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Carl Linnaeus

January 16, 2023

Not to be confused with Carl Linnaeus the Younger or Karl Linnas.
"L.", "Linn.", and "Linnaeus" redirect here. For L, see L (disambiguation). For Linn, see Linn (disambiguation). For Linnaeus, see Linnaeus (disambiguation).

Carl Linnaeus (/lɪˈniːəs, lɪˈneɪəs/;[1][2] 23 May[note 1] 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after his ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné[3] (Swedish pronunciation: [ˈkɑːɭ fɔn lɪˈneː] (listen)), was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, taxonomist, and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of modern taxonomy".[4] Many of his writings were in Latin; his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus and, after his 1761 ennoblement, as Carolus a Linné.

Carl Linnaeus
Carl von Linné by Alexander Roslin, 1775
(oil on canvas, Gripsholm Castle)
Born(1707-05-23)23 May 1707[note 1]
Råshult, Stenbrohult parish (now within Älmhult Municipality), Sweden
Died10 January 1778(1778-01-10) (aged 70)
Hammarby (estate), Danmark parish (outside Uppsala), Sweden
Resting placeUppsala Cathedral
59°51′29″N 17°38′00″E / 59.85806°N 17.63333°E / 59.85806; 17.63333
NationalitySwedish
Alma mater
Known for
Spouse
​
​
(m. 1739)​
Children7
Scientific career
Fields
InstitutionsUppsala University
ThesisDissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa (1735)
Notable students
Author abbrev. (botany)L.
Author abbrev. (zoology)Linn.
Signature

Linnaeus was born in Råshult, the countryside of Småland, in southern Sweden. He received most of his higher education at Uppsala University and began giving lectures in botany there in 1730. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published the first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands. He then returned to Sweden where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on several journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants and animals. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, while publishing several volumes. He was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe at the time of his death.

Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message: "Tell him I know no greater man on earth."[5] Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: "With the exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza, I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly."[5] Swedish author August Strindberg wrote: "Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist."[6] Linnaeus has been called Princeps botanicorum (Prince of Botanists) and "The Pliny of the North".[7] He is also considered one of the founders of modern ecology.[8]

In botany and zoology, the abbreviation L. is used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for a species' name.[9] In older publications, the abbreviation "Linn." is found. Linnaeus's remains constitute the type specimen for the species Homo sapiens following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself.[note 2]

Early life

Childhood

See also: Linné family
 
Birthplace at Råshult

Linnaeus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland, Sweden, on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nicolaus (Nils) Ingemarsson (who later adopted the family name Linnaeus) and Christina Brodersonia. His siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa, Sofia Juliana Linnæa, Samuel Linnæus (who would eventually succeed their father as rector of Stenbrohult and write a manual on beekeeping),[10][11][12] and Emerentia Linnæa.[13] His father taught him Latin as a small child.[14]

One of a long line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateur botanist, a Lutheran minister, and the curate of the small village of Stenbrohult in Småland. Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius.[15]

A year after Linnaeus's birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult. The family moved into the rectory from the curate's house.[16][17]

Even in his early years, Linnaeus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he was upset, he was given a flower, which immediately calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus and told him their names. Soon Linnaeus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants.[18]

Carl's father was the first in his ancestry to adopt a permanent surname. Before that, ancestors had used the patronymic naming system of Scandinavian countries: his father was named Ingemarsson after his father Ingemar Bengtsson. When Nils was admitted to the University of Lund, he had to take on a family name. He adopted the Latinate name Linnæus after a giant linden tree (or lime tree), lind in Swedish, that grew on the family homestead.[10] This name was spelled with the æ ligature. When Carl was born, he was named Carl Linnæus, with his father's family name. The son also always spelled it with the æ ligature, both in handwritten documents and in publications.[16] Carl's patronymic would have been Nilsson, as in Carl Nilsson Linnæus.[19]

Early education

Linnaeus's father began teaching him basic Latin, religion, and geography at an early age.[20] When Linnaeus was seven, Nils decided to hire a tutor for him. The parents picked Johan Telander, a son of a local yeoman. Linnaeus did not like him, writing in his autobiography that Telander "was better calculated to extinguish a child's talents than develop them".[21]

Two years after his tutoring had begun, he was sent to the Lower Grammar School at Växjö in 1717.[22] Linnaeus rarely studied, often going to the countryside to look for plants. At some point, his father went to visit him and, after hearing critical assessements by his preceptors, he decided to put the youth as an apprentice to some honest cobbler.[23] He reached the last year of the Lower School when he was fifteen, which was taught by the headmaster, Daniel Lannerus, who was interested in botany. Lannerus noticed Linnaeus's interest in botany and gave him the run of his garden.

He also introduced him to Johan Rothman, the state doctor of Småland and a teacher at Katedralskolan (a gymnasium) in Växjö. Also a botanist, Rothman broadened Linnaeus's interest in botany and helped him develop an interest in medicine.[24][25] By the age of 17, Linnaeus had become well acquainted with the existing botanical literature. He remarks in his journal that he "read day and night, knowing like the back of my hand, Arvidh Månsson's Rydaholm Book of Herbs, Tillandz's Flora Åboensis, Palmberg's Serta Florea Suecana, Bromelii's Chloros Gothica and Rudbeckii's Hortus Upsaliensis".[26]

Linnaeus entered the Växjö Katedralskola in 1724, where he studied mainly Greek, Hebrew, theology and mathematics, a curriculum designed for boys preparing for the priesthood.[27][28] In the last year at the gymnasium, Linnaeus's father visited to ask the professors how his son's studies were progressing; to his dismay, most said that the boy would never become a scholar. Rothman believed otherwise, suggesting Linnaeus could have a future in medicine. The doctor offered to have Linnaeus live with his family in Växjö and to teach him physiology and botany. Nils accepted this offer.[29][30]

University studies

Lund

 
Statue as a university student in Lund, by Ansgar Almquist

Rothman showed Linnaeus that botany was a serious subject. He taught Linnaeus to classify plants according to Tournefort's system. Linnaeus was also taught about the sexual reproduction of plants, according to Sébastien Vaillant.[29] In 1727, Linnaeus, age 21, enrolled in Lund University in Skåne.[31][32] He was registered as Carolus Linnæus, the Latin form of his full name, which he also used later for his Latin publications.[3]

Professor Kilian Stobæus, natural scientist, physician and historian, offered Linnaeus tutoring and lodging, as well as the use of his library, which included many books about botany. He also gave the student free admission to his lectures.[33][34] In his spare time, Linnaeus explored the flora of Skåne, together with students sharing the same interests.[35]

Uppsala

 
Pollination depicted in Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum (1729)

In August 1728, Linnaeus decided to attend Uppsala University on the advice of Rothman, who believed it would be a better choice if Linnaeus wanted to study both medicine and botany. Rothman based this recommendation on the two professors who taught at the medical faculty at Uppsala: Olof Rudbeck the Younger and Lars Roberg. Although Rudbeck and Roberg had undoubtedly been good professors, by then they were older and not so interested in teaching. Rudbeck no longer gave public lectures, and had others stand in for him. The botany, zoology, pharmacology and anatomy lectures were not in their best state.[36] In Uppsala, Linnaeus met a new benefactor, Olof Celsius, who was a professor of theology and an amateur botanist.[37] He received Linnaeus into his home and allowed him use of his library, which was one of the richest botanical libraries in Sweden.[38]

In 1729, Linnaeus wrote a thesis, Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum on plant sexual reproduction. This attracted the attention of Rudbeck; in May 1730, he selected Linnaeus to give lectures at the University although the young man was only a second-year student. His lectures were popular, and Linnaeus often addressed an audience of 300 people.[39] In June, Linnaeus moved from Celsius's house to Rudbeck's to become the tutor of the three youngest of his 24 children. His friendship with Celsius did not wane and they continued their botanical expeditions.[40] Over that winter, Linnaeus began to doubt Tournefort's system of classification and decided to create one of his own. His plan was to divide the plants by the number of stamens and pistils. He began writing several books, which would later result in, for example, Genera Plantarum and Critica Botanica. He also produced a book on the plants grown in the Uppsala Botanical Garden, Adonis Uplandicus.[41]

Rudbeck's former assistant, Nils Rosén, returned to the University in March 1731 with a degree in medicine. Rosén started giving anatomy lectures and tried to take over Linnaeus's botany lectures, but Rudbeck prevented that. Until December, Rosén gave Linnaeus private tutoring in medicine. In December, Linnaeus had a "disagreement" with Rudbeck's wife and had to move out of his mentor's house; his relationship with Rudbeck did not appear to suffer. That Christmas, Linnaeus returned home to Stenbrohult to visit his parents for the first time in about three years. His mother had disapproved of his failing to become a priest, but she was pleased to learn he was teaching at the University.[41][42]

Expedition to Lapland

Main articles: Expedition to Lapland and Flora Lapponica
 
Carl Linnaeus in Laponian costume (1737)

During a visit with his parents, Linnaeus told them about his plan to travel to Lapland; Rudbeck had made the journey in 1695, but the detailed results of his exploration were lost in a fire seven years afterwards. Linnaeus's hope was to find new plants, animals and possibly valuable minerals. He was also curious about the customs of the native Sami people, reindeer-herding nomads who wandered Scandinavia's vast tundras. In April 1732, Linnaeus was awarded a grant from the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala for his journey.[43][44]

 
Wearing the traditional dress of the Sami people of Lapland, holding the twinflower, later known as Linnaea borealis, that became his personal emblem. Martin Hoffman, 1737.

Linnaeus began his expedition from Uppsala on 12 May 1732, just before he turned 25.[45] He travelled on foot and horse, bringing with him his journal, botanical and ornithological manuscripts and sheets of paper for pressing plants. Near Gävle he found great quantities of Campanula serpyllifolia, later known as Linnaea borealis, the twinflower that would become his favourite.[46] He sometimes dismounted on the way to examine a flower or rock[47] and was particularly interested in mosses and lichens, the latter a main part of the diet of the reindeer, a common and economically important animal in Lapland.[48]

Linnaeus travelled clockwise around the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, making major inland incursions from Umeå, Luleå and Tornio. He returned from his six-month-long, over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) expedition in October, having gathered and observed many plants, birds and rocks.[49][50][51] Although Lapland was a region with limited biodiversity, Linnaeus described about 100 previously unidentified plants. These became the basis of his book Flora Lapponica.[52][53] However, on the expedition to Lapland, Linnaeus used Latin names to describe organisms because he had not yet developed the binomial system.[45]

In Flora Lapponica Linnaeus's ideas about nomenclature and classification were first used in a practical way, making this the first proto-modern Flora.[54] The account covered 534 species, used the Linnaean classification system and included, for the described species, geographical distribution and taxonomic notes. It was Augustin Pyramus de Candolle who attributed Linnaeus with Flora Lapponica as the first example in the botanical genre of Flora writing. Botanical historian E. L. Greene described Flora Lapponica as "the most classic and delightful" of Linnaeus's works.[54]

It was also during this expedition that Linnaeus had a flash of insight regarding the classification of mammals. Upon observing the lower jawbone of a horse at the side of a road he was travelling, Linnaeus remarked: "If I only knew how many teeth and of what kind every animal had, how many teats and where they were placed, I should perhaps be able to work out a perfectly natural system for the arrangement of all quadrupeds."[55]

In 1734, Linnaeus led a small group of students to Dalarna. Funded by the Governor of Dalarna, the expedition was to catalogue known natural resources and discover new ones, but also to gather intelligence on Norwegian mining activities at Røros.[51]

Years in the Dutch Republic (1735–38)

 
The Hamburg Hydra, from the Thesaurus (1734) of Albertus Seba. Linnaeus identified the hydra specimen as a fake in 1735.
 
View of Hartekamp, where Carl von Linné lived and studied for three years, from 1735 until 1738
 
Title page of Musa Cliffortiana (1736), Linnaeus's first botanical monograph.
 
Title page of Hortus Cliffortianus (1737). The work was a collaboration between Linnaeus and Georg Dionysius Ehret, financed by George Clifford III, one of the directors of the VOC.

Doctorate

 
Cities where he worked; those outside Sweden were only visited during 1735–1738.

His relations with Nils Rosén having worsened, Linnaeus accepted an invitation from Claes Sohlberg, son of a mining inspector, to spend the Christmas holiday in Falun, where Linnaeus was permitted to visit the mines.[56]

In April 1735, at the suggestion of Sohlberg's father, Linnaeus and Sohlberg set out for the Dutch Republic, where Linnaeus intended to study medicine at the University of Harderwijk[57] while tutoring Sohlberg in exchange for an annual salary. At the time, it was common for Swedes to pursue doctoral degrees in the Netherlands, then a highly revered place to study natural history.[58]

On the way, the pair stopped in Hamburg, where they met the mayor, who proudly showed them a supposed wonder of nature in his possession: the taxidermied remains of a seven-headed hydra. Linnaeus quickly discovered the specimen was a fake, cobbled together from the jaws and paws of weasels and the skins of snakes. The provenance of the hydra suggested to Linnaeus that it had been manufactured by monks to represent the Beast of Revelation. Even at the risk of incurring the mayor's wrath, Linnaeus made his observations public, dashing the mayor's dreams of selling the hydra for an enormous sum. Linnaeus and Sohlberg were forced to flee from Hamburg.[59][60]

Linnaeus began working towards his degree as soon as he reached Harderwijk, a university known for awarding degrees in as little as a week.[61] He submitted a dissertation, written back in Sweden, entitled Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa,[note 3] in which he laid out his hypothesis that malaria arose only in areas with clay-rich soils.[62] Although he failed to identify the true source of disease transmission, (i.e., the Anopheles mosquito),[63] he did correctly predict that Artemisia annua (wormwood) would become a source of antimalarial medications.[62]

Within two weeks he had completed his oral and practical examinations and was awarded a doctoral degree.[59][61]

That summer Linnaeus reunited with Peter Artedi, a friend from Uppsala with whom he had once made a pact that should either of the two predecease the other, the survivor would finish the decedent's work. Ten weeks later, Artedi drowned in the canals of Amsterdam, leaving behind an unfinished manuscript on the classification of fish.[64][65]

Publishing of Systema Naturae

One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands was Johan Frederik Gronovius, to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden. The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants. When Gronovius saw it, he was very impressed, and offered to help pay for the printing. With an additional monetary contribution by the Scottish doctor Isaac Lawson, the manuscript was published as Systema Naturae (1735).[66][67]

Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands, Herman Boerhaave, who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there. Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America, but Linnaeus declined, stating he would not stand the heat. Instead, Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit the botanist Johannes Burman. After his visit, Burman, impressed with his guest's knowledge, decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter. During his stay, Linnaeus helped Burman with his Thesaurus Zeylanicus. Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working: Fundamenta Botanica and Bibliotheca Botanica.[68]

George Clifford, Philip Miller, and Johann Jacob Dillenius

 
 
Leaf forms from Hortus Cliffortianus

In August 1735, during Linnaeus's stay with Burman, he met George Clifford III, a director of the Dutch East India Company and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate of Hartekamp in Heemstede. Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus's ability to classify plants, and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden. Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter, and could thus not accept immediately. However, Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him a copy of Sir Hans Sloane's Natural History of Jamaica, a rare book, if he let Linnaeus stay with him, and Burman accepted.[69][70] On 24 September 1735, Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford, and curator of Clifford's herbarium. He was paid 1,000 florins a year, with free board and lodging. Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year, Linnaeus practically stayed there until 1738.[71] It was here that he wrote a book Hortus Cliffortianus, in the preface of which he described his experience as "the happiest time of my life". (A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority, and was named "Linnaeushof".[72] It eventually became, as it is claimed, the biggest playground in Europe.[73])

