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Marshall Islands

January 06, 2023

The Marshall Islands (Marshallese: Ṃajeḷ),[9] officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands (Marshallese: Aolepān Aorōkin Ṃajeḷ),[note 1] is an independent island country and microstate near the Equator in the Pacific Ocean, slightly west of the International Date Line. Geographically, the country is part of the larger island group of Micronesia. The country's population of 58,413 people (at the 2018 World Bank Census[10]) is spread out over five islands and 29 coral atolls,[2] comprising 1,156 individual islands and islets. The capital and largest city is Majuro. It has the largest portion of its territory composed of water of any sovereign state, at 97.87%. The islands share maritime boundaries with Wake Island to the north,[note 2] Kiribati to the southeast, Nauru to the south, and Federated States of Micronesia to the west. About 52.3% of Marshall Islanders (27,797 at the 2011 Census) live on Majuro.[2] In 2016, 73.3% of the population were defined as being "urban". The UN also indicates a population density of 760 inhabitants per square mile (295/km2), and its projected 2020 population is 59,190.[11]

Republic of the Marshall Islands
Aolepān Aorōkin Ṃajeḷ (Marshallese)
Motto: "Jepilpilin ke ejukaan"
"Accomplishment through joint effort"
Anthem: "Forever Marshall Islands"
Capital
and largest city
Delap-Uliga-Djarrit on Majuro[1]
7°7′N 171°4′E / 7.117°N 171.067°E / 7.117; 171.067
Official languages
Ethnic groups
(2006[2])
  • 92.1% Marshallese
  • 5.9% Mixed Marshallese
  • 2% Others
Religion
(2020)
Demonym(s)Marshallese
GovernmentUnitary parliamentary republic with an executive presidency
• President
David Kabua
• Speaker
Kenneth Kedi[4]
LegislatureNitijela
Independence 
from the United States
• Self-government
May 1, 1979
October 21, 1986
Area
• Total
181.43 km2 (70.05 sq mi) (189th)
• Water (%)
n/a (negligible)
Population
• 2022 estimate
61,988[5] (187th)
• 2011 census
53,158[6]
• Density
293.0/km2 (758.9/sq mi) (28th)
GDP (PPP)2019 estimate
• Total
$215 million
• Per capita
$3,789[7]
GDP (nominal)2019 estimate
• Total
$220 million
• Per capita
$3,866[7]
HDI (2021) 0.639[8]
medium · 131st
CurrencyUnited States dollar (USD)
Time zoneUTC+12 (MHT)
Date formatMM/DD/YYYY
Driving sideright
Calling code+692
ISO 3166 codeMH
Internet TLD.mh
  1. 2005 estimate.

Micronesian settlers reached the Marshall Islands using canoes circa 2nd millennium BC, with interisland navigation made possible using traditional stick charts. They eventually settled there.[12] Islands in the archipelago were first explored by Europeans in the 1520s, starting with Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer in the service of Spain, Juan Sebastián Elcano and Miguel de Saavedra. Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar reported sighting an atoll in August 1526.[12] Other expeditions by Spanish and English ships followed. The islands derive their name from John Marshall, who visited in 1788. The islands were historically known by the inhabitants as "jolet jen Anij" (Gifts from God).[13] Spain claimed the islands in 1592, and the European powers recognized its sovereignty over the islands in 1874. They had been part of the Spanish East Indies formally since 1528. Later, Spain sold some of the islands to the German Empire in 1885, and they became part of German New Guinea that year, run by the trading companies doing business in the islands, particularly the Jaluit Company.[12] In World War I, the Empire of Japan occupied the Marshall Islands, which, in 1920, the League of Nations combined with other former German territories to form the South Seas Mandate. During World War II, the United States took control of the islands in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign in 1944. Nuclear testing began on Bikini Atoll in 1946 and concluded in 1958.

The U.S. government formed the Congress of Micronesia in 1965, a plan for increased self-governance of Pacific islands. The Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands in May 1979 provided independence to the Marshall Islands, whose constitution and president (Amata Kabua) were formally recognized by the US. Full sovereignty or self-government was achieved in a Compact of Free Association with the United States. Marshall Islands has been a member of the Pacific Community (SPC) since 1983 and a United Nations member state since 1991.[12] Politically, the Marshall Islands is a parliamentary republic with an executive presidency in free association with the United States, with the U.S. providing defense, subsidies, and access to U.S.-based agencies such as the Federal Communications Commission and the United States Postal Service. With few natural resources, the islands' wealth is based on a service economy, as well as fishing and agriculture; aid from the United States represents a large percentage of the islands' gross domestic product, but most financial aid from the Compact of Free Association expires in 2023.[14] As of June 2022, negotiations regarding an extension of the aid period were ongoing.[15] The country uses the United States dollar as its currency. In 2018, it also announced plans for a new cryptocurrency to be used as legal tender.[16][17]

The majority of the citizens of the Republic of Marshall Islands are of Marshallese descent, though there are small numbers of immigrants from the United States, China, Philippines, and other Pacific islands. The two official languages are Marshallese, which is one of the Oceanic languages, and English. Almost the entire population of the islands practices some religion: three-quarters of the country follows either the United Church of Christ – Congregational in the Marshall Islands (UCCCMI) or the Assemblies of God.[18]

History

 
Marshall Islanders sailing in traditional costume, c. 1899–1900
 
Marshall Islanders sailing, with sails brailed (reefed), c. 1899–1900
 
Bikini Islanders departing from Bikini Atoll in March 1948
Main article: History of the Marshall Islands

Evidence suggests that around 3,000 years ago successive waves of human migrants from Southeast Asia spread across the Western Pacific Ocean, populating its many small islands. The Marshall Islands were settled by Micronesians in the 2nd millennium BC. Little is known of the islands' early history. Marshall Islanders, among the many great Oceanic voyagers, designed stick charts to map ocean swells and navigate between the islands.[19] Present-day seafaring, however, has remained an extension of maritime culture across the archipelago.

The Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar landed there in 1526, and the archipelago came to be known as "Los Pintados" ("The Painted (Ones)", possibly referring to the indigenous people first found there), "Las Hermanas" ("The Sisters") and "Los Jardines" ("The Gardens") within the Spanish Empire. It first fell within the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, and was then administered by Madrid, through the Captaincy General of the Philippines, upon the independence of Latin America and the dissolution of New Spain starting in 1821.

American whaling ships visited the islands in the 19th century. The first on record was the Awashonks in 1835 and last was the Andrews Hicks in 1905.[20]

The islands were only formally possessed by Spain for much of their colonial history, and on European maps were grouped with the Caroline Islands which today make up Palau and the Federated States of Micronesia,[21] or alternatively the "Nuevas Filipinas" ("New Philippines"). The islands were mostly left to their own affairs except for short-lived religious missions (documented in 1668 and 1731) during the 16th and 17th centuries. They were largely ignored by European powers except for cartographic demarcation treaties between the Iberian Empires (Portugal and Castilian Spain) in 1529, 1750 and 1777. The archipelago corresponding to the present-day country was independently named by Krusenstern, after British explorer John Marshall, who visited them together with Thomas Gilbert in 1788, en route from Botany Bay to Canton with two ships of the First Fleet, and started to establish German and British trading posts, which were not formally contested by Spain.

The Marshall Islands were formally claimed by Spain in 1874 through its capital in the East Indies, Manila. This marked the start of several strategic moves by the German Empire during the 1870s and 80s to annex them (claiming them to be "by chance unoccupied").[22] This policy culminated in a tense naval episode in 1885, which did not degenerate into a conflict due to the poor readiness of Spain's naval forces and the unwillingness for open military action from the German side.

Following papal mediation and German compensation of $4.5 million, Spain reached an agreement with Germany in 1885: the 1885 Hispano-German Protocol of Rome. This accord established a protectorate and set up trading stations on the islands of Jaluit (Joló) and Ebon to carry out the flourishing copra (dried coconut meat) trade. Marshallese Iroij (high chiefs) continued to rule under indirect colonial German administration, rendered tacitly effective by the wording in the 1885 Protocol, which demarcated an area subject to Spanish sovereignty (0-11ºN, 133-164ºE) omitting the Eastern Carolines, that is, the Marshall and Gilbert archipelagos, where most of the German trading posts were located.[23] The disputes were rendered moot after the selling of the whole Caroline archipelago to Germany 13 years later.[24]

At the beginning of World War I, Japan assumed control of the Marshall Islands. The Japanese headquarters was established at the German center of administration, Jaluit. On January 31, 1944, American forces landed on Kwajalein atoll and U.S. Marines and Army troops later took control of the islands from the Japanese on February 3, following intense fighting on Kwajalein and Enewetak atolls. In 1947, the United States, as the occupying power, entered into an agreement with the UN Security Council to administer much of Micronesia, including the Marshall Islands, as the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.

From 1946 to 1958, it served as the Pacific Proving Grounds for the United States and was the site of 67 nuclear tests on various atolls.[25] The world's first hydrogen bomb, codenamed "Mike", was tested at the Enewetak atoll in the Marshall Islands on November 1 (local date) in 1952, by the United States.[26]

 
Mushroom cloud from the largest atmospheric nuclear test the United States ever conducted, Castle Bravo

Nuclear testing began in 1946 on Bikini Atoll after residents were evacuated. Over the years, 67 weapon tests were conducted, including the 15-megaton Castle Bravo hydrogen bomb test, which produced significant fallout in the region. The testing concluded in 1958. Over the years, just one of over 60 islands was cleaned by the U.S. government, and the inhabitants are still waiting for the 2 billion dollars in compensation assessed by the Nuclear Claims Tribunal. Many of the islanders and their descendants still live in exile, as the islands remain contaminated with high levels of radiation.[27]

A significant radar installation was constructed on Kwajalein atoll.[28]

On May 1, 1979, in recognition of the evolving political status of the Marshall Islands, the United States recognized the constitution of the Marshall Islands and the establishment of the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The constitution incorporates both American and British constitutional concepts.

