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Pakistan Movement

March 22, 2023

"Establishment of Pakistan" redirects here. For the military term, see Establishment (Pakistan).

The Pakistan Movement (Urdu: تحریکِ پاکستان, romanized: Teḥrīk-e-Pākistān) was an ethnoreligious political movement in the first half of the 20th century that aimed for the creation of Pakistan from the Muslim-majority areas of British India. It was connected to the perceived need for self-determination for Muslims under British rule at the time. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, a barrister and politician led this movement after the Lahore Resolution was passed by All-India Muslim League on 23 March 1940 and Ashraf Ali Thanwi as a religious scholar supported it.[1] Thanwi's disciples Shabbir Ahmad Usmani and Zafar Ahmad Usmani were key players in religious support for the creation of Pakistan.[2]

Minar-e-Pakistan, where the bill of Lahore Resolution was passed on 23 March 1940

The Pakistan Movement started originally as the Aligarh Movement, and as a result, the British Indian Muslims began to develop a secular political identity.[3] Soon thereafter, the All-India Muslim League was formed, which perhaps marked the beginning of the Pakistan Movement.

Many of the top leadership of the movement were educated in Great Britain, with many of them educated at the Aligarh Muslim University. Many graduates of the University of Dhaka soon also joined. A group of Ulama, led by Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, formed the Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam and gave their support to the movement for an independent Pakistan.[4]

The Pakistan Movement was a part of the Indian independence movement, but eventually it also sought to establish a new nation-state that protected the political interests of Indian Muslims.[5] Urdu poets such as Iqbal and Faiz used literature, poetry and speech as a powerful tool for political awareness.[6][7] Iqbal is called the spiritual father of this movement.[8] The role of Ulama in strengthening this movement divided into two groups. One (Madani Group) was convinced by Composite nationalism. But the other (Thanwi Group) played a significant role in this Movement.[9] Acknowledging the services of these ulema, Shabbir Ahmad Usmani was honoured to raise the flag of Pakistan in Karachi and Zafar Ahmad Usmani, in Dhaka.[10]

Many people know that the driving force behind the Pakistan Movement was the Muslim community of the Muslim minority provinces, United Provinces and Bombay Presidency, rather than that of the Muslim majority provinces.[11][12][13] Land boundaries and population demographics of West Pakistan (present-day Pakistan), East Pakistan (present-day Bangladesh) and India are among the primary achievements of the Pakistan Movement. Not all Muslims of colonial India supported the Pakistan Movement and there was widespread opposition to the partition of India.[14]

Despite political obstacles and social difficulties, the movement initially was successful in culminating Pakistan on August 14th of 1947 which also resulted in partition of India and the creation of two separate states.

History of the movement

Background

Main article: British Raj

During the early 19th century, Lord Macaulay's radical and influential educational reforms led to numerous changes to the introduction and teaching of Western languages (e.g. English and Latin), history, and philosophy.[15][16] Religious studies and the Arabic, Turkish, and Persian languages were completely barred from the state universities. In a short span of time, the English language had become not only the medium of instruction but also the official language in 1835 in place of Persian, disadvantaging those who had built their careers around the latter language.[16] Traditional Hindu and Islamic studies were no longer supported by the British Crown, and nearly all of the madrasahs lost their waqf (lit. financial endowment).[15][16]

  •  

    The British Siege of Delhi

  •  

    Sir David Baird discovering the body of Tipu Sultan

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    The Battle of Miani during the conquest of Sindh

Renaissance vision

Main articles: Aligarh Movement, Urdu movement, Aligarh Muslim University, Two-nation theory, and University of the Punjab
 
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan became an inspiration for the Pakistan Movement.

Very few Muslim families had their children sent to English universities. On the other hand, the effects of the Bengali Renaissance made the Hindu population more educated and enabled them to gain lucrative positions at the Indian Civil Service; many ascended to the influential posts in the British government.[citation needed] In 1930, Muhammad Iqbal delivered his famous speech in the Allahabad annual session which is commonly regarded as sowing the seeds for the creation of a separate state, later known as Pakistan.[17]

Class conflict was coloured in a religious shade, as the Muslims were generally agriculturists and soldiers, while Hindus were increasingly seen as successful financiers and businessmen. Therefore, according to the historian Spear, "an industrialised India meant a Hindu India" to the Muslims. Syed Ahmed Khan converted the existing cultural and religious entity among Indian Muslims into a separatist political force, throwing a Western cloak of nationalism over the Islamic concept of culture. The distinct sense of value, culture and tradition among Indian Muslims originated from the nature of Islamization of the Indian populace during the Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent.[18]

 
The Muslim League Governing Council at the Lahore session. The woman wearing the black cloak is Muhatarma Amjadi Banu Begum, the wife of Mohammad Ali Jauhar, a prominent Muslim League leader. Begum was a leading representative of the UP's Muslim women during the years of the Pakistan Movement.

Rise of organised movement

The success of the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference as a part of the Aligarh Movement, the All-India Muslim League, was established with the support provided by Syed Ahmad Khan in 1906.[19] It was founded in Dhaka in a response to the reintegration of Bengal after a mass Hindu protest took place in the subcontinent. Earlier in 1905, viceroy Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal, which was favoured by the Muslims, since it gave them a Muslim majority in the eastern half.[20]

In 1909 Lord Minto promulgated the Council Act and met with a Muslim delegation led by Aga Khan III,[21][22][23][24] a deal to which Minto agreed.[citation needed] The delegation consisted of 35 members, who each represented their respective region proportionately, mentioned hereunder.

 
Aga Khan III in 1936.
 
Nawab Mohsin ul Mulk,(left) who organised the Simla deputation, with Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (Centre), Sir Syed's son Justice Syed Mahmood (extreme right). Syed Mahmood was the first Muslim to serve as a High Court judge in the British Raj.
  1. Sir Aga Khan III (Head of the delegation); (Bombay).
  2. Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk (Aligarh).
  3. Nawab Waqar-ul-Mulk (Muradabad).
  4. Maulvi Hafiz Hakim Ajmal Khan (Delhi).
  5. Maulvi Syed Karamat Husain (Allahabad).
  6. Maulvi Sharifuddin (Patna).
  7. Nawab Syed Sardar Ali Khan (Bombay).
  8. Syed Abdul Rauf (Allahabad).
  9. Maulvi Habiburrehman Khan (Aligarh).
  10. Sahibzada Aftab Ahmed Khan (Aligarh).
  11. Abdul Salam Khan (Rampur).
  12. Raees Muhammed Ahtasham Ali (Lucknow)
  13. Khan Bahadur Muhammad Muzammilullah Khan. (Aligarh).
  14. Haji Muhammed Ismail Khan (Aligarh).
  15. Shehzada Bakhtiar Shah (Calcutta).
  16. Malik Umar Hayat Khan Tiwana (Shahpur).
  17. Khan Bahadur Muhammed Shah Deen (Lahore).
  18. Khan Bahadur Syed Nawab Ali Chaudhary (Mymansingh).
  19. Nawab Bahadur Mirza Shuja'at Ali Baig (Murshidabad).
  20. Nawab Nasir Hussain Khan Bahadur (Patna).
  21. Khan Bahadur Syed Ameer Hassan Khan (Calcutta).
  22. Syed Muhammed Imam (Patna).
  23. Nawab Sarfaraz Hussain Khan Bahadur (Patna).
  24. Maulvi Rafeeuddin Ahmed (Bombay).
  25. Khan Bahadur Ahmed Muhaeeuddin (Madras).
  26. Ibraheem Bhai Adamjee Pirbhai (Bombay).
  27. Maulvi Abdul Raheem (Calcutta).
  28. Syed Allahdad Shah (Khairpur).
  29. Maulana H. M. Malik (Nagpur).
  30. Khan Bahadur Col. Abdul Majeed Khan (Patiala).
  31. Khan Bahadur Khawaja Yousuf Shah (Amritsar).
  32. Khan Bahadur Mian Muhammad Shafi. (Lahore).
  33. Khan Bahadur Shaikh Ghulam Sadiq. (Amritsar).
  34. Syed Nabiullah. (Allahabad).
  35. Khalifa Syed Muhammed Khan Bahadur. (Patna).[25]

Until 1937 the Muslim League had remained an organisation of elite Indian Muslims. The Muslim League leadership then began mass mobilisation and the League then became a popular party with the Muslim masses in the 1940s, especially after the Lahore Resolution.[26][27] Under Jinnah's leadership its membership grew to over two million and became more religious and even separatist in its outlook.[28][29] The Muslim League's earliest base was the United Provinces.[30] From 1937 onwards, the Muslim League and Jinnah attracted large crowds throughout India in its processions and strikes.[31]

Lahore Resolution

The Lahore Resolution marked the beginning of the Pakistan movement. At the 27th annual Muslim League session in 1940 at Lahore's Iqbal Park where about 100,000 people gathered to hear Jinnah speak:

Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religions, philosophies, social customs, and literature... It is quite clear that Hindus and Muslims derive their inspiration from different sources of history. They have different epics, different heroes, and different episodes... To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built up for the government of such a state.

At Lahore the Muslim League formally committed itself to create an independent Muslim state, including Sindh, Punjab, Baluchistan, the North West Frontier Province and Bengal, that would be "wholly autonomous and sovereign". The resolution guaranteed protection for non-Muslims. The Lahore Resolution, moved by the sitting Chief Minister of Bengal A. K. Fazlul Huq, was adopted on 23 March 1940, and its principles formed the foundation for Pakistan's first constitution.

In opposition to the Lahore Resolution, the All India Azad Muslim Conference gathered in Delhi in April 1940 to voice its support for a united India.[32] Its members included several Islamic organisations in India, as well as 1400 nationalist Muslim delegates.[33][34]

C. R. formula and Cabinet Mission

Main articles: C. R. formula and 1946 Cabinet Mission to India

Talks were held between Jinnah and Gandhi in 1944. Jinnah negotiated as the representative of the Muslims. Gandhi rejected and insisted that the Indian National Congress alone represented all of India, including Muslims. Gandhi proposed the C.R Formula, which sought to first achieve independence from the British and then settle the issue of Pakistan through a plebiscite in Muslim majority districts in which the non-Muslims would also vote. Jinnah rejected both postponing decision on partition of British India and the formula in favor of the immediate creation of Pakistan.

In 1945 and 1946 general and provincial elections were held in India respectively. The Muslim League of Jinnah secured most of the Muslim vote in both elections. Jinnah interpreted the results as the entire Muslim nation's demand for partition and a separate state of Pakistan. Congress was forced to recognise the Muslim League as the sole representative of the Muslims.

The same year the British sent a delegation to India to determine its constitutional status and to address the Hindu-Muslim differences. The delegation proposed a plan that three groups in India be formed. One would consist of the Muslim majority Northwest zone, another would consist of the Hindu majority center and the third the Eastern zone of India. The proposal further contemplated the independence of Muslim majority provinces after ten years of Indian Independence. An interim government was to be set up until independence.

The Congress Party rejected the separation of the provinces but agreed to the formation of an interim government. The plan stated that whichever party will agree to the whole of the plan will be allowed to form the interim government which would be established after the General elections in 1946.

Jinnah decided to agree to the plan. The British still invited the Congress to form a government with the Muslim League and the Viceroy of India assigned the Office of Prime minister to Nehru of the Indian National Congress.

World War II

Main article: India in World War II

On 3 September 1939, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain declared the commencement of war with Germany. Shortly thereafter, Viceroy Lord Linlithgow followed suit and announced that India too was at war with Germany.[35]

In 1939, the Congress leaders resigned from all British India government positions to which they had elected.[36] The Muslim League celebrated the end of the Congress-led British Indian government, with Jinnah famously declaring it "a day of deliverance and thanksgiving".[36] In a secret memorandum to the British Prime Minister, the Muslim League agreed to support the United Kingdom's war efforts—provided that the British recognise it as the only organisation that spoke for Indian Muslims.[36]

Following the Congress's effective protest against the United Kingdom unilaterally involving India in the war without consulting with them, the Muslim League went on to support the British war efforts, which allowed them to actively propagandise against the Congress with the argument of "Islam in Danger".[37]

The Indian Congress and Muslim League responded differently over the World War II issue. The Indian Congress refused to support the British unless the whole Indian subcontinent was granted independence.[38] The Muslim League, on the other hand, supported Britain both politically and via human contributions.[38] The Muslim League leaders' British education, training, and philosophical ideas helped bring the British government and the Muslim League closer to each other.[38] Jinnah himself supported the British in World War II when the Congress failed to collaborate.[38] The British government made a pledge to the Muslims in 1940 that it would not transfer power to an Independent India unless its constitution was first approved by the Indian Muslims, a promise it did not subsequently keep.[38]

The end of the war

In 1942, Gandhi called for the Quit India Movement against the United Kingdom. On the other hand, the Muslim League advised Prime Minister Winston Churchill that Great Britain should "divide and then Quit".[38] Negotiations between Gandhi and Viceroy Wavell failed, as did talks between Jinnah and Gandhi in 1944.[38] When World War II ended, the Muslim League's push for the Pakistan Movement and Gandhi's efforts for Indian independence intensified the pressure on Prime Minister Churchill.[38] Given the rise of American and Russian dominance in world politics and the general unrest in India, Wavell called for general elections to be held in 1945.[38]

In the 1940s, Jinnah emerged as a leader of the Indian Muslims and was popularly known as Quaid-e-Azam (‘Great Leader’). The general elections held in 1945 for the Constituent Assembly of British Indian Empire, the Muslim League secured and won 434 out of 496 seats reserved for Muslims (and about 87.5% of Muslim votes) on a policy of creating an independent state of Pakistan, and with an implied threat of secession if this was not granted. The Congress which was led by Gandhi and Nehru remained adamantly opposed to dividing India. The partition seems to have been inevitable after all, one of the examples being Lord Mountbatten's statement on Jinnah: "There was no argument that could move him from his consuming determination to realize the impossible dream of Pakistan."[39]

Stephen P. Cohen, an American historian of Pakistan, writes in The Idea of Pakistan of the influence of South Asian Muslim nationalism on the Pakistan movement:[40]

[The ethnolinguistic-nationalist narrative] begins with a glorious precolonial state-empire when the Muslims of South Asia were politically united and culturally, civilizationally, and strategically dominant. In that era, ethnolinguistic differences were subsumed under a common vision of an Islamic-inspired social and political order. However, the divisions among Muslims that did exist were exploited by the British, who practiced 'divide-and-rule' politics, displacing the Mughals and circumscribing other Islamic rulers. Moreover, the Hindus were the allies of the British, who used them to strike a balance with the Muslims; many Hindus, a fundamentally insecure people, hated Muslims and would have oppressed them in a one-man, one-vote democratic India. The Pakistan freedom movement united these disparate pieces of the national puzzle, and Pakistan was the expression of the national will of India's liberated Muslims.