In July 1736, Linnaeus travelled to England, at Clifford's expense.[74] He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane, a collector of natural history, and to see his cabinet,[75] as well as to visit the Chelsea Physic Garden and its keeper, Philip Miller. He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants, as described in Systema Naturae. Miller was in fact reluctant to use the new binomial nomenclature, preferring the classifications of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and John Ray at first. Linnaeus, nevertheless, applauded Miller's Gardeners Dictionary,[76] The conservative Scot actually retained in his dictionary a number of pre-Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists. He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition of The Gardeners Dictionary of 1768. Miller ultimately was impressed, and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus's system.[77]

Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit the botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius. He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system, though the two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards. Linnaeus dedicated his Critica Botanica to him, as "opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit". Linnaeus would later name a genus of tropical tree Dillenia in his honour. He then returned to Hartekamp, bringing with him many specimens of rare plants.[78] The next year, 1737, he published Genera Plantarum, in which he described 935 genera of plants, and shortly thereafter he supplemented it with Corollarium Generum Plantarum, with another sixty (sexaginta) genera.[79]

His work at Hartekamp led to another book, Hortus Cliffortianus, a catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp. He wrote it in nine months (completed in July 1737), but it was not published until 1738.[68] It contains the first use of the name Nepenthes, which Linnaeus used to describe a genus of pitcher plants.[80][note 4]

Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 (new style), when he left the house to return to Sweden. Illness and the kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland. In May 1738, he set out for Sweden again. On the way home, he stayed in Paris for about a month, visiting botanists such as Antoine de Jussieu. After his return, Linnaeus never left Sweden again.[81][82]

Return to Sweden

 
Wedding portrait

When Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738, he went to Falun, where he entered into an engagement to Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Three months later, he moved to Stockholm to find employment as a physician, and thus to make it possible to support a family.[83][84] Once again, Linnaeus found a patron; he became acquainted with Count Carl Gustav Tessin, who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty.[85][86] During this time in Stockholm, Linnaeus helped found the Royal Swedish Academy of Science; he became the first Praeses of the academy by drawing of lots.[87]

Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support a family, he received permission to marry his fiancée, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Their wedding was held 26 June 1739. Seventeen months later, Sara gave birth to their first son, Carl. Two years later, a daughter, Elisabeth Christina, was born, and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena, who died when 15 days old. Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina [sv], Johannes and Sophia.[83][88]

 
House in Uppsala

In May 1741, Linnaeus was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with responsibility for medicine-related matters. Soon, he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany and natural history, instead. In October that same year, his wife and nine-month-old son followed him to live in Uppsala.[89]

Öland and Gotland

Ten days after he was appointed Professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of Öland and Gotland with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine. First, they travelled to Öland and stayed there until 21 June, when they sailed to Visby in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from the expedition were later published in Öländska och Gothländska Resa, written in Swedish. Like Flora Lapponica, it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland.[90][91]

During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books: Flora Suecica and Fauna Suecica. Flora Suecica was a strictly botanical book, while Fauna Suecica was zoological.[83][92] Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742. Celsius's scale was inverted compared to today, the boiling point at 0 °C and freezing point at 100 °C. In 1745, Linnaeus inverted the scale to its present standard.[93]

Västergötland

In the summer of 1746, Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to the Swedish province of Västergötland. He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August. On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey. Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book Wästgöta-Resa, published the next year.[90][94] After he returned from the journey, the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to the southernmost province Scania. This journey was postponed, as Linnaeus felt too busy.[83]

In 1747, Linnaeus was given the title archiater, or chief physician, by the Swedish king Adolf Frederick—a mark of great respect.[95] The same year he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin.[96]

Scania

In the spring of 1749, Linnaeus could finally journey to Scania, again commissioned by the Government. With him he brought his student, Olof Söderberg. On the way to Scania, he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year. The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects, but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow walnut and Swedish whitebeam trees; these trees were used by the military to make rifles. While there, they also visited the Ramlösa mineral spa, where he remarked on the quality of its ferruginous water.[97] The journey was successful, and Linnaeus's observations were published the next year in Skånska Resa.[98][99]

Rector of Uppsala University

 
Summer home at his Hammarby estate
 
The Linnaean Garden in Uppsala

In 1750, Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed.[83] Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach; many of his students travelled to various places in the world to collect botanical samples. Linnaeus called the best of these students his "apostles".[100] His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden. He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him. Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer, where Linnaeus and his students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala.[101]

Philosophia Botanica

Linnaeus published Philosophia Botanica in 1751.[102] The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works. It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden.[103]

Nutrix Noverca

 
Cover of Nutrix Noverca (1752)

During Linnaeus's time it was normal for upper class women to have wet nurses for their babies. Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast-feeding by mothers. In 1752 Linnaeus published a thesis along with Frederick Lindberg, a physician student,[104] based on their experiences.[105] In the tradition of the period, this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer (prases) expounded upon by the student. Linnaeus's dissertation was translated into French by J. E. Gilibert in 1770 as La Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire. Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb the personality of their wet nurse through the milk. He admired the child care practices of the Lapps[106] and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses. He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk.[106] It is thought that his activism played a role in his choice of the term Mammalia for the class of organisms.[107]

Species Plantarum

Main article: Species Plantarum

Linnaeus published Species Plantarum, the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modern botanical nomenclature, in 1753.[108] The first volume was issued on 24 May, the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year.[note 5][110] The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes; it described over 7,300 species.[111][112] The same year the king dubbed him knight of the Order of the Polar Star, the first civilian in Sweden to become a knight in this order. He was then seldom seen not wearing the order's insignia.[113]

Ennoblement

Linnaeus felt Uppsala was too noisy and unhealthy, so he bought two farms in 1758: Hammarby and Sävja. The next year, he bought a neighbouring farm, Edeby. He spent the summers with his family at Hammarby; initially it only had a small one-storey house, but in 1762 a new, larger main building was added.[99][114] In Hammarby, Linnaeus made a garden where he could grow plants that could not be grown in the Botanical Garden in Uppsala. He began constructing a museum on a hill behind Hammarby in 1766, where he moved his library and collection of plants. A fire that destroyed about one third of Uppsala and had threatened his residence there necessitated the move.[115]

Since the initial release of Systema Naturae in 1735, the book had been expanded and reprinted several times; the tenth edition was released in 1758. This edition established itself as the starting point for zoological nomenclature, the equivalent of Species Plantarum.[111][116]

The Swedish King Adolf Frederick granted Linnaeus nobility in 1757, but he was not ennobled until 1761. With his ennoblement, he took the name Carl von Linné (Latinised as Carolus a Linné), 'Linné' being a shortened and gallicised version of 'Linnæus', and the German nobiliary particle 'von' signifying his ennoblement.[3] The noble family's coat of arms prominently features a twinflower, one of Linnaeus's favourite plants; it was given the scientific name Linnaea borealis in his honour by Gronovius. The shield in the coat of arms is divided into thirds: red, black and green for the three kingdoms of nature (animal, mineral and vegetable) in Linnaean classification; in the centre is an egg "to denote Nature, which is continued and perpetuated in ovo." At the bottom is a phrase in Latin, borrowed from the Aeneid, which reads "Famam extendere factis": we extend our fame by our deeds.[117][118][119] Linnaeus inscribed this personal motto in books that were given to him by friends.[120]

After his ennoblement, Linnaeus continued teaching and writing. His reputation had spread over the world, and he corresponded with many different people. For example, Catherine II of Russia sent him seeds from her country.[121] He also corresponded with Giovanni Antonio Scopoli, "the Linnaeus of the Austrian Empire", who was a doctor and a botanist in Idrija, Duchy of Carniola (nowadays Slovenia).[122] Scopoli communicated all of his research, findings, and descriptions (for example of the olm and the dormouse, two little animals hitherto unknown to Linnaeus). Linnaeus greatly respected Scopoli and showed great interest in his work. He named a solanaceous genus, Scopolia, the source of scopolamine, after him, but because of the great distance between them, they never met.[123][124]

Final years

 
Headstone of him and his son Carl Linnaeus the Younger

Linnaeus was relieved of his duties in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1763, but continued his work there as usual for more than ten years after.[83] In 1769 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society for his work.[125] He stepped down as rector at Uppsala University in December 1772, mostly due to his declining health.[82][126]

Linnaeus's last years were troubled by illness. He had had a disease called the Uppsala fever in 1764, but survived due to the care of Rosén. He developed sciatica in 1773, and the next year, he had a stroke which partially paralysed him.[127] He had a second stroke in 1776, losing the use of his right side and leaving him bereft of his memory; while still able to admire his own writings, he could not recognise himself as their author.[128][129]

In December 1777, he had another stroke which greatly weakened him, and eventually led to his death on 10 January 1778 in Hammarby.[130][126] Despite his desire to be buried in Hammarby, he was buried in Uppsala Cathedral on 22 January.[131][132]

His library and collections were left to his widow Sara and their children. Joseph Banks, an eminent botanist, wished to purchase the collection, but his son Carl refused the offer and instead moved the collection to Uppsala. In 1783 Carl died and Sara inherited the collection, having outlived both her husband and son. She tried to sell it to Banks, but he was no longer interested; instead an acquaintance of his agreed to buy the collection. The acquaintance was a 24-year-old medical student, James Edward Smith, who bought the whole collection: 14,000 plants, 3,198 insects, 1,564 shells, about 3,000 letters and 1,600 books. Smith founded the Linnean Society of London five years later.[132][133]

The von Linné name ended with his son Carl, who never married.[6] His other son, Johannes, had died aged 3.[134] There are over two hundred descendants of Linnaeus through two of his daughters.[6]

Apostles

Main article: Apostles of Linnaeus
 
Carl Peter Thunberg was a VOC physician and an apostle of Linnaeus.
 
Peter Forsskål was among the apostles who met a tragic fate abroad.

During Linnaeus's time as Professor and Rector of Uppsala University, he taught many devoted students, 17 of whom he called "apostles". They were the most promising, most committed students, and all of them made botanical expeditions to various places in the world, often with his help. The amount of this help varied; sometimes he used his influence as Rector to grant his apostles a scholarship or a place on an expedition.[135] To most of the apostles he gave instructions of what to look for on their journeys. Abroad, the apostles collected and organised new plants, animals and minerals according to Linnaeus's system. Most of them also gave some of their collection to Linnaeus when their journey was finished.[136] Thanks to these students, the Linnaean system of taxonomy spread through the world without Linnaeus ever having to travel outside Sweden after his return from Holland.[137] The British botanist William T. Stearn notes, without Linnaeus's new system, it would not have been possible for the apostles to collect and organise so many new specimens.[138] Many of the apostles died during their expeditions.

Early expeditions

Christopher Tärnström, the first apostle and a 43-year-old pastor with a wife and children, made his journey in 1746. He boarded a Swedish East India Company ship headed for China. Tärnström never reached his destination, dying of a tropical fever on Côn Sơn Island the same year. Tärnström's widow blamed Linnaeus for making her children fatherless, causing Linnaeus to prefer sending out younger, unmarried students after Tärnström.[139] Six other apostles later died on their expeditions, including Pehr Forsskål and Pehr Löfling.[138]

Two years after Tärnström's expedition, Finnish-born Pehr Kalm set out as the second apostle to North America. There he spent two-and-a-half years studying the flora and fauna of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey and Canada. Linnaeus was overjoyed when Kalm returned, bringing back with him many pressed flowers and seeds. At least 90 of the 700 North American species described in Species Plantarum had been brought back by Kalm.[140]

Cook expeditions and Japan

 
Apostle Daniel Solander (far left) with Joseph Banks (left, sitting) accompanied James Cook (centre) on his journey to Australia.

Daniel Solander was living in Linnaeus's house during his time as a student in Uppsala. Linnaeus was very fond of him, promising Solander his eldest daughter's hand in marriage. On Linnaeus's recommendation, Solander travelled to England in 1760, where he met the English botanist Joseph Banks. With Banks, Solander joined James Cook on his expedition to Oceania on the Endeavour in 1768–71.[141][142] Solander was not the only apostle to journey with James Cook; Anders Sparrman followed on the Resolution in 1772–75 bound for, among other places, Oceania and South America. Sparrman made many other expeditions, one of them to South Africa.[143]

Perhaps the most famous and successful apostle was Carl Peter Thunberg, who embarked on a nine-year expedition in 1770. He stayed in South Africa for three years, then travelled to Japan. All foreigners in Japan were forced to stay on the island of Dejima outside Nagasaki, so it was thus hard for Thunberg to study the flora. He did, however, manage to persuade some of the translators to bring him different plants, and he also found plants in the gardens of Dejima. He returned to Sweden in 1779, one year after Linnaeus's death.[144]

Major publications

Main article: Carl Linnaeus bibliography

Systema Naturae

 
Title page of the 10th edition of Systema Naturæ (1758)
Main article: Systema Naturae

The first edition of Systema Naturae was printed in the Netherlands in 1735. It was a twelve-page work.[145] By the time it reached its 10th edition in 1758, it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. People from all over the world sent their specimens to Linnaeus to be included. By the time he started work on the 12th edition, Linnaeus needed a new invention—the index card—to track classifications.[146]

In Systema Naturae, the unwieldy names mostly used at the time, such as "Physalis annua ramosissima, ramis angulosis glabris, foliis dentato-serratis", were supplemented with concise and now familiar "binomials", composed of the generic name, followed by a specific epithet—in the case given, Physalis angulata. These binomials could serve as a label to refer to the species. Higher taxa were constructed and arranged in a simple and orderly manner. Although the system, now known as binomial nomenclature, was partially developed by the Bauhin brothers (see Gaspard Bauhin and Johann Bauhin) almost 200 years earlier,[147] Linnaeus was the first to use it consistently throughout the work, including in monospecific genera, and may be said to have popularised it within the scientific community.

After the decline in Linnaeus's health in the early 1770s, publication of editions of Systema Naturae went in two different directions. Another Swedish scientist, Johan Andreas Murray issued the Regnum Vegetabile section separately in 1774 as the Systema Vegetabilium, rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition.[148] Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire Systema appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793 under the editorship of Johann Friedrich Gmelin. It was through the Systema Vegetabilium that Linnaeus's work became widely known in England, following its translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society as A System of Vegetables (1783–1785).[149]

Orbis eruditi judicium de Caroli Linnaei MD scriptis

('Opinion of the learned world on the writings of Carl Linnaeus, Doctor') Published in 1740, this small octavo-sized pamphlet was presented to the State Library of New South Wales by the Linnean Society of NSW in 2018. This is considered among the rarest of all the writings of Linnaeus, and crucial to his career, securing him his appointment to a professorship of medicine at Uppsala University. From this position he laid the groundwork for his radical new theory of classifying and naming organisms for which he was considered the founder of modern taxonomy.