There have been a number of local and national elections since the Republic of the Marshall Islands was founded. The United Democratic Party, running on a reform platform, won the 1999 parliamentary election, taking control of the presidency and cabinet.

The islands signed a Compact of Free Association with the United States in 1986. Trusteeship was ended under United Nations Security Council Resolution 683 of December 22, 1990. Until 1999 the islanders received US$180M for continued American use of Kwajalein atoll, US$250M in compensation for nuclear testing, and US$600M in other payments under the compact.

Despite the constitution, the government was largely controlled by Iroij. It was not until 1999, following political corruption allegations, that the aristocratic government was overthrown, with Imata Kabua replaced by the commoner Kessai Note.

The Runit Dome was built on Runit Island to deposit U.S.-produced radioactive soil and debris, including lethal amounts of plutonium. There are ongoing concerns about deterioration of the waste site and a potential radioactive spill.[29]

In February 2018, the Marshall Islands became the first country in the world to the recognise its cryptocurrency as its own legal tender for digital currency.

In January 2020, David Kabua, son of founding president Amata Kabua, was elected as the new President of the Marshall Islands. His predecessor Hilda Heine lost the position after a vote.[30]

Since the late 1980s, Marshallese have migrated to the US, with over 4,000 in Arkansas and over 7,000 in Hawaii in the 2010 US Census.[31]

Geography

Main articles: Geography of the Marshall Islands and Administrative divisions of the Marshall Islands
 
Map of the Marshall Islands
 
Aerial view of Majuro, one of the many atolls that make up the Marshall Islands
 
Beach scenery at the islet of Eneko, Majuro
 
View of the coast of Bikini Atoll from above
 
View of Marshall Islands

The Marshall Islands sit atop ancient submerged volcanoes rising from the ocean floor, about halfway between Hawaii and Australia,[13] north of Nauru and Kiribati, east of the Federated States of Micronesia, and south of the disputed U.S. territory of Wake Island, to which it also lays claim.[32] The atolls and islands form two groups: the Ratak (sunrise) and the Ralik (sunset). The two island chains lie approximately parallel to one another, running northwest to southeast, comprising about 750,000 square miles (1,900,000 km2) of ocean but only about 70 square miles (180 km2) of land mass.[13] Each includes 15 to 18 islands and atolls.[33] The country consists of a total of 29 atolls and five individual islands situated in about 180,000 square miles (470,000 km2) of the Pacific.[32] The largest atoll with a land area of 6 square miles (16 km2) is Kwajalein. It surrounds a 655-square-mile (1,700 km2) lagoon.[34]

Twenty-four of the atolls and islands are inhabited. The remaining atolls are uninhabited due to poor living conditions, lack of rain, or nuclear contamination. The uninhabited atolls are:

The average altitude above sea level for the entire country is 7 feet (2.1 m).[32]

Shark sanctuary

In October 2011, the government declared that an area covering nearly 2,000,000 square kilometers (772,000 sq mi) of ocean shall be reserved as a shark sanctuary. This is the world's largest shark sanctuary, extending the worldwide ocean area in which sharks are protected from 2,700,000 to 4,600,000 square kilometers (1,042,000 to 1,776,000 sq mi). In protected waters, all shark fishing is banned and all by-catch must be released. However, some have questioned the ability of the Marshall Islands to enforce this zone.[35]

Territorial claim on Wake Island

The Marshall Islands also lays claim to Wake Island.[36] While Wake island has been administered by the United States since 1899, the Marshallese government refers to it by the name Ānen Kio (new orthography) or Enen-kio (old orthography).[37][38]

Climate

 
Average monthly temperatures (red) and precipitation (blue) on Majuro

The climate has a relatively dry season from December to April and a wet season from May to November. Many Pacific typhoons begin as tropical storms in the Marshall Islands region, and grow stronger as they move west toward the Mariana Islands and the Philippines.

Population has outstripped the supply of fresh water, usually from rainfall. The northern atolls get 50 inches (1,300 mm) of rainfall annually; the southern atolls about twice that. The threat of drought is commonplace throughout the island chains.[39]

Climate change

Main article: Climate change in the Marshall Islands

Climate change is a serious threat to the Marshall Islands, with typhoons becoming stronger and sea levels rising. The sea around the Pacific islands has risen 0.28 inches (7 mm) a year since 1993, which is more than twice the rate of the worldwide average. In Kwajalein, there is a high risk of permanent flooding; when sea level rises to 3.3 feet (1 m), 37% of buildings will be permanently flooded in that scenario. In Ebeye, the risk of sea level rise is even higher, with 50% of buildings being permanently flooded in the same scenario. With 3.3 feet (1 m) of sea level rise, parts of the Majuro atoll will be permanently flooded and other parts are having a high risk of flooding especially the eastern part of the atoll would be significantly at risk. With 6.6 feet (2 m) sea level rise all the buildings of Majuro will be permanently flooded or would be at a high risk to be flooded.[40]

The per capita CO2 emissions were 2.56t in 2020.[41] The government of Marshall Islands pledged to be net zero in 2050, with a decrease of 32% decrease of GHGs in 2025, 45% decrease in 2030 and a 58% decrease in 2035 all compared to 2010 levels.[42]

Fauna

Main articles: List of mammals of the Marshall Islands and List of butterflies of the Marshall Islands

Birds

Main article: List of birds of the Marshall Islands

Most birds found in the Marshall Islands, with the exception of those few introduced by man, are either sea birds or a migratory species.[43] There are about 70 species of birds, including 31 seabirds. 15 of these species actually nest locally. Sea birds include the black noddy and the white tern.[44] The only land bird is the house sparrow, introduced by humans.[45]

Marine

There are about 300 species of fish, 250 of which are reef fish.[44]

Arthropods

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of the Marshall Islands
 
Panorama of Majuro, capital and largest city of Marshall Islands

Historical population figures for the Marshall Islands are unknown. In 1862, the population of the Islands was estimated at 10,000.[33] In 1960, the population of the Islands was approximately 15,000. The 2011 Census counted 53,158 island residents. Over two-thirds of the residents of the Marshall Islands live in the capital city, Majuro, and the secondary urban center, Ebeye (located in Kwajalein Atoll). This figures excludes Marshall Islands natives who have relocated elsewhere; the Compact of Free Association allows them to freely relocate to the United States and obtain work there.[51][52] Approximately 4,300 Marshall Islands natives relocated to Springdale, Arkansas in the United States; this figure represents the largest population concentration of Marshall Islands natives outside their island home.[53]

Most residents of the Marshall Islands are Marshallese. Marshallese people are of Micronesian origin and are believed to have migrated from Asia to the Marshall Islands several thousand years ago. A minority of Marshallese have some recent Asian ancestry (mainly Japanese). About one-half of the nation's population lives in Majuro and Ebeye.[54][55][56][57]

The official languages of the Marshall Islands are English and Marshallese. Both languages are widely spoken.[58]

Religion

Main article: Religion in the Marshall Islands
 
Christians in the Marshall Islands

Major religious groups in the Republic of the Marshall Islands include the United Church of Christ – Congregational in the Marshall Islands, with 51.5% of the population; the Assemblies of God, 24.2%; the Roman Catholic Church, 8.4%;[59] and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), 8.3%.[59] Also represented are Bukot Nan Jesus (also known as Assembly of God Part Two), 2.2%; Baptist, 1.0%; Seventh-day Adventists, 0.9%; Full Gospel, 0.7%; and the Baháʼí Faith, 0.6%.[59] Persons without any religious affiliation account for a very small percentage of the population.[59] Islam is also present through Ahmadiyya Muslim Community which is based in Majuro, with the first mosque opening in the capital in September 2012.[60]

Father A. Erdland,[61] a Catholic priest of the Missionaries of the Sacred Heart of Hiltrup (German Empire, called in German Herz-Jesu-Missionare and in Latin Missionarii Sacratissimi Cordis), lived in Jaluit between 1904 and 1914. After doing considerable research on Marshallese culture and language, he published a 376-page monograph on the islands in 1914. Father H. Linckens,[62] another Sacred Heart missionary, visited the Marshall Islands in 1904 and 1911 for several weeks. In 1912 he published a small work on Catholic missionary activities and the people of the Marshall Islands. The Catholics are under the responsibility of the Apostolic Prefecture of the Marshall Islands (Praefectura Apostolica Insularum Marshallensium)[63] with headquarters at the Cathedral of the Assumption in Majuro, which was created by Pope John Paul II in 1993 through the papal bull Quo expeditius.