— Stephen Cohen, The Idea of Pakistan (2004)[40]

1946 elections

The 1946 elections resulted in the Muslim League winning the majority of Muslim votes and reserved Muslim seats in the Central and provincial assemblies,[41] performing exceptionally well in Muslim minority provinces such as UP and Bihar, relative to the Muslim majority provinces of Punjab and NWFP. The Muslim league captured 429 of the total 492 seats reserved for Muslims. Thus, the 1946 election was effectively a plebiscite where the Indian Muslims were to vote on the creation of Pakistan; a plebiscite which the Muslim League won.[42][43][44]

This victory was assisted by the support given to the Muslim League by the rural agriculturalists of Bengal as well as the support of the landowners of Sindh and Punjab. The Congress, which initially denied the Muslim League's claim of being the sole representative of Indian Muslims, was now forced to recognise that the Muslim League represented Indian Muslims.[43] The British had no alternative except to take Jinnah's views into account as he had emerged as the sole spokesperson for India's Muslims. However, the British did not desire India to be partitioned[45][46] and in one last effort to avoid it they arranged the Cabinet Mission plan.[47][48] In 1946, the Cabinet Mission Plan recommended a decentralised but united India, this was accepted by the Muslim League but rejected by the Congress, thus, leading the way for the Partition of India.[49]

Political campaigns and support

Punjab

 
Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman seconding the Resolution with Jinnah and Liaquat presiding the session.

In the British Indian province of Punjab, Muslims placed more emphasis on the Punjabi identity they shared with Hindus and Sikhs, rather than on their religion.[citation needed] The Unionist Party, which prevailed in the 1923 Indian general election, 1934 Indian general election and the 1937 Indian provincial elections, had the mass support of the Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs of the Punjab; its leaders included Muslim Punjabis, such as Fazl-i-Hussain and Hindu Punjabis, such as Chhotu Ram.[50] The Punjab had a slight Muslim majority, and local politics had been dominated by the secular Unionist Party and its longtime leader Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan. The Unionists had built a formidable power base in the Punjabi countryside through policies of patronage allowing them to retain the loyalty of landlords and pirs who exerted significant local influence.[51]

For the Muslim League to claim to represent the Muslim vote, they would need to win over the majority of the seats held by the Unionists. Following the death of Sir Sikander in 1942, and bidding to overcome their dismal showing in the elections of 1937, the Muslim League intensified campaigning throughout rural and urban Punjab.[52] A major thrust of the Muslim's League's campaign was the promotion of communalism and spreading fear of a supposed "Hindu threat" in a future united India.[53] Muslim League activists were advised to join in communal prayers when visiting villages, and gain permission to hold meetings after the Friday prayers.[51] The Quran became a symbol of the Muslim League at rallies, and pledges to vote were made on it.[51] Students, a key component of the Muslim League's activists, were trained to appeal to the electorate on communal lines, and at the peak of student activity during the Christmas holidays of 1945, 250 students from Aligarh were invited to campaign in the province along with 1550 members of the Punjab Muslim Student's Federation.[51] A key achievement of these efforts came in enticing Muslim Jats and Gujjars from their intercommunal tribal loyalties.[51] In response, the Unionists attempted to counter the growing religious appeal of the Muslim League by introducing religious symbolism into their own campaign, but with no student activists to rely upon and dwindling support amongst the landlords, their attempts met with little success.

 
Pir Meher Ali Shah

To further their religious appeal, the Muslim League also launched efforts to entice Pirs towards their cause. Pirs dominated the religious landscape, and were individuals who claimed to inherit religious authority from Sufi Saints who had proselytised in the region since the eleventh century.[51] By the twentieth century, most Punjabi Muslims offered allegiance to a Pir as their religious guide, thus providing them considerable political influence.[51] The Unionists had successfully cultivated the support of Pirs to achieve success in the 1937 elections, and the Muslim League now attempted to replicate their method of doing so. To do so, the Muslim League created the Masheikh Committee, used Urs ceremonies and shrines for meetings and rallies and encouraged fatwas urging support for the Muslim League.[51]

Reasons for the pirs switching allegiance varied. For the Gilani Pirs of Multan the overriding factor was local longstanding factional rivalries, whilst for many others a shrine's size and relationship with the government dictated its allegiance.[51]

Despite the Muslim League's aim to foster a united Muslim loyalty, it also recognised the need to better exploit the biradari network and appeal to primordial tribal loyalties. In 1946 it held a special Gujjar conference intending to appeal to all Muslim Gujjars, and reversed its expulsion of Jahanara Shahnawaz with the hope of appealing to Arain constituencies.[51] Appealing to biradari ties enabled the Muslim League to accelerate support amongst landlords, and in turn use the landlords's client-patron economic relationship with their tenants to guarantee votes for the forthcoming election.[51]

A separate strategy of the Muslim League was to exploit the economic slump suffered in the Punjab as a result of the Second World War.[51] The Punjab had supplied 27 per cent of the Indian Army recruits during the war, constituting 800,000 men, and representing a significant part of the electorate. By 1946, less than 20 per cent of those servicemen returning home had found employment.[51] This in part was exacerbated by the speedy end to the war in Asia, which caught the Unionists by surprise, and meant their plans to deploy servicemen to work in canal colonies were not yet ready.[51] The Muslim League took advantage of this weakness and followed Congress's example of providing work to servicemen within its organisation.[51] The Muslim League's ability to offer an alternative to the Unionist government, namely the promise of Pakistan as an answer to the economic dislocation suffered by Punjabi villagers, was identified as a key issue for the election.[51]

On the eve of the elections, the political landscape in the Punjab was finely poised, and the Muslim League offered a credible alternative to the Unionist Party. The transformation itself had been rapid, as most landlords and pirs had not switched allegiance until after 1944.[51] The breakdown of talks between the Punjab Premier, Malik Khizar Hayat Tiwana, and Jinnah in late 1944 had meant many Muslims were now forced to choose between the two parties at the forthcoming election.[51] A further blow for the Unionists came with death of its leading statesman Sir Chhotu Ram in early 1945.

The Western Punjab was home to a minority population of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus up to 1947 apart from the Muslim majority.[54] In 1947, the Punjab Assembly cast its vote in favour of Pakistan with supermajority rule, which made many minority Hindus and Sikhs migrate to India while Muslim refugees from India settled in the Western Punjab and across Pakistan.[55]

Sindh

 
Sindh is the birthplace and burial place of Jinnah, the Founder of Pakistan.

In the Sind province of British India, the Sind United Party promoted communal harmony between Hindus and Muslims, winning 22 out of 33 seats in the 1937 Indian provincial elections.[56]

 
Sindhi foot soldiers, 1816

Both the Muslim landed elite, waderas, and the Hindu commercial elements, banias, collaborated in exploiting the predominantly Muslim peasantry of the British Indian province of Sind. In Sind’s first provincial election after its separation from Bombay in 1936, economic interests were an essential factor of politics, informed by religious and cultural issues.[57] Due to British policies, much land in Sind was transferred from Muslim to Hindu hands over the decades.[58][59] In Sind, "the dispute over the Sukkur Manzilgah had been fabricated by provincial Leaguers to unsettle Allah Bakhsh Soomro's ministry which was dependent on support from the Congress and the Hindu Independent Party."[57] The Sind Muslim League exploited the issue and agitated for what they said was an abandoned mosque to be given to the Muslim League. Consequentially, a thousand members of the Muslim League were imprisoned. Eventually, due to panic the government restored the mosque to Muslims.[57]

The separation of Sind from the Bombay Presidency triggered Sindhi Muslim nationalists to support the Pakistan Movement. Even while the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province were ruled by parties hostile to the Muslim League, Sindh remained loyal to Jinnah.[60] Although the prominent Sindhi Muslim nationalist G.M. Syed (who admired both Hindu and Muslim rulers of Sindh) left the All India Muslim League in the mid-1940s,[61] the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims supported the creation of Pakistan, seeing in it their deliverance.[62] Sindhi support for the Pakistan Movement arose from the desire of the Sindhi Muslim business class to drive out their Hindu competitors.[63]

The Muslim League’s rise to becoming the party with the strongest support in Sind was in large part linked to its winning over of the religious pir families. Although the Muslim League had previously fared poorly in the 1937 elections in Sind, when local Sindhi Muslim parties won more seats,[64] the Muslim League’s cultivation of support from the pirs and saiyids of Sind in 1946 helped it gain a foothold in the province.[65]

North-West Frontier Province

 
Bacha Khan with Gandhi in 1946.

The Muslim League had little support in North-West Frontier Province. Here the Congress and Pashtun nationalist leader Abdul Ghaffar Khan had considerable support for the cause of a united India.[66]

During the Independence period there was a Congress-led ministry in the province, which was led by secular Pashtun leaders, including Abdul Ghaffar Khan, who preferred joining India instead of Pakistan. The secular Pashtun leadership was also of the view that if joining India was not an option then they should espouse the cause of an independent ethnic Pashtun state rather than Pakistan.[67] The secular stance of Abdul Ghaffar Khan had driven a wedge between the Jamiyatul Ulama Sarhad (JUS) and the otherwise pro-Congress (and pro-Indian unity) Jamiat Ulema Hind, as well as Abdul Ghaffar Khan's Khudai Khidmatgars, who also espoused Hindu-Muslim unity. Unlike the centre JUH, the directives of the JUS in the province began to take on communal tones. The JUS ulama saw the Hindus in the province as a 'threat' to Muslims. Accusations of molesting Muslim women were leveled at Hindu shopkeepers in Nowshera, a town where anti-Hindu sermons were delivered by mullas. Tensions also rose in 1936 over the abduction of a Hindu girl in Bannu. Such controversies stirred up anti-Hindu sentiments amongst the province's Muslim population.[68] By 1947 the majority of the JUS ulama in the province began supporting the Muslim League's idea of Pakistan.[69]

Immediately prior to Pakistani independence from Britain in 1947, the British held a referendum in the NWFP to allow voters to choose between joining Pakistan or India. The referendum was held on 2 July 1947 while polling began on 6 July 1947 and the referendum results were made public on 20 July 1947. According to the official results, there were 572,798 registered voters out of which 289,244 (99.02%) votes were cast in favor of Pakistan while only 2874 (0.98%) were cast in favor of India. According to an estimate the total turnout for the referendum was only 15% less than the total turnout in the 1946 elections.[70][71] At the same time a large number of Khudai Khidmatgar supporters boycotted the referendum and intimidation against Hindu and Sikh voters by supporters of the Pakistan Movement was also reported.[72]

Baluchistan

 
Jinnah meeting with Baluchistan's leaders.

During British rule in India, Baluchistan was under the rule of a Chief Commissioner and did not have the same status as other provinces of British India. The Muslim League in the period 1927-1947 strived under Jinnah to introduce reforms in Baluchistan to bring it on par with other provinces of British India. Apart from the pro-partition Muslim League that was led by Qazi Muhammad Isa, "three pro-Congress parties were still active in Balochistan's politics", such as the Anjuman-i-Watan Baluchistan, which favoured a united India.[73][74]

In British-ruled Colonial India, Baluchistan contained a Chief Commissioner's province and princely states (including Makran, Las Bela and Kharan) that became a part of Pakistan.[75] The instrument of referendum was applied in Chaghi to Zhob (in northern Balochistan), to determine the will of the people which resulted in a victory for the Muslim League.[76]The province's Shahi Jirga and the non-official members of the Quetta Municipality, agreed to join Pakistan unanimously on 29 June 1947;[77] however, the Shahi Jirga was stripped of its members from the Kalat State prior to the vote.[78] According to Rafi Sheikh, the then president of the Baluchistan Muslim League, Qazi Muhammad Isa, informed Jinnah that "Shahi Jirga in no way represents the popular wishes of the masses" and that members of the Kalat State were "excluded from voting; only representatives from the British part of the province voted and the British part included the leased areas of Quetta, Nasirabad Tehsil, Nushki and Bolan Agency."[78] Following the referendum, the Khan of Kalat, on 22 June 1947, received a letter from members of the Shahi Jirga, as well as sardars from the leased areas of Baluchistan, stating that they, "as a part of the Baloch nation, were a part of the Kalat state too" and that if the question of Baluchistan's accession to Pakistan arise, "they should be deemed part of the Kalat state rather than (British) Balochistan".[78] This has brought into question whether a vote took place in the princely Kalat state, the consensus of which remains disputed.[78]

The pro-India Congress, which drew support from Hindus and some Muslims, sensing that geographic and demographic compulsions would not allow the province’s inclusion into the newly Independent India, began to encourage separatist elements in Balochistan, and other Muslim majority provinces such as NWFP.[79]

Kalat finally acceded to Pakistan on 27 March 1948 after the help of All India Radio and a period of negotiations and bureaucracy.[80] The signing of the Instrument of Accession by Ahmad Yar Khan, led his brother, Prince Abdul Karim, to revolt against his brother's decision[81] in July 1948.[82] Princes Agha Abdul Karim Baloch and Muhammad Rahim refused to lay down arms, leading the Dosht-e Jhalawan in unconventional attacks on the army until 1950.[81] Though the Princes fought a lone battle without support from the rest of Baluchistan.[83]

Bengal

 
Map of United Bengal

Dhaka was the birthplace of the All India Muslim League in 1906. The Pakistan Movement was highly popular in the Muslim population of Bengal.[84] Many of the Muslim League's notable statesmen and activists hailed from East Bengal, including Khabeeruddin Ahmed, Sir Abdul Halim Ghuznavi, Anwar-ul Azim, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, Jogendra Nath Mandal, Khawaja Nazimuddin, and Nurul Amin, many among whom later became Prime ministers of Pakistan. Following the partition of Bengal, violence erupted in the region, which was mainly contained to Kolkata and Noakhali.[85]

It is documented by Pakistani historians that Suhrawardy wanted Bengal to be an independent state that would neither join Pakistan or India but would remain unpartitioned. Despite the heavy criticism from the Muslim League, Jinnah realised the validity of Suhrawardy's argument and gave his tacit support to the idea of an Independent Bengal.[86][87] Nevertheless, the Indian National Congress decided for partition of Bengal in 1947, which was additionally ratified in the subsequent years.