Species Plantarum

Main article: Species Plantarum

Species Plantarum (or, more fully, Species Plantarum, exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas) was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today.[108]

Genera Plantarum

Main article: Genera Plantarum

Genera plantarum: eorumque characteres naturales secundum numerum, figuram, situm, et proportionem omnium fructificationis partium was first published in 1737, delineating plant genera. Around 10 editions were published, not all of them by Linnaeus himself; the most important is the 1754 fifth edition.[150] In it Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 24 classes. One, Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).[151]

Philosophia Botanica

Main article: Philosophia Botanica

Philosophia Botanica (1751)[102] was a summary of Linnaeus's thinking on plant classification and nomenclature, and an elaboration of the work he had previously published in Fundamenta Botanica (1736) and Critica Botanica (1737). Other publications forming part of his plan to reform the foundations of botany include his Classes Plantarum and Bibliotheca Botanica: all were printed in Holland (as were Genera Plantarum (1737) and Systema Naturae (1735)), the Philosophia being simultaneously released in Stockholm.[152]

Collections

 
Linnaeus marble by Léon-Joseph Chavalliaud (1899), outside the Palm House at Sefton Park, Liverpool

At the end of his lifetime the Linnean collection in Uppsala was considered one of the finest collections of natural history objects in Sweden. Next to his own collection he had also built up a museum for the university of Uppsala, which was supplied by material donated by Carl Gyllenborg (in 1744–1745), crown-prince Adolf Fredrik (in 1745), Erik Petreus (in 1746), Claes Grill (in 1746), Magnus Lagerström (in 1748 and 1750) and Jonas Alströmer (in 1749). The relation between the museum and the private collection was not formalised and the steady flow of material from Linnean pupils were incorporated to the private collection rather than to the museum.[153] Linnaeus felt his work was reflecting the harmony of nature and he said in 1754 "the earth is then nothing else but a museum of the all-wise creator's masterpieces, divided into three chambers". He had turned his own estate into a microcosm of that 'world museum'.[154]

In April 1766 parts of the town were destroyed by a fire and the Linnean private collection was subsequently moved to a barn outside the town, and shortly afterwards to a single-room stone building close to his country house at Hammarby near Uppsala. This resulted in a physical separation between the two collections; the museum collection remained in the botanical garden of the university. Some material which needed special care (alcohol specimens) or ample storage space was moved from the private collection to the museum.

In Hammarby the Linnean private collections suffered seriously from damp and the depredations by mice and insects. Carl von Linné's son (Carl Linnaeus) inherited the collections in 1778 and retained them until his own death in 1783. Shortly after Carl von Linné's death his son confirmed that mice had caused "horrible damage" to the plants and that also moths and mould had caused considerable damage.[155] He tried to rescue them from the neglect they had suffered during his father's later years, and also added further specimens. This last activity however reduced rather than augmented the scientific value of the original material.

In 1784 the young medical student James Edward Smith purchased the entire specimen collection, library, manuscripts, and correspondence of Carl Linnaeus from his widow and daughter and transferred the collections to London.[156][157] Not all material in Linné's private collection was transported to England. Thirty-three fish specimens preserved in alcohol were not sent and were later lost.[158]

In London Smith tended to neglect the zoological parts of the collection; he added some specimens and also gave some specimens away.[159] Over the following centuries the Linnean collection in London suffered enormously at the hands of scientists who studied the collection, and in the process disturbed the original arrangement and labels, added specimens that did not belong to the original series and withdrew precious original type material.[155]

Much material which had been intensively studied by Linné in his scientific career belonged to the collection of Queen Lovisa Ulrika (1720–1782) (in the Linnean publications referred to as "Museum Ludovicae Ulricae" or "M. L. U."). This collection was donated by her grandson King Gustav IV Adolf (1778–1837) to the museum in Uppsala in 1804. Another important collection in this respect was that of her husband King Adolf Fredrik (1710–1771) (in the Linnean sources known as "Museum Adolphi Friderici" or "Mus. Ad. Fr."), the wet parts (alcohol collection) of which were later donated to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and is today housed in the Swedish Museum of Natural History at Stockholm. The dry material was transferred to Uppsala.[153]

System of taxonomy

 
Table of the Animal Kingdom (Regnum Animale) from the 1st edition of Systema Naturæ (1735)
Main article: Linnaean taxonomy

The establishment of universally accepted conventions for the naming of organisms was Linnaeus's main contribution to taxonomy—his work marks the starting point of consistent use of binomial nomenclature.[160] During the 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, Linnaeus also developed what became known as the Linnaean taxonomy; the system of scientific classification now widely used in the biological sciences. A previous zoologist Rumphius (1627–1702) had more or less approximated the Linnaean system and his material contributed to the later development of the binomial scientific classification by Linnaeus.[161]

The Linnaean system classified nature within a nested hierarchy, starting with three kingdoms. Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, and thence into genera (singular: genus), which were divided into species (singular: species).[162] Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank; these have since acquired standardised names such as variety in botany and subspecies in zoology. Modern taxonomy includes a rank of family between order and genus and a rank of phylum between kingdom and class that were not present in Linnaeus's original system.[163]

Linnaeus's groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics, and not based upon differences.[163] Of his higher groupings, only those for animals are still in use, and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since their conception, as have the principles behind them. Nevertheless, Linnaeus is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.[160][164] While the underlying details concerning what are considered to be scientifically valid "observable characteristics" have changed with expanding knowledge (for example, DNA sequencing, unavailable in Linnaeus's time, has proven to be a tool of considerable utility for classifying living organisms and establishing their evolutionary relationships), the fundamental principle remains sound.

Human taxonomy

Main article: Human taxonomy § History

Linnaeus's system of taxonomy was especially noted as the first to include humans (Homo) taxonomically grouped with apes (Simia), under the header of Anthropomorpha. German biologist Ernst Haeckel speaking in 1907 noted this as the "most important sign of Linnaeus's genius".[165]

Linnaeus classified humans among the primates beginning with the first edition of Systema Naturae.[166] During his time at Hartekamp, he had the opportunity to examine several monkeys and noted similarities between them and man.[167] He pointed out both species basically have the same anatomy; except for speech, he found no other differences.[168][note 6] Thus he placed man and monkeys under the same category, Anthropomorpha, meaning "manlike."[169] This classification received criticism from other biologists such as Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, Jacob Theodor Klein and Johann Georg Gmelin on the ground that it is illogical to describe man as human-like.[170] In a letter to Gmelin from 1747, Linnaeus replied:[171][note 7]

It does not please [you] that I've placed Man among the Anthropomorpha, perhaps because of the term 'with human form',[note 8] but man learns to know himself. Let's not quibble over words. It will be the same to me whatever name we apply. But I seek from you and from the whole world a generic difference between man and simian that [follows] from the principles of Natural History.[note 9] I absolutely know of none. If only someone might tell me a single one! If I would have called man a simian or vice versa, I would have brought together all the theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to have by virtue of the law of the discipline.

 
Detail from the sixth edition of Systema Naturae (1748) describing Ant[h]ropomorpha with a division between Homo and Simia

The theological concerns were twofold: first, putting man at the same level as monkeys or apes would lower the spiritually higher position that man was assumed to have in the great chain of being, and second, because the Bible says man was created in the image of God[172] (theomorphism), if monkeys/apes and humans were not distinctly and separately designed, that would mean monkeys and apes were created in the image of God as well. This was something many could not accept.[173] The conflict between world views that was caused by asserting man was a type of animal would simmer for a century until the much greater, and still ongoing, creation–evolution controversy began in earnest with the publication of On the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin in 1859.

After such criticism, Linnaeus felt he needed to explain himself more clearly. The 10th edition of Systema Naturae introduced new terms, including Mammalia and Primates, the latter of which would replace Anthropomorpha[174] as well as giving humans the full binomial Homo sapiens.[175] The new classification received less criticism, but many natural historians still believed he had demoted humans from their former place of ruling over nature and not being a part of it. Linnaeus believed that man biologically belongs to the animal kingdom and had to be included in it.[176] In his book Dieta Naturalis, he said, "One should not vent one's wrath on animals, Theology decree that man has a soul and that the animals are mere 'aoutomata mechanica,' but I believe they would be better advised that animals have a soul and that the difference is of nobility."[177]

 
Anthropomorpha, from the 1760 dissertation by C. E. Hoppius[178]
1. Troglodyta Bontii, 2. Lucifer Aldrovandi, 3. Satyrus Tulpii, 4. Pygmaeus Edwardi

Linnaeus added a second species to the genus Homo in Systema Naturae based on a figure and description by Jacobus Bontius from a 1658 publication: Homo troglodytes ("caveman")[179][180] and published a third in 1771: Homo lar.[181] Swedish historian Gunnar Broberg states that the new human species Linnaeus described were actually simians or native people clad in skins to frighten colonial settlers, whose appearance had been exaggerated in accounts to Linnaeus.[182] For Homo troglodytes Linnaeus asked the Swedish East India Company to search for one, but they did not find any signs of its existence.[183] Homo lar has since been reclassified as Hylobates lar, the lar gibbon.[184]

See also: Race (human categorization)

In the first edition of Systema Naturae, Linnaeus subdivided the human species into four varieties: "Europæus albesc[ens]" (whitish European), "Americanus rubesc[ens]" (reddish American), "Asiaticus fuscus" (tawny Asian) and "Africanus nigr[iculus]" (blackish African).[185][186] In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae he further detailed phenotypical characteristics for each variety, based on the concept of the four temperaments from classical antiquity,[187][dubious – discuss] and changed the description of Asians' skin tone to "luridus" (yellow).[188] Additionally, Linnaeus created a wastebasket taxon "monstrosus" for "wild and monstrous humans, unknown groups, and more or less abnormal people".[189]

In 1959, W. T. Stearn designated Linnaeus to be the lectotype of H. sapiens.[190][191][192]

Influences and economic beliefs

 
Statue on University of Chicago campus

Linnaeus's applied science was inspired not only by the instrumental utilitarianism general to the early Enlightenment, but also by his adherence to the older economic doctrine of Cameralism.[193] Additionally, Linnaeus was a state interventionist. He supported tariffs, levies, export bounties, quotas, embargoes, navigation acts, subsidised investment capital, ceilings on wages, cash grants, state-licensed producer monopolies, and cartels.[194]

Commemoration

 
1907 celebration in Råshult
Main article: Commemoration of Carl Linnaeus

Anniversaries of Linnaeus's birth, especially in centennial years, have been marked by major celebrations.[195] Linnaeus has appeared on numerous Swedish postage stamps and banknotes.[195] There are numerous statues of Linnaeus in countries around the world. The Linnean Society of London has awarded the Linnean Medal for excellence in botany or zoology since 1888. Following approval by the Riksdag of Sweden, Växjö University and Kalmar College merged on 1 January 2010 to become Linnaeus University.[196] Other things named after Linnaeus include the twinflower genus Linnaea, Linnaeosicyos (a monotypic genus in the family Cucurbitaceae),[197] the crater Linné on the Earth's moon, a street in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and the cobalt sulfide mineral Linnaeite.

Commentary

Andrew Dickson White wrote in A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom (1896):

Linnaeus ... was the most eminent naturalist of his time, a wide observer, a close thinker; but the atmosphere in which he lived and moved and had his being was saturated with biblical theology, and this permeated all his thinking. ... Toward the end of his life he timidly advanced the hypothesis that all the species of one genus constituted at the creation one species; and from the last edition of his Systema Naturæ he quietly left out the strongly orthodox statement of the fixity of each species, which he had insisted upon in his earlier works. ... warnings came speedily both from the Catholic and Protestant sides.[198]

The mathematical PageRank algorithm, applied to 24 multilingual Wikipedia editions in 2014, published in PLOS ONE in 2015, placed Carl Linnaeus at the top historical figure, above Jesus, Aristotle, Napoleon, and Adolf Hitler (in that order).[199][200]

In the 21st century, Linnæus's taxonomy of human "races" has been problematised and discussed. Some critics claim that Linnæus was one of the forebears of the modern pseudoscientific notion of scientific racism, while others hold the view that while his classification was stereotyped, it did not imply that certain human "races" were superior to others.[201][202][203][204][205]

See also: Scientific racism § Carl Linnaeus

Standard author abbreviation

The standard author abbreviation L. is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name.[206]

Selected publications by Linnaeus

Main article: Carl Linnaeus bibliography
  • Linnaeus, Carl (1735). Systema naturae, sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species. Leiden: Haak. pp. 1–12.
  • Linnaeus, Carl; Hendrik Engel; Maria Sara Johanna Engel-Ledeboer (1964) [1735]. Systema Naturae (facsimile of the 1st ed.). Nieuwkoop, Netherlands: B. de Graaf. OCLC 460298195.
  • Linnaeus, Carl (1735). Systema naturae, sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species. Leiden: Haak. pp. 1–12.
  • Linnaeus, Carl 1846 Fauna svecica. Sistens Animalia Sveciae Regni: Quadrupedia, Aves, Amphibia, Pisces, Insecta, Vermes, distributae per classes & ordines, genera & species. C. Wishoff & G.J. Wishoff, Lugdnuni Batavorum.
  • Linnaeus, Carl (1755) [1751]. Philosophia botanica: in qua explicantur fundamenta botanica cum definitionibus partium, exemplis terminorum, observationibus rariorum, adiectis figuris aeneis. originally published simultaneously by R. Kiesewetter (Stockholm) and Z. Chatelain (Amsterdam). Vienna: Joannis Thomae Trattner.
  • Linnaeus, Carl (1753). Species Plantarum: exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas. Stockholm: Impensis Laurentii Salvii. see also Species Plantarum
  • Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Stockholm: Laurentius Salvius. pp. [1–4], 1–824.
  • Linné, Carl von (1774). Murray, Johann Andreas (ed.). Systema vegetabilium (13th edition of Systema Naturae) (2 vols.). Göttingen: Typis et impensis Jo. Christ. Dieterich.
  • Linné, Carl von (1785) [1774]. Systema vegetabilium (13th edition of Systema Naturae) [A System of Vegetables 2 vols. 1783–1785]. Lichfield: Lichfield Botanical Society.
  • Linné, Carl von (1771). . Stockholm: Laurentius Salvius. pp. [1–7], 144–588. Archived from the original on 30 September 2011.
  • Linnaeus, Carl (1792). Giseke, Paul Dietrich (ed.). Praelectiones in ordines naturales plantarum. Hamburg: Benj. Gottl. Hoffmanni.