Health

Main article: Health in the Marshall Islands

During the Castle Bravo test of the first deployable thermonuclear bomb, a miscalculation resulted in the explosion being over twice as large as predicted. The nuclear fallout spread eastward onto the inhabited Rongelap and Rongerik Atolls. These islands were not evacuated before the explosion. Many of the Marshall Islands natives have since suffered from radiation burns and radioactive dusting, suffering the similar fates as the Japanese fishermen aboard the Daigo Fukuryū Maru, but have received little, if any, compensation from the federal government.[64]

Government

Main article: Government of the Marshall Islands
 
The Marshall Islands Capitol (now in disuse)
 
H.E. Hilda C. Heine, first woman and former president of the Marshall Islands, walking through the Memorial Amphitheater at Arlington National Cemetery Sept. 12, 2017

The government of the Marshall Islands operates under a mixed parliamentary-presidential system as set forth in its 1979 Constitution.[65] Elections are held every four years in universal suffrage (for all citizens above 18), with each of the twenty-four constituencies (see below) electing one or more representatives (senators) to the lower house of RMI's unicameral legislature, the Nitijela. (Majuro, the capital atoll, elects five senators.) The President, who is head of state as well as head of government, is elected by the 33 senators of the Nitijela. Four of the five Marshallese presidents who have been elected since the Constitution was adopted in 1979 have been traditional paramount chiefs.[66]

 
Former President Hilda Heine with Taiwan President Tsai Ing-wen in October 2017

In January 2016, senator Hilda Heine was elected by Parliament as the first female president of the Marshall Islands; previous president Casten Nemra lost office after serving two weeks in a vote of no confidence.[12]

Legislative power lies with the Nitijela. The upper house of Parliament, called the Council of Iroij, is an advisory body comprising twelve paramount chiefs. The executive branch consists of the President and the Presidential Cabinet, which consists of ten ministers appointed by the President with the approval of the Nitijela. The twenty-four electoral districts into which the country is divided correspond to the inhabited islands and atolls. There are currently four political parties in the Marshall Islands: Aelon̄ Kein Ad (AKA), United People's Party (UPP), Kien Eo Am (KEA) and United Democratic Party (UDP). Rule is shared by the AKA and the UDP. The following senators are in the legislative body:

Foreign affairs and defense

 
The USCGC Oliver Berry and the RMIS Lomor on a joint patrol[67]
Further information: Foreign relations of the Marshall Islands and Compact of Free Association

The Compact of Free Association with the United States gives the U.S. sole responsibility for international defense of the Marshall Islands. It gives the islanders (the Marshallese) the right to emigrate to the United States without any visa.[68][52] But as aliens they can be placed in removal proceedings if convicted of certain criminal offenses.[52]

The Marshall Islands was admitted to the United Nations based on the Security Council's recommendation on August 9, 1991, in Resolution 704 and the General Assembly's approval on September 17, 1991, in Resolution 46/3.[69] In international politics within the United Nations, the Marshall Islands has often voted consistently with the United States with respect to General Assembly resolutions.[70]

On April 28, 2015, the Iranian navy seized the Marshall Island-flagged MV Maersk Tigris near the Strait of Hormuz. The ship had been chartered by Germany's Rickmers Ship Management, which stated that the ship contained no special cargo and no military weapons. The ship was reported to be under the control of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard according to the Pentagon. Tensions escalated in the region due to the intensifying of Saudi-led coalition attacks in Yemen. The Pentagon reported that the destroyer USS Farragut and a maritime reconnaissance aircraft were dispatched upon receiving a distress call from the ship Tigris and it was also reported that all 34 crew members were detained. US defense officials have said that they would review U.S. defense obligations to the Government of the Marshall Islands in the wake of recent events and also condemned the shots fired at the bridge as "inappropriate". It was reported in May 2015 that Tehran would release the ship after it paid a penalty.[71][72]

In March 2017, at the 34th regular session of the UN Human Rights Council, Vanuatu made a joint statement on behalf of the Marshall Islands and some other Pacific nations raising human rights violations in the Western New Guinea, which has been occupied by Indonesia since 1963,[73] and requested that the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights produce a report.[74][75] Indonesia rejected allegations.[75]

Since 1991 the Republic of Marshall Islands Sea Patrol, a division of Marshall Islands Police, has operated the 160 ton patrol vessel RMIS Lomor. Lomor is one of 22 Pacific Forum patrol vessels Australia provided to smaller nations in the Pacific Forum. While some other nations' missions for their vessels include sovereignty, protection, the terms of the Compact of Free Association restrict Lomor to civilian missions, like fishery protection and search and rescue.

In 2021, the governments of Australia and Japan decided to fund two major law enforcement developments of the Marshall Islands.[76]

In February 2021, the Marshall Islands announced it would be formally withdrawing from the Pacific Islands Forum in a joint statement with Kiribati, Nauru, and the Federated States of Micronesia after a dispute regarding Henry Puna's election as the Forum's secretary-general.[77][78]

Culture

Main article: Culture of the Marshall Islands
See also: Marshallese cuisine
 
Marshallese fans

Although the ancient skills are now in decline, the Marshallese were once able navigators, using the stars and stick-and-shell charts.

Sports

Main pages: Marshall Islands Athletics, Marshall Islands at the Olympics, and Category: Sports in the Marshall Islands

Major sports played in the Marshall Islands include volleyball, basketball (primarily by men), baseball, soccer and a number of water sports. The Marshall Islands has been represented at the Olympics at all games since the 2008 Beijing Olympics. In the 2020 Tokyo Olympics the Marshall Islands were represented by two swimmers.[79]

Association football

See also: List of association football clubs in the Marshall Islands

The Marshall Islands have a small club league, including Kobeer as the most successful club. One tournament was held by Play Soccer Make Peace. There is a small Football Association on the island of Majuro. The sport of association football in its growth is new to the Marshall Islands. The Marshall Islands does not yet have a national football team presently. The Marshall Islands is the only sovereign country in the world that does not have a record of a national football match.[80]

Marshall Islands Baseball / Softball Federation

Softball and baseball are held under one sports federation in the Marshall Islands. The President is Jeimata Nokko Kabua. Both sports are growing at a fast pace with hundreds of Marshallese people behind the Marshall Islands Baseball / Softball Federation. The Marshall Islands achieved a silver medal in the Micronesian Games in 2012, as well as medals in the SPG Games.[81]

Economy

Main article: Economy of the Marshall Islands
 
A proportional representation of Marshall Islands exports, 2019

The islands have few natural resources, and their imports far exceed exports. According to the CIA, the value of exports in 2013 was approximately $53.7 million while estimated imports were $133.7 million. Agricultural products include coconuts, tomatoes, melons, taro, breadfruit, fruits, pigs and chickens. Industry is made of the production of copra and craft items, tuna processing and tourism. The GDP in 2016 was an estimated $180 million, with a real growth rate of 1.7%. The GDP per capita was $3,300.[82]

The International Monetary Fund reported in mid-2016 that the economy of the Republic had expanded by about 0.5 percent in the Fiscal Year 2015 thanks to an improved fisheries sector. A surplus of 3% of GDP was recorded "owing to record-high fishing license fees. Growth is expected to rise to about 1.5 percent and inflation to about 0.5 percent in FY2016, as the effects of the drought in earlier 2016 are offset by the resumption of infrastructure projects."[83]

In 2018, the Republic of Marshall Islands passed the Sovereign Currency Act, which made it the first country to issue their own cryptocurrency and certify it as legal tender; the currency is called the "Sovereign".[84][85]

Shipping

The Marshall Islands plays a vital role in the international shipping industry as a flag of convenience for commercial vessels.[86] The Marshallese registry began operations in 1990, and is managed through a joint venture with International Registries, Inc., a US-based corporation that has offices in major shipping centers worldwide.[87] As of 2017, the Marshallese ship registry was the second largest in the world, after that of Panama.[88]

Unlike some flag countries, there is no requirement that a Marshallese flag vessel be owned by a Marshallese individual or corporation. Following the 2015 seizure of the MV Maersk Tigris, the United States announced that its treaty obligation to defend the Marshall Islands did not extend to foreign-owned Marshallese flag vessels at sea.[89]

As a result of ship-to-ship transfers by Marshallese flag tanker vessels, the Marshall Islands have statistically been one of the largest importers of crude oil from the United States, despite the fact that the islands have no oil refining capacity.[90]

Labor

In 2007, the Marshall Islands joined the International Labour Organization, which means its labor laws will comply with international benchmarks. This may affect business conditions in the islands.[91]

Taxation

The income tax has two brackets, with rates of 8% and 12%.[92] The corporate tax is 3% of revenue.[92]

Foreign assistance

United States government assistance is the mainstay of the economy. Under terms of the Amended Compact of Free Association, the U.S. is committed to provide US$57.7 million per year in assistance to the Marshall Islands (RMI) through 2013, and then US$62.7 million through 2023, at which time a trust fund, made up of U.S. and RMI contributions, will begin perpetual annual payouts.[93]

The United States Army maintains the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site on Kwajalein Atoll. Marshallese land owners receive rent for the base.

Agriculture

 
Coconut palms in the Marshall Islands

Agricultural production is concentrated on small farms.[94] The most important commercial crop is copra,[95][96] followed by coconut, breadfruit, pandanus, banana, taro and arrowroot. The livestock consists primarily of pigs and chickens.[97][83]

Industry

Small-scale industry is limited to handicrafts, fish processing, and copra.[98]

Fishing

Majuro is the world's busiest tuna transshipment port, with 704 transshipments totaling 444,393 tons in 2015.[99] Majuro is also a tuna processing center; the Pan Pacific Foods plant exports processed tuna to a number of countries, primarily the United States under the Bumble Bee brand.[100] Fishing license fees, primarily for tuna, provide noteworthy income for the government.[83]

In 1999, a private company built a tuna loining plant with more than 400 employees, mostly women. But the plant closed in 2005 after a failed attempt to convert it to produce tuna steaks, a process that requires half as many employees. Operating costs exceeded revenue, and the plant's owners tried to partner with the government to prevent closure. But government officials personally interested in an economic stake in the plant refused to help. After the plant closed, it was taken over by the government, which had been the guarantor of a $2 million loan to the business.[citation needed]

Energy

On September 15, 2007, Witon Barry (of the Tobolar Copra processing plant in the Marshall Islands capital of Majuro) said power authorities, private companies, and entrepreneurs had been experimenting with coconut oil as alternative to diesel fuel for vehicles, power generators, and ships. Coconut trees abound in the Pacific's tropical islands. Copra, the meat of the coconut, yields coconut oil (1 liter for every 6 to 10 coconuts).[101] In 2009, a 57 kW solar power plant was installed, the largest in the Pacific at the time, including New Zealand.[102] It is estimated that 330 kW of solar and 450 kW of wind power would be required to make the College of the Marshall Islands energy self-sufficient.[103] Marshalls Energy Company (MEC), a government entity, provides the islands with electricity. In 2008, 420 solar home systems of 200 Wp each were installed on Ailinglaplap Atoll, sufficient for limited electricity use.[104]

Education

The Human Rights Measurement Initiative (HRMI)[105] finds that the Marshall Islands are fulfilling only 66.1% of what it should be fulfilling for the right to education based on the country's level of income.[106] HRMI breaks down the right to education by looking at the rights to both primary education and secondary education. While taking into consideration the Marshall Islands' income level, the nation is achieving 65.5% of what should be possible based on its resources (income) for primary education and 66.6% for secondary education.[106]

The Ministry of Education is the education agency of the islands. Marshall Islands Public School System operates the state schools in the Marshall Islands.