Rohingya Muslims

During the Pakistan Movement in the 1940s, Rohingya Muslims in western Burma had an ambition to annex and merge their region into East-Pakistan.[88] Before the independence of Burma in January 1948, Muslim leaders from Arakan addressed themselves to Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, and asked his assistance in annexing of the Mayu region to Pakistan which was about to be formed.[88] Two months later, the North Arakan Muslim League was founded in Akyab (modern: Sittwe, capital of Arakan State), it, too demanding annexation to Pakistan.[88] However, it is noted that the proposal never materialised after it was reportedly turned down by Jinnah.[88]

Role of Ulama

The Ulama support for the Pakistan Movement came in the form of the New Medina construct, which was formulated by the Barelvis and a section of the Deobandi clergy.[89] In its election campaign in 1946 the Muslim League drew upon the support of Islamic scholars and Sufis with the rallying cry of 'Islam in danger'.[41] The majority of Barelvis supported the creation of Pakistan and Barelvi ulama issued fatwas in support of the Muslim League.[90][91][92] In contrast, most Deobandi ulama (led by Hussain Ahmed Madani) opposed the creation of Pakistan and the two-nation theory. Husain Ahmad Madani and the Deobandis advocated composite nationalism, according to which Muslims and Hindus were one nation (cf. Composite Nationalism and Islam).[93] Madani differentiated between qaum -which meant a multi-religious nation - and millat - which was exclusively the social unity of Muslims.[94][95]

However, a few highly influential Deobandi clerics did support the creation of Pakistan.[96] Such Deobandi ulama included Ashraf Ali Thanwi, Muhammad Shafi Deobandi, Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, and Zafar Ahmad Usmani.[97] Thanwi was one of the chief proponent of this Movement.[98] He also sent groups of Muslim scholars to give religious advice and reminders to Jinnah,[99] he dismissed the criticism that most Muslim League members were not practising Muslims. Thanwi was of the view that the Muslim League should be supported and also be advised at the same time to become religiously observant.[100] Thanwi's disciples Shabbir Ahmad Usmani and Zafar Ahmad Usmani were key players in religious support for the creation of Pakistan.[2]

Acknowledging the services of these ulema, Shabbir Ahmad Usmani was honoured to raise the flag of Pakistan in Karachi and Zafar Ahamd Usmani in Dhaka.[101] Once, the Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah was asked whether there was any Islamic cleric who authenticated the division of India on religious bases. Jinnah replied that there was Arshraf Ali Thanwi, and his support to the cause of Muslim League was enough.[101] The Barelvis had no representation in the constitutent assemblies of Pakistan, whereas the Deobandis had their representatives even in the first Constitutent Assembly.[102]

Conclusion

Further information: Partition of India, Indian Independence Act 1947, Bangladesh Liberation War, 1969 uprising in East Pakistan, and Breakup of East and West Pakistan

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan's (1817–1898) philosophical ideas played a direct role in the Pakistan Movement.[103] His Two-Nation Theory became more and more obvious during the Congress rule (1937-1939) in India. In 1946 it was proved that Muslim majorities in the North-west and North-east and Muslim minorities in all of India had agreed to the idea of Pakistan, as a response to Congress's policies,[citation needed] which were also the result of leaders such as Jinnah leaving the party in favour of the Muslim League,[104] Congress had won in seven of the eleven provinces in 1937[105] but the Muslim League failed to achieve majority in any province.[citation needed]

But the main motivating and integrating factor was that the Muslims' intellectual class wanted representation; the masses needed a platform on which to unite.[103] It was the dissemination of western thought by John Locke, Milton and Thomas Paine, at the Aligarh Muslim University that initiated the emergence of Pakistan Movement.[103] According to Pakistan Studies curriculum, Muhammad bin Qasim is often referred to as 'the first Pakistani'.[106] Muhammad Ali Jinnah also acclaimed the Pakistan movement to have started when the first Muslim put foot in the Gateway of Islam.[107]

After the independence in 1947, violence and upheavals continued to be faced by Pakistan, as Liaquat Ali Khan became the Prime Minister of Pakistan in 1947.[108] The issue involving the equal status of Urdu and Bengali languages created divergence in the country's political ideology.[109] The military take over in 1958 was followed by rapid industrialisation in the 1960s.[108] Economic grievances, unbalanced financial payments, provincialism and ethnic nationalism led to a bloody armed struggle in East Pakistan in the early 1970s, which eventually resulted with East Pakistan becoming Bangladesh in 1971.[109]

In the successive periods of the tragedy of East-Pakistan, the country continued to rebuild and reconstruct itself constitutionally and embarked on its path to be transformed into republicanism in its full measure.[110] The XIII amendment (1997) and XVIII amendment (2010) transformed the country into becoming a parliamentary republic as well as also becoming a nuclear power in the subcontinent.[111]

Non-Muslims contribution and efforts

Main articles: Christianity in Pakistan, Hinduism in Pakistan, Sikhism in Pakistan, and Protestantism in Pakistan

Jinnah's vision was supported by few of the Hindus, Sikhs, Parsis, Jews and Christians who lived in Muslim-dominated regions of undivided India.[112][113] The most notable and influential Hindu figure in the Pakistan Movement was Jogendra Nath Mandal from Bengal. Jagannath Azad was from the Urdu-speaking belt.[114] Mandal represented the Hindu contingent calling for an independent Pakistan, and was one of the founding fathers of Pakistan.[112] After independence, Mandal was given ministries of Law, Justice, and Work-Force by Jinnah in Liaquat Ali Khan's government.[112] Ironically, despite all his good contributions, Mandal was badly ignored in the emerging political scenario. He returned to India and submitted his resignation to Liaquat Ali Khan, the then-Prime Minister of Pakistan. He mentioned incidents related to social injustice and a biased attitude towards non-Muslim minorities in his resignation letter.[115]

Although the All India Conference of Indian Christians opposed the partition of India and creation of Pakistan,[116] a minority of Christians dissented from this position and played a pivotal role in the creation of Pakistan.[117] The notable Christians included Sir Victor Turner and Alvin Robert Cornelius.[118] Turner was responsible for the economic, financial planning of the country after independence.[118] Turner was one of the founding fathers[118] of Pakistan, and guided Jinnah and Ali Khan on economic affairs, taxation and handling of the administrative units.[118] Alvin Robert Cornelius was elevated as Chief Justice of Lahore High Court bench by Jinnah and served as Law Secretary in Liaquat Ali Khan's government.[118]

As an example or inspiration

Main article: Pakistanism

The Pakistan Movement became an inspiration in different countries of the world. Protection of one's beliefs, equal rights, and liberty were incorporated in the state's constitution. Arguments presented by Ali Mazrui pointed out that the South Sudan's movement led to the partition of the Sudan into Sudan proper, which is primarily Muslim, and South Sudan, which is primarily Christian and animistic.[119]

In Europe, Alija Izetbegović, the first President of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, began to embrace the "Pakistan model" in the 1960s, alienating Serbs who would use this ideology to attack Bosniaks later on,[120] while in his Islamic Declaration he "designated Pakistan as a model country to be emulated by Muslim revolutionaries worldwide."[121]

Memory and legacy

Main articles: Minar-e-Pakistan, Tomb of Allama Iqbal, and Mazar-e-Quaid
 
The Minar-e-Pakistan in Lahore, Pakistan glances at night.

The Pakistan Movement has a central place in Pakistan's memory. The founding story of the Pakistan Movement is not only covered in school and university textbooks but also in innumerable monuments.[122] Almost all key events are covered in Pakistan's textbooks, literature, and novels as well.[122] Thus, the Fourteenth of August is one of major and most celebrated national days in Pakistan.[123] To many authors and historians, Jinnah's legacy is Pakistan.[124]

The Minar-e-Pakistan is a monument which has attracted ten thousand visitors.[125] The Minar-e-Pakistan still continues to project the memory to the people to remember the birth of Pakistan.[125] Jinnah's estates in Karachi and Ziarat has attracted thousands visitors.[126]

Historian of Pakistan, Vali Nasr, argues that the Islamic universalism had become a main source of the Pakistan Movement that shaped patriotism, meaning, and nation's birth.[127] To many Pakistanis, Jinnah's role is viewed as a modern Moses-like leader;[128] whilst many other founding fathers of the nation-state also occupy extremely respected places in the hearts of the people of Pakistan.[129]

Timeline

Notable quotations

Allama Iqbal:

I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single State. Self-government within the British Empire, or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West India.[132][17]

Choudhry Rahmat Ali:

At this solemn hour in the history of India, when British and Indian statesmen are laying the foundations of a Federal Constitution for that land, we address this appeal to you, in the name of our common heritage, on behalf of our thirty million Muslim brethren who live in Pakistan – by which we mean the five Northern units of India, Viz: Punjab, North-West Frontier Province (Afghan Province), Kashmir, Sind and Baluchistan – for your sympathy and support in our grim and fateful struggle against political crucifixion and complete annihilation.[133]

Muhammad Ali Jinnah:

It is extremely difficult to appreciate why our Hindu friends fail to understand the real nature of Islam and Hinduism. They are not religious in the strict sense of the word, but are, in fact, different and distinct social orders, and it is a dream that the Hindus and Muslims can ever evolve a common nationality, and this misconception of one Indian nation has troubles and will lead India to destruction if we fail to revise our notions in time. The Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religious philosophies, social customs, literature. They neither intermarry nor interdine together and, indeed, they belong to two different civilizations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions. Their aspect on life and of life are different. It is quite clear that Hindus and Muslims derive their inspiration from different sources of history. They have different ethics, different heroes, and different episodes. Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other and, likewise, their victories and defeats overlap. To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built for the government of such a state.[134]

Founding Fathers and Mothers

Main article: List of Pakistan Movement activists

See also

References

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Further reading

External links

  • The Pakistan Movement at the Story of Pakistan website
  • Iqbal and the Pakistan Movement at the Iqbal Academy Pakistan

