become a concern in Vietnamese society following the abolition of the Nguyễn dynasty in 1945 12 During most of the French protectorate period as well as before early childhood education was not considered to be a social task and therefore there existed no form of a formal educational system and curriculum for preschool children at during this period 12 In the year 1906 France enacted its first educational reform in French Indochina to expand their influence over the local populations citation needed These reforms were aimed at controlling the spiritual lives of the people and limit the influence of the Confucian mandarins citation needed The traditional mandarins were seen as a threat to French influence as they used Confucianism to promote Vietnamese nationalism citation needed The 1906 reforms implemented French at every level citation needed In the 1906 the basic subjects for boys were reading and writing mathematics history geography morality and accounting while the basic subjects for girls were reading and writing mathematics morality hygiene and housework citation needed Vocational education was also established to train the indigenous population to work for French capitalists as skilled labourers citation needed Because only a small number of schools were constructed across Vietnam access to these schools was extremely limited and as much as 95 of the Vietnamese population would remain illiterate during most of the period of French domination showing the inefficiency of the education system 10 11 In the year 1917 clear educational guidelines were established for French Indochina and at the primary school and elementary school level Vietnamese classes were given with instructions written in Chữ Quốc Ngữ to replace Chinese characters citation needed The Quốc Ngữ alphabet was used to turn Vietnamese into a vehicle used to transport French ideology and interests in Indochina citation needed While apologists for the French colonial regime would claim that French rule led to vast improvements to Vietnamese education system 13 The official statistics that were compiled and kept by the French authorities in Indochina cast doubt on such assertions 13 In the year 1939 no more than 15 of all school age children had received any amount of education while still 80 of the general Vietnamese populace remained illiterate 13 This was in contrast to pre colonial times when the majority of the Vietnamese people were in possession of at least some degree of literacy 13 See also EditList of administrators of the French protectorate of Annam List of French possessions and colonies Names of VietnamReferences EditSee also History of Vietnam Sources a b Le Monde illustre Le Vietnam a cesse d etre protectorat francais ceremonie a l hotel de ville de Saigon avec l empereur Bao Dai et le commissaire de la Republique M Pignon Vietnam ceased to be a French protectorate ceremony at Saigon City Hall with Emperor Bao Dai and the Commissioner of the Republic Mr Pignon Published 1950 Quote Au cours d une ceremonie qui s est deroulee a l hotel de ville de Saigon S M l empereur Bao Dai et le haut commisaire de la Republique M Pignon ont signe la coxcation pour l application des accords du 8 mars 1949 qui transfere au Vietnam independant au sein de l Union francaise les pouvoies drenus par la France et remet au souverain le controle de l administracion in French Chisholm 1911 p 63 Pierre Brocheux and Daniel Hemery Indochine la colonisation ambigue 1858 1954 La Decouverte 2004 p 78 89 a b c Chisholm 1911 p 61 a b c d Chisholm 1911 p 62 Lessard Micheline 2015 Human Trafficking in Colonial Vietnam Abingdon UK Routledge ISBN 9781138848184 a b c Claire Thi Lien Tran 11 January 2022 Indochina Version 1 0 1914 1918 online International Encyclopedie of the First World War Free University of Berlin Bavarian State Library and Deutsch Franzosische Gymnasium among others Retrieved 17 August 2022 Edwards Penny Cambodia The Cultivation of a Nation 1860 1945 Honolulu 2007 p 86 a b Thu Nhuần tổng hợp 28 July 2016 Nha Nguyễn va những thang 7 biến động Phải chăng thang 7 với triều Nguyễn la một sự trung hợp khi Phap mở đầu cuộc tấn cong 1 9 1885 nhằm vao 24 7 1858 am lịch va trận chiến đấu cuối cung dưới sự lanh đạo của triều đinh nha Nguyễn cũng diễn ra vao 5 7 1885 in Vietnamese Bảo tang Lịch sử Quốc gia Retrieved 7 August 2021 Trong một thong tri ngay 24 8 1898 Kham sứ Trung kỳ đa viết Từ nay tren vương quốc An Nam khong con tồn tại hai chinh quyền nữa ma chỉ tồn tại một chinh quyền thoi tức chinh quyền Phap a b c d e f g h Kathryn Lattman 2011 History of Education Educational Roots Feudal Period Up to the late 19th century Middlebury Institute of International Studies at Monterey Retrieved 30 May 2021 a b c d e f g h World Bank World Bank Group Education in Vietnam Published 2010 a b Vu Thao Thi 2021 Early childhood education in Vietnam history and development International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy 15 3 doi 10 1186 s40723 020 00080 4 a b c d Vietnam Effects of French colonial rule Encyclopaedia Britannica 2021 Retrieved 31 May 2021 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain Chisholm Hugh ed 1911 Annam Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 2 11th ed Cambridge University Press pp 61 63 Legrand de la Liraye Notes historiques sur la nation annamite Paris 1866 C Gosselin L Empire d Annam Paris 1904 E Sombsthay Cours de legislation et d administration annamites Paris 1898 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Annam French protectorate amp oldid 1155064301, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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