In the 1994–1995 school year the country had 103 elementary schools and 13 secondary schools. There were 27 private elementary schools and one private high school. Christian groups operated most of the private schools.[107]

Historically the Marshallese population was taught in English first with Marshallese instruction coming later, but this was reversed in the 1990s to keep the islands' cultural heritage and so children could write in Marshallese. Now English language instruction begins in grade 3. Christine McMurray and Roy Smith wrote in Diseases of Globalization: Socioeconomic Transition and Health that this could potentially weaken the children's English skills.[107]

There are two tertiary institutions operating in the Marshall Islands, the College of the Marshall Islands[108] and the University of the South Pacific.

Transportation

Main article: Transportation in the Marshall Islands

The Marshall Islands are served by the Marshall Islands International Airport in Majuro, the Bucholz Army Airfield in Kwajalein, and other small airports and airstrips.[109]

Airlines include United Airlines, Nauru Airlines, Air Marshall Islands, and Asia Pacific Airlines.[110]

Media and communications

The Marshall Islands have several AM and FM radio stations. AM stations are 1098 5 kW V7AB Majuro (Radio Marshalls, national coverage) and 1224 AFN Kwajalein (both public radio) as well as 1557 Micronesia Heatwave. The FM stations are 97.9 V7AD Majuro,[111] V7AA 96.3 FM Uliga[112] and 104.1 V7AA Majuro (Baptist religious). BBC World is broadcast on 98.5 FM Majuro.[113] The most recent station is Power 103.5 which started broadcasting in 2016.[114]

AFRTS stations include 99.9 AFN Kwajalein (country), 101.1 AFN (adult rock) and 102.1 AFN (hot AC).[115][116]

There is one broadcast television station, MBC-TV operated by the state.[117] Cable TV is available. On cable TV, most programs are shown two weeks later than in North America but news in real time can be viewed on CNN, CNBC and BBC.[118] American Forces Radio and Television also provides TV service to Kwajalein Atoll.[119]

The Marshall Islands National Telecommunications Authority (NTA) provides telephone, cable TV (MHTV), FAX, cellular and Internet services.[120][121] The Authority is a private corporation with significant ownership by the national government.[122]

Newspapers

Loan Ran Kein, a Marshallese language paper, was published from 1953 to 1954. The current national newspaper is a bilingual (Marshallese and English) weekly, The Marshall Islands Journal.[123] It has been published since 1980.[124]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Pronunciations:
    * English: Republic of the Marshall Islands /ˈmɑːrʃəl ˈaɪləndz/ ( listen)
    Marshallese: Aolepān Aorōkin Ṃajeḷ ([ɑɔlʲɛbʲænʲɑːorˠɤɡinʲ(i)mˠɑːzʲɛlˠ])
  2. ^ Wake Island is claimed as a territory of the Marshall Islands, but is also claimed as an unorganized, unincorporated territory of the United States, with de facto control vested in the Office of Insular Affairs (and all military defenses managed by the United States military).

References

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Bibliography

  • Sharp, Andrew (1960). Early Spanish Discoveries in the Pacific.

Further reading

  • Barker, Holly M. (February 1, 2012). Bravo for the Marshallese: Regaining Control in a Post-Nuclear, Post-Colonial World. Cengage Learning. ISBN 9781111833848.
  • Carucci, Laurence Marshall (1997). Nuclear Nativity: Rituals of Renewal and Empowerment in the Marshall Islands. Northern Illinois University Press. ISBN 9780875802176.
  • Hein, J. R., F. L. Wong, and D. L. Mosier (2007). Bathymetry of the Republic of the Marshall Islands and Vicinity. Miscellaneous Field Studies; Map-MF-2324. Reston, VA: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.
  • Niedenthal, Jack (2001). For the Good of Mankind: A History of the People of Bikini and Their Islands. Bravo Publishers. ISBN 9789829050021.
  • Rudiak-Gould, Peter (2009). Surviving Paradise: One Year on a Disappearing Island. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 9781402766640.
  • Woodard, Colin (2000). Ocean's End: Travels Through Endangered Seas. New York: Basic Books. (Contains extended account of sea-level rise threat and the legacy of U.S. Atomic testing.)

External links

Government

  • Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands Washington, DC official government site

General information

News media

  • Marshall Islands Journal Weekly independent national newspaper

Other

  • Digital Micronesia – Marshalls by Dirk HR Spennemann, Associate Professor in Cultural Heritage Management
  • Plants & Environments of the Marshall Islands Book turned website by Dr. Mark Merlin of the University of Hawaii
  • Atomic Testing Information
  • Pictures of victims of U.S. nuclear testing in the Marshall Islands on Nuclear Files.org
  • "Kenner hearing: Marshall Islands-flagged rig in Gulf oil spill was reviewed in February"
  • NOAA's National Weather Service – Marshall Islands
  • Canoes of the Marshall Islands
  • Alele Museum – Museum of the Marshall Islands
  • WUTMI – Women United Together Marshall Islands