March 22, 2023
pakistan, movement, establishment, pakistan, redirects, here, military, term, establishment, pakistan, urdu, تحریک, پاکستان, romanized, teḥrīk, pākistān, ethnoreligious, political, movement, first, half, 20th, century, that, aimed, creation, pakistan, from, mu. Establishment of Pakistan redirects here For the military term see Establishment Pakistan The Pakistan Movement Urdu تحریک پاکستان romanized Teḥrik e Pakistan was an ethnoreligious political movement in the first half of the 20th century that aimed for the creation of Pakistan from the Muslim majority areas of British India It was connected to the perceived need for self determination for Muslims under British rule at the time Muhammad Ali Jinnah a barrister and politician led this movement after the Lahore Resolution was passed by All India Muslim League on 23 March 1940 and Ashraf Ali Thanwi as a religious scholar supported it 1 Thanwi s disciples Shabbir Ahmad Usmani and Zafar Ahmad Usmani were key players in religious support for the creation of Pakistan 2 Minar e Pakistan where the bill of Lahore Resolution was passed on 23 March 1940 The Pakistan Movement started originally as the Aligarh Movement and as a result the British Indian Muslims began to develop a secular political identity 3 Soon thereafter the All India Muslim League was formed which perhaps marked the beginning of the Pakistan Movement Many of the top leadership of the movement were educated in Great Britain with many of them educated at the Aligarh Muslim University Many graduates of the University of Dhaka soon also joined A group of Ulama led by Shabbir Ahmad Usmani formed the Jamiat Ulema e Islam and gave their support to the movement for an independent Pakistan 4 The Pakistan Movement was a part of the Indian independence movement but eventually it also sought to establish a new nation state that protected the political interests of Indian Muslims 5 Urdu poets such as Iqbal and Faiz used literature poetry and speech as a powerful tool for political awareness 6 7 Iqbal is called the spiritual father of this movement 8 The role of Ulama in strengthening this movement divided into two groups One Madani Group was convinced by Composite nationalism But the other Thanwi Group played a significant role in this Movement 9 Acknowledging the services of these ulema Shabbir Ahmad Usmani was honoured to raise the flag of Pakistan in Karachi and Zafar Ahmad Usmani in Dhaka 10 Many people know that the driving force behind the Pakistan Movement was the Muslim community of the Muslim minority provinces United Provinces and Bombay Presidency rather than that of the Muslim majority provinces 11 12 13 Land boundaries and population demographics of West Pakistan present day Pakistan East Pakistan present day Bangladesh and India are among the primary achievements of the Pakistan Movement Not all Muslims of colonial India supported the Pakistan Movement and there was widespread opposition to the partition of India 14 Despite political obstacles and social difficulties the movement initially was successful in culminating Pakistan on August 14th of 1947 which also resulted in partition of India and the creation of two separate states Contents 1 History of the movement 1 1 Background 1 2 Renaissance vision 1 3 Rise of organised movement 1 4 Lahore Resolution 1 5 C R formula and Cabinet Mission 1 6 World War II 1 7 The end of the war 1 8 1946 elections 2 Political campaigns and support 2 1 Punjab 2 2 Sindh 2 3 North West Frontier Province 2 4 Baluchistan 2 5 Bengal 2 6 Rohingya Muslims 2 7 Role of Ulama 3 Conclusion 3 1 Non Muslims contribution and efforts 3 2 As an example or inspiration 3 3 Memory and legacy 4 Timeline 5 Notable quotations 6 Founding Fathers and Mothers 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External linksHistory of the movement EditBackground Edit Main article British Raj During the early 19th century Lord Macaulay s radical and influential educational reforms led to numerous changes to the introduction and teaching of Western languages e g English and Latin history and philosophy 15 16 Religious studies and the Arabic Turkish and Persian languages were completely barred from the state universities In a short span of time the English language had become not only the medium of instruction but also the official language in 1835 in place of Persian disadvantaging those who had built their careers around the latter language 16 Traditional Hindu and Islamic studies were no longer supported by the British Crown and nearly all of the madrasahs lost their waqf lit financial endowment 15 16 The British Siege of Delhi Sir David Baird discovering the body of Tipu Sultan The Battle of Miani during the conquest of SindhRenaissance vision Edit Main articles Aligarh Movement Urdu movement Aligarh Muslim University Two nation theory and University of the Punjab Sir Syed Ahmad Khan became an inspiration for the Pakistan Movement Very few Muslim families had their children sent to English universities On the other hand the effects of the Bengali Renaissance made the Hindu population more educated and enabled them to gain lucrative positions at the Indian Civil Service many ascended to the influential posts in the British government citation needed In 1930 Muhammad Iqbal delivered his famous speech in the Allahabad annual session which is commonly regarded as sowing the seeds for the creation of a separate state later known as Pakistan 17 Class conflict was coloured in a religious shade as the Muslims were generally agriculturists and soldiers while Hindus were increasingly seen as successful financiers and businessmen Therefore according to the historian Spear an industrialised India meant a Hindu India to the Muslims Syed Ahmed Khan converted the existing cultural and religious entity among Indian Muslims into a separatist political force throwing a Western cloak of nationalism over the Islamic concept of culture The distinct sense of value culture and tradition among Indian Muslims originated from the nature of Islamization of the Indian populace during the Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent 18 The Muslim League Governing Council at the Lahore session The woman wearing the black cloak is Muhatarma Amjadi Banu Begum the wife of Mohammad Ali Jauhar a prominent Muslim League leader Begum was a leading representative of the UP s Muslim women during the years of the Pakistan Movement Rise of organised movement Edit The success of the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference as a part of the Aligarh Movement the All India Muslim League was established with the support provided by Syed Ahmad Khan in 1906 19 It was founded in Dhaka in a response to the reintegration of Bengal after a mass Hindu protest took place in the subcontinent Earlier in 1905 viceroy Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal which was favoured by the Muslims since it gave them a Muslim majority in the eastern half 20 In 1909 Lord Minto promulgated the Council Act and met with a Muslim delegation led by Aga Khan III 21 22 23 24 a deal to which Minto agreed citation needed The delegation consisted of 35 members who each represented their respective region proportionately mentioned hereunder Aga Khan III in 1936 Nawab Mohsin ul Mulk left who organised the Simla deputation with Sir Syed Ahmed Khan Centre Sir Syed s son Justice Syed Mahmood extreme right Syed Mahmood was the first Muslim to serve as a High Court judge in the British Raj Sir Aga Khan III Head of the delegation Bombay Nawab Mohsin ul Mulk Aligarh Nawab Waqar ul Mulk Muradabad Maulvi Hafiz Hakim Ajmal Khan Delhi Maulvi Syed Karamat Husain Allahabad Maulvi Sharifuddin Patna Nawab Syed Sardar Ali Khan Bombay Syed Abdul Rauf Allahabad Maulvi Habiburrehman Khan Aligarh Sahibzada Aftab Ahmed Khan Aligarh Abdul Salam Khan Rampur Raees Muhammed Ahtasham Ali Lucknow Khan Bahadur Muhammad Muzammilullah Khan Aligarh Haji Muhammed Ismail Khan Aligarh Shehzada Bakhtiar Shah Calcutta Malik Umar Hayat Khan Tiwana Shahpur Khan Bahadur Muhammed Shah Deen Lahore Khan Bahadur Syed Nawab Ali Chaudhary Mymansingh Nawab Bahadur Mirza Shuja at Ali Baig Murshidabad Nawab Nasir Hussain Khan Bahadur Patna Khan Bahadur Syed Ameer Hassan Khan Calcutta Syed Muhammed Imam Patna Nawab Sarfaraz Hussain Khan Bahadur Patna Maulvi Rafeeuddin Ahmed Bombay Khan Bahadur Ahmed Muhaeeuddin Madras Ibraheem Bhai Adamjee Pirbhai Bombay Maulvi Abdul Raheem Calcutta Syed Allahdad Shah Khairpur Maulana H M Malik Nagpur Khan Bahadur Col Abdul Majeed Khan Patiala Khan Bahadur Khawaja Yousuf Shah Amritsar Khan Bahadur Mian Muhammad Shafi Lahore Khan Bahadur Shaikh Ghulam Sadiq Amritsar Syed Nabiullah Allahabad Khalifa Syed Muhammed Khan Bahadur Patna 25 Until 1937 the Muslim League had remained an organisation of elite Indian Muslims The Muslim League leadership then began mass mobilisation and the League then became a popular party with the Muslim masses in the 1940s especially after the Lahore Resolution 26 27 Under Jinnah s leadership its membership grew to over two million and became more religious and even separatist in its outlook 28 29 The Muslim League s earliest base was the United Provinces 30 From 1937 onwards the Muslim League and Jinnah attracted large crowds throughout India in its processions and strikes 31 Lahore Resolution Edit The Lahore Resolution marked the beginning of the Pakistan movement At the 27th annual Muslim League session in 1940 at Lahore s Iqbal Park where about 100 000 people gathered to hear Jinnah speak Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religions philosophies social customs and literature It is quite clear that Hindus and Muslims derive their inspiration from different sources of history They have different epics different heroes and different episodes To yoke together two such nations under a single state one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built up for the government of such a state At Lahore the Muslim League formally committed itself to create an independent Muslim state including Sindh Punjab Baluchistan the North West Frontier Province and Bengal that would be wholly autonomous and sovereign The resolution guaranteed protection for non Muslims The Lahore Resolution moved by the sitting Chief Minister of Bengal A K Fazlul Huq was adopted on 23 March 1940 and its principles formed the foundation for Pakistan s first constitution In opposition to the Lahore Resolution the All India Azad Muslim Conference gathered in Delhi in April 1940 to voice its support for a united India 32 Its members included several Islamic organisations in India as well as 1400 nationalist Muslim delegates 33 34 C R formula and Cabinet Mission Edit Main articles C R formula and 1946 Cabinet Mission to India Talks were held between Jinnah and Gandhi in 1944 Jinnah negotiated as the representative of the Muslims Gandhi rejected and insisted that the Indian National Congress alone represented all of India including Muslims Gandhi proposed the C R Formula which sought to first achieve independence from the British and then settle the issue of Pakistan through a plebiscite in Muslim majority districts in which the non Muslims would also vote Jinnah rejected both postponing decision on partition of British India and the formula in favor of the immediate creation of Pakistan In 1945 and 1946 general and provincial elections were held in India respectively The Muslim League of Jinnah secured most of the Muslim vote in both elections Jinnah interpreted the results as the entire Muslim nation s demand for partition and a separate state of Pakistan Congress was forced to recognise the Muslim League as the sole representative of the Muslims The same year the British sent a delegation to India to determine its constitutional status and to address the Hindu Muslim differences The delegation proposed a plan that three groups in India be formed One would consist of the Muslim majority Northwest zone another would consist of the Hindu majority center and the third the Eastern zone of India The proposal further contemplated the independence of Muslim majority provinces after ten years of Indian Independence An interim government was to be set up until independence The Congress Party rejected the separation of the provinces but agreed to the formation of an interim government The plan stated that whichever party will agree to the whole of the plan will be allowed to form the interim government which would be established after the General elections in 1946 Jinnah decided to agree to the plan The British still invited the Congress to form a government with the Muslim League and the Viceroy of India assigned the Office of Prime minister to Nehru of the Indian National Congress World War II Edit Main article India in World War II On 3 September 1939 British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain declared the commencement of war with Germany Shortly thereafter Viceroy Lord Linlithgow followed suit and announced that India too was at war with Germany 35 In 1939 the Congress leaders resigned from all British India government positions to which they had elected 36 The Muslim League celebrated the end of the Congress led British Indian government with Jinnah famously declaring it a day of deliverance and thanksgiving 36 In a secret memorandum to the British Prime Minister the Muslim League agreed to support the United Kingdom s war efforts provided that the British recognise it as the only organisation that spoke for Indian Muslims 36 Following the Congress s effective protest against the United Kingdom unilaterally involving India in the war without consulting with them the Muslim League went on to support the British war efforts which allowed them to actively propagandise against the Congress with the argument of Islam in Danger 37 The Indian Congress and Muslim League responded differently over the World War II issue The Indian Congress refused to support the British unless the whole Indian subcontinent was granted independence 38 The Muslim League on the other hand supported Britain both politically and via human contributions 38 The Muslim League leaders British education training and philosophical ideas helped bring the British government and the Muslim League closer to each other 38 Jinnah himself supported the British in World War II when the Congress failed to collaborate 38 The British government made a pledge to the Muslims in 1940 that it would not transfer power to an Independent India unless its constitution was first approved by the Indian Muslims a promise it did not subsequently keep 38 The end of the war Edit In 1942 Gandhi called for the Quit India Movement against the United Kingdom On the other hand the Muslim League advised Prime Minister Winston Churchill that Great Britain should divide and then Quit 38 Negotiations between Gandhi and Viceroy Wavell failed as did talks between Jinnah and Gandhi in 1944 38 When World War II ended the Muslim League s push for the Pakistan Movement and Gandhi s efforts for Indian independence intensified the pressure on Prime Minister Churchill 38 Given the rise of American and Russian dominance in world politics and the general unrest in India Wavell called for general elections to be held in 1945 38 In the 1940s Jinnah emerged as a leader of the Indian Muslims and was popularly known as Quaid e Azam Great Leader The general elections held in 1945 for the Constituent Assembly of British Indian Empire the Muslim League secured and won 434 out of 496 seats reserved for Muslims and about 87 5 of Muslim votes on a policy of creating an independent state of Pakistan and with an implied threat of secession if this was not granted The Congress which was led by Gandhi and Nehru remained adamantly opposed to dividing India The partition seems to have been inevitable after all one of the examples being Lord Mountbatten s statement on Jinnah There was no argument that could move