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ a b Carl Linnaeus was born in 1707 on 13 May (Swedish calendar) or 23 May according to the Gregorian calendar. According to the Julian calendar he was born on 12 May. (Blunt 2004, p. 12)
  2. ^ ICZN Chapter 16, Article 72.4.1.1 – "For a nominal species or subspecies established before 2000, any evidence, published or unpublished, may be taken into account to determine what specimens constitute the type series." and Article 73.1.2 – "If the nominal species-group taxon is based on a single specimen, either so stated or implied in the original publication, that specimen is the holotype fixed by monotypy (see Recommendation 73F). If the taxon was established before 2000 evidence derived from outside the work itself may be taken into account [Art. 72.4.1.1] to help identify the specimen."
  3. ^ That is, Inaugural thesis in medicine, in which a new hypothesis on the cause of intermittent fevers is presented
  4. ^ "If this is not Helen's Nepenthes, it certainly will be for all botanists. What botanist would not be filled with admiration if, after a long journey, he should find this wonderful plant. In his astonishment past ills would be forgotten when beholding this admirable work of the Creator!" (translated from Latin by Harry Veitch)
  5. ^ The date of issue of both volumes was later, for practical purposes, arbitrarily set on 1 May, see Stearn, W. T. (1957), The preparation of the Species Plantarum and the introduction of binomial nomenclature, in: Species Plantarum, A Facsimile of the first edition, London, Ray Society: 72 and ICN (Melbourne Code)[109] Art. 13.4 Note 1: "The two volumes of Linnaeus' Species plantarum, ed. 1 (1753), which appeared in May and August, 1753, respectively, are treated as having been published simultaneously on 1 May 1753."
  6. ^ Frängsmyr et al. (1983), p. 167, quotes Linnaeus explaining the real difference would necessarily be absent from his classification system, as it was not a morphological characteristic: "I well know what a splendidly great difference there is [between] a man and a bestia [literally, "beast"; that is, a non-human animal] when I look at them from a point of view of morality. Man is the animal which the Creator has seen fit to honor with such a magnificent mind and has condescended to adopt as his favorite and for which he has prepared a nobler life". See also books.google.com in which Linnaeus cites the significant capacity to reason as the distinguishing characteristic of humans.
  7. ^ Discussion of translation was originally made in this thread on talk.origins in 2005. For an alternative translation, see Gribbin & Gribbin (2008), p. 56, or Slotkin (1965), p. 180.
  8. ^ "antropomorphon" [sic]
  9. ^ Others who followed were more inclined to give humans a special place in classification; Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in the first edition of his Manual of Natural History (1779), proposed that the primates be divided into the Quadrumana (four-handed, i.e. apes and monkeys) and Bimana (two-handed, i.e. humans). This distinction was taken up by other naturalists, most notably Georges Cuvier. Some elevated the distinction to the level of order. However, the many affinities between humans and other primates—and especially the great apes—made it clear that the distinction made no scientific sense. Charles Darwin wrote, in The Descent of Man in 1871:

    The greater number of naturalists who have taken into consideration the whole structure of man, including his mental faculties, have followed Blumenbach and Cuvier, and have placed man in a separate Order, under the title of the Bimana, and therefore on an equality with the orders of the Quadrumana, Carnivora, etc. Recently many of our best naturalists have recurred to the view first propounded by Linnaeus, so remarkable for his sagacity, and have placed man in the same Order with the Quadrumana, under the title of the Primates. The justice of this conclusion will be admitted: for in the first place, we must bear in mind the comparative insignificance for classification of the great development of the brain in man, and that the strongly marked differences between the skulls of man and the Quadrumana (lately insisted upon by Bischoff, Aeby, and others) apparently follow from their differently developed brains. In the second place, we must remember that nearly all the other and more important differences between man and the Quadrumana are manifestly adaptive in their nature, and relate chiefly to the erect position of man; such as the structure of his hand, foot, and pelvis, the curvature of his spine, and the position of his head.

Citations

  1. ^ "Linnaeus". CollinsDictionary.com. HarperCollins.
  2. ^ in the Oxford Dictionaries Online.
  3. ^ a b c Blunt (2004), p. 171.
  4. ^ Calisher, CH (2007). "Taxonomy: what's in a name? Doesn't a rose by any other name smell as sweet?". Croatian Medical Journal. 48 (2): 268–270. PMC 2080517. PMID 17436393.
  5. ^ a b . Linné on line. Uppsala University. Archived from the original on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 3 October 2011.
  6. ^ a b c "Linnaeus deceased". Linné on line. Uppsala University. Retrieved 3 October 2011.
  7. ^ Broberg (2006), p. 7.
  8. ^ Egerton, Frank N. (2007). "A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 23: Linnaeus and the Economy of Nature". Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America. 88 (1): 72–88. doi:10.1890/0012-9623(2007)88[72:AHOTES]2.0.CO;2.
  9. ^ "Linnaeus, Carl (1707–1778)". Author Details. International Plant Names Index. Retrieved 1 October 2011.
  10. ^ a b Blunt (2004), p. 12.
  11. ^ Stöver (1794), p. 8.
  12. ^ Broberg (2006), p. 10.
  13. ^ "Nicolaus Linnæus". Geni. Retrieved 27 January 2016.
  14. ^ "Carolus Linnaeus – Biography, Facts and Pictures". FamousScientists.org. Retrieved 10 April 2019.
  15. ^ Fries (2011), p. 376.
  16. ^ a b Blunt (2004), p. 13.
  17. ^ Quammen (2007), p. 1.
  18. ^ Blunt (2004), p. 15.
  19. ^ Gribbin, M., & Gribbin, J. (2008). Flower hunters. Oxford University Press, USA. Pg. 29. ISBN 0199561826
  20. ^ Thomson, Thomas (2011) [1812]. History of the Royal Society From Its Institution to the End of the Eighteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-108-02815-8.
  21. ^ Blunt (2004), pp. 15–16.
  22. ^ Stöver (1794), p. 5.
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Sources

Further reading

  • C. L. Brightwell (1858). A Life of Linnaeus. London: J. Van Voorst.
  • Edward Lee Greene (1912). Carolus Linnaeus. Philadelphia: Christopher Sower Company.
  • Lys de Bray (2001). The Art of Botanical Illustration: A history of classic illustrators and their achievements. London: Quantum Publishing Ltd. pp. 62–71. ISBN 978-1-86160-425-5.
  • Edmund Otis Hovey (1908). The Bicentenary of the Birth of Carolus Linnaeus. New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
  • George, Sam (June 2005). "'Not Strictly Proper for a Female Pen': Eighteenth-Century Poetry and the Sexuality of Botany". Comparative Critical Studies. 2 (2): 191–210. doi:10.3366/ccs.2005.2.2.191.
  • George, Sam (30 January 2014). "Carl Linnaeus, Erasmus Darwin and Anna Seward: Botanical Poetry and Female Education". Science & Education. 23 (3): 673–694. Bibcode:2014Sc&Ed..23..673G. doi:10.1007/s11191-014-9677-y. S2CID 142994653.
  • Sverker Sörlin; Otto Fagerstedt (2004). Linné och hans apostlar (in Swedish). Stockholm: Natur & Kultur/Fakta. ISBN 978-91-27-35590-3.
  • Albers, Lucia (1982). "Linnaeus' verblijf op de Hartekamp". Het Landgoed de Hartekamp in Heemstede (in Dutch). Heemstede: Vereniging Oud-Heemstede-Bennebroek. ISBN 978-90-70712-01-3.
  • Lars Hansen, ed. (2007–2011). The Linnaeus Apostles – Global Science & Adventure. 8 vols. 11 books. London & Whitby: The IK Foundation & Company. ISBN 978-1-904145-26-4.

External links

 
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Biographies

Resources

Other

  • Linnaeus was depicted by Jay Hosler in a parody of Peanuts titled "Good ol' Charlie Darwin".
  • The 15 March 2007 issue of Nature featured a picture of Linnaeus on the cover with the heading "Linnaeus's Legacy" and devoted a substantial portion to items related to Linnaeus and Linnaean taxonomy.
  • A tattoo of Linnaeus's definition of the order Primates mentioned by Carl Zimmer
  • Ginkgo biloba tree at the University of Harderwijk, said to have been planted by Linnaeus in 1735
  • SL Magazine, Spring 2018 features an article by Nicholas Sparks, librarian, Collection Strategy and Development titled Origins of Taxonomy, describing a generous donation from the Linnean Society of NSW to supplement the State Library of New South Wales's collections on Carl Linnaeus of documents, photographs, prints and drawings as well as a fine portrait of Linnaeus painted about 1800.