Coordinates: 9°49′N 169°17′E / 9.82°N 169.29°E / 9.82; 169.29

January 06, 2023
marshall, islands, marshallese, Ṃajeḷ, officially, republic, marshallese, aolepān, aorōkin, Ṃajeḷ, note, independent, island, country, microstate, near, equator, pacific, ocean, slightly, west, international, date, line, geographically, country, part, larger, . The Marshall Islands Marshallese Ṃajeḷ 9 officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands Marshallese Aolepan Aorōkin Ṃajeḷ note 1 is an independent island country and microstate near the Equator in the Pacific Ocean slightly west of the International Date Line Geographically the country is part of the larger island group of Micronesia The country s population of 58 413 people at the 2018 World Bank Census 10 is spread out over five islands and 29 coral atolls 2 comprising 1 156 individual islands and islets The capital and largest city is Majuro It has the largest portion of its territory composed of water of any sovereign state at 97 87 The islands share maritime boundaries with Wake Island to the north note 2 Kiribati to the southeast Nauru to the south and Federated States of Micronesia to the west About 52 3 of Marshall Islanders 27 797 at the 2011 Census live on Majuro 2 In 2016 73 3 of the population were defined as being urban The UN also indicates a population density of 760 inhabitants per square mile 295 km2 and its projected 2020 population is 59 190 11 Republic of the Marshall IslandsAolepan Aorōkin Ṃajeḷ Marshallese Flag SealMotto Jepilpilin ke ejukaan Accomplishment through joint effort Anthem Forever Marshall Islands source source track Capitaland largest cityDelap Uliga Djarrit on Majuro 1 7 7 N 171 4 E 7 117 N 171 067 E 7 117 171 067Official languagesMarshalleseEnglishEthnic groups 2006 2 92 1 Marshallese5 9 Mixed Marshallese2 OthersReligion 2020 97 5 Christianity 87 0 Protestantism 8 4 Catholicism 2 1 Other Christian1 5 No religion1 0 Other 3 Demonym s MarshalleseGovernmentUnitary parliamentary republic with an executive presidency PresidentDavid Kabua SpeakerKenneth Kedi 4 LegislatureNitijelaIndependence from the United States Self governmentMay 1 1979 Compact of Free AssociationOctober 21 1986Area Total181 43 km2 70 05 sq mi 189th Water n a negligible Population 2022 estimate61 988 5 187th 2011 census53 158 6 Density293 0 km2 758 9 sq mi 28th GDP PPP 2019 estimate Total 215 million Per capita 3 789 7 GDP nominal 2019 estimate Total 220 million Per capita 3 866 7 HDI 2021 0 639 8 medium 131stCurrencyUnited States dollar USD Time zoneUTC 12 MHT Date formatMM DD YYYYDriving siderightCalling code 692ISO 3166 codeMHInternet TLD mh2005 estimate Micronesian settlers reached the Marshall Islands using canoes circa 2nd millennium BC with interisland navigation made possible using traditional stick charts They eventually settled there 12 Islands in the archipelago were first explored by Europeans in the 1520s starting with Ferdinand Magellan a Portuguese explorer in the service of Spain Juan Sebastian Elcano and Miguel de Saavedra Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar reported sighting an atoll in August 1526 12 Other expeditions by Spanish and English ships followed The islands derive their name from John Marshall who visited in 1788 The islands were historically known by the inhabitants as jolet jen Anij Gifts from God 13 Spain claimed the islands in 1592 and the European powers recognized its sovereignty over the islands in 1874 They had been part of the Spanish East Indies formally since 1528 Later Spain sold some of the islands to the German Empire in 1885 and they became part of German New Guinea that year run by the trading companies doing business in the islands particularly the Jaluit Company 12 In World War I the Empire of Japan occupied the Marshall Islands which in 1920 the League of Nations combined with other former German territories to form the South Seas Mandate During World War II the United States took control of the islands in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign in 1944 Nuclear testing began on Bikini Atoll in 1946 and concluded in 1958 The U S government formed the Congress of Micronesia in 1965 a plan for increased self governance of Pacific islands The Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands in May 1979 provided independence to the Marshall Islands whose constitution and president Amata Kabua were formally recognized by the US Full sovereignty or self government was achieved in a Compact of Free Association with the United States Marshall Islands has been a member of the Pacific Community SPC since 1983 and a United Nations member state since 1991 12 Politically the Marshall Islands is a parliamentary republic with an executive presidency in free association with the United States with the U S providing defense subsidies and access to U S based agencies such as the Federal Communications Commission and the United States Postal Service With few natural resources the islands wealth is based on a service economy as well as fishing and agriculture aid from the United States represents a large percentage of the islands gross domestic product but most financial aid from the Compact of Free Association expires in 2023 14 As of June 2022 update negotiations regarding an extension of the aid period were ongoing 15 The country uses the United States dollar as its currency In 2018 it also announced plans for a new cryptocurrency to be used as legal tender 16 17 The majority of the citizens of the Republic of Marshall Islands are of Marshallese descent though there are small numbers of immigrants from the United States China Philippines and other Pacific islands The two official languages are Marshallese which is one of the Oceanic languages and English Almost the entire population of the islands practices some religion three quarters of the country follows either the United Church of Christ Congregational in the Marshall Islands UCCCMI or the Assemblies of God 18 Contents 1 History 2 Geography 2 1 Shark sanctuary 2 2 Territorial claim on Wake Island 2 3 Climate 2 3 1 Climate change 2 4 Fauna 2 4 1 Birds 2 4 2 Marine 2 4 3 Arthropods 3 Demographics 3 1 Religion 3 2 Health 4 Government 4 1 Foreign affairs and defense 5 Culture 6 Sports 6 1 Association football 6 2 Marshall Islands Baseball Softball Federation 7 Economy 7 1 Shipping 7 2 Labor 7 3 Taxation 7 4 Foreign assistance 7 5 Agriculture 7 6 Industry 7 7 Fishing 7 8 Energy 8 Education 9 Transportation 10 Media and communications 10 1 Newspapers 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Bibliography 15 Further reading 16 External links 16 1 Government 16 2 General information 16 3 News media 16 4 OtherHistory Edit Manila Galleon in the Marianas and Carolinas c 1590 Boxer Codex Marshall Islanders sailing in traditional costume c 1899 1900 Marshall Islanders sailing with sails brailed reefed c 1899 1900 Battle of Kwajalein in 1944 Bikini Islanders departing from Bikini Atoll in March 1948 Main article History of the Marshall Islands This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Marshall Islands news newspapers books scholar JSTOR January 2009 Learn how and when to remove this template message Evidence suggests that around 3 000 years ago successive waves of human migrants from Southeast Asia spread across the Western Pacific Ocean populating its many small islands The Marshall Islands were settled by Micronesians in the 2nd millennium BC Little is known of the islands early history Marshall Islanders among the many great Oceanic voyagers designed stick charts to map ocean swells and navigate between the islands 19 Present day seafaring however has remained an extension of maritime culture across the archipelago The Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar landed there in 1526 and the archipelago came to be known as Los Pintados The Painted Ones possibly referring to the indigenous people first found there Las Hermanas The Sisters and Los Jardines The Gardens within the Spanish Empire It first fell within the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalty of New Spain and was then administered by Madrid through the Captaincy General of the Philippines upon the independence of Latin America and the dissolution of New Spain starting in 1821 American whaling ships visited the islands in the 19th century The first on record was the Awashonks in 1835 and last was the Andrews Hicks in 1905 20 The islands were only formally possessed by Spain for much of their colonial history and on European maps were grouped with the Caroline Islands which today make up Palau and the Federated States of Micronesia 21 or alternatively the Nuevas Filipinas New Philippines The islands were mostly left to their own affairs except for short lived religious missions documented in 1668 and 1731 during the 16th and 17th centuries They were largely ignored by European powers except for cartographic demarcation treaties between the Iberian Empires Portugal and Castilian Spain in 1529 1750 and 1777 The archipelago corresponding to the present day country was independently named by Krusenstern after British explorer John Marshall who visited them together with Thomas Gilbert in 1788 en route from Botany Bay to Canton with two ships of the First Fleet and started to establish German and British trading posts which were not formally contested by Spain The Marshall Islands were formally claimed by Spain in 1874 through its capital in the East Indies Manila This marked the start of several strategic moves by the German Empire during the 1870s and 80s to annex them claiming them to be by chance unoccupied 22 This policy culminated in a tense naval episode in 1885 which did not degenerate into a conflict due to the poor readiness of Spain s naval forces and the unwillingness for open military action from the German side Following papal mediation and German compensation of 4 5 million Spain reached an agreement with Germany in 1885 the 1885 Hispano German Protocol of Rome This accord established a protectorate and set up trading stations on the islands of Jaluit Jolo and Ebon to carry out the flourishing copra dried coconut meat trade Marshallese Iroij high chiefs continued to rule under indirect colonial German administration rendered tacitly effective by the wording in the 1885 Protocol which demarcated an area subject to Spanish sovereignty 0 11ºN 133 164ºE omitting the Eastern Carolines that is the Marshall and Gilbert archipelagos where most of the German trading posts were located 23 The disputes were rendered moot after the selling of the whole Caroline archipelago to Germany 13 years later 24 At the beginning of World War I Japan assumed control of the Marshall Islands The Japanese headquarters was established at the German center of administration Jaluit On January 31 1944 American forces landed on Kwajalein atoll and U S Marines and Army troops later took control of the islands from the Japanese on February 3 following intense fighting on Kwajalein and Enewetak atolls In 1947 the United States as the occupying power entered into an agreement with the UN Security Council to administer much of Micronesia including the Marshall Islands as the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands From 1946 to 1958 it served as the Pacific Proving Grounds for the United States and was the site of 67 nuclear tests on various atolls 25 The world s first hydrogen bomb codenamed Mike was tested at the Enewetak atoll in the Marshall Islands on November 1 local date in 1952 by the United States 26 Mushroom cloud from the largest atmospheric nuclear test the United States ever conducted Castle Bravo Nuclear testing began in 1946 on Bikini Atoll after residents were evacuated Over the years 67 weapon tests were conducted including the 15 megaton Castle Bravo hydrogen bomb test which produced significant fallout in the region The testing concluded in 1958 Over the years just one of over 60 islands was cleaned by the U S government and the inhabitants are still waiting for the 2 billion dollars in compensation assessed by the Nuclear Claims Tribunal Many of the islanders and their descendants still live in exile as the islands remain contaminated with high levels of radiation 27 A significant radar installation was constructed on Kwajalein atoll 28 On May 1 1979 in recognition of the evolving political status of the Marshall Islands the United States recognized the constitution