him from his consuming determination to realize the impossible dream of Pakistan 39 Stephen P Cohen an American historian of Pakistan writes in The Idea of Pakistan of the influence of South Asian Muslim nationalism on the Pakistan movement 40 The ethnolinguistic nationalist narrative begins with a glorious precolonial state empire when the Muslims of South Asia were politically united and culturally civilizationally and strategically dominant In that era ethnolinguistic differences were subsumed under a common vision of an Islamic inspired social and political order However the divisions among Muslims that did exist were exploited by the British who practiced divide and rule politics displacing the Mughals and circumscribing other Islamic rulers Moreover the Hindus were the allies of the British who used them to strike a balance with the Muslims many Hindus a fundamentally insecure people hated Muslims and would have oppressed them in a one man one vote democratic India The Pakistan freedom movement united these disparate pieces of the national puzzle and Pakistan was the expression of the national will of India s liberated Muslims Stephen Cohen The Idea of Pakistan 2004 40 1946 elections Edit The 1946 elections resulted in the Muslim League winning the majority of Muslim votes and reserved Muslim seats in the Central and provincial assemblies 41 performing exceptionally well in Muslim minority provinces such as UP and Bihar relative to the Muslim majority provinces of Punjab and NWFP The Muslim league captured 429 of the total 492 seats reserved for Muslims Thus the 1946 election was effectively a plebiscite where the Indian Muslims were to vote on the creation of Pakistan a plebiscite which the Muslim League won 42 43 44 This victory was assisted by the support given to the Muslim League by the rural agriculturalists of Bengal as well as the support of the landowners of Sindh and Punjab The Congress which initially denied the Muslim League s claim of being the sole representative of Indian Muslims was now forced to recognise that the Muslim League represented Indian Muslims 43 The British had no alternative except to take Jinnah s views into account as he had emerged as the sole spokesperson for India s Muslims However the British did not desire India to be partitioned 45 46 and in one last effort to avoid it they arranged the Cabinet Mission plan 47 48 In 1946 the Cabinet Mission Plan recommended a decentralised but united India this was accepted by the Muslim League but rejected by the Congress thus leading the way for the Partition of India 49 Political campaigns and support EditPunjab Edit Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman seconding the Resolution with Jinnah and Liaquat presiding the session In the British Indian province of Punjab Muslims placed more emphasis on the Punjabi identity they shared with Hindus and Sikhs rather than on their religion citation needed The Unionist Party which prevailed in the 1923 Indian general election 1934 Indian general election and the 1937 Indian provincial elections had the mass support of the Hindus Muslims and Sikhs of the Punjab its leaders included Muslim Punjabis such as Fazl i Hussain and Hindu Punjabis such as Chhotu Ram 50 The Punjab had a slight Muslim majority and local politics had been dominated by the secular Unionist Party and its longtime leader Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan The Unionists had built a formidable power base in the Punjabi countryside through policies of patronage allowing them to retain the loyalty of landlords and pirs who exerted significant local influence 51 For the Muslim League to claim to represent the Muslim vote they would need to win over the majority of the seats held by the Unionists Following the death of Sir Sikander in 1942 and bidding to overcome their dismal showing in the elections of 1937 the Muslim League intensified campaigning throughout rural and urban Punjab 52 A major thrust of the Muslim s League s campaign was the promotion of communalism and spreading fear of a supposed Hindu threat in a future united India 53 Muslim League activists were advised to join in communal prayers when visiting villages and gain permission to hold meetings after the Friday prayers 51 The Quran became a symbol of the Muslim League at rallies and pledges to vote were made on it 51 Students a key component of the Muslim League s activists were trained to appeal to the electorate on communal lines and at the peak of student activity during the Christmas holidays of 1945 250 students from Aligarh were invited to campaign in the province along with 1550 members of the Punjab Muslim Student s Federation 51 A key achievement of these efforts came in enticing Muslim Jats and Gujjars from their intercommunal tribal loyalties 51 In response the Unionists attempted to counter the growing religious appeal of the Muslim League by introducing religious symbolism into their own campaign but with no student activists to rely upon and dwindling support amongst the landlords their attempts met with little success Pir Meher Ali Shah To further their religious appeal the Muslim League also launched efforts to entice Pirs towards their cause Pirs dominated the religious landscape and were individuals who claimed to inherit religious authority from Sufi Saints who had proselytised in the region since the eleventh century 51 By the twentieth century most Punjabi Muslims offered allegiance to a Pir as their religious guide thus providing them considerable political influence 51 The Unionists had successfully cultivated the support of Pirs to achieve success in the 1937 elections and the Muslim League now attempted to replicate their method of doing so To do so the Muslim League created the Masheikh Committee used Urs ceremonies and shrines for meetings and rallies and encouraged fatwas urging support for the Muslim League 51 Reasons for the pirs switching allegiance varied For the Gilani Pirs of Multan the overriding factor was local longstanding factional rivalries whilst for many others a shrine s size and relationship with the government dictated its allegiance 51 Despite the Muslim League s aim to foster a united Muslim loyalty it also recognised the need to better exploit the biradari network and appeal to primordial tribal loyalties In 1946 it held a special Gujjar conference intending to appeal to all Muslim Gujjars and reversed its expulsion of Jahanara Shahnawaz with the hope of appealing to Arain constituencies 51 Appealing to biradari ties enabled the Muslim League to accelerate support amongst landlords and in turn use the landlords s client patron economic relationship with their tenants to guarantee votes for the forthcoming election 51 A separate strategy of the Muslim League was to exploit the economic slump suffered in the Punjab as a result of the Second World War 51 The Punjab had supplied 27 per cent of the Indian Army recruits during the war constituting 800 000 men and representing a significant part of the electorate By 1946 less than 20 per cent of those servicemen returning home had found employment 51 This in part was exacerbated by the speedy end to the war in Asia which caught the Unionists by surprise and meant their plans to deploy servicemen to work in canal colonies were not yet ready 51 The Muslim League took advantage of this weakness and followed Congress s example of providing work to servicemen within its organisation 51 The Muslim League s ability to offer an alternative to the Unionist government namely the promise of Pakistan as an answer to the economic dislocation suffered by Punjabi villagers was identified as a key issue for the election 51 On the eve of the elections the political landscape in the Punjab was finely poised and the Muslim League offered a credible alternative to the Unionist Party The transformation itself had been rapid as most landlords and pirs had not switched allegiance until after 1944 51 The breakdown of talks between the Punjab Premier Malik Khizar Hayat Tiwana and Jinnah in late 1944 had meant many Muslims were now forced to choose between the two parties at the forthcoming election 51 A further blow for the Unionists came with death of its leading statesman Sir Chhotu Ram in early 1945 The Western Punjab was home to a minority population of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus up to 1947 apart from the Muslim majority 54 In 1947 the Punjab Assembly cast its vote in favour of Pakistan with supermajority rule which made many minority Hindus and Sikhs migrate to India while Muslim refugees from India settled in the Western Punjab and across Pakistan 55 Sindh Edit Sindh is the birthplace and burial place of Jinnah the Founder of Pakistan In the Sind province of British India the Sind United Party promoted communal harmony between Hindus and Muslims winning 22 out of 33 seats in the 1937 Indian provincial elections 56 Sindhi foot soldiers 1816 Both the Muslim landed elite waderas and the Hindu commercial elements banias collaborated in exploiting the predominantly Muslim peasantry of the British Indian province of Sind In Sind s first provincial election after its separation from Bombay in 1936 economic interests were an essential factor of politics informed by religious and cultural issues 57 Due to British policies much land in Sind was transferred from Muslim to Hindu hands over the decades 58 59 In Sind the dispute over the Sukkur Manzilgah had been fabricated by provincial Leaguers to unsettle Allah Bakhsh Soomro s ministry which was dependent on support from the Congress and the Hindu Independent Party 57 The Sind Muslim League exploited the issue and agitated for what they said was an abandoned mosque to be given to the Muslim League Consequentially a thousand members of the Muslim League were imprisoned Eventually due to panic the government restored the mosque to Muslims 57 The separation of Sind from the Bombay Presidency triggered Sindhi Muslim nationalists to support the Pakistan Movement Even while the Punjab and North West Frontier Province were ruled by parties hostile to the Muslim League Sindh remained loyal to Jinnah 60 Although the prominent Sindhi Muslim nationalist G M Syed who admired both Hindu and Muslim rulers of Sindh left the All India Muslim League in the mid 1940s 61 the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims supported the creation of Pakistan seeing in it their deliverance 62 Sindhi support for the Pakistan Movement arose from the desire of the Sindhi Muslim business class to drive out their Hindu competitors 63 The Muslim League s rise to becoming the party with the strongest support in Sind was in large part linked to its winning over of the religious pir families Although the Muslim League had previously fared poorly in the 1937 elections in Sind when local Sindhi Muslim parties won more seats 64 the Muslim League s cultivation of support from the pirs and saiyids of Sind in 1946 helped it gain a foothold in the province 65 North West Frontier Province Edit Bacha Khan with Gandhi in 1946 The Muslim League had little support in North West Frontier Province Here the Congress and Pashtun nationalist leader Abdul Ghaffar Khan had considerable support for the cause of a united India 66 During the Independence period there was a Congress led ministry in the province which was led by secular Pashtun leaders including Abdul Ghaffar Khan who preferred joining India instead of Pakistan The secular Pashtun leadership was also of the view that if joining India was not an option then they should espouse the cause of an independent ethnic Pashtun state rather than Pakistan 67 The secular stance of Abdul Ghaffar Khan had driven a wedge between the Jamiyatul Ulama Sarhad JUS and the otherwise pro Congress and pro Indian unity Jamiat Ulema Hind as well as Abdul Ghaffar Khan s Khudai Khidmatgars who also espoused Hindu Muslim unity Unlike the centre JUH the directives of the JUS in the province began to take on communal tones The JUS ulama saw the Hindus in the province as a threat to Muslims Accusations of molesting Muslim women were leveled at Hindu shopkeepers in Nowshera a town where anti Hindu sermons were delivered by mullas Tensions also rose in 1936 over the abduction of a Hindu girl in Bannu Such controversies stirred up anti Hindu sentiments amongst the province s Muslim population 68 By 1947 the majority of the JUS ulama in the province began supporting the Muslim League s idea of Pakistan 69 Immediately prior to Pakistani independence from Britain in 1947 the British held a referendum in the NWFP to allow voters to choose between joining Pakistan or India The referendum was held on 2 July 1947 while polling began on 6 July 1947 and the referendum results were made public on 20 July 1947 According to the official results there were 572 798 registered voters out of which 289 244 99 02 votes were cast in favor of Pakistan while only 2874 0 98 were cast in favor of India According to an estimate the total turnout for the referendum was only 15 less than the total turnout in the 1946 elections 70 71 At the same time a large number of Khudai Khidmatgar supporters boycotted the referendum and intimidation against Hindu and Sikh voters by supporters of the Pakistan Movement was also reported 72 Baluchistan Edit Jinnah meeting with Baluchistan s leaders During British rule in India Baluchistan was under the rule of a Chief Commissioner and did not have the same status as other provinces of British India The Muslim League in the period 1927 1947 strived under Jinnah to introduce reforms in Baluchistan to bring it on par with other provinces of British India Apart from the pro partition Muslim League that was led by Qazi Muhammad Isa three pro Congress parties were still active in Balochistan s politics such as the Anjuman i Watan Baluchistan which favoured a united India 73 74 In British ruled Colonial India Baluchistan contained a Chief Commissioner s province and princely states including Makran Las Bela and Kharan that became a part of Pakistan 75 The instrument of referendum was applied in Chaghi to Zhob in northern Balochistan to determine the will of the people which resulted in a victory for the Muslim League 76 The province s Shahi Jirga and the non official members of the Quetta Municipality agreed to join Pakistan unanimously on 29 June 1947 77 however the Shahi Jirga was stripped of its members from the Kalat State prior to the vote 78 According to Rafi Sheikh the then president of the Baluchistan Muslim League Qazi Muhammad Isa informed Jinnah that Shahi Jirga in no way represents the popular wishes of the masses and that members of the Kalat State were excluded from voting only representatives from the British part of the province voted and the British part included the leased areas of Quetta Nasirabad Tehsil Nushki and Bolan Agency 78 Following the referendum the Khan of Kalat on 22 June 1947 received a letter from members of the Shahi Jirga as well as sardars from the leased areas of Baluchistan stating that they as a part of the Baloch nation were a part of the Kalat state too and that if the question of Baluchistan s accession to Pakistan arise they should be deemed part of the Kalat state rather than British Balochistan 78 This has brought into question whether a vote took place in the princely Kalat state the consensus of which remains disputed 78 The pro India Congress which drew support from Hindus and some Muslims sensing that geographic and demographic compulsions would not allow the province s inclusion into the newly Independent India began to encourage separatist elements in Balochistan and other Muslim majority provinces such as NWFP 79 Kalat finally acceded to Pakistan on 27 March 1948 after the help of All India Radio and a period of negotiations and bureaucracy 80 The signing of the Instrument of Accession by Ahmad Yar Khan led his brother Prince Abdul Karim to revolt against his brother