January 16, 2023
carl, linnaeus, confused, with, younger, karl, linnas, linn, linnaeus, redirect, here, disambiguation, linn, linn, disambiguation, linnaeus, linnaeus, disambiguation, note, 1707, january, 1778, also, known, after, ennoblement, 1761, carl, linné, swedish, pronu. Not to be confused with Carl Linnaeus the Younger or Karl Linnas L Linn and Linnaeus redirect here For L see L disambiguation For Linn see Linn disambiguation For Linnaeus see Linnaeus disambiguation Carl Linnaeus l ɪ ˈ n iː e s l ɪ ˈ n eɪ e s 1 2 23 May note 1 1707 10 January 1778 also known after his ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linne 3 Swedish pronunciation ˈkɑːɭ fɔn lɪˈneː listen was a Swedish botanist zoologist taxonomist and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature the modern system of naming organisms He is known as the father of modern taxonomy 4 Many of his writings were in Latin his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnaeus and after his 1761 ennoblement as Carolus a Linne Carl LinnaeusCarl von Linne by Alexander Roslin 1775 oil on canvas Gripsholm Castle Born 1707 05 23 23 May 1707 note 1 Rashult Stenbrohult parish now within Almhult Municipality SwedenDied10 January 1778 1778 01 10 aged 70 Hammarby estate Danmark parish outside Uppsala SwedenResting placeUppsala Cathedral59 51 29 N 17 38 00 E 59 85806 N 17 63333 E 59 85806 17 63333NationalitySwedishAlma materLund University Uppsala University University of HarderwijkKnown forBinomial nomenclature TaxonomySpouseSara Elisabeth Moraea m 1739 wbr Children7Scientific careerFieldsBiology Botany ZoologyInstitutionsUppsala UniversityThesisDissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa 1735 Notable studentsPeter Ascanius Johann Friedrich GmelinAuthor abbrev botany L Author abbrev zoology Linn SignatureLinnaeus was born in Rashult the countryside of Smaland in southern Sweden He received most of his higher education at Uppsala University and began giving lectures in botany there in 1730 He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738 where he studied and also published the first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands He then returned to Sweden where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala In the 1740s he was sent on several journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants and animals In the 1750s and 1760s he continued to collect and classify animals plants and minerals while publishing several volumes He was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe at the time of his death Philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau sent him the message Tell him I know no greater man on earth 5 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote With the exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly 5 Swedish author August Strindberg wrote Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist 6 Linnaeus has been called Princeps botanicorum Prince of Botanists and The Pliny of the North 7 He is also considered one of the founders of modern ecology 8 In botany and zoology the abbreviation L is used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for a species name 9 In older publications the abbreviation Linn is found Linnaeus s remains constitute the type specimen for the species Homo sapiens following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself note 2 Contents 1 Early life 1 1 Childhood 1 2 Early education 2 University studies 2 1 Lund 2 2 Uppsala 3 Expedition to Lapland 4 Years in the Dutch Republic 1735 38 4 1 Doctorate 4 2 Publishing of Systema Naturae 4 3 George Clifford Philip Miller and Johann Jacob Dillenius 5 Return to Sweden 5 1 Oland and Gotland 5 2 Vastergotland 5 3 Scania 5 4 Rector of Uppsala University 5 5 Philosophia Botanica 5 6 Nutrix Noverca 5 7 Species Plantarum 5 8 Ennoblement 6 Final years 7 Apostles 7 1 Early expeditions 7 2 Cook expeditions and Japan 8 Major publications 8 1 Systema Naturae 8 2 Orbis eruditi judicium de Caroli Linnaei MD scriptis 8 3 Species Plantarum 8 3 1 Genera Plantarum 8 3 2 Philosophia Botanica 9 Collections 10 System of taxonomy 10 1 Human taxonomy 11 Influences and economic beliefs 12 Commemoration 13 Commentary 14 Standard author abbreviation 15 Selected publications by Linnaeus 16 See also 17 References 17 1 Notes 17 2 Citations 17 3 Sources 18 Further reading 19 External linksEarly lifeChildhood See also Linne family Birthplace at Rashult Linnaeus was born in the village of Rashult in Smaland Sweden on 23 May 1707 He was the first child of Nicolaus Nils Ingemarsson who later adopted the family name Linnaeus and Christina Brodersonia His siblings were Anna Maria Linnaea Sofia Juliana Linnaea Samuel Linnaeus who would eventually succeed their father as rector of Stenbrohult and write a manual on beekeeping 10 11 12 and Emerentia Linnaea 13 His father taught him Latin as a small child 14 One of a long line of peasants and priests Nils was an amateur botanist a Lutheran minister and the curate of the small village of Stenbrohult in Smaland Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult Samuel Brodersonius 15 A year after Linnaeus s birth his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult The family moved into the rectory from the curate s house 16 17 Even in his early years Linnaeus seemed to have a liking for plants flowers in particular Whenever he was upset he was given a flower which immediately calmed him Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus and told him their names Soon Linnaeus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants 18 Carl s father was the first in his ancestry to adopt a permanent surname Before that ancestors had used the patronymic naming system of Scandinavian countries his father was named Ingemarsson after his father Ingemar Bengtsson When Nils was admitted to the University of Lund he had to take on a family name He adopted the Latinate name Linnaeus after a giant linden tree or lime tree lind in Swedish that grew on the family homestead 10 This name was spelled with the ae ligature When Carl was born he was named Carl Linnaeus with his father s family name The son also always spelled it with the ae ligature both in handwritten documents and in publications 16 Carl s patronymic would have been Nilsson as in Carl Nilsson Linnaeus 19 Early education Linnaeus s father began teaching him basic Latin religion and geography at an early age 20 When Linnaeus was seven Nils decided to hire a tutor for him The parents picked Johan Telander a son of a local yeoman Linnaeus did not like him writing in his autobiography that Telander was better calculated to extinguish a child s talents than develop them 21 Two years after his tutoring had begun he was sent to the Lower Grammar School at Vaxjo in 1717 22 Linnaeus rarely studied often going to the countryside to look for plants At some point his father went to visit him and after hearing critical assessements by his preceptors he decided to put the youth as an apprentice to some honest cobbler 23 He reached the last year of the Lower School when he was fifteen which was taught by the headmaster Daniel Lannerus who was interested in botany Lannerus noticed Linnaeus s interest in botany and gave him the run of his garden He also introduced him to Johan Rothman the state doctor of Smaland and a teacher at Katedralskolan a gymnasium in Vaxjo Also a botanist Rothman broadened Linnaeus s interest in botany and helped him develop an interest in medicine 24 25 By the age of 17 Linnaeus had become well acquainted with the existing botanical literature He remarks in his journal that he read day and night knowing like the back of my hand Arvidh Mansson s Rydaholm Book of Herbs Tillandz s Flora Aboensis Palmberg s Serta Florea Suecana Bromelii s Chloros Gothica and Rudbeckii s Hortus Upsaliensis 26 Linnaeus entered the Vaxjo Katedralskola in 1724 where he studied mainly Greek Hebrew theology and mathematics a curriculum designed for boys preparing for the priesthood 27 28 In the last year at the gymnasium Linnaeus s father visited to ask the professors how his son s studies were progressing to his dismay most said that the boy would never become a scholar Rothman believed otherwise suggesting Linnaeus could have a future in medicine The doctor offered to have Linnaeus live with his family in Vaxjo and to teach him physiology and botany Nils accepted this offer 29 30 University studiesLund Statue as a university student in Lund by Ansgar Almquist Rothman showed Linnaeus that botany was a serious subject He taught Linnaeus to classify plants according to Tournefort s system Linnaeus was also taught about the sexual reproduction of plants according to Sebastien Vaillant 29 In 1727 Linnaeus age 21 enrolled in Lund University in Skane 31 32 He was registered as Carolus Linnaeus the Latin form of his full name which he also used later for his Latin publications 3 Professor Kilian Stobaeus natural scientist physician and historian offered Linnaeus tutoring and lodging as well as the use of his library which included many books about botany He also gave the student free admission to his lectures 33 34 In his spare time Linnaeus explored the flora of Skane together with students sharing the same interests 35 Uppsala Pollination depicted in Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum 1729 In August 1728 Linnaeus decided to attend Uppsala University on the advice of Rothman who believed it would be a better choice if Linnaeus wanted to study both medicine and botany Rothman based this recommendation on the two professors who taught at the medical faculty at Uppsala Olof Rudbeck the Younger and Lars Roberg Although Rudbeck and Roberg had undoubtedly been good professors by then they were older and not so interested in teaching Rudbeck no longer gave public lectures and had others stand in for him The botany zoology pharmacology and anatomy lectures were not in their best state 36 In Uppsala Linnaeus met a new benefactor Olof Celsius who was a professor of theology and an amateur botanist 37 He received Linnaeus into his home and allowed him use of his library which was one of the richest botanical libraries in Sweden 38 In 1729 Linnaeus wrote a thesis Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum on plant sexual reproduction This attracted the attention of Rudbeck in May 1730 he selected Linnaeus to give lectures at the University although the young man was only a second year student His lectures were popular and Linnaeus often addressed an audience of 300 people 39 In June Linnaeus moved from Celsius s house to Rudbeck s to become the tutor of the three youngest of his 24 children His friendship with Celsius did not wane and they continued their botanical expeditions 40 Over that winter Linnaeus began to doubt Tournefort s system of classification and decided to create one of his own His plan was to divide the plants by the number of stamens and pistils He began writing several books which would later result in for example Genera Plantarum and Critica Botanica He also produced a book on the plants grown in the Uppsala Botanical Garden Adonis Uplandicus 41 Rudbeck s former assistant Nils Rosen returned to the University in March 1731 with a degree in medicine Rosen started giving anatomy lectures and tried to take over Linnaeus s botany lectures but Rudbeck prevented that Until December Rosen gave Linnaeus private tutoring in medicine In December Linnaeus had a disagreement with Rudbeck s wife and had to move out of his mentor s house his relationship with Rudbeck did not appear to suffer That Christmas Linnaeus returned home to Stenbrohult to visit his parents for the first time in about three years His mother had disapproved of his failing to become a priest but she was pleased to learn he was teaching at the University 41 42 Expedition to LaplandMain articles Expedition to Lapland and Flora Lapponica Carl Linnaeus in Laponian costume 1737 During a visit with his parents Linnaeus told them about his plan to travel to Lapland Rudbeck had made the journey in 1695 but the detailed results of his exploration were lost in a fire seven years afterwards Linnaeus s hope was to find new plants animals and possibly valuable minerals He was also curious about the customs of the native Sami people reindeer herding nomads who wandered Scandinavia s vast tundras In April 1732 Linnaeus was awarded a grant from the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala for his journey 43 44 Wearing the traditional dress of the Sami people of Lapland holding the twinflower later known as Linnaea borealis that became his personal emblem Martin Hoffman 1737 Linnaeus began his expedition from Uppsala on 12 May 1732 just before he turned 25 45 He travelled on foot and horse bringing with him his journal botanical and ornithological manuscripts and sheets of paper for pressing plants Near Gavle he found great quantities of Campanula serpyllifolia later known as Linnaea borealis the twinflower that would become his favourite 46 He sometimes dismounted on the way to examine a flower or rock 47 and was particularly interested in mosses and lichens the latter a main part of the diet of the reindeer a common and economically important animal in Lapland 48 Linnaeus travelled clockwise around the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia making major inland incursions from Umea Lulea and Tornio He returned from his six month long over 2 000 kilometres 1 200 mi expedition in October having gathered and observed many plants birds and rocks 49 50 51 Although Lapland was a region with limited biodiversity Linnaeus described about 100 previously unidentified plants These became the basis of his book Flora Lapponica 52 53 However on the expedition to Lapland Linnaeus used Latin names to describe organisms because he had not yet developed the binomial system 45 In Flora Lapponica Linnaeus s ideas about nomenclature and classification were first used in a practical way making this the first proto modern Flora 54 The account covered 534 species used the Linnaean classification system and included for the described species geographical distribution and taxonomic notes It was Augustin Pyramus de Candolle who attributed Linnaeus with Flora Lapponica as the first example in the botanical genre of Flora writing Botanical historian E L Greene described Flora Lapponica as the most classic and delightful of Linnaeus s works 54 It was also during this expedition that Linnaeus had a flash of insight regarding the classification of mammals Upon observing the lower jawbone of a horse at the side of a road he was travelling Linnaeus remarked If I only knew how many teeth and of what kind every animal had how many teats and where they were placed I should perhaps be able to work out a perfectly natural system for the arrangement of all quadrupeds 55 In 1734 Linnaeus led a small group of students to Dalarna Funded by the Governor of Dalarna the expedition was to catalogue known natural resources and discover new ones but also to gather intelligence on Norwegian mining activities at Roros 51 Years in the Dutch Republic 1735 38 The Hamburg Hydra from the Thesaurus 1734 of Albertus Seba Linnaeus identified the hydra specimen as a fake in 1735 View of Hartekamp where Carl von Linne lived and studied for three years from 1735 until 1738 Title page of Musa Cliffortiana 1736 Linnaeus s first botanical monograph Title page of Hortus Cliffortianus 1737 The work was a collaboration between Linnaeus and Georg Dionysius Ehret financed by George Clifford III one of the directors of the VOC Doctorate Cities where he worked those outside Sweden were only visited during 1735 1738 His relations with Nils Rosen having worsened Linnaeus accepted an invitation from Claes Sohlberg son of a mining inspector to spend the Christmas holiday in Falun where Linnaeus was permitted to visit the mines 56 In April 1735 at the suggestion of Sohlberg s father Linnaeus and Sohlberg set out for the Dutch Republic where Linnaeus intended to study medicine at the University of Harderwijk 57 while tutoring Sohlberg in exchange for an annual salary At the time it was common for Swedes to pursue doctoral degrees in the Netherlands then a highly revered place to study natural history 58 On the way the pair stopped in Hamburg where they met the mayor who proudly showed them a supposed wonder of nature in his possession the taxidermied remains of a seven headed hydra Linnaeus quickly discovered the specimen was a fake cobbled together from the jaws and paws of weasels and the skins of snakes The provenance of the hydra suggested to Linnaeus that it had been manufactured by monks to represent the Beast of Revelation Even at the risk of incurring the mayor s wrath Linnaeus made his observations public dashing the mayor s dreams of selling the hydra for an enormous sum Linnaeus and Sohlberg were forced to flee from Hamburg 59 60 Linnaeus began working towards his degree as soon as he reached Harderwijk a university known for awarding degrees in as little as a week 61 He submitted a dissertation written back in Sweden entitled Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa note 3 in which he laid out his hypothesis that malaria arose only in areas with clay rich soils 62 Although he failed to identify the true source of disease transmission i e the Anopheles mosquito 63 he did correctly predict that Artemisia annua wormwood would become a source of antimalarial medications 62 Within two weeks he had completed his oral and practical examinations and was awarded a doctoral degree 59 61 That summer Linnaeus reunited with Peter Artedi a friend from Uppsala with whom he had once made a pact that should either of the two predecease the other the survivor would finish the decedent s work Ten weeks later Artedi drowned in the canals of Amsterdam leaving behind an unfinished manuscript on the classification of fish 64 65 Publishing of Systema Naturae One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands was Johan Frederik Gronovius to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants When Gronovius saw it he was very impressed and offered to help pay for the printing With an additional monetary contribution by the Scottish doctor Isaac Lawson the manuscript was published as Systema Naturae 1735 66 67 Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands Herman Boerhaave who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America but Linnaeus declined stating he would not stand the heat Instead Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit the botanist Johannes Burman After his visit Burman impressed with his guest s knowledge decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter During his stay Linnaeus helped Burman with his Thesaurus Zeylanicus Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working Fundamenta Botanica and Bibliotheca Botanica 68 George Clifford Philip Miller and Johann Jacob Dillenius Leaf forms from Hortus Cliffortianus In August 1735 during Linnaeus s stay with Burman he met George Clifford III a director of the Dutch East India Company and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate of Hartekamp in Heemstede Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus s ability to classify plants and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter and could thus not accept immediately However Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him a copy of Sir Hans Sloane s Natural History of Jamaica a rare book if he let Linnaeus stay with him and Burman accepted 69 70 On 24 September 1735 Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford and curator of Clifford s herbarium He was paid 1 000 florins a year with free board and lodging Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year Linnaeus practically stayed there until 1738 71 It was here that he wrote a book Hortus Cliffortianus in the preface of which he described his experience as the happiest time of my life A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority and was named Linnaeushof 72 It eventually became as it is claimed the biggest playground in Europe 73 In July 1736 Linnaeus travelled to England at Clifford s expense 74 He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane a collector of natural history and to see his