of the Marshall Islands and the establishment of the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands The constitution incorporates both American and British constitutional concepts There have been a number of local and national elections since the Republic of the Marshall Islands was founded The United Democratic Party running on a reform platform won the 1999 parliamentary election taking control of the presidency and cabinet The islands signed a Compact of Free Association with the United States in 1986 Trusteeship was ended under United Nations Security Council Resolution 683 of December 22 1990 Until 1999 the islanders received US 180M for continued American use of Kwajalein atoll US 250M in compensation for nuclear testing and US 600M in other payments under the compact Despite the constitution the government was largely controlled by Iroij It was not until 1999 following political corruption allegations that the aristocratic government was overthrown with Imata Kabua replaced by the commoner Kessai Note The Runit Dome was built on Runit Island to deposit U S produced radioactive soil and debris including lethal amounts of plutonium There are ongoing concerns about deterioration of the waste site and a potential radioactive spill 29 In February 2018 the Marshall Islands became the first country in the world to the recognise its cryptocurrency as its own legal tender for digital currency In January 2020 David Kabua son of founding president Amata Kabua was elected as the new President of the Marshall Islands His predecessor Hilda Heine lost the position after a vote 30 Since the late 1980s Marshallese have migrated to the US with over 4 000 in Arkansas and over 7 000 in Hawaii in the 2010 US Census 31 Geography EditMain articles Geography of the Marshall Islands and Administrative divisions of the Marshall Islands Map of the Marshall Islands Aerial view of Majuro one of the many atolls that make up the Marshall Islands Beach scenery at the islet of Eneko Majuro View of the coast of Bikini Atoll from above View of Marshall Islands The Marshall Islands sit atop ancient submerged volcanoes rising from the ocean floor about halfway between Hawaii and Australia 13 north of Nauru and Kiribati east of the Federated States of Micronesia and south of the disputed U S territory of Wake Island to which it also lays claim 32 The atolls and islands form two groups the Ratak sunrise and the Ralik sunset The two island chains lie approximately parallel to one another running northwest to southeast comprising about 750 000 square miles 1 900 000 km2 of ocean but only about 70 square miles 180 km2 of land mass 13 Each includes 15 to 18 islands and atolls 33 The country consists of a total of 29 atolls and five individual islands situated in about 180 000 square miles 470 000 km2 of the Pacific 32 The largest atoll with a land area of 6 square miles 16 km2 is Kwajalein It surrounds a 655 square mile 1 700 km2 lagoon 34 Twenty four of the atolls and islands are inhabited The remaining atolls are uninhabited due to poor living conditions lack of rain or nuclear contamination The uninhabited atolls are Ailinginae Atoll Bikar Bikaar Atoll Bikini Atoll Bokak Atoll Erikub Atoll Jemo Island Nadikdik Atoll Rongerik Atoll Toke Atoll Ujelang AtollThe average altitude above sea level for the entire country is 7 feet 2 1 m 32 Shark sanctuary Edit In October 2011 the government declared that an area covering nearly 2 000 000 square kilometers 772 000 sq mi of ocean shall be reserved as a shark sanctuary This is the world s largest shark sanctuary extending the worldwide ocean area in which sharks are protected from 2 700 000 to 4 600 000 square kilometers 1 042 000 to 1 776 000 sq mi In protected waters all shark fishing is banned and all by catch must be released However some have questioned the ability of the Marshall Islands to enforce this zone 35 Territorial claim on Wake Island Edit The Marshall Islands also lays claim to Wake Island 36 While Wake island has been administered by the United States since 1899 the Marshallese government refers to it by the name Anen Kio new orthography or Enen kio old orthography 37 38 Climate Edit Average monthly temperatures red and precipitation blue on Majuro The climate has a relatively dry season from December to April and a wet season from May to November Many Pacific typhoons begin as tropical storms in the Marshall Islands region and grow stronger as they move west toward the Mariana Islands and the Philippines Population has outstripped the supply of fresh water usually from rainfall The northern atolls get 50 inches 1 300 mm of rainfall annually the southern atolls about twice that The threat of drought is commonplace throughout the island chains 39 Climate change Edit Main article Climate change in the Marshall Islands Climate change is a serious threat to the Marshall Islands with typhoons becoming stronger and sea levels rising The sea around the Pacific islands has risen 0 28 inches 7 mm a year since 1993 which is more than twice the rate of the worldwide average In Kwajalein there is a high risk of permanent flooding when sea level rises to 3 3 feet 1 m 37 of buildings will be permanently flooded in that scenario In Ebeye the risk of sea level rise is even higher with 50 of buildings being permanently flooded in the same scenario With 3 3 feet 1 m of sea level rise parts of the Majuro atoll will be permanently flooded and other parts are having a high risk of flooding especially the eastern part of the atoll would be significantly at risk With 6 6 feet 2 m sea level rise all the buildings of Majuro will be permanently flooded or would be at a high risk to be flooded 40 The per capita CO2 emissions were 2 56t in 2020 41 The government of Marshall Islands pledged to be net zero in 2050 with a decrease of 32 decrease of GHGs in 2025 45 decrease in 2030 and a 58 decrease in 2035 all compared to 2010 levels 42 Fauna Edit Main articles List of mammals of the Marshall Islands and List of butterflies of the Marshall Islands Birds Edit Main article List of birds of the Marshall Islands Most birds found in the Marshall Islands with the exception of those few introduced by man are either sea birds or a migratory species 43 There are about 70 species of birds including 31 seabirds 15 of these species actually nest locally Sea birds include the black noddy and the white tern 44 The only land bird is the house sparrow introduced by humans 45 Marine Edit There are about 300 species of fish 250 of which are reef fish 44 Turtles green turtles hawksbill Leatherback sea turtles and Olive ridley sea turtles 46 Sharks There are at least 22 shark species including Blue shark Silky shark Bigeye thresher shark Pelagic thresher shark Oceanic whitetip shark and Tawny nurse shark 47 48 Arthropods Edit Scorpions dwarf wood scorpion and Common house scorpion Pseudoscorpions are occasionally found 49 Spiders Two a scytodes Dictis striatipes 49 and Jaluiticola a genus of jumping spiders endemic to the Marshall Islands Its only species is Jaluiticola hesslei 50 Amphipod One Talorchestia spinipalma 49 Orthoptera cockroaches American cockroaches short horned grasshopper crickets 49 Crabs include hermit crabs and coconut crabs 45 Demographics EditMain article Demographics of the Marshall Islands Panorama of Majuro capital and largest city of Marshall Islands Historical population figures for the Marshall Islands are unknown In 1862 the population of the Islands was estimated at 10 000 33 In 1960 the population of the Islands was approximately 15 000 The 2011 Census counted 53 158 island residents Over two thirds of the residents of the Marshall Islands live in the capital city Majuro and the secondary urban center Ebeye located in Kwajalein Atoll This figures excludes Marshall Islands natives who have relocated elsewhere the Compact of Free Association allows them to freely relocate to the United States and obtain work there 51 52 Approximately 4 300 Marshall Islands natives relocated to Springdale Arkansas in the United States this figure represents the largest population concentration of Marshall Islands natives outside their island home 53 Most residents of the Marshall Islands are Marshallese Marshallese people are of Micronesian origin and are believed to have migrated from Asia to the Marshall Islands several thousand years ago A minority of Marshallese have some recent Asian ancestry mainly Japanese About one half of the nation s population lives in Majuro and Ebeye 54 55 56 57 The official languages of the Marshall Islands are English and Marshallese Both languages are widely spoken 58 Religion Edit Main article Religion in the Marshall Islands Christians in the Marshall Islands Major religious groups in the Republic of the Marshall Islands include the United Church of Christ Congregational in the Marshall Islands with 51 5 of the population the Assemblies of God 24 2 the Roman Catholic Church 8 4 59 and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints Mormons 8 3 59 Also represented are Bukot Nan Jesus also known as Assembly of God Part Two 2 2 Baptist 1 0 Seventh day Adventists 0 9 Full Gospel 0 7 and the Bahaʼi Faith 0 6 59 Persons without any religious affiliation account for a very small percentage of the population 59 Islam is also present through Ahmadiyya Muslim Community which is based in Majuro with the first mosque opening in the capital in September 2012 60 Father A Erdland 61 a Catholic priest of the Missionaries of the Sacred Heart of Hiltrup German Empire called in German Herz Jesu Missionare and in Latin Missionarii Sacratissimi Cordis lived in Jaluit between 1904 and 1914 After doing considerable research on Marshallese culture and language he published a 376 page monograph on the islands in 1914 Father H Linckens 62 another Sacred Heart missionary visited the Marshall Islands in 1904 and 1911 for several weeks In 1912 he published a small work on Catholic missionary activities and the people of the Marshall Islands The Catholics are under the responsibility of the Apostolic Prefecture of the Marshall Islands Praefectura Apostolica Insularum Marshallensium 63 with headquarters at the Cathedral of the Assumption in Majuro which was created by Pope John Paul II in 1993 through the papal bull Quo expeditius Health Edit Main article Health in the Marshall Islands During the Castle Bravo test of the first deployable thermonuclear bomb a miscalculation resulted in the explosion being over twice as large as predicted The nuclear fallout spread eastward onto the inhabited Rongelap and Rongerik Atolls These islands were not evacuated before the explosion Many of the Marshall Islands natives have since suffered from radiation burns and radioactive dusting suffering the similar fates as the Japanese fishermen aboard the Daigo Fukuryu Maru but have received little if any compensation from the federal government 64 Government EditMain article Government of the Marshall Islands The Marshall Islands Capitol now in disuse H E Hilda C Heine first woman and former president of the Marshall Islands walking through the Memorial Amphitheater at Arlington National Cemetery Sept 12 2017 The government of the Marshall Islands operates under a mixed parliamentary presidential system as set forth in its 1979 Constitution 65 Elections are held every four years in universal suffrage for all citizens above 18 with each of the twenty four constituencies see below electing one or more representatives senators to the lower house of RMI s unicameral legislature the Nitijela Majuro the capital atoll elects five senators The President who is head of state as well as head of government is elected by the 33 senators of the Nitijela Four of the five Marshallese presidents who have been elected since the Constitution was adopted in 1979 have been traditional paramount chiefs 66 Former President Hilda Heine with Taiwan President Tsai Ing wen in October 2017 In January 2016 senator Hilda Heine was elected by Parliament as the first female president of the Marshall Islands previous president Casten Nemra lost office after serving two weeks in a vote of no confidence 12 Legislative power lies with the Nitijela The upper house of Parliament called the Council of Iroij is an advisory body comprising twelve paramount chiefs The executive branch consists of the President and the Presidential Cabinet which consists of ten ministers appointed by the President with