s decision 81 in July 1948 82 Princes Agha Abdul Karim Baloch and Muhammad Rahim refused to lay down arms leading the Dosht e Jhalawan in unconventional attacks on the army until 1950 81 Though the Princes fought a lone battle without support from the rest of Baluchistan 83 Bengal Edit Map of United Bengal Dhaka was the birthplace of the All India Muslim League in 1906 The Pakistan Movement was highly popular in the Muslim population of Bengal 84 Many of the Muslim League s notable statesmen and activists hailed from East Bengal including Khabeeruddin Ahmed Sir Abdul Halim Ghuznavi Anwar ul Azim Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy Jogendra Nath Mandal Khawaja Nazimuddin and Nurul Amin many among whom later became Prime ministers of Pakistan Following the partition of Bengal violence erupted in the region which was mainly contained to Kolkata and Noakhali 85 It is documented by Pakistani historians that Suhrawardy wanted Bengal to be an independent state that would neither join Pakistan or India but would remain unpartitioned Despite the heavy criticism from the Muslim League Jinnah realised the validity of Suhrawardy s argument and gave his tacit support to the idea of an Independent Bengal 86 87 Nevertheless the Indian National Congress decided for partition of Bengal in 1947 which was additionally ratified in the subsequent years Rohingya Muslims Edit During the Pakistan Movement in the 1940s Rohingya Muslims in western Burma had an ambition to annex and merge their region into East Pakistan 88 Before the independence of Burma in January 1948 Muslim leaders from Arakan addressed themselves to Jinnah the founder of Pakistan and asked his assistance in annexing of the Mayu region to Pakistan which was about to be formed 88 Two months later the North Arakan Muslim League was founded in Akyab modern Sittwe capital of Arakan State it too demanding annexation to Pakistan 88 However it is noted that the proposal never materialised after it was reportedly turned down by Jinnah 88 Role of Ulama Edit The Ulama support for the Pakistan Movement came in the form of the New Medina construct which was formulated by the Barelvis and a section of the Deobandi clergy 89 In its election campaign in 1946 the Muslim League drew upon the support of Islamic scholars and Sufis with the rallying cry of Islam in danger 41 The majority of Barelvis supported the creation of Pakistan and Barelvi ulama issued fatwas in support of the Muslim League 90 91 92 In contrast most Deobandi ulama led by Hussain Ahmed Madani opposed the creation of Pakistan and the two nation theory Husain Ahmad Madani and the Deobandis advocated composite nationalism according to which Muslims and Hindus were one nation cf Composite Nationalism and Islam 93 Madani differentiated between qaum which meant a multi religious nation and millat which was exclusively the social unity of Muslims 94 95 However a few highly influential Deobandi clerics did support the creation of Pakistan 96 Such Deobandi ulama included Ashraf Ali Thanwi Muhammad Shafi Deobandi Shabbir Ahmad Usmani and Zafar Ahmad Usmani 97 Thanwi was one of the chief proponent of this Movement 98 He also sent groups of Muslim scholars to give religious advice and reminders to Jinnah 99 he dismissed the criticism that most Muslim League members were not practising Muslims Thanwi was of the view that the Muslim League should be supported and also be advised at the same time to become religiously observant 100 Thanwi s disciples Shabbir Ahmad Usmani and Zafar Ahmad Usmani were key players in religious support for the creation of Pakistan 2 Acknowledging the services of these ulema Shabbir Ahmad Usmani was honoured to raise the flag of Pakistan in Karachi and Zafar Ahamd Usmani in Dhaka 101 Once the Quaid i Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah was asked whether there was any Islamic cleric who authenticated the division of India on religious bases Jinnah replied that there was Arshraf Ali Thanwi and his support to the cause of Muslim League was enough 101 The Barelvis had no representation in the constitutent assemblies of Pakistan whereas the Deobandis had their representatives even in the first Constitutent Assembly 102 Conclusion EditFurther information Partition of India Indian Independence Act 1947 Bangladesh Liberation War 1969 uprising in East Pakistan and Breakup of East and West Pakistan Sir Syed Ahmad Khan s 1817 1898 philosophical ideas played a direct role in the Pakistan Movement 103 His Two Nation Theory became more and more obvious during the Congress rule 1937 1939 in India In 1946 it was proved that Muslim majorities in the North west and North east and Muslim minorities in all of India had agreed to the idea of Pakistan as a response to Congress s policies citation needed which were also the result of leaders such as Jinnah leaving the party in favour of the Muslim League 104 Congress had won in seven of the eleven provinces in 1937 105 but the Muslim League failed to achieve majority in any province citation needed But the main motivating and integrating factor was that the Muslims intellectual class wanted representation the masses needed a platform on which to unite 103 It was the dissemination of western thought by John Locke Milton and Thomas Paine at the Aligarh Muslim University that initiated the emergence of Pakistan Movement 103 According to Pakistan Studies curriculum Muhammad bin Qasim is often referred to as the first Pakistani 106 Muhammad Ali Jinnah also acclaimed the Pakistan movement to have started when the first Muslim put foot in the Gateway of Islam 107 After the independence in 1947 violence and upheavals continued to be faced by Pakistan as Liaquat Ali Khan became the Prime Minister of Pakistan in 1947 108 The issue involving the equal status of Urdu and Bengali languages created divergence in the country s political ideology 109 The military take over in 1958 was followed by rapid industrialisation in the 1960s 108 Economic grievances unbalanced financial payments provincialism and ethnic nationalism led to a bloody armed struggle in East Pakistan in the early 1970s which eventually resulted with East Pakistan becoming Bangladesh in 1971 109 In the successive periods of the tragedy of East Pakistan the country continued to rebuild and reconstruct itself constitutionally and embarked on its path to be transformed into republicanism in its full measure 110 The XIII amendment 1997 and XVIII amendment 2010 transformed the country into becoming a parliamentary republic as well as also becoming a nuclear power in the subcontinent 111 Non Muslims contribution and efforts Edit Main articles Christianity in Pakistan Hinduism in Pakistan Sikhism in Pakistan and Protestantism in Pakistan Jinnah s vision was supported by few of the Hindus Sikhs Parsis Jews and Christians who lived in Muslim dominated regions of undivided India 112 113 The most notable and influential Hindu figure in the Pakistan Movement was Jogendra Nath Mandal from Bengal Jagannath Azad was from the Urdu speaking belt 114 Mandal represented the Hindu contingent calling for an independent Pakistan and was one of the founding fathers of Pakistan 112 After independence Mandal was given ministries of Law Justice and Work Force by Jinnah in Liaquat Ali Khan s government 112 Ironically despite all his good contributions Mandal was badly ignored in the emerging political scenario He returned to India and submitted his resignation to Liaquat Ali Khan the then Prime Minister of Pakistan He mentioned incidents related to social injustice and a biased attitude towards non Muslim minorities in his resignation letter 115 Although the All India Conference of Indian Christians opposed the partition of India and creation of Pakistan 116 a minority of Christians dissented from this position and played a pivotal role in the creation of Pakistan 117 The notable Christians included Sir Victor Turner and Alvin Robert Cornelius 118 Turner was responsible for the economic financial planning of the country after independence 118 Turner was one of the founding fathers 118 of Pakistan and guided Jinnah and Ali Khan on economic affairs taxation and handling of the administrative units 118 Alvin Robert Cornelius was elevated as Chief Justice of Lahore High Court bench by Jinnah and served as Law Secretary in Liaquat Ali Khan s government 118 As an example or inspiration Edit Main article Pakistanism The Pakistan Movement became an inspiration in different countries of the world Protection of one s beliefs equal rights and liberty were incorporated in the state s constitution Arguments presented by Ali Mazrui pointed out that the South Sudan s movement led to the partition of the Sudan into Sudan proper which is primarily Muslim and South Sudan which is primarily Christian and animistic 119 In Europe Alija Izetbegovic the first President of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina began to embrace the Pakistan model in the 1960s alienating Serbs who would use this ideology to attack Bosniaks later on 120 while in his Islamic Declaration he designated Pakistan as a model country to be emulated by Muslim revolutionaries worldwide 121 Memory and legacy Edit Main articles Minar e Pakistan Tomb of Allama Iqbal and Mazar e Quaid The Minar e Pakistan in Lahore Pakistan glances at night The Pakistan Movement has a central place in Pakistan s memory The founding story of the Pakistan Movement is not only covered in school and university textbooks but also in innumerable monuments 122 Almost all key events are covered in Pakistan s textbooks literature and novels as well 122 Thus the Fourteenth of August is one of major and most celebrated national days in Pakistan 123 To many authors and historians Jinnah s legacy is Pakistan 124 The Minar e Pakistan is a monument which has attracted ten thousand visitors 125 The Minar e Pakistan still continues to project the memory to the people to remember the birth of Pakistan 125 Jinnah s estates in Karachi and Ziarat has attracted thousands visitors 126 Historian of Pakistan Vali Nasr argues that the Islamic universalism had become a main source of the Pakistan Movement that shaped patriotism meaning and nation s birth 127 To many Pakistanis Jinnah s role is viewed as a modern Moses like leader 128 whilst many other founding fathers of the nation state also occupy extremely respected places in the hearts of the people of Pakistan 129 Timeline Edit1849 Annexation of the Punjab 1850 Urdu becomes the official language in all of the west Pakistan provinces excluding Sindh 1857 War of Independence 1878 Formation of Thamratut Tarbiyat by Mahmud Hasan Deobandi 1885 Formation of the Indian National Congress 1901 Partition of Punjab 1905 Partition of Bengal 1906 Simla Deputation 1906 Founding of the All India Muslim League 1909 Formation of Jamiatul Ansar 1909 Minto Morley Reforms 1911 Annulment of the Partition of Bengal 1913 Formation of Nizaratul Ma arif al Qur ania 1913 20 Silk Letter Movement 1914 18 World War I 1916 Lucknow Pact 1919 Formation of Jamiat Ulema e Hind 1919 Jallianwala Bagh massacre 1919 Montagu Chelmsford Reforms 1919 Rowlatt Act 1919 22 Khilafat Movement 1922 29 Hindu Muslim riots 1927 Delhi Muslim proposals 1928 Nehru Report 1928 Simon Commission 1929 Fourteen Points of Jinnah 1929 Formation of Majilis e Ahrar e Islam 1930 Separation of a strong Punjabi group from congress 1930 Allama Iqbal Address 1931 Kashmir Resistance movement 1930 32 Round Table Conferences 1932 Communal Award 1932 1933 Pakistan National Movement 1933 Pakistan Declaration Now or Never Pamphlet 1935 Government of India Act 1937 Elections 1937 39 Congress Rule in 7 out of 11 Provinces 1937 Strong anti congress governments in Punjab and Bengal 1938 Madani Iqbal debate 1938 A K Fazlul Huq of Bengal joined Muslim League 1938 Jinah Sikandar pact 1938 Pirpur Report 1939 45 World War II 1939 Resignation of congress ministries and non congress power players got golden chance 1940 Pakistan Resolution 1940 19 March Khaksar Massacre in Lahore 130 131 1942 India Movement and non congress players further got space 1942 Cripps Mission 1944 Gandhi Jinnah Talks 1945 Jamiat Ulema e Islam 1945 Simla Conference 1946 The Cabinet Mission the last British effort to united India 1946 Direct Action Day in the aftermath of cabinet mission plan 1946 Interim Government installed in office 1946 Quit Kashmir campaign as the formation of the interim government of Azad Kashmir 1947 June 3 Partition Plan 1947 Creation of PakistanNotable quotations EditAllama Iqbal I would like to see the Punjab North West Frontier Province Sind and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single State Self government within the British Empire or without the British Empire the formation of a consolidated North West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims at least of North West India 132 17 Choudhry Rahmat Ali At this solemn hour in the history of India when British and Indian statesmen are laying the foundations of a Federal Constitution for that land we address this appeal to you in the name of our common heritage on behalf of our thirty million Muslim brethren who live in Pakistan by which we mean the five Northern units of India Viz Punjab North West Frontier Province Afghan Province Kashmir Sind and Baluchistan for your sympathy and support in our grim and fateful struggle against political crucifixion and complete annihilation 133 Muhammad Ali Jinnah It is extremely difficult to appreciate why our Hindu friends fail to understand the real nature of Islam and Hinduism They are not religious in the strict sense of the word but are in fact different and distinct social orders and it is a dream that the Hindus and Muslims can ever evolve a common nationality and this misconception of one Indian nation has troubles and will lead India to destruction if we fail to revise our notions in time The Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religious philosophies social customs literature They neither intermarry nor interdine together and indeed they belong to two different civilizations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions Their aspect on life and of life are different It is quite clear that Hindus and Muslims derive their inspiration from different sources of history They have different ethics different heroes and different episodes Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other and likewise their victories and defeats overlap To yoke together two such nations under a single state one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built for the government of such a state 134 Founding Fathers and Mothers EditMain article List of Pakistan Movement activists Choudhry Rahmat Ali Muhammad Ali Jinnah Muhammad Iqbal Ashraf Ali Thanwi Shabbir Ahmad Usmani Zafar Ahmad Usmani Aga Khan III Liaquat Ali Khan Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar Muhammad Zafarullah Khan Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy Jogendra Nath Mandal A K Fazlul Huq Ghulam Bhik Nairang Khwaja Nazimuddin Jalal ud din Jalal Baba Chaudhry Naseer Ahmad Malhi Muhammad Arif Khan Rajbana Sial Zafar Ali Khan Ra ana Liaquat Ali Khan Fatima Jinnah Abdullah HaroonSee also EditHistory of Pakistan Madani Iqbal debate National Monument Islamabad Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan Pakistani nationalism Pakistan Zindabad A Short History of PakistanReferences Edit Naeem Fuad 2009 Thanvi Mawlana Ashraf ʿAli The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 530513 5 retrieved 7 November 2022 a b Naeem Fuad 2009 Thanvi Mawlana Ashraf ʿAli The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 530513 5 archived from the original on 25 June 2022 retrieved 25 June 2022 Burki Shahid Javed 1999 First published in 1986 Pakistan Fifty Years of Nationhood 3rd ed Boulder CO Westview Press p 4 ISBN 978 0 8133 3621 3 The university that Sir Sayyid founded in the town of Aligarh