cabinet 75 as well as to visit the Chelsea Physic Garden and its keeper Philip Miller He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants as described in Systema Naturae Miller was in fact reluctant to use the new binomial nomenclature preferring the classifications of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and John Ray at first Linnaeus nevertheless applauded Miller s Gardeners Dictionary 76 The conservative Scot actually retained in his dictionary a number of pre Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition of The Gardeners Dictionary of 1768 Miller ultimately was impressed and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus s system 77 Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit the botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system though the two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards Linnaeus dedicated his Critica Botanica to him as opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non vidit Linnaeus would later name a genus of tropical tree Dillenia in his honour He then returned to Hartekamp bringing with him many specimens of rare plants 78 The next year 1737 he published Genera Plantarum in which he described 935 genera of plants and shortly thereafter he supplemented it with Corollarium Generum Plantarum with another sixty sexaginta genera 79 His work at Hartekamp led to another book Hortus Cliffortianus a catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp He wrote it in nine months completed in July 1737 but it was not published until 1738 68 It contains the first use of the name Nepenthes which Linnaeus used to describe a genus of pitcher plants 80 note 4 Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 new style when he left the house to return to Sweden Illness and the kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland In May 1738 he set out for Sweden again On the way home he stayed in Paris for about a month visiting botanists such as Antoine de Jussieu After his return Linnaeus never left Sweden again 81 82 Return to Sweden Wedding portrait When Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738 he went to Falun where he entered into an engagement to Sara Elisabeth Moraea Three months later he moved to Stockholm to find employment as a physician and thus to make it possible to support a family 83 84 Once again Linnaeus found a patron he became acquainted with Count Carl Gustav Tessin who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty 85 86 During this time in Stockholm Linnaeus helped found the Royal Swedish Academy of Science he became the first Praeses of the academy by drawing of lots 87 Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support a family he received permission to marry his fiancee Sara Elisabeth Moraea Their wedding was held 26 June 1739 Seventeen months later Sara gave birth to their first son Carl Two years later a daughter Elisabeth Christina was born and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena who died when 15 days old Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children Lovisa Sara Christina sv Johannes and Sophia 83 88 House in Uppsala In May 1741 Linnaeus was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University first with responsibility for medicine related matters Soon he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine Nils Rosen and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand botany and natural history instead In October that same year his wife and nine month old son followed him to live in Uppsala 89 Oland and Gotland Ten days after he was appointed Professor he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of Oland and Gotland with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine First they travelled to Oland and stayed there until 21 June when they sailed to Visby in Gotland Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month and then returned to Uppsala During this expedition they found 100 previously unrecorded plants The observations from the expedition were later published in Olandska och Gothlandska Resa written in Swedish Like Flora Lapponica it contained both zoological and botanical observations as well as observations concerning the culture in Oland and Gotland 90 91 During the summer of 1745 Linnaeus published two more books Flora Suecica and Fauna Suecica Flora Suecica was a strictly botanical book while Fauna Suecica was zoological 83 92 Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742 Celsius s scale was inverted compared to today the boiling point at 0 C and freezing point at 100 C In 1745 Linnaeus inverted the scale to its present standard 93 Vastergotland In the summer of 1746 Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition this time to the Swedish province of Vastergotland He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book Wastgota Resa published the next year 90 94 After he returned from the journey the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to the southernmost province Scania This journey was postponed as Linnaeus felt too busy 83 In 1747 Linnaeus was given the title archiater or chief physician by the Swedish king Adolf Frederick a mark of great respect 95 The same year he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin 96 Scania In the spring of 1749 Linnaeus could finally journey to Scania again commissioned by the Government With him he brought his student Olof Soderberg On the way to Scania he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow walnut and Swedish whitebeam trees these trees were used by the military to make rifles While there they also visited the Ramlosa mineral spa where he remarked on the quality of its ferruginous water 97 The journey was successful and Linnaeus s observations were published the next year in Skanska Resa 98 99 Rector of Uppsala University Summer home at his Hammarby estate The Linnaean Garden in Uppsala In 1750 Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed 83 Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach many of his students travelled to various places in the world to collect botanical samples Linnaeus called the best of these students his apostles 100 His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody not even him Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer where Linnaeus and his students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala 101 Philosophia Botanica Linnaeus published Philosophia Botanica in 1751 102 The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden 103 Nutrix Noverca Cover of Nutrix Noverca 1752 During Linnaeus s time it was normal for upper class women to have wet nurses for their babies Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast feeding by mothers In 1752 Linnaeus published a thesis along with Frederick Lindberg a physician student 104 based on their experiences 105 In the tradition of the period this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer prases expounded upon by the student Linnaeus s dissertation was translated into French by J E Gilibert in 1770 as La Nourrice maratre ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercenaire Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb the personality of their wet nurse through the milk He admired the child care practices of the Lapps 106 and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk 106 It is thought that his activism played a role in his choice of the term Mammalia for the class of organisms 107 Species Plantarum Main article Species Plantarum Linnaeus published Species Plantarum the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modern botanical nomenclature in 1753 108 The first volume was issued on 24 May the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year note 5 110 The book contained 1 200 pages and was published in two volumes it described over 7 300 species 111 112 The same year the king dubbed him knight of the Order of the Polar Star the first civilian in Sweden to become a knight in this order He was then seldom seen not wearing the order s insignia 113 Ennoblement His coat of arms Linnaeus felt Uppsala was too noisy and unhealthy so he bought two farms in 1758 Hammarby and Savja The next year he bought a neighbouring farm Edeby He spent the summers with his family at Hammarby initially it only had a small one storey house but in 1762 a new larger main building was added 99 114 In Hammarby Linnaeus made a garden where he could grow plants that could not be grown in the Botanical Garden in Uppsala He began constructing a museum on a hill behind Hammarby in 1766 where he moved his library and collection of plants A fire that destroyed about one third of Uppsala and had threatened his residence there necessitated the move 115 Since the initial release of Systema Naturae in 1735 the book had been expanded and reprinted several times the tenth edition was released in 1758 This edition established itself as the starting point for zoological nomenclature the equivalent of Species Plantarum 111 116 The Swedish King Adolf Frederick granted Linnaeus nobility in 1757 but he was not ennobled until 1761 With his ennoblement he took the name Carl von Linne Latinised as Carolus a Linne Linne being a shortened and gallicised version of Linnaeus and the German nobiliary particle von signifying his ennoblement 3 The noble family s coat of arms prominently features a twinflower one of Linnaeus s favourite plants it was given the scientific name Linnaea borealis in his honour by Gronovius The shield in the coat of arms is divided into thirds red black and green for the three kingdoms of nature animal mineral and vegetable in Linnaean classification in the centre is an egg to denote Nature which is continued and perpetuated in ovo At the bottom is a phrase in Latin borrowed from the Aeneid which reads Famam extendere factis we extend our fame by our deeds 117 118 119 Linnaeus inscribed this personal motto in books that were given to him by friends 120 After his ennoblement Linnaeus continued teaching and writing His reputation had spread over the world and he corresponded with many different people For example Catherine II of Russia sent him seeds from her country 121 He also corresponded with Giovanni Antonio Scopoli the Linnaeus of the Austrian Empire who was a doctor and a botanist in Idrija Duchy of Carniola nowadays Slovenia 122 Scopoli communicated all of his research findings and descriptions for example of the olm and the dormouse two little animals hitherto unknown to Linnaeus Linnaeus greatly respected Scopoli and showed great interest in his work He named a solanaceous genus Scopolia the source of scopolamine after him but because of the great distance between them they never met 123 124 Final years Headstone of him and his son Carl Linnaeus the Younger Linnaeus was relieved of his duties in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1763 but continued his work there as usual for more than ten years after 83 In 1769 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society for his work 125 He stepped down as rector at Uppsala University in December 1772 mostly due to his declining health 82 126 Linnaeus s last years were troubled by illness He had had a disease called the Uppsala fever in 1764 but survived due to the care of Rosen He developed sciatica in 1773 and the next year he had a stroke which partially paralysed him 127 He had a second stroke in 1776 losing the use of his right side and leaving him bereft of his memory while still able to admire his own writings he could not recognise himself as their author 128 129 In December 1777 he had another stroke which greatly weakened him and eventually led to his death on 10 January 1778 in Hammarby 130 126 Despite his desire to be buried in Hammarby he was buried in Uppsala Cathedral on 22 January 131 132 His library and collections were left to his widow Sara and their children Joseph Banks an eminent botanist wished to purchase the collection but his son Carl refused the offer and instead moved the collection to Uppsala In 1783 Carl died and Sara inherited the collection having outlived both her husband and son She tried to sell it to Banks but he was no longer interested instead an acquaintance of his agreed to buy the collection The acquaintance was a 24 year old medical student James Edward Smith who bought the whole collection 14 000 plants 3 198 insects 1 564 shells about 3 000 letters and 1 600 books Smith founded the Linnean Society of London five years later 132 133 The von Linne name ended with his son Carl who never married 6 His other son Johannes had died aged 3 134 There are over two hundred descendants of Linnaeus through two of his daughters 6 ApostlesMain article Apostles of Linnaeus Carl Peter Thunberg was a VOC physician and an apostle of Linnaeus Peter Forsskal was among the apostles who met a tragic fate abroad During Linnaeus s time as Professor and Rector of Uppsala University he taught many devoted students 17 of whom he called apostles They were the most promising most committed students and all of them made botanical expeditions to various places in the world often with his help The amount of this help varied sometimes he used his influence as Rector to grant his apostles a scholarship or a place on an expedition 135 To most of the apostles he gave instructions of what to look for on their journeys Abroad the apostles collected and organised new plants animals and minerals according to Linnaeus s system Most of them also gave some of their collection to Linnaeus when their journey was finished 136 Thanks to these students the Linnaean system of taxonomy spread through the world without Linnaeus ever having to travel outside Sweden after his return from Holland 137 The British botanist William T Stearn notes without Linnaeus s new system it would not have been possible for the apostles to collect and organise so many new specimens 138 Many of the apostles died during their expeditions Early expeditions Christopher Tarnstrom the first apostle and a 43 year old pastor with a wife and children made his journey in 1746 He boarded a Swedish East India Company ship headed for China Tarnstrom never reached his destination dying of a tropical fever on Con Sơn Island the same year Tarnstrom s widow blamed Linnaeus for making her children fatherless causing Linnaeus to prefer sending out younger unmarried students after Tarnstrom 139 Six other apostles later died on their expeditions including Pehr Forsskal and Pehr Lofling 138 Two years after Tarnstrom s expedition Finnish born Pehr Kalm set out as the second apostle to North America There he spent two and a half years studying the flora and fauna of Pennsylvania New York New Jersey and Canada Linnaeus was overjoyed when Kalm returned bringing back with him many pressed flowers and seeds At least 90 of the 700 North American species described in Species Plantarum had been brought back by Kalm 140 Cook expeditions and Japan Apostle Daniel Solander far left with Joseph Banks left sitting accompanied James Cook centre on his journey to Australia Daniel Solander was living in Linnaeus s house during his time as a student in Uppsala Linnaeus was very fond of him promising Solander his eldest daughter s hand in marriage On Linnaeus s recommendation Solander travelled to England in 1760 where he met the English botanist Joseph Banks With Banks Solander joined James Cook on his expedition to Oceania on the Endeavour in 1768 71 141 142 Solander was not the only apostle to journey with James Cook Anders Sparrman followed on the Resolution in 1772 75 bound for among other places Oceania and South America Sparrman made many other expeditions one of them to South Africa 143 Perhaps the most famous and successful apostle was Carl Peter Thunberg who embarked on a nine year expedition in 1770 He stayed in South Africa for three years then travelled to Japan All foreigners in Japan were forced to stay on the island of Dejima outside Nagasaki so it was thus hard for Thunberg to study the flora He did however manage to persuade some of the translators to bring him different plants and he also found plants in the gardens of Dejima He returned to Sweden in 1779 one year after Linnaeus s death 144 Major publicationsMain article Carl Linnaeus bibliography Systema Naturae Title page of the 10th edition of Systema Naturae 1758 Main article Systema Naturae The first edition of Systema Naturae was printed in the Netherlands in 1735 It was a twelve page work 145 By the time it reached its 10th edition in 1758 it classified 4 400 species of animals and 7 700 species of plants People from all over the world sent their specimens to Linnaeus to be included By the time he started work on the 12th edition Linnaeus needed a new invention the index card to track classifications 146 In Systema Naturae the unwieldy names mostly used at the time such as Physalis annua ramosissima ramis angulosis glabris foliis dentato serratis were supplemented with concise and now familiar binomials composed of the generic name followed by a specific epithet in the case given Physalis angulata These binomials could serve as a label to refer to the species Higher taxa were constructed and arranged in a simple and orderly manner Although the system now known as binomial nomenclature was partially developed by the Bauhin brothers see Gaspard Bauhin and Johann Bauhin almost 200 years earlier 147 Linnaeus was the first to use it consistently throughout the work including in monospecific genera and may be said to have popularised it within the scientific community After the decline in Linnaeus s health in the early 1770s publication of editions of Systema Naturae went in two different directions Another Swedish scientist Johan Andreas Murray issued the Regnum Vegetabile section separately in 1774 as the Systema Vegetabilium rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition 148 Meanwhile a 13th edition of the entire Systema appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793 under the editorship of Johann Friedrich Gmelin It was through the Systema Vegetabilium that Linnaeus s work became widely known in England following its translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society as A System of Vegetables 1783 1785 149 Orbis eruditi judicium de Caroli Linnaei MD scriptis Opinion of the learned world on the writings of Carl Linnaeus Doctor Published in 1740 this small octavo sized pamphlet was presented to the State Library of New South Wales by the Linnean Society of NSW in 2018 This is considered among the rarest of all the writings of Linnaeus and crucial to his career securing him his appointment to a professorship of medicine at Uppsala University From this position he laid the groundwork for his radical new theory of classifying and naming organisms for which he was considered the founder of modern taxonomy Species Plantarum Main article Species Plantarum Species Plantarum or more fully Species Plantarum exhibentes plantas rite cognitas ad genera relatas cum differentiis specificis nominibus trivialibus synonymis selectis locis natalibus secundum systema sexuale digestas was first published in 1753 as a two volume work Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today 108 Genera Plantarum Main article Genera Plantarum Genera plantarum eorumque characteres naturales secundum numerum figuram situm et proportionem omnium fructificationis partium was first published in 1737 delineating plant genera Around 10 editions were published not all of them by Linnaeus himself the most important is the 1754 fifth edition 150 In it Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 24 classes One Cryptogamia included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts algae fungi mosses and liverworts and ferns 151 Philosophia Botanica Main article Philosophia Botanica Philosophia Botanica 1751 102 was a summary of Linnaeus s thinking on plant classification and nomenclature and an elaboration of the work he had previously published in Fundamenta Botanica 1736 and Critica Botanica 1737 Other publications forming part of his plan to reform the foundations of botany include his Classes Plantarum and Bibliotheca Botanica all were printed in Holland as were Genera Plantarum 1737 and Systema Naturae 1735 the Philosophia being