the approval of the Nitijela The twenty four electoral districts into which the country is divided correspond to the inhabited islands and atolls There are currently four political parties in the Marshall Islands Aelon Kein Ad AKA United People s Party UPP Kien Eo Am KEA and United Democratic Party UDP Rule is shared by the AKA and the UDP The following senators are in the legislative body Ailinglaplap Atoll Christopher Loeak AKA Alfred Alfred Jr IND Ailuk Atoll Maynard Alfred UDP Arno Atoll Mike Halferty KEA Jejwadrik H Anton IND Aur Atoll Hilda C Heine AKA Ebon Atoll John M Silk UDP Enewetak Atoll Jack J Ading UPP Jabat Island Kessai H Note UDP Jaluit Atoll Casten Nemra IND Daisy Alik Momotaro IND Kili Island Eldon H Note UDP Kwajalein Atoll Michael Kabua AKA David R Paul KEA Alvin T Jacklick KEA Lae Atoll Thomas Heine AKA Lib Island Jerakoj Jerry Bejang AKA Likiep Atoll Leander Leander Jr IND Majuro Atoll Sherwood M Tibon KEA Anthony Muller KEA Brenson Wase UDP David Kramer KEA Kalani Kaneko KEA Maloelap Atoll Bruce Bilimon IND Mejit Island Dennis Momotaro AKA Mili Atoll Wilbur Heine AKA Namdrik Atoll Wise Zackhras IND Namu Atoll Tony Aiseia AKA Rongelap Atoll Kenneth A Kedi IND Ujae Atoll Atbi Riklon IND Utirik Atoll Amenta Mathew KEA Wotho Atoll David Kabua AKA Wotje Atoll Litokwa Tomeing UPP Foreign affairs and defense Edit The USCGC Oliver Berry and the RMIS Lomor on a joint patrol 67 Further information Foreign relations of the Marshall Islands and Compact of Free Association The Compact of Free Association with the United States gives the U S sole responsibility for international defense of the Marshall Islands It gives the islanders the Marshallese the right to emigrate to the United States without any visa 68 52 But as aliens they can be placed in removal proceedings if convicted of certain criminal offenses 52 The Marshall Islands was admitted to the United Nations based on the Security Council s recommendation on August 9 1991 in Resolution 704 and the General Assembly s approval on September 17 1991 in Resolution 46 3 69 In international politics within the United Nations the Marshall Islands has often voted consistently with the United States with respect to General Assembly resolutions 70 On April 28 2015 the Iranian navy seized the Marshall Island flagged MV Maersk Tigris near the Strait of Hormuz The ship had been chartered by Germany s Rickmers Ship Management which stated that the ship contained no special cargo and no military weapons The ship was reported to be under the control of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard according to the Pentagon Tensions escalated in the region due to the intensifying of Saudi led coalition attacks in Yemen The Pentagon reported that the destroyer USS Farragut and a maritime reconnaissance aircraft were dispatched upon receiving a distress call from the ship Tigris and it was also reported that all 34 crew members were detained US defense officials have said that they would review U S defense obligations to the Government of the Marshall Islands in the wake of recent events and also condemned the shots fired at the bridge as inappropriate It was reported in May 2015 that Tehran would release the ship after it paid a penalty 71 72 In March 2017 at the 34th regular session of the UN Human Rights Council Vanuatu made a joint statement on behalf of the Marshall Islands and some other Pacific nations raising human rights violations in the Western New Guinea which has been occupied by Indonesia since 1963 73 and requested that the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights produce a report 74 75 Indonesia rejected allegations 75 Since 1991 the Republic of Marshall Islands Sea Patrol a division of Marshall Islands Police has operated the 160 ton patrol vessel RMIS Lomor Lomor is one of 22 Pacific Forum patrol vessels Australia provided to smaller nations in the Pacific Forum While some other nations missions for their vessels include sovereignty protection the terms of the Compact of Free Association restrict Lomor to civilian missions like fishery protection and search and rescue In 2021 the governments of Australia and Japan decided to fund two major law enforcement developments of the Marshall Islands 76 In February 2021 the Marshall Islands announced it would be formally withdrawing from the Pacific Islands Forum in a joint statement with Kiribati Nauru and the Federated States of Micronesia after a dispute regarding Henry Puna s election as the Forum s secretary general 77 78 Culture EditMain article Culture of the Marshall Islands See also Marshallese cuisine Marshallese fans Although the ancient skills are now in decline the Marshallese were once able navigators using the stars and stick and shell charts Sports EditMain pages Marshall Islands Athletics Marshall Islands at the Olympics and Category Sports in the Marshall Islands Major sports played in the Marshall Islands include volleyball basketball primarily by men baseball soccer and a number of water sports The Marshall Islands has been represented at the Olympics at all games since the 2008 Beijing Olympics In the 2020 Tokyo Olympics the Marshall Islands were represented by two swimmers 79 Association football Edit See also List of association football clubs in the Marshall Islands The Marshall Islands have a small club league including Kobeer as the most successful club One tournament was held by Play Soccer Make Peace There is a small Football Association on the island of Majuro The sport of association football in its growth is new to the Marshall Islands The Marshall Islands does not yet have a national football team presently The Marshall Islands is the only sovereign country in the world that does not have a record of a national football match 80 Marshall Islands Baseball Softball Federation Edit Softball and baseball are held under one sports federation in the Marshall Islands The President is Jeimata Nokko Kabua Both sports are growing at a fast pace with hundreds of Marshallese people behind the Marshall Islands Baseball Softball Federation The Marshall Islands achieved a silver medal in the Micronesian Games in 2012 as well as medals in the SPG Games 81 Economy EditMain article Economy of the Marshall Islands A proportional representation of Marshall Islands exports 2019 The islands have few natural resources and their imports far exceed exports According to the CIA the value of exports in 2013 was approximately 53 7 million while estimated imports were 133 7 million Agricultural products include coconuts tomatoes melons taro breadfruit fruits pigs and chickens Industry is made of the production of copra and craft items tuna processing and tourism The GDP in 2016 was an estimated 180 million with a real growth rate of 1 7 The GDP per capita was 3 300 82 The International Monetary Fund reported in mid 2016 that the economy of the Republic had expanded by about 0 5 percent in the Fiscal Year 2015 thanks to an improved fisheries sector A surplus of 3 of GDP was recorded owing to record high fishing license fees Growth is expected to rise to about 1 5 percent and inflation to about 0 5 percent in FY2016 as the effects of the drought in earlier 2016 are offset by the resumption of infrastructure projects 83 In 2018 the Republic of Marshall Islands passed the Sovereign Currency Act which made it the first country to issue their own cryptocurrency and certify it as legal tender the currency is called the Sovereign 84 85 Shipping Edit The Marshall Islands plays a vital role in the international shipping industry as a flag of convenience for commercial vessels 86 The Marshallese registry began operations in 1990 and is managed through a joint venture with International Registries Inc a US based corporation that has offices in major shipping centers worldwide 87 As of 2017 the Marshallese ship registry was the second largest in the world after that of Panama 88 Unlike some flag countries there is no requirement that a Marshallese flag vessel be owned by a Marshallese individual or corporation Following the 2015 seizure of the MV Maersk Tigris the United States announced that its treaty obligation to defend the Marshall Islands did not extend to foreign owned Marshallese flag vessels at sea 89 As a result of ship to ship transfers by Marshallese flag tanker vessels the Marshall Islands have statistically been one of the largest importers of crude oil from the United States despite the fact that the islands have no oil refining capacity 90 Labor Edit In 2007 the Marshall Islands joined the International Labour Organization which means its labor laws will comply with international benchmarks This may affect business conditions in the islands 91 Taxation Edit The income tax has two brackets with rates of 8 and 12 92 The corporate tax is 3 of revenue 92 Foreign assistance Edit United States government assistance is the mainstay of the economy Under terms of the Amended Compact of Free Association the U S is committed to provide US 57 7 million per year in assistance to the Marshall Islands RMI through 2013 and then US 62 7 million through 2023 at which time a trust fund made up of U S and RMI contributions will begin perpetual annual payouts 93 The United States Army maintains the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site on Kwajalein Atoll Marshallese land owners receive rent for the base Agriculture Edit Coconut palms in the Marshall Islands Agricultural production is concentrated on small farms 94 The most important commercial crop is copra 95 96 followed by coconut breadfruit pandanus banana taro and arrowroot The livestock consists primarily of pigs and chickens 97 83 Industry Edit Small scale industry is limited to handicrafts fish processing and copra 98 Fishing Edit Majuro is the world s busiest tuna transshipment port with 704 transshipments totaling 444 393 tons in 2015 99 Majuro is also a tuna processing center the Pan Pacific Foods plant exports processed tuna to a number of countries primarily the United States under the Bumble Bee brand 100 Fishing license fees primarily for tuna provide noteworthy income for the government 83 In 1999 a private company built a tuna loining plant with more than 400 employees mostly women But the plant closed in 2005 after a failed attempt to convert it to produce tuna steaks a process that requires half as many employees Operating costs exceeded revenue and the plant s owners tried to partner with the government to prevent closure But government officials personally interested in an economic stake in the plant refused to help After the plant closed it was taken over by the government which had been the guarantor of a 2 million loan to the business citation needed Energy Edit On September 15 2007 Witon Barry of the Tobolar Copra processing plant in the Marshall Islands capital of Majuro said power authorities private companies and entrepreneurs had been experimenting with coconut oil as alternative to diesel fuel for vehicles power generators and ships Coconut trees abound in the Pacific s tropical islands Copra the meat of the coconut yields coconut oil 1 liter for every 6 to 10 coconuts 101 In 2009 a 57 kW solar power plant was installed the largest in the Pacific at the time including New Zealand 102 It is estimated that 330 kW of solar and 450 kW of wind power would be required to make the College of the Marshall Islands energy self sufficient 103 Marshalls Energy Company MEC a government entity provides the islands with electricity In 2008 420 solar home systems of 200 Wp each were installed on Ailinglaplap Atoll sufficient for limited electricity use 104 Education EditThe Human Rights Measurement Initiative HRMI 105 finds that the Marshall Islands are fulfilling only 66 1 of what it should be fulfilling for the right to education based on the country s level of income 106 HRMI breaks down the right to education by looking at the rights to both primary education and secondary education While taking into consideration the Marshall Islands income level the nation is achieving 65 5 of what should be possible based on its resources income for primary education and 66 6 for secondary education 106 The Ministry of Education is the education agency of the islands Marshall Islands Public School System operates the state schools in the Marshall Islands In the 1994 1995 school year the country had 103 elementary schools and 13 secondary schools There were 27 