not only provided the Pakistan movement with its leadership but later also provided the new country of Pakistan with its first ruling elite Aligarh College made it possible for the Muslims to discover a new political identity Being a Muslim came to have a political connotation a connotation that was to lead this Indian Muslim community inexorably toward acceptance of the two nation theory Jamiat Ulema e Islam Assembly of Islamic Clergy GlobalSecurity org Retrieved 7 November 2022 Magocsi Paul R Ontario Multicultural History Society of 1999 Encyclopedia of Canada s peoples Multicultural History Society of Ontario p 1028 ISBN 978 0 8020 2938 6 Archived from the original on 1 August 2020 Retrieved 31 January 2012 Ali Faiz Ahmed Faiz 1995 The rebel s silhouette selected poems Translated with a new introduction by Agha Shahid Rev ed Amherst University of Massachusetts Press ISBN 978 0 87023 975 5 Kurzman Charles ed 2002 Modernist Islam 1840 1940 a sourcebook Online Ausg ed Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 515468 9 Malik Rashida 2003 Iqbal The Spiritual Father of Pakistan Sang e Meel Publications ISBN 978 969 35 1371 4 Sargana Turab ul Hassan Ahmed Khalil Rizvi Shahid Hassan 2015 The Role of Deobandi Ulema in Strengthening the Foundations of Indian Freedom Movement 1857 1924 PDF Pakistan Journal of Islamic Research 15 1 44 eISSN 2618 0820 Text was copied from this source which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4 0 International License Akhtar Muhammad Naveed 2022 Darul Uloom Deoband Preserving Religious And Cultural Integrity Of South Asian Muslims Through Structural And Strategic Innovations Hamdard Islamicus 45 3 92 doi 10 57144 hi v45i3 326 ISSN 0250 7196 Text was copied from this source which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4 0 International License Ishtiaq Ahmad Adnan Rafiq 3 November 2016 Pakistan s Democratic Transition Change and Persistence Taylor amp Francis pp 127 ISBN 978 1 317 23595 8 Archived from the original on 14 July 2020 Retrieved 8 January 2018 Dhulipala Venkat 2015 Creating a New Medina State Power Islam and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India Cambridge University Press p 496 ISBN 978 1 316 25838 5 The idea of Pakistan may have had its share of ambiguities but its dismissal as a vague emotive symbol hardly illuminates the reasons as to why it received such overwhelmingly popular support among Indian Muslims especially those in the minority provinces of British India such as U P Talbot Ian 1982 The growth of the Muslim League in Punjab 1937 1946 Journal of Commonwealth amp Comparative Politics 20 1 5 24 doi 10 1080 14662048208447395 Despite their different viewpoints all these theories have tended either to concentrate on the All India struggle between the Muslim League and the Congress in the pre partition period or to turn their interest to the Muslim cultural heartland of the UP where the League gained its earliest foothold and where the demand for Pakistan was strongest Islam Shamsul 2015 Muslims Against Partition Revisiting the Legacy of Allah Bakhsh and Other Patriotic Muslims Pharos Media amp Publishing Pvt Limited ISBN 978 81 7221 067 0 a b For text see Minute by the Hon ble T B Macaulay dated the 2nd February 1835 Archived 24 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine a b c Stephen Evans 2002 Macaulay s minute revisited Colonial language policy in nineteenth century India Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 23 4 260 281 doi 10 1080 01434630208666469 S2CID 144856725 a b Sirriyeh Elizabeth 21 October 1998 Sufis and Anti Sufis The Defense Rethinking and Rejection of Sufism in the modern world University of Leeds United Kingdom Routledge p 136 ISBN 9780700710607 Archived from the original on 7 April 2022 Retrieved 10 October 2021 Visva Mohana Paṇḍeya 2003 Historiography of India s Partition An Analysis of Imperialist Writings Atlantic Publishers amp Distributors p 26 ISBN 9788126903146 Moore Robin J Imperial India 1858 1914 in Porter ed Oxford History of the British Empire The Nineteenth Century 2001a pp 422 446 John R McLane July 1965 The Decision to Partition Bengal in 1905 Indian Economic and Social History Review 2 3 221 237 doi 10 1177 001946466400200302 S2CID 145706327 Pakistan was inevitable p 51 52 Author Syed Hassan Riaz published by University Karachi ISBN 969 404 003 5 History of Pakistan Movement 1857 1947 p 237 238 Author Prof M Azam Chaudhary published by Abdullah Brothers Urdu Bazar Lahore History of Pakistan and its background p 338 Author Syed Asghar Ali Shah Jafri published by Evernew Book Palace Circular road Urdu Bazar Lahore History of Pakistan p 58 59 Author Prof Muhammed Khalilullah Ex Principal Federal Govt Urdu College Karachi Former Dean Law Faculty University of Karachi published by Urdu Academy Sindh Karachi History of Pakistan p 232 to 234 by Muhammed Ali Chiragh published by Sang e Meel Publications Lahore ISBN 969 35 0413 5 H Rizvi 15 May 2000 Military State and Society in Pakistan Palgrave Macmillan UK pp 69 ISBN 978 0 230 59904 8 Archived from the original on 12 July 2019 Retrieved 27 April 2018 The Muslim League maintained an elitist character until 1937 when its leadership began to engage in popular mobilisation It functioned as a mass and popular party for 7 8 years after the Congress provincial ministries resigned in 1939 more so after the passage of the Lahore Resolution in March 1940 Venkat Dhulipala 9 February 2015 Creating a New Medina State Power Islam and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India Cambridge University Press pp 50 ISBN 978 1 316 25838 5 Archived from the original on 12 July 2019 Retrieved 27 April 2018 During this growth spurt the ML itself was transformed from an elite moribund organization into a mass based party that gave itself a new constitution a more radical ideology and a revamped organizational structure Victor Sebestyen 1 October 2014 1946 The Making of the Modern World Pan Macmillan UK pp 247 ISBN 978 1 74353 456 4 Archived from the original on 12 July 2019 Retrieved 27 April 2018 That too had begun life as a cosy club of upper class Indians seeking a limited range of extra privileges for Indian Muslims However under the leadership of Mohammad Ali Jinnah the League grew rapidly to a membership of more than two million and its message became increasingly religious and separatist in tone Yasmin Khan 2017 First published 2007 The Great Partition The Making of India and Pakistan New ed Yale University Press p 18 ISBN 978 0 300 23364 3 Archived from the original on 4 February 2021 Retrieved 27 April 2018 Although it was founded in 1909 the League had only caught on among South Asian Muslims during the Second World War The party had expanded astonishingly rapidly and was claiming over two million members by the early 1940s an unimaginable result for what had been previously thought of as just one of the numerous pressure groups and small but insignificant parties Talbot Ian 1982 The growth of the Muslim League in the Punjab 1937 1946 Journal of Commonwealth amp Comparative Politics 20 1 5 24 doi 10 1080 14662048208447395 Despite their different viewpoints all these theories have tended either to concentrate on the All India struggle between the Muslim League and the Congress in the pre partition period or to turn their interest to the Muslim cultural heartland of the UP where the League gained its earliest foothold and where the demand for Pakistan was strongest Talbot Ian 1993 The role of the crowd in the Muslim League struggled for Pakistan The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 21 2 307 333 doi 10 1080 03086539308582893 Huge crowds attended Muslim League meetings and flocked to glimpse Jinnah as he journeyed about India from 1937 onwards They also joined in processions strikes and riots Qasmi Ali Usman Robb Megan Eaton 2017 Muslims against the Muslim League Critiques of the Idea of Pakistan Cambridge University Press p 2 ISBN 9781108621236 Haq Mushir U 1970 Muslim politics in modern India 1857 1947 Meenakshi Prakashan p 114 OCLC 136880 This was also reflected in one of the resolutions of the Azad Muslim Conference an organization which attempted to be representative of all the various nationalist Muslim parties and groups in India Ahmed Ishtiaq 27 May 2016 The dissenters The Friday Times Archived from the original on 22 March 2021 Retrieved 13 February 2019 However the book is a tribute to the role of one Muslim leader who steadfastly opposed the Partition of India the Sindhi leader Allah Bakhsh Soomro Allah Bakhsh belonged to a landed family He founded the Sindh People s Party in 1934 which later came to be known as Ittehad or Unity Party Allah Bakhsh was totally opposed to the Muslim League s demand for the creation of Pakistan through a division of India on a religious basis Consequently he established the Azad Muslim Conference In its Delhi session held during April 27 30 1940 some 1400 delegates took part They belonged mainly to the lower castes and working class The famous scholar of Indian Islam Wilfred Cantwell Smith feels that the delegates represented a majority of India s Muslims Among those who attended the conference were representatives of many Islamic theologians and women who also took part in the deliberations Shamsul Islam argues that the All India Muslim League at times used intimidation and coercion to silence any opposition among Muslims to its demand for Partition He calls such tactics of the Muslim League a Reign of Terror He gives examples from all over India including the NWFP where the Khudai Khidmatgars remain opposed to the Partition of India Bolitho Hector 1960 First published 1954 Jinnah Creator of Pakistan London John Murray p 123 OCLC 14143745 a b c Mukerjee Madhusree 2011 Churchill s Secret War The British Empire and the Ravaging of India During World War II New York Basic Books p 9 ISBN 978 0 465 02481 0 Archived from the original on 7 February 2021 Retrieved 15 November 2015 Qureshi M Naeem 1999 Pan Islam in British Indian Politics A Study of the Khilafat Movement 1918 1924 Brill pp 57 245 ISBN 978 90 04 11371 8 a b c d e f g h i Mohiuddin Yasmeen Niaz 2007 Pakistan A Global Studies Handbook ABC CLIO pp 69 ISBN 978 1 85109 801 9 Archived from the original on 5 February 2021 Retrieved 15 November 2015 Akbar S Ahmed 2005 First published 1997 Jinnah Pakistan and Islamic Identity The Search for Saladin Routledge p 129 ISBN 978 1 134 75022 1 Archived from the original on 4 February 2021 Retrieved 2 February 2019 a b Cohen Stephen Philip 2004 The Idea of Pakistan Washington Brookings Institution Press pp 203 205 ISBN 978 0 8157 1502 3 a b Barbara Metcalf 1 December 2012 Husain Ahmad Madani The Jihad for Islam and India s Freedom Oneworld Publications pp 108 ISBN 978 1 78074 210 6 Archived from the original on 7 April 2017 Retrieved 15 May 2017 Bernard Waites 17 January 2012 South Asia and Africa After Independence Post colonialism in Historical Perspective Palgrave Macmillan pp 45 ISBN 978 0 230 35698 6 Archived from the original on 7 April 2017 Retrieved 23 September 2017 The 1946 election was in effect a plebiscite among Muslims on Pakistan and a mighty success for the League which won 90 per cent of the Muslim seats a b Mohiuddin Yasmin Niaz 2007 Pakistan A Global Studies Handbook ABC CLIO p 70 ISBN 9781851098019 Archived from the original on 4 February 2021 Retrieved 18 November 2020 Pakistan New Nation in an Old Land Jean and Franc Shor The National Geographic Magazine Nov 1952 pp 637 678 Gilmartin David 8 September 2009 Muslim League Appeals to the Voters of Punjab for Support of Pakistan In D Metcalf Barbara ed Islam in South Asia in Practice Princeton University Press pp 410 ISBN 978 1 4008 3138 8 Archived from the original on 7 April 2017 Retrieved 23 September 2017 At the all India level the demand for Pakistan pitted the League against the Congress and the British Burton Stein 4 February 2010 A History of India John Wiley amp Sons p 347 ISBN 978 1 4443 2351 1 Archived from the original on 25 April 2017 Retrieved 18 November 2017 His standing with the British remained high however for even though they no more agreed with the idea of a separate Muslim state than the Congress did government officials appreciated the simplicity of a single negotiating voice for all of India s Muslims Barbara D Metcalf Thomas R Metcalf 2002 A Concise History of India Cambridge University Press pp 212 ISBN 978 0 521 63974 3 Archived from the original on 10 April 2017 Retrieved 23 September 2017 By this scheme the British hoped they could at once preserve the united India desired by the Congress and by themselves and at the same time through the groups secure the essence of Jinnah s demand for a Pakistan Mohiuddin Yasmin Niaz 2007 Pakistan A Global Studies Handbook Archived 4 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine ABC CLIO p 71 ISBN 9781851098019 Mohiuddin Yasmin Niaz 2007 Pakistan A Global Studies Handbook ABC CLIO p 71 ISBN 9781851098019 Archived from the original on 4 February 2021 Retrieved 18 November 2020 Jaffrelot Christophe 2015 The Pakistan Paradox Instability and Resilience Oxford University Press p 71 ISBN 978 0 19 061330 3 Archived from the original on 30 September 2020 Retrieved 16 September 2020 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Talbot I A 1980 The 1946 Punjab Elections Modern Asian Studies 14 1 65 91 doi 10 1017 S0026749X00012178 JSTOR 312214 S2CID 145320008 W W J The Indian Elections 1946 The World Today vol 2 no 4 1946 pp 167 175 Jaffrelot Christophe 2015 The Pakistan Paradox Instability and Resilience Oxford University Press pp 76 77 ISBN 978 0 19 061330 3 Archived from the original on 4 February 2021 Retrieved 16 September 2020 Salamat Zarina 1997 The Punjab in 1920s a case study of Muslims Karachi Royal Book Company ISBN 978 969 407 230 2 Dube I amp S 2009 From ancient to modern Religion power and community in India hardcover Oxford University Press Jaffrelot Christophe 2015 The Pakistan Paradox Instability and Resilience Oxford University Press p 85 ISBN 978 0 19 061330 3 Archived from the original on 4 February 2021 Retrieved 16 September 2020 a b c Ayesha Jalal 4 January 2002 Self and Sovereignty Individual and Community in South Asian Islam Since 1850 Routledge pp 415 ISBN 978 1 134 59937 0 Archived from the original on 17 January 2020 Retrieved 8 January 2018 Amritjit Singh Nalini Iyer Rahul K Gairola 15 June 2016 Revisiting India s Partition New Essays on Memory Culture and Politics Lexington Books pp 127 ISBN 978 1 4985 3105 4 Archived from the original on 25 January 2020 Retrieved 8 January 2018 Muhammad Soaleh Korejo 1993 The Frontier Gandhi His Place in History Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 577461 0 Archived from the original on 23 December 2021 Retrieved 8 January 2018 Khaled Ahmed 18 August 2016 Sleepwalking to Surrender Dealing with Terrorism in Pakistan Penguin Books Limited pp 230 ISBN 978 93 86057 62 4 Archived from the original on 20 January 2020 Retrieved 8 January 2018 Jaffrelot Christophe 2015 The Pakistan Paradox Instability and Resilience Oxford University Press pp 85 86 ISBN 978 0 19 061330 3 Archived from the original on 4 February 2021 Retrieved 16 September 2020 I Malik 3 June 1999 Islam Nationalism and the West Issues of Identity in Pakistan Palgrave Macmillan UK pp 56 ISBN 978 0 230 37539 0 Archived from the original on 20 January 2020 Retrieved 8 January 2018 Veena Kukreja 24 February 2003 Contemporary Pakistan Political Processes Conflicts and Crises SAGE Publications pp 138 ISBN 978 0 7619 9683 5 Archived from the original on 10 January 2020 Retrieved 8 January 2018 Sarah F D Ansari 31 January 1992 Sufi Saints and State Power The Pirs of Sind 1843 1947 Cambridge University Press pp 115 ISBN 978 0 521 40530 0 Archived from the original on 4 February 2021 Retrieved 8 January 2018 Sarah F D Ansari 31 January 1992 Sufi Saints and State Power The Pirs of Sind 1843 1947 Cambridge