simultaneously released in Stockholm 152 Collections Linnaeus marble by Leon Joseph Chavalliaud 1899 outside the Palm House at Sefton Park Liverpool At the end of his lifetime the Linnean collection in Uppsala was considered one of the finest collections of natural history objects in Sweden Next to his own collection he had also built up a museum for the university of Uppsala which was supplied by material donated by Carl Gyllenborg in 1744 1745 crown prince Adolf Fredrik in 1745 Erik Petreus in 1746 Claes Grill in 1746 Magnus Lagerstrom in 1748 and 1750 and Jonas Alstromer in 1749 The relation between the museum and the private collection was not formalised and the steady flow of material from Linnean pupils were incorporated to the private collection rather than to the museum 153 Linnaeus felt his work was reflecting the harmony of nature and he said in 1754 the earth is then nothing else but a museum of the all wise creator s masterpieces divided into three chambers He had turned his own estate into a microcosm of that world museum 154 In April 1766 parts of the town were destroyed by a fire and the Linnean private collection was subsequently moved to a barn outside the town and shortly afterwards to a single room stone building close to his country house at Hammarby near Uppsala This resulted in a physical separation between the two collections the museum collection remained in the botanical garden of the university Some material which needed special care alcohol specimens or ample storage space was moved from the private collection to the museum In Hammarby the Linnean private collections suffered seriously from damp and the depredations by mice and insects Carl von Linne s son Carl Linnaeus inherited the collections in 1778 and retained them until his own death in 1783 Shortly after Carl von Linne s death his son confirmed that mice had caused horrible damage to the plants and that also moths and mould had caused considerable damage 155 He tried to rescue them from the neglect they had suffered during his father s later years and also added further specimens This last activity however reduced rather than augmented the scientific value of the original material In 1784 the young medical student James Edward Smith purchased the entire specimen collection library manuscripts and correspondence of Carl Linnaeus from his widow and daughter and transferred the collections to London 156 157 Not all material in Linne s private collection was transported to England Thirty three fish specimens preserved in alcohol were not sent and were later lost 158 In London Smith tended to neglect the zoological parts of the collection he added some specimens and also gave some specimens away 159 Over the following centuries the Linnean collection in London suffered enormously at the hands of scientists who studied the collection and in the process disturbed the original arrangement and labels added specimens that did not belong to the original series and withdrew precious original type material 155 Much material which had been intensively studied by Linne in his scientific career belonged to the collection of Queen Lovisa Ulrika 1720 1782 in the Linnean publications referred to as Museum Ludovicae Ulricae or M L U This collection was donated by her grandson King Gustav IV Adolf 1778 1837 to the museum in Uppsala in 1804 Another important collection in this respect was that of her husband King Adolf Fredrik 1710 1771 in the Linnean sources known as Museum Adolphi Friderici or Mus Ad Fr the wet parts alcohol collection of which were later donated to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and is today housed in the Swedish Museum of Natural History at Stockholm The dry material was transferred to Uppsala 153 System of taxonomy Table of the Animal Kingdom Regnum Animale from the 1st edition of Systema Naturae 1735 Main article Linnaean taxonomy The establishment of universally accepted conventions for the naming of organisms was Linnaeus s main contribution to taxonomy his work marks the starting point of consistent use of binomial nomenclature 160 During the 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge Linnaeus also developed what became known as the Linnaean taxonomy the system of scientific classification now widely used in the biological sciences A previous zoologist Rumphius 1627 1702 had more or less approximated the Linnaean system and his material contributed to the later development of the binomial scientific classification by Linnaeus 161 The Linnaean system classified nature within a nested hierarchy starting with three kingdoms Kingdoms were divided into classes and they in turn into orders and thence into genera singular genus which were divided into species singular species 162 Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower unnamed rank these have since acquired standardised names such as variety in botany and subspecies in zoology Modern taxonomy includes a rank of family between order and genus and a rank of phylum between kingdom and class that were not present in Linnaeus s original system 163 Linnaeus s groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics and not based upon differences 163 Of his higher groupings only those for animals are still in use and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since their conception as have the principles behind them Nevertheless Linnaeus is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships 160 164 While the underlying details concerning what are considered to be scientifically valid observable characteristics have changed with expanding knowledge for example DNA sequencing unavailable in Linnaeus s time has proven to be a tool of considerable utility for classifying living organisms and establishing their evolutionary relationships the fundamental principle remains sound Human taxonomy Main article Human taxonomy History Linnaeus s system of taxonomy was especially noted as the first to include humans Homo taxonomically grouped with apes Simia under the header of Anthropomorpha German biologist Ernst Haeckel speaking in 1907 noted this as the most important sign of Linnaeus s genius 165 Linnaeus classified humans among the primates beginning with the first edition of Systema Naturae 166 During his time at Hartekamp he had the opportunity to examine several monkeys and noted similarities between them and man 167 He pointed out both species basically have the same anatomy except for speech he found no other differences 168 note 6 Thus he placed man and monkeys under the same category Anthropomorpha meaning manlike 169 This classification received criticism from other biologists such as Johan Gottschalk Wallerius Jacob Theodor Klein and Johann Georg Gmelin on the ground that it is illogical to describe man as human like 170 In a letter to Gmelin from 1747 Linnaeus replied 171 note 7 It does not please you that I ve placed Man among the Anthropomorpha perhaps because of the term with human form note 8 but man learns to know himself Let s not quibble over words It will be the same to me whatever name we apply But I seek from you and from the whole world a generic difference between man and simian that follows from the principles of Natural History note 9 I absolutely know of none If only someone might tell me a single one If I would have called man a simian or vice versa I would have brought together all the theologians against me Perhaps I ought to have by virtue of the law of the discipline Detail from the sixth edition of Systema Naturae 1748 describing Ant h ropomorpha with a division between Homo and Simia The theological concerns were twofold first putting man at the same level as monkeys or apes would lower the spiritually higher position that man was assumed to have in the great chain of being and second because the Bible says man was created in the image of God 172 theomorphism if monkeys apes and humans were not distinctly and separately designed that would mean monkeys and apes were created in the image of God as well This was something many could not accept 173 The conflict between world views that was caused by asserting man was a type of animal would simmer for a century until the much greater and still ongoing creation evolution controversy began in earnest with the publication of On the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin in 1859 After such criticism Linnaeus felt he needed to explain himself more clearly The 10th edition of Systema Naturae introduced new terms including Mammalia and Primates the latter of which would replace Anthropomorpha 174 as well as giving humans the full binomial Homo sapiens 175 The new classification received less criticism but many natural historians still believed he had demoted humans from their former place of ruling over nature and not being a part of it Linnaeus believed that man biologically belongs to the animal kingdom and had to be included in it 176 In his book Dieta Naturalis he said One should not vent one s wrath on animals Theology decree that man has a soul and that the animals are mere aoutomata mechanica but I believe they would be better advised that animals have a soul and that the difference is of nobility 177 Anthropomorpha from the 1760 dissertation by C E Hoppius 178 1 Troglodyta Bontii 2 Lucifer Aldrovandi 3 Satyrus Tulpii 4 Pygmaeus Edwardi Linnaeus added a second species to the genus Homo in Systema Naturae based on a figure and description by Jacobus Bontius from a 1658 publication Homo troglodytes caveman 179 180 and published a third in 1771 Homo lar 181 Swedish historian Gunnar Broberg states that the new human species Linnaeus described were actually simians or native people clad in skins to frighten colonial settlers whose appearance had been exaggerated in accounts to Linnaeus 182 For Homo troglodytes Linnaeus asked the Swedish East India Company to search for one but they did not find any signs of its existence 183 Homo lar has since been reclassified as Hylobates lar the lar gibbon 184 See also Race human categorization In the first edition of Systema Naturae Linnaeus subdivided the human species into four varieties Europaeus albesc ens whitish European Americanus rubesc ens reddish American Asiaticus fuscus tawny Asian and Africanus nigr iculus blackish African 185 186 In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae he further detailed phenotypical characteristics for each variety based on the concept of the four temperaments from classical antiquity 187 dubious discuss and changed the description of Asians skin tone to luridus yellow 188 Additionally Linnaeus created a wastebasket taxon monstrosus for wild and monstrous humans unknown groups and more or less abnormal people 189 In 1959 W T Stearn designated Linnaeus to be the lectotype of H sapiens 190 191 192 Influences and economic beliefs Statue on University of Chicago campus Linnaeus s applied science was inspired not only by the instrumental utilitarianism general to the early Enlightenment but also by his adherence to the older economic doctrine of Cameralism 193 Additionally Linnaeus was a state interventionist He supported tariffs levies export bounties quotas embargoes navigation acts subsidised investment capital ceilings on wages cash grants state licensed producer monopolies and cartels 194 Commemoration 1907 celebration in Rashult Main article Commemoration of Carl Linnaeus Anniversaries of Linnaeus s birth especially in centennial years have been marked by major celebrations 195 Linnaeus has appeared on numerous Swedish postage stamps and banknotes 195 There are numerous statues of Linnaeus in countries around the world The Linnean Society of London has awarded the Linnean Medal for excellence in botany or zoology since 1888 Following approval by the Riksdag of Sweden Vaxjo University and Kalmar College merged on 1 January 2010 to become Linnaeus University 196 Other things named after Linnaeus include the twinflower genus Linnaea Linnaeosicyos a monotypic genus in the family Cucurbitaceae 197 the crater Linne on the Earth s moon a street in Cambridge Massachusetts and the cobalt sulfide mineral Linnaeite CommentaryAndrew Dickson White wrote in A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom 1896 Linnaeus was the most eminent naturalist of his time a wide observer a close thinker but the atmosphere in which he lived and moved and had his being was saturated with biblical theology and this permeated all his thinking Toward the end of his life he timidly advanced the hypothesis that all the species of one genus constituted at the creation one species and from the last edition of his Systema Naturae he quietly left out the strongly orthodox statement of the fixity of each species which he had insisted upon in his earlier works warnings came speedily both from the Catholic and Protestant sides 198 The mathematical PageRank algorithm applied to 24 multilingual Wikipedia editions in 2014 published in PLOS ONE in 2015 placed Carl Linnaeus at the top historical figure above Jesus Aristotle Napoleon and Adolf Hitler in that order 199 200 In the 21st century Linnaeus s taxonomy of human races has been problematised and discussed Some critics claim that Linnaeus was one of the forebears of the modern pseudoscientific notion of scientific racism while others hold the view that while his classification was stereotyped it did not imply that certain human races were superior to others 201 202 203 204 205 See also Scientific racism Carl LinnaeusStandard author abbreviationThe standard author abbreviation L is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name 206 Selected publications by LinnaeusMain article Carl Linnaeus bibliography Linnaeus Carl 1735 Systema naturae sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes ordines genera amp species Leiden Haak pp 1 12 Linnaeus Carl Hendrik Engel Maria Sara Johanna Engel Ledeboer 1964 1735 Systema Naturae facsimile of the 1st ed Nieuwkoop Netherlands B de Graaf OCLC 460298195 Linnaeus Carl 1735 Systema naturae sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes ordines genera amp species Leiden Haak pp 1 12 Linnaeus Carl 1846 Fauna svecica Sistens Animalia Sveciae Regni Quadrupedia Aves Amphibia Pisces Insecta Vermes distributae per classes amp ordines genera amp species C Wishoff amp G J Wishoff Lugdnuni Batavorum Linnaeus Carl 1755 1751 Philosophia botanica in qua explicantur fundamenta botanica cum definitionibus partium exemplis terminorum observationibus rariorum adiectis figuris aeneis originally published simultaneously by R Kiesewetter Stockholm and Z Chatelain Amsterdam Vienna Joannis Thomae Trattner Linnaeus Carl 1753 Species Plantarum exhibentes plantas rite cognitas ad genera relatas cum differentiis specificis nominibus trivialibus synonymis selectis locis natalibus secundum systema sexuale digestas Stockholm Impensis Laurentii Salvii see also Species Plantarum Linnaeus Carl 1758 Systema naturae per regna tria naturae secundum classes ordines genera species cum characteribus differentiis synonymis locis Vol 1 10th ed Stockholm Laurentius Salvius pp 1 4 1 824 Linne Carl von 1774 Murray Johann Andreas ed Systema vegetabilium 13th edition of Systema Naturae 2 vols Gottingen Typis et impensis Jo Christ Dieterich Linne Carl von 1785 1774 Systema vegetabilium 13th edition of Systema Naturae A System of Vegetables 2 vols 1783 1785 Lichfield Lichfield Botanical Society Linne Carl von 1771 Mantissa plantarum altera generum editionis VI et specierum editionis II Stockholm Laurentius Salvius pp 1 7 144 588 Archived from the original on 30 September 2011 Linnaeus Carl 1792 Giseke Paul Dietrich ed Praelectiones in ordines naturales plantarum Hamburg Benj Gottl Hoffmanni See alsoLinnaeus s flower clock Johann Bartsch colleague Centuria Insectorum History of botany History of phycology Scientific revolutionReferencesNotes a b Carl Linnaeus was born in 1707 on 13 May Swedish calendar or 23 May according to the Gregorian calendar According to the Julian calendar he was born on 12 May Blunt 2004 p 12 ICZN Chapter 16 Article 72 4 1 1 For a nominal species or subspecies established before 2000 any evidence published or unpublished may be taken into account to determine what specimens constitute the type series and Article 73 1 2 If the nominal species group taxon is based on a single specimen either so stated or implied in the original publication that specimen is the holotype fixed by monotypy see Recommendation 73F If the taxon was established before 2000 evidence derived from outside the work itself may be taken into account Art 72 4 1 1 to help identify the specimen That is Inaugural thesis in medicine in which a new hypothesis on the cause of intermittent fevers is presented If this is not Helen s Nepenthes it certainly will be for all botanists What botanist would not be filled with admiration if after a long journey he should find this wonderful plant In his astonishment past ills would be forgotten when beholding this admirable work of the Creator translated from Latin by Harry Veitch The date of issue of both volumes was later for practical purposes arbitrarily set on 1 May see Stearn W T 1957 The preparation of the Species Plantarum and the introduction of binomial nomenclature in Species Plantarum A Facsimile of the first edition London Ray Society 72 and ICN Melbourne Code 109 Art 13 4 Note 1 The two volumes of Linnaeus Species plantarum ed 1 1753 which appeared in May and August 1753 respectively are treated as having been published simultaneously on 1 May 1753 Frangsmyr et al 1983 p 167 quotes Linnaeus explaining the real difference would necessarily be absent from his classification system as it was not a morphological characteristic I well know what a splendidly great difference there is between a man and abestia literally beast that is a non human animal when I look at them from a point of view of morality Man is the animal which the Creator has seen fit to honor with such a magnificent mind and has condescended to adopt as his favorite and for which he has prepared a nobler life See also books google com in which Linnaeus cites the significant capacity to reason as the distinguishing characteristic of humans Discussion of translation was originally made in this thread on talk origins in 2005 For an alternative translation see Gribbin amp Gribbin 2008 p 56 or Slotkin 1965 p 180 antropomorphon sic Others who followed were more inclined to give humans a special place in classification Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in the first edition of his Manual of Natural History 1779 proposed that the primates be divided into the Quadrumana four handed i e apes and monkeys and Bimana two handed i e humans This distinction was taken up by other naturalists most notably Georges Cuvier Some elevated the distinction to the level of order However the many affinities between humans and other primates and especially the great apes made it clear that the distinction made no scientific sense Charles Darwin wrote in The Descent of Man in 1871 The greater number of naturalists who have taken into consideration the whole structure of man including his mental faculties have followed Blumenbach and Cuvier and have placed man in a separate Order under the title of the Bimana and therefore on an equality with the orders of the Quadrumana Carnivora etc Recently many of our best naturalists have recurred to the view first propounded by Linnaeus so remarkable for his sagacity and have placed man in the same Order with the Quadrumana under the title of the Primates The justice of this conclusion will be admitted for in the first place we must bear in mind the comparative insignificance for classification of the great development of the brain in man and that the strongly marked differences between the skulls of man and the Quadrumana lately insisted upon by Bischoff Aeby and others apparently follow from their differently developed brains In the second place we must remember that nearly all the other and more important differences between man and the Quadrumana are manifestly adaptive in their nature and relate chiefly to the erect position of man such as the structure of his hand foot and pelvis the curvature of his spine and the position of his head Citations Linnaeus CollinsDictionary com HarperCollins Linnaeus Carolus in the Oxford