private elementary schools and one private high school Christian groups operated most of the private schools 107 Historically the Marshallese population was taught in English first with Marshallese instruction coming later but this was reversed in the 1990s to keep the islands cultural heritage and so children could write in Marshallese Now English language instruction begins in grade 3 Christine McMurray and Roy Smith wrote in Diseases of Globalization Socioeconomic Transition and Health that this could potentially weaken the children s English skills 107 There are two tertiary institutions operating in the Marshall Islands the College of the Marshall Islands 108 and the University of the South Pacific Transportation EditMain article Transportation in the Marshall Islands The Marshall Islands are served by the Marshall Islands International Airport in Majuro the Bucholz Army Airfield in Kwajalein and other small airports and airstrips 109 Airlines include United Airlines Nauru Airlines Air Marshall Islands and Asia Pacific Airlines 110 Media and communications EditThe Marshall Islands have several AM and FM radio stations AM stations are 1098 5 kW V7AB Majuro Radio Marshalls national coverage and 1224 AFN Kwajalein both public radio as well as 1557 Micronesia Heatwave The FM stations are 97 9 V7AD Majuro 111 V7AA 96 3 FM Uliga 112 and 104 1 V7AA Majuro Baptist religious BBC World is broadcast on 98 5 FM Majuro 113 The most recent station is Power 103 5 which started broadcasting in 2016 114 AFRTS stations include 99 9 AFN Kwajalein country 101 1 AFN adult rock and 102 1 AFN hot AC 115 116 There is one broadcast television station MBC TV operated by the state 117 Cable TV is available On cable TV most programs are shown two weeks later than in North America but news in real time can be viewed on CNN CNBC and BBC 118 American Forces Radio and Television also provides TV service to Kwajalein Atoll 119 The Marshall Islands National Telecommunications Authority NTA provides telephone cable TV MHTV FAX cellular and Internet services 120 121 The Authority is a private corporation with significant ownership by the national government 122 Newspapers Edit Loan Ran Kein a Marshallese language paper was published from 1953 to 1954 The current national newspaper is a bilingual Marshallese and English weekly The Marshall Islands Journal 123 It has been published since 1980 124 See also Edit Geography portal Islands portal Oceania portalOutline of the Marshall Islands Index of Marshall Islands related articles List of islands of the Marshall Islands Pacific Proving Grounds List of island countries The Plutonium Files Visa policy of the Marshall Islands Naval Base Marshall IslandsNotes Edit Pronunciations English Republic of the Marshall Islands ˈ m ɑːr ʃ el ˈ aɪ l en d z listen Marshallese Aolepan Aorōkin Ṃajeḷ ɑɔlʲɛbʲaenʲɑːorˠɤɡinʲ i mˠɑːzʲɛlˠ Wake Island is claimed as a territory of the Marshall Islands but is also claimed as an unorganized unincorporated territory of the United States with de facto control vested in the Office of Insular Affairs and all military defenses managed by the United States military References Edit The largest cities in Marshall Islands ranked by population Archived September 3 2011 at the Wayback Machine population mongabay com Retrieved May 25 2012 a b c Marshall Islands Geography CIA World Factbook Archived from the original on February 4 2021 Retrieved January 24 2021 Religions in Marshall Islands PEW GRF Globalreligiousfutures org Retrieved June 27 2022 Members rmiparliament org Archived from the original on January 26 2016 Retrieved August 22 2017 Marshall Islands population 2022 live Countrymeters Countrymeters info Retrieved July 24 2022 Republic of the Marshall Islands 2011 Census Report PDF Prism spc int Archived PDF from the original on September 20 2016 Retrieved August 22 2017 a b Report for Selected Countries and Subjects imf org Archived from the original on June 12 2020 Retrieved June 6 2019 Human Development Report 2021 2022 PDF United Nations Development Programme September 8 2022 Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Retrieved October 16 2022 Marshall Islands marshallese org Retrieved April 23 2022 Population total Marshall Islands data worldbank org Archived from the original on December 2 2019 Retrieved December 2 2019 Marshall Islands Population 2017 Worldometers Worldometers info Archived from the original on April 27 2020 Retrieved January 13 2020 a b c d e Marshall Islands profile Timeline Bbc com July 31 2017 Archived from the original on August 14 2017 Retrieved August 22 2017 a b c Republic of the Marshall Islands Pacific RISA February 3 2012 Archived from the original on October 22 2015 Retrieved November 1 2015 Republic of the Marshall Islands country brief Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade Australia Archived from the original on May 16 2021 Retrieved June 9 2021 Martina Michael Brunnstrom David June 17 2022 U S and Marshall Islands seek economic assistance deal this year Reuters Retrieved August 1 2022 Liao Shannon May 23 2018 The Marshall Islands replaces the U S dollar with its own cryptocurrency The Verge Archived from the original on January 16 2019 Retrieved January 16 2019 Chavez Dreyfuss Gertrude February 28 2018 Marshall Islands to issue own sovereign cryptocurrency Technology News Reuters Archived from the original on January 17 2019 Retrieved January 16 2019 Marshall Islands PDF imr ptc ac fj Archived PDF from the original on January 15 2019 Retrieved January 16 2019 Ratzel Friedrich The History of Mankind inquirewithin biz Archived from the original on September 27 2013 Retrieved August 1 2019 Book II Section A The Races of Oceania page 165 picture of a stick chart from the Marshall Islands MacMillan and Co Langdon Robert 1984 Where the whalers went an index to the Pacific Ports and 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mile trip marked marking the furthest deployment of an FRC to date for the Coast Guard and is the first deployment of its kind in the Pacific Davenport Coral Haner Josh December 1 2015 The Marshall Islands Are Disappearing The New York Times Archived from the original on August 23 2017 Retrieved August 22 2017 United Nations General Assembly Resolution 46 3 Admission of the Republic of the Marshall Islands to Membership in the United Nations adopted September 17 1991 un org United Nations Official Document Archived from the original on November 18 2015 General Assembly Overall Votes Comparison with U S vote Archived 2019 12 02 at the Wayback Machine lists the Marshall Islands as the country with the second highest incidence of votes Micronesia has always been in the top two Armin Rosen April 29 2015 Marshall Islands ship seized by Iran Business Insider Business Insider Archived from the original on May 3 2015 Retrieved May 6 2015 Iran to release cargo vessel after it pays fine Business Insider Business Insider May 6 2015 Archived from the original on May 9 2015 Retrieved May 6 2015 Freedom of the press in Indonesian occupied West Papua The Guardian July 22 2019 Archived from the original on July 25 2019 Retrieved July 31 2019 Fox Liam March 2 2017 Pacific nations call for UN investigations into alleged Indonesian rights abuses in West Papua ABC News Archived from the original on October 31 2017 Retrieved July 31 2019 a b Pacific nations want UN to investigate Indonesia on West Papua SBS News March 7 2017 Archived from the original on November 7 2017 Retrieved July 31 2019 Johnson Giff February 1 2021 Australia Japan fund law enforcement in Marshall Islands MVariety mvariety com Archived from the original on February 9 2021 Retrieved February 2 2021 Five Micronesian countries leave Pacific Islands Forum RNZ February 9 2021 Archived from the original on March 8 2021 Retrieved February 9 2021 Pacific Islands Forum in crisis as one third of member nations quit The 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became a top U S crude export destination Intel Reuters Archived from the original on January 4 2018 Retrieved January 3 2018 Republic of the Marshall Islands becomes 181st ILO member State Ilo org July 6 2007 Archived from the original on July 24 2008 a b Official Homepage of the NITIJELA PARLIAMENT NITIJELA PARLIAMENT of the Republic of the Marshall Islands Archived from the original on January 16 2018 Retrieved January 16 2018 COMPACT OF FREE ASSOCIATION AMENDMENTS ACT OF 2003 PDF Public Law 108 188 108th Congress December 17 2003 Archived from the original PDF on October 26 2007 Mellgard Peter December 12 2015 In The Marshall Islands Traditional Agriculture And Healthy Eating Are A Climate Change Strategy Huffington Post Archived from the original on February 25 2018 Retrieved January 16 2019 Copra Processing Plant Marshall Islands Guide Infomarshallislands com November 18 2016 Archived from the original on October 27 2017 Retrieved August 22 2017 Copra production up on 2014 The 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Marshall Islands facts information pictures Encyclopedia com articles about Marshall Islands Encyclopedia com Archived from the original on August 23 2017 Retrieved August 22 2017 AUSTRALIA OCEANIA MARSHALL ISLANDS Cia gov Archived from the original on February 4 2021 Retrieved August 22 2017 Internet Options Marshall Islands Guide Infomarshallislands com June 11 2017 Archived from the original on November 14 2017 Retrieved August 22 2017 Hasegawa MHTV Ntamar net Archived from the original on August 23 2017 Retrieved August 22 2017 Hasegawa About Us Minta mh Archived from the original on August 23 2017 Retrieved August 22 2017 Home marshallislandsjournal com Archived from the original on August 26 2021 Retrieved August 24 2021 Pacific Islands Newspapers Marshall Islands University of Hawaii at Manoa Archived from the original on November 25 2020 Retrieved September 7 2020 Bibliography EditSharp Andrew 1960 Early Spanish Discoveries in the Pacific Further reading EditBarker Holly M February 1 2012 Bravo for the Marshallese Regaining Control in a Post Nuclear Post Colonial World Cengage Learning ISBN 9781111833848 Carucci Laurence Marshall 1997 Nuclear Nativity Rituals of Renewal and Empowerment in the Marshall Islands Northern Illinois University Press ISBN 9780875802176 Hein J R F L Wong and D L Mosier 2007 Bathymetry of the Republic of the Marshall Islands and Vicinity Miscellaneous Field Studies Map MF 2324 Reston VA U S Department of the Interior U S Geological Survey Niedenthal Jack 2001 For the Good of Mankind A History of the People of Bikini and Their Islands Bravo Publishers ISBN 9789829050021 Rudiak Gould Peter 2009 Surviving Paradise One Year on a Disappearing Island Sterling Publishing Company Inc ISBN 9781402766640 Woodard Colin 2000 Ocean s End Travels Through Endangered Seas New York Basic Books Contains extended account of sea level rise threat and the legacy of U S Atomic testing External links EditMarshall Islands at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel information from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Government Edit Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands Washington DC official government site Chief of State and Cabinet MembersGeneral information Edit Marshall Islands The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency Country Profile from New Internationalist Marshall Islands from UCB Libraries GovPubs Marshall Islands at Curlie Marshall Islands from the BBC News Wikimedia Atlas of the Marshall IslandsNews media Edit Marshall Islands Journal Weekly independent national newspaperOther Edit Digital Micronesia Marshalls by Dirk HR Spennemann Associate Professor in Cultural Heritage Management Plants amp Environments of the Marshall Islands Book turned website by Dr Mark Merlin of the University of Hawaii Atomic Testing Information Pictures of victims of U S nuclear testing in the Marshall Islands on Nuclear Files org Kenner hearing Marshall Islands flagged rig in Gulf oil spill was reviewed in February NOAA s National Weather Service Marshall Islands Canoes of the Marshall Islands Alele Museum Museum of the Marshall Islands WUTMI Women United Together Marshall Islands Coordinates 9 49 N 169 17 E 9 82 N 169 29 E 9 82 169 29 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Marshall Islands amp oldid 1129798401, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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