University Press pp 122 ISBN 978 0 521 40530 0 Archived from the original on 20 December 2019 Retrieved 8 January 2018 Abdul Ghaffar Khan Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on 27 May 2008 Retrieved 24 September 2008 Pande Aparna 2011 Explaining Pakistan s Foreign Policy Escaping India Taylor amp Francis p 66 ISBN 9781136818943 Archived from the original on 26 January 2021 Retrieved 18 November 2020 At Independence there was a Congress led ministry in the North West Frontier The Congress supported government of the North West Frontier led by the secular Pashtun leaders the Khan brothers wanted to join India and not Pakistan If joining India was not an option then the secular Pashtun leaders espoused the cause of Pashtunistan an ethnic state for Pashtuns Haroon Sana 2008 The Rise of Deobandi Islam in the North West Frontier Province and Its Implications in Colonial India and Pakistan 1914 1996 Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 18 1 55 doi 10 1017 S1356186307007778 JSTOR 27755911 S2CID 154959326 The stance of the central JUH was pro Congress and accordingly the JUS supported the Congressite Khudai Khidmatgars through to the elections of 1937 However the secular stance of Ghaffar Khan leader of the Khudai Khidmatgars disparaging the role of religion in government and social leadership was driving a wedge between the ulama of the JUS and the Khudai Khidmatgars irrespective of the commitments of mutual support between the JUH and Congress leaderships In trying to highlight the separateness and vulnerability of Muslims in a religiously diverse public space the directives of the NWFP ulama began to veer away from simple religious injunctions to take on a communalist tone The ulama highlighted threats posed by Hindus to Muslims in the province Accusations of improper behaviour and molestation of Muslim women were levelled against Hindu shopkeepers in Nowshera Sermons given by two JUS connected maulvis in Nowshera declared the Hindus the enemies of Islam and Muslims Posters were distributed in the city warning Muslims not to buy or consume food prepared and sold by Hindus in the bazaars In 1936 a Hindu girl was abducted by a Muslim in Bannu and then married to him The government demanded the girl s return But popular Muslim opinion supported by a resolution passed by the Jamiyatul Ulama Bannu demanded that she stay stating that she had come of her free will had converted to Islam and was now lawfully married and had to remain with her husband Government efforts to retrieve the girl led to accusations of the government being anti Muslim and of encouraging apostasy and so stirred up strong anti Hindu sentiment across the majority Muslim NWFP Involvement of the Deobandi ulama in public political activity and in the negotiation of a Muslim identity in the NWFP appeared in no way to rely upon a wider consensus of Indian Deobandis Haroon Sana 2008 The Rise of Deobandi Islam in the North West Frontier Province and Its Implications in Colonial India and Pakistan 1914 1996 Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 18 1 57 58 doi 10 1017 S1356186307007778 JSTOR 27755911 S2CID 154959326 By 1947 the majority of NWFP ulama supported the Muslim League idea of Pakistan Because of the now long standing relations between JUS ulama and the Muslim League and the strong communalist tone in the NWFP the move away from the pro Congress and anti Pakistan party line of the central JUH to interest and participation in the creation of Pakistan by the NWFP Deobandis was not a dramatic one Muhammad Shakeel Ahmad 2010 Chapter 3 Electoral history of NWFP PDF Electoral politics In NWFP 1988 1999 PhD Quaid i Azam University Archived from the original PDF on 10 August 2013 Retrieved 28 December 2013 Jeffrey J Roberts 2003 The Origins of Conflict in Afghanistan Greenwood Publishing Group pp 108 109 ISBN 9780275978785 Archived from the original on 4 June 2021 Retrieved 18 April 2015 Meyer Karl E 2008 The Dust of Empire The Race for Mastery in the Asian Heartland PublicAffairs p 107 ISBN 978 0 7867 2481 9 Archived from the original on 11 February 2021 Retrieved 20 November 2013 Afzal M Rafique 2001 Pakistan History and Politics 1947 1971 Oxford University Press p 40 ISBN 978 0 19 579634 6 Besides the Balochistan Muslim League three pro Congress parties were still active in Balochistan s politics the Anjuman i Watan the Jamiatul Ulama u Hind and the Qalat State National Party Ranjan Amit 2018 Partition of India Postcolonial Legacies Taylor amp Francis ISBN 9780429750526 Furthermore Congress leadership of Balochistan was united and there was no disagreement over its president Samad Khan Achakzai On the other hand Qazi Isa was the president of the League in Balochistan Surprisingly he was neither a Balochi nor a Sardar Consequently all Sardars except Jaffar Khan Jamali were against Qazi Isa for contesting this seat Hasnat Syed Farooq 2011 Global Security Watch Pakistan Praeger ISBN 978 0 313 34697 2 Archived from the original on 30 July 2020 Retrieved 27 June 2020 Chawla Muhammad Iqbal 2014 Mountbatten and Balochistan An Appraisal Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 75 928 957 ISSN 2249 1937 JSTOR 44158478 Pervaiz I Cheema Manuel Riemer 22 August 1990 Pakistan s Defence Policy 1947 58 Palgrave Macmillan UK pp 60 ISBN 978 1 349 20942 2 Archived from the original on 22 January 2018 Retrieved 8 January 2018 a b c d Sheikh Salman Rafi 2018 The Genesis of Baloch Nationalism Politics and Ethnicity in Pakistan 1947 1977 Taylor amp Francis ISBN 978 1 351 02068 8 Chawla Iqbal July December 2012 Prelude to the Accession of the Kalat State to Pakistan in 1948 An Appraisal Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan 49 2 85 Archived from the original on 14 September 2022 Retrieved 24 February 2019 Yaqoob Khan Bangash 10 May 2015 The princely India The News on Sunday Archived from the original on 25 December 2015 Retrieved 8 January 2018 a b Qaiser Butt 22 April 2013 Princely Liaisons The Khan family controls politics in Kalat The Express Tribune Archived from the original on 22 December 2015 Retrieved 8 January 2018 D Long Roger Singh Gurharpal Samad Yunas Talbot Ian 2015 State and Nation Building in Pakistan Beyond Islam and Security Routledge p 82 ISBN 978 1 317 44820 4 Archived from the original on 10 April 2017 Retrieved 8 January 2018 Farhan Hanif Siddiqi 2012 The Politics of Ethnicity in Pakistan The Balochi Sindhi and Mohajir Ethnic Movements Routledge pp 71 ISBN 978 0 415 68614 3 Archived from the original on 22 January 2018 Retrieved 8 January 2018 Salahuddin Ahmed 2004 Bangladesh Past and Present APH Publishing pp 129 ISBN 978 81 7648 469 5 Archived from the original on 4 February 2021 Retrieved 8 January 2018 Jalal Ayesha 1985 The Sole Spokesman Jinnah the Muslim League and the demand for Pakistan Cambridge University Press p 3 ISBN 978 0 521 45850 4 Jalal Ayesha 1985 The Sole Spokesman Jinnah the Muslim League and the demand for Pakistan Cambridge University Press p 266 ISBN 978 0 521 45850 4 Akbar S Ahmed 2005 First published 1997 Jinnah Pakistan and Islamic Identity The Search for Saladin Routledge p 235 ISBN 978 1 134 75022 1 Archived from the original on 7 February 2021 Retrieved 2 February 2019 a b c d Yegar Moshe 1972 Muslims of Burma Wiesbaden Verlag Otto Harrassowitz p 96 Usmani Shabbir Ahmad 1946 ہمارا پاکستان خطبہا صدارت پنجاب جمیعتول علامہ کانفرنس Our Pakistan Presidential Address at Punjab Jamiatul Ulama Conference in Urdu Lahore Majlis e Istaqbaliya Jamiat Ulma e Islam Conference Archived from the original on 20 April 2021 Retrieved 20 May 2021 Long Roger D Singh Gurharpal Samad Yunas Talbot Ian 2015 State and Nation Building in Pakistan Beyond Islam and Security Routledge p 167 ISBN 9781317448204 Archived from the original on 28 July 2020 Retrieved 15 May 2017 In the 1940s a solid majority of the Barelvis were supporters of the Pakistan Movement and played a supporting role in its final phase 1940 7 mostly under the banner of the All India Sunni Conference which had been founded in 1925 Cesari Jocelyne 2014 The Awakening of Muslim Democracy Religion Modernity and the State Cambridge University Press p 135 ISBN 9781107513297 Archived from the original on 20 February 2020 Retrieved 15 May 2017 For example the Barelvi ulama supported the formation of the state of Pakistan and thought that any alliance with Hindus such as that between the Indian National Congress and the Jamiat ulama I Hind JUH was counterproductive John Wilson 2009 Pakistan The Struggle Within Pearson Education India p 87 ISBN 9788131725047 Archived from the original on 9 July 2020 Retrieved 15 May 2017 During the 1946 election Barelvi Ulama issued fatwas in favour of the Muslim League Jaffrelot Christophe 2004 A History of Pakistan and Its Origins Anthem Press p 224 ISBN 9781843311492 Archived from the original on 28 July 2020 Retrieved 15 May 2017 Believing that Islam was a universal religion the Deobandi advocated a notion of a composite nationalism according to which Hindus and Muslims constituted one nation Abdelhalim Julten 2015 Indian Muslims and Citizenship Spaces for Jihad in Everyday Life Routledge p 26 ISBN 9781317508755 Archived from the original on 28 July 2020 Retrieved 15 May 2017 Madani stressed the difference between qaum meaning a nation hence a territorial concept and millat meaning an Ummah and thus a religious concept Sikka Sonia 2015 Living with Religious Diversity Routledge p 52 ISBN 9781317370994 Archived from the original on 4 February 2021 Retrieved 15 May 2017 Madani makes a crucial distinction between qaum and millat According to him qaum connotes a territorial multi religious entity while millat refers to the cultural social and religious unity of Muslims exclusively Syed Jawad Pio Edwina Kamran Tahir Zaidi Abbas 2016 Faith Based Violence and Deobandi Militancy in Pakistan Springer p 379 ISBN 9781349949663 Archived from the original on 4 February 2021 Retrieved 15 May 2017 Ironically Islamic state politics in Pakistan was mostly in favour of Deobandi and more recently Ahl e Hadith Salafi institutions Only a few Deobandi clerics decided to support the Pakistan Movement but they were highly influential Hardy 1972 The Muslims of British India CUP Archive p 242 ISBN 978 0 521 09783 3 Archived from the original on 4 February 2021 Retrieved 15 May 2017 Naeem Fuad 2009 Thanvi Mawlana Ashraf ʿAli The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 530513 5 retrieved 8 November 2022 Khan Munshi Abdur Rahman 1992 Tehreek e Pakistan aur Ulama e Rabbani in Urdu Pakistan Idara i Islamiya Dhulipala Venkat 2015 Creating a New Medina State Power Islam and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India Cambridge University Press p 104 ISBN 9781316258385 Archived from the original on 5 February 2021 Retrieved 15 May 2017 The senior alim conceded that the ML leaders still had some work to do before they could be seen as conscientious and observant Muslims He instead emphasised the virtues of patient and quiet counseling At the same time though Thanawi dismissed criticisms of ML leaders as being non observant Muslims as a case of the pot calling the kettle black a b Akhtar 2022 p 92 Long et al 2015 p 167 a b c Establishment of All India Muslim League Nazaria e Pakistan AIML Nazaria e Pakistan AIML June 2003 Archived from the original on 27 August 2022 Retrieved 18 March 2014 Sarojini Naidu Muhammad Jinnah An Ambassador of Unity ASIN B0040SYONC Sikandar Hayat 1998 First published 1991 Aspects of the Pakistan movement 2nd ed Islamabad National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research p 25 ISBN 969 415 053 1 History books contain major distortions Daily Times Archived from the original on 6 June 2011 Retrieved 16 April 2012 Pakistan Movement cybercity online net Archived from the original on 1 February 2016 Retrieved 15 March 2006 a b Sohail Mahmood ed 2006 Good governance reforms agenda in Pakistan current challenges New York Nova Science Publishers ISBN 978 1 60021 418 9 a b Separation of East Pakistan Story of Pakistan documents June 2003 Archived from the original on 2 October 2018 Retrieved 7 February 2014 Lieven Anatol 2011 Pakistan A Hard Country 1st ed New York PublicAffairs ISBN 978 1 61039 023 1 Chitkara M G 1996 Nuclear Pakistan New Delhi A P H Pub Corp ISBN 978 81 7024 767 8 a b c Heyworth Dunne James 1952 Pakistan the birth of a new Muslim state University of Michigan Renaissance Bookshop p 173 ASIN B000N7G1MG Archived from the original on 4 February 2021 Retrieved 18 November 2020 Tai Yong Tan Gyanesh Kudaisya 2000 The Aftermath of partition in South Asia Pakistan London Routledge Publishing Co pp ix 327 ISBN 978 0 203 45766 5 Archived from the original on 4 February 2021 Retrieved 18 November 2020 Sophia Ajaz Hindus contribution towards making of Pakistan Sophia Ajaz Archived from the original on 18 June 2013 Forgotten hero The News International Archived from the original on 25 December 2018 Retrieved 30 May 2020 Thomas Abraham Vazhayil 1974 Christians in Secular India Fairleigh Dickinson University Press pp 107 108 ISBN 978 0 8386 1021 3 Christians played vital role in Pakistan Movement Pakistan Daily Retrieved 7 February 2012 permanent dead link a b c d e Aminullah Chaudry 1999 The founding fathers Karachi Sindh Province Oxford University Press Karachi ISBN 978 0 19 906171 6 Archived from the original on 14 September 2022 Retrieved 7 February 2012 Mazrui Ali 9 February 2011 Is this Pakistanism in Sudan The Guardian Archived from the original on 21 September 2013 Retrieved 31 August 2011 Faisal Devji Muslim Zion Pakistan as a Political Idea Hurst Publishers 2013 p 248 Vjekoslav Perica Balkan Idols Religion and Nationalism in Yugoslav States Oxford University Press 2002 p 77 a b Saha Santosh C ed 2004 Religious fundamentalism in the contemporary world critical social and political issues Lanham MD Lexington ISBN 978 0 7391 0760 7 Independence day Hope joy and mausoleum climbing Tribune Express 2013 14 August 2013 Archived from the original on 5 February 2014 Retrieved 8 February 2014 Mohiuddin Yasmeen Niaz 2007 Pakistan a global studies handbook Santa Barbara Calif u a ABC Clio ISBN 978 1 85109 801 9 a b Siddiqui S A 2012 Social Studies Lahore Punjab Gohar Publications ISBN 978 969 526 022 7 Muhammad Adil Mulk 23 December 2012 Being Jinnah Express Tribune Mulk Archived from the original on 21 February 2014 Retrieved 9 February 2014 Nasr Vali 2001 Islamic Leviathan Islam and the Making of State Power Oxford U K Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 803296 0 Ahmad Akbar 4 July 2010 Thomas Jefferson and Mohammed Ali Jinnah Dreams from two founding fathers The Washington Post Archived from the original on 30 June 2014 Retrieved 9 February 2014 Enver E H 1990 The modern Moses A brief biograhpy sic of M A Jinnah Jinnah Memorial Institute pp 164 pages OCLC 24361532 Allama Mashraqi Archived from the original on 13 January 2008 Retrieved 25 January 2008 The Khaksar Martyrs of March 19 1940 PDF Archived from the original PDF on 16 February 2008 Retrieved 25 January 2008 Sir Muhammad Iqbal s 1930 Presidential Address Archived 5 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine from Columbia University site Choudhary Rahmat Ali 1933 Now or Never Are We to Live or Perish Forever pamphlet published 28 January Presidential address by Muhammad Ali Jinnah to the Muslim League Lahore 1940 Columbia University Archived from the original on 10 November 2016 Retrieved 24 October 2016 Further reading EditRaja Masood Ashraf Constructing Pakistan Foundational Texts and the Rise of Muslim National Identity 1857 1947 Oxford 2010 ISBN 978 0 19 547811 2External links EditThe Pakistan Movement at the Story of Pakistan website Iqbal and the Pakistan Movement at the Iqbal Academy Pakistan Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Pakistan Movement amp oldid 1145925217, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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