Dictionaries Online a b c Blunt 2004 p 171 Calisher CH 2007 Taxonomy what s in a name Doesn t a rose by any other name smell as sweet Croatian Medical Journal 48 2 268 270 PMC 2080517 PMID 17436393 a b What people have said about Linnaeus Linne on line Uppsala University Archived from the original on 8 June 2011 Retrieved 3 October 2011 a b c Linnaeus deceased Linne on line Uppsala University Retrieved 3 October 2011 Broberg 2006 p 7 Egerton Frank N 2007 A History of the Ecological Sciences Part 23 Linnaeus and the Economy of Nature Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 88 1 72 88 doi 10 1890 0012 9623 2007 88 72 AHOTES 2 0 CO 2 Linnaeus Carl 1707 1778 Author Details International Plant Names Index Retrieved 1 October 2011 a b Blunt 2004 p 12 Stover 1794 p 8 Broberg 2006 p 10 Nicolaus Linnaeus Geni Retrieved 27 January 2016 Carolus Linnaeus Biography Facts and Pictures FamousScientists org Retrieved 10 April 2019 Fries 2011 p 376 a b Blunt 2004 p 13 Quammen 2007 p 1 Blunt 2004 p 15 Gribbin M amp Gribbin J 2008 Flower hunters Oxford University Press USA Pg 29 ISBN 0199561826 Thomson Thomas 2011 1812 History of the Royal Society From Its Institution to the End of the Eighteenth Century Cambridge Cambridge University Press p 35 ISBN 978 1 108 02815 8 Blunt 2004 pp 15 16 Stover 1794 p 5 Caddy Florence 1887 Through the Fields with Linnaeus A Chapter in Swedish History Little Brown and Company p 43 Retrieved 10 April 2021 Blunt 2004 p 16 Stover 1794 pp 5 6 Carl von Linnes betydelse sasom naturforskare och lakare skildringar utgifna af Kungl Vetenskapsakademien i anledning af tvahundraarsdagen af Linnes fodelse source Stover 1794 p 6 Blunt 2004 pp 16 17 a b Blunt 2004 pp 17 18 Stover 1794 pp 8 11 Blunt 2004 p 18 Stover 1794 p 13 Blunt 2004 pp 21 22 Stover 1794 p 15 Stover 1794 pp 14 15 Blunt 2004 pp 23 25 Blunt 2004 pp 31 32 Stover 1794 pp 19 20 Blunt 2004 pp 32 34 Blunt 2004 pp 34 37 a b Blunt 2001 pp 36 37 Anderson 1997 p 40 Anderson 1997 pp 42 43 Blunt 2001 p 38 a b Black David ed 1979 Carl Linnaeus Travels Charles Scribner s Sons p 8 ISBN 978 0 684 15976 8 Blunt 2001 pp 42 43 Anderson 1997 pp 43 44 Anderson 1997 p 46 Blunt 2001 pp 63 65 Blunt 2004 pp 39 42 a b Broberg 2006 p 29 Quammen 2007 p 2 Stover 1794 pp 38 39 a b Frodin 2001 p 27 Blunt 2001 p 54 Blunt 2001 p 74 Stover 1794 p 71 Blunt 2001 pp 78 79 a b Anderson 1997 pp 60 61 Blunt 2004 p 90 a b Blunt 2001 p 94 a b Hempelmann Ernst Krafts Kristine 2013 Bad air amulets and mosquitoes 2 000 years of changing perspectives on malaria Malaria Journal 12 1 232 doi 10 1186 1475 2875 12 232 PMC 3723432 PMID 23835014 Linnaeus s thesis on the ague malaria 2008 Uppsala University Anderson 1997 p 66 Blunt 2004 pp 98 100 Blunt 2001 p 98 Anderson 1997 pp 62 63 a b Blunt 2004 pp 100 102 Anderson 1997 p 64 Stover 1794 pp 81 82 Shurtleff William Aoyagi Akiko 2015 History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Sweden Norway Denmark and Finland 1735 2015 Extensively Annotated Bibliography and Sourcebook California Soyinfo Center p 222 ISBN 978 1 928914 80 8 Tanner Vasco M 1959 Carl Linnaeus contributions and collections The Great Basin Naturalist 19 1 27 34 Archived from the original on 10 March 2016 Retrieved 17 February 2016 Linnaeushof Hollan com 17 January 2013 Retrieved 17 February 2016 Blunt 2001 pp 106 107 Stover 1794 p 89 Non erit Lexicon Hortulanorum sed etiam Botanicorum that the book will be not just a lexicon of gardeners but of botanists noted in Paterson 1986 40 41 Stover 1794 pp 89 90 Stover 1794 pp 90 93 Stover 1794 p 95 Veitch 1897 Blunt 2001 p 123 a b Koerner 1999 p 56 a b c d e f Louise Petrusson Carl Linnaeus Swedish Museum of Natural History Retrieved 3 April 2010 Stover 1794 p 141 Stover 1794 pp 146 147 Koerner 1999 p 16 Koerner 1999 pp 103 105 Stover 1794 p 382 Gribbin amp Gribbin 2008 pp 49 50 a b Koerner 1999 p 115 Blunt 2004 pp 137 142 Stover 1794 pp 117 118 Koerner 1999 p 204 Blunt 2004 p 159 Blunt 2004 p 165 Stover 1794 p 167 Linnaeus Carl 1751 Carl von Linnes resa till Skane 1749 11 juni Carl von Linnes resa till Skane 1749 in Swedish Stockholm Blunt 2004 pp 198 205 a b Koerner 1999 p 116 Gribbin amp Gribbin 2008 pp 56 57 Blunt 2004 pp 173 174 a b Linnaeus 1751 Blunt 2004 p 221 Tonz Otmar 2006 Breastfeeding in modern and ancient times Facts ideas and beliefs In Koletzko Berthold Michaelsen K F Hernell Olle eds Short and Long Term Effects of Breast Feeding on Child Health Springer p 12 Carl Linnaeus 1752 Nutrix Noverca in Latin a b Koerner Lisbet 2009 Linnaeus Nature and Nation pp 69 70 Schiebinger Londa 1993 Why Mammals are Called Mammals Gender Politics in Eighteenth Century Natural History The American Historical Review 98 2 382 411 doi 10 2307 2166840 JSTOR 2166840 PMID 11623150 S2CID 46119192 a b Stace 1991 p 24 McNeill J Barrie F R Buck W R Demoulin V Greuter W Hawksworth D L Herendeen P S Knapp S Marhold K Prado J Prud homme Van Reine W F Smith G F Wiersema J H Turland N J 2012 International Code of Nomenclature for algae fungi and plants Melbourne Code adopted by the Eighteenth International Botanical Congress Melbourne Australia July 2011 Vol Regnum Vegetabile 154 A R G Gantner Verlag KG ISBN 978 3 87429 425 6 Sprague 1953 a b Gribbin amp Gribbin 2008 p 47 Stover 1794 pp 198 199 Blunt 2004 p 166 Blunt 2004 p 219 Blunt 2004 pp 220 224 Blunt 2004 p 6 Gribbin amp Gribbin 2008 p 62 Blunt 2004 p 199 Blunt 2004 pp 229 230 Jardine William ed 1865 Anecdotes of Linnaeus The Naturalist s Library Volume VI Ornithology Humming birds Part I London Chatto amp Windus p v Uppsala University Linne Online English language version Soban Branko A Living Bond between Idrija and Uppsala The Slovenian Retrieved 4 April 2012 Soban Branko January 2005 A Living Bond between Idrija and Uppsala Slovenija svet Slovene Emigrant Association Retrieved 1 December 2007 Scopoli Giovanni Antonio Joannes A Scopoli Carl Linnaeus Dopisovanje Correspondence 1760 1775 ed Darinka Soban Ljubljana Slovenian Natural history society Bell Whitfield J and Charles Greifenstein Jr Patriot Improvers Biographical Sketches of Members of the American Philosophical Society 3 vols Philadelphia American Philosophical Society 1997 3 145 147 a b Blunt 2004 p 245 Blunt 2004 p 232 Stover 1794 pp 243 245 Broberg 2006 p 42 Gribbin amp Gribbin 2008 p 63 Quammen 2007 p 4 a b Anderson 1997 pp 104 106 Blunt 2001 pp 238 240 Linnaeus Johannes 1754 1757 Swedish Son of Carl Linnaeus and Sara Elisabet Linnaea The Linnaeus Correspondence Centre international d etude du XVIIIe siecle Retrieved 4 October 2011 Blunt 2004 pp 189 190 Broberg 2006 pp 37 39 Anderson 1997 pp 92 93 a b Blunt 2004 pp 184 185 Blunt 2004 pp 185 186 Anderson 1997 pp 93 94 Anderson 1997 p 96 Blunt 2004 pp 191 192 Blunt 2004 pp 192 193 Blunt 2004 pp 193 194 Linnaeus 1735 Everts Sarah 2016 Information Overload Distillations 2 2 26 33 Retrieved 20 March 2018 Windelspecht 2002 p 28 Linne 1774 Linne 1785 Stace 1991 p 22 Van den Hoek et al 2005 Stafleu 1971 p 157 a b Wallin L 2001 Catalogue of type specimens 4 Linnaean specimens pp 1 1 128 Uppsala Uppsala University Museum of Evolution Zoology Section Lisbet Koerner Carl Linnaeus in his Time and Place in Cultures of Natural History ed Nicholas Jardine James A Secord and Emma C Spary Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1995 pp 145 162 a b Dance S P 1967 Report on the Linnaean shell collection Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London 178 1 1 24 Pl 1 10 White Paul 1999 The purchase of knowledge James Edward Smith and the Linnean collections PDF Endeavour 23 3 126 doi 10 1016 S0160 9327 99 01212 0 Archived from the original PDF on 13 August 2017 Retrieved 28 January 2018 Fries 2011 pp 342 357 Wallin Lars 14 February 2001 Catalogue of type specimens 4 PDF Uppsala University Museum of Evolution Zoology Section 6 4 Retrieved 25 February 2019 Examples are evident in the Portland catalogue p 76 Lot 1715 and p 188 Lot 3997 A catalogue of the Portland Museum lately the property of the Duchess Dowager of Portland deceased Which will be sold by auction by Mr Skinner and Co On Monday the 24th of April 1786 and the thirty seven following days at her late dwelling house in Privy Garden Whitehall by order of the Acting Executrix pp i viii 1 8 3 194 pl 1 London Skinner a b Reveal amp Pringle 1993 pp 160 161 Monk K A Fretes Y Reksodiharjo Lilley G 1996 The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku Hong Kong Periplus Editions Ltd p 4 ISBN 978 962 593 076 3 Simpson 1961 pp 16 19 a b Davis amp Heywood 1973 p 17 Simpson 1961 pp 56 57 Sven Horstadius Linnaeus animals and man Biol J Linn Soc 6 December 1974 269 275 p 273 The Book of Popular Science 1963 Gribbin amp Gribbin 2008 pp 173 174 Frangsmyr et al 1983 p 170 Frangsmyr et al 1983 p 167 Johann Georg Gmelin 30 December 1746 Letter to Carl Linnaeus The Linnean Correspondence St Petersburg Russia L0759 Retrieved 4 October 2011 Carl Linnaeus 25 February 1747 Letter to Johann Georg Gmelin The Linnean Correspondence Uppsala Sweden L0783 Retrieved 4 October 2011 Also available as JPG Genesis 1 26 1 27 Frangsmyr et al 1983 pp 171 172 Frangsmyr et al 1983 p 175 Blunt 2004 p 8 Frangsmyr et al 1983 pp 191 192 Frangsmyr et al 1983 p 166 C E Hoppius Anthropomorpha Amoenitates Academicae vol 6 1763 Linnaeus 1758 p 24 Bontius 1658 p 84 Linnaeus 1771 p 521 Frangsmyr et al 1983 p 187 Frangsmyr et al 1983 p 186 Wilson amp Reeder 2005 p 179 In later editions the naming was changed from whitish reddish tawny blackish to white albus red rufus pale yellow luridus and black niger Staffan Muller Wille Linnaeus and the Four Corners of the World in The Cultural Politics of Blood 1500 1900 ed Ralph Bauer Kim Coles Zit Nines and Carla Peterson 191 209 Houndmills Basingstoke Hampshire UK Palgrave 2015 1 Braziel 2007 pp 43 44 need quotation to verify Loring Brace 2005 p 27 Slotkin 1965 pp 176 178 Marks 2010 p 265 Keevak 2011 pp 3 4 Willoughby 2007 pp 33 34 citing Broberg 1975 p 291 Stearn W T 1959 The Background of Linnaeus s Contributions to the Nomenclature and Methods of Systematic Biology Systematic Zoology 8 1 4 22 doi 10 2307 sysbio 8 1 4 JSTOR 2411603 S2CID 85221313 Spamer Earle E 1999 Know Thyself Responsible Science and the Lectotype of Homo sapiens Linnaeus 1758 Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 149 109 114 JSTOR 4065043 Notton David Stringer Chris Who is the type of Homo sapiens International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature Archived from the original on 14 May 2019 Retrieved 3 December 2018 Koerner 1999 p 95 96 Koerner 1999 p 97 a b Ostholm 2007 A modern international university in the Smaland region of Sweden Linnaeus University Archived from the original on 7 February 2019 Retrieved 3 October 2011 Linnaeosicyos H Schaef amp Kocyan Plants of the World Online Kew Science Plants of the World Online Retrieved 27 May 2021 Andrew Dickson White History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom 1922 Vol 1 pp 59 61 Eom Young Ho Aragon Pablo Laniado David Kaltenbrunner Andreas Vigna Sebastiano Shepelyansky Dima L Gao Zhong Ke 2015 Interactions of Cultures and Top People of Wikipedia from Ranking of 24 Language Editions PLOS ONE 10 3 e0114825 arXiv 1405 7183 Bibcode 2015PLoSO 1014825E doi 10 1371 journal pone 0114825 PMC 4349893 PMID 25738291 Tamblyn Thomas 12 June 2014 Wikipedia Reveals Most Influential Person in History No It s Not Jesus The Huffington Post Retrieved 28 January 2016 Renato G Mazzolini Skin Color and the Origin of Physical Anthropology in Reproduction Race and Gender in Philosophy and the Early Life Sciences Ed Susanne Lettow 2014 Kenneth A R Kennedy 1976 Human Variation in Space and Time Wm C Brown Company p 25 Kennedy writes that while Linnaeus was the first to use biological traits as a basis for further subdivisions of the species into varieties It would be unfair to ascribe racist motives to this effort Gould 1981 p 67 Rachel N Hastings 2008 Black Eyez Memoirs of a Revolutionary p 17 Gould Stephen Jay November 1994 The Geometer of Race Discover pp 65 69 ISSN 0274 7529 International Plant Names Index L Sources Anderson Margaret J 1997 Carl Linnaeus Father of Classification United States Enslow Publishers ISBN 978 0 89490 786 9 Blunt Wilfrid 2001 Linnaeus the compleat naturalist London Frances Lincoln ISBN 978 0 7112 1841 3 Blunt Wilfrid 2004 Linnaeus the compleat naturalist London Frances Lincoln ISBN 978 0 7112 2362 2 Bontius J 1658 Historiae naturalis amp medicae Indiae Orientalis libri sex In Gulielmo Piso ed De Indiae Utriusque re naturali et medica libri quatuordecim Quorum contenta pagina sequens exhibet Amsterdam Elzevier pp 1 226 Braziel Jana Evans 2007 Genre race erasure a genealogical critique of American autobiography In Joseph A Young and Jana Evans Braziel ed Erasing Public Memory Race Aesthetics and Cultural Amnesia in the Americas Mercer University Press pp 35 70 ISBN 978 0 88146 076 6 Broberg G 1975 Homo sapiensL studien Carl von Linne naturuppfattning och manniskolara Uppsala Almquist and Wiksell Broberg Gunnar 2008 The Dragonslayer Tijdschrift voor Skandinavistiek 29 1 2 29 43 Archived from the original on 12 January 2013 Broberg Gunnar 2006 Carl Linnaeus Stockholm Swedish Institute ISBN 978 91 520 0912 3 Davis P H Heywood V H 1973 Principles of Angiosperm Taxonomy Huntington New York Robert E Krieger Publishing Company Fara Patricia 2003 Sex Botany and Empire The Story of Carl Linnaeus and Joseph Banks Cambridge Icon Books ISBN 978 1 84046 444 3 Retrieved 22 February 2015 Frangsmyr Tore Lindroth Sten Eriksson Gunnar Broberg Gunnar 1983 Linnaeus the man and his work Berkeley and Los Angeles University of California Press ISBN 978 0 7112 1841 3 Fries Theodor Magnus 2011 1923 Jackson Benjamin Daydon ed Linnaeus Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 108 03723 5 Frodin D G 2001 The evolution of floras Guide to Standard Floras of the World an Annotated Geographically Arranged Systematic Bibliography of the Principal Floras Enumerations Checklists and Chorological Atlases of Different Areas 2nd ed Cambridge University Press pp 24 51 ISBN 978 0 521 79077 2 Gould Stephen Jay 1981 The Mismeasure of Man New York W W Norton and Co ISBN 978 0 393 01489 1 Gribbin Mary Gribbin John 2008 Flower Hunters Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 956182 7 Keevak Michael 2011 Becoming Yellow A Short History of Racial Thinking Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 14031 5 Koerner Lisbet 1999 Linnaeus Nature and Nation Harvard Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 09745 2 Loring Brace C 2005 Race is a Four Letter Word The Genesis of the Concept Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 517351 2 Marks Jonathan 2010 Ten facts about human variation In Muehlenbein Michael ed Human Evolutionary Biology Cambridge University Press pp 265 276 ISBN 978 0 521 87948 4 Ostholm Hanna 2007 Mary J Morris and Leonie Berwick ed The Linnaean Legacy Three Centuries after his Birth PDF The Linnean Special Issue No 8 35 44 Archived from the original PDF on 17 July 2011 Quammen David June 2007 The Name Giver National Geographic Retrieved 3 April 2010 Reveal James L Pringle James S 1993 7 Taxonomic Botany and Floristics Flora of North America Vol 1 New York and Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 505713 3 Simpson George Gaylord 1961 Principles of Animal Taxonomy New York and London Columbia University Press ISBN 9780231024273 Slotkin J S 1965 The Eighteenth Century Readings in early Anthropology Methuen Publishing pp 175 243 Sprague T A 1953 Linnaeus as a nomenclaturist Taxon 2 3 40 46 doi 10 2307 1217339 JSTOR 1217339 Stace Clive A 1991 Plant Taxonomy and Biosystematics 2nd ed Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 42785 2 Stafleu Frans A 1971 Linnaeus and the Linnaeans the Spreading of their Ideas in Systematic Botany 1735 1789 Utrecht International Association for Plant Taxonomy ISBN 978 90 6046 064 1 Stover Dietrich Johann Heinrich 1794 Joseph Trapp ed The life of Sir Charles Linnaeus London Library of Congress OCLC 5660395 Van den Hoek C D G Mann amp H M Jahns 2005 Algae An Introduction to Phycology Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 30419 1 Veitch H J 1897 Nepenthes Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society 21 2 226 262 Willoughby Pamela 2007 The Evolution of Modern Humans in Africa a Comprehensive Guide AltaMira Press ISBN 978 0 7591 0119 7 Wilson Don E DeeAnn M Reeder 2005 Mammal Species of the World A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference Vol 1 3rd ed JHU Press ISBN 978 0 8018 8221 0 Windelspecht Michael 2002 Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments Inventions and Discoveries of the 17th century Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 313 31501 5 Further readingC L Brightwell 1858 A Life of Linnaeus London J Van Voorst Edward Lee Greene 1912 Carolus Linnaeus Philadelphia Christopher Sower Company Lys de Bray 2001 The Art of Botanical Illustration A history of classic illustrators and their achievements London Quantum Publishing Ltd pp 62 71 ISBN 978 1 86160 425 5 Edmund Otis Hovey 1908 The Bicentenary of the Birth of Carolus Linnaeus New York New York Academy of Sciences George Sam June 2005 Not Strictly Proper for a Female Pen Eighteenth Century Poetry and the Sexuality of Botany Comparative Critical Studies 2 2 191 210 doi 10 3366 ccs 2005 2 2 191 George Sam 30 January 2014 Carl Linnaeus Erasmus Darwin and Anna Seward Botanical Poetry and Female Education Science amp Education 23 3 673 694 Bibcode 2014Sc amp Ed 23 673G doi 10 1007 s11191 014 9677 y S2CID 142994653 Sverker Sorlin Otto Fagerstedt 2004 Linne och hans apostlar in Swedish Stockholm Natur amp Kultur Fakta ISBN 978 91 27 35590 3 Albers Lucia 1982 Linnaeus verblijf op de Hartekamp Het Landgoed de Hartekamp in Heemstede in Dutch Heemstede Vereniging Oud Heemstede Bennebroek ISBN 978 90 70712 01 3 Lars Hansen ed 2007 2011 The Linnaeus Apostles Global Science amp Adventure 8 vols 11 books London amp Whitby The IK Foundation amp Company ISBN 978 1 904145 26 4 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Linnaeus Wikiquote has quotations related to Carl Linnaeus Wikispecies has information related to Carl Linnaeus Wikisource has original works by or about Carl Linnaeus Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Carl Linnaeus tourism Biographies Biography at the Department of Systematic Botany University of Uppsala Biography at The Linnean Society of London Biography from the University of California Museum of Paleontology A four minute biographical video from the London Natural History Museum on YouTube Biography from Taxonomic Literature 2nd Edition 1976 2009 Resources Works by Carl von Linne at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Carl Linnaeus at Internet Archive The Linnean Society of London The Linnaeus Apostles The Linnean Collections The Linnean Correspondence Linnaeus s Disciples and Apostles The Linnaean Dissertations Linnean Herbarium The Linnaeus Tercentenary Works by Carl von Linne at the Biodiversity Heritage Library Digital edition Critica Botanica by the University and State Library Dusseldorf Digital edition Classes plantarum seu systemata plantarum by the University and State Library Dusseldorf Oratio de telluris habitabilis incremento 1744 full digital facsimile from Linda Hall LibraryOther Linnaeus was depicted by Jay Hosler in a parody of Peanuts titled Good ol Charlie Darwin The 15 March 2007 issue of Nature featured a picture of Linnaeus on the cover with the heading Linnaeus s Legacy and devoted a substantial portion to items related to Linnaeus and Linnaean taxonomy A tattoo of Linnaeus s definition of the order Primates mentioned by Carl Zimmer Ginkgo biloba tree at the University of Harderwijk said to have been planted by Linnaeus in 1735 SL Magazine Spring 2018 features an article by Nicholas Sparks librarian Collection Strategy and Development titled Origins of Taxonomy describing a generous donation from the Linnean Society of NSW to supplement the State Library of New South Wales s collections on Carl Linnaeus of documents photographs prints and drawings as well as a fine portrait of Linnaeus painted about 1800 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Carl Linnaeus amp oldid 1133262379, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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