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Wikipedia

Māori people

January 11, 2023

This article is about the Māori people of New Zealand. For the Māori people of the Cook Islands, see Cook Islanders. For the Maohi people of the Society Islands, see Tahitians.
Not to be confused with Maouri people, Mauri, or Moriori.

The Māori (/ˈmaʊri/,[6] Māori: [ˈmaːɔɾi] (listen)) are the indigenous Polynesian people of mainland New Zealand (Aotearoa). Māori originated with settlers from East Polynesia, who arrived in New Zealand in several waves of canoe voyages between roughly 1320 and 1350.[7] Over several centuries in isolation, these settlers developed their own distinctive culture, whose language, mythology, crafts, and performing arts evolved independently from those of other eastern Polynesian cultures. Some early Māori moved to the Chatham Islands, where their descendants became New Zealand's other indigenous Polynesian ethnic group, the Moriori.[8]

Māori
Māori performing a haka (2012)
Regions with significant populations
New Zealand775,836 (2018 census)[1]
Australia142,107 (2016 census)[2]
United Kingdomapprox. 8,000 (2000)[3]
United States3,500 (2000)[4]
Canada2,500 (2016)[5]
Other regionsapprox. 8,000[3]
Languages
Māori, English
Religion
Mainly Christian or irreligious
Rātana
Māori religions
Related ethnic groups
other Polynesian peoples; Māori Indians

Initial contact between Māori and Europeans, starting in the 18th century, ranged from beneficial trade to lethal violence; Māori actively adopted many technologies from the newcomers. With the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, the two cultures coexisted for a generation. Rising tensions over disputed land sales led to conflict in the 1860s, and massive land confiscations, to which Māori responded with fierce resistance. After the Treaty was declared a legal nullity in 1877, Māori were forced to assimilate into many aspects of Western culture. Social upheaval and epidemics of introduced disease took a devastating toll on the Māori population, which fell dramatically. By the start of the 20th century, the Māori population had begun to recover, and efforts have been made, centring on the Treaty of Waitangi, to increase their standing in wider New Zealand society and achieve social justice.

Traditional Māori culture has thereby enjoyed a significant revival, which was further bolstered by a Māori protest movement that emerged in the 1960s. However, disproportionate numbers of Māori face significant economic and social obstacles, and generally have lower life expectancies and incomes compared with other New Zealand ethnic groups. They suffer higher levels of crime, health problems, and educational under-achievement. A number of socio-economic initiatives have been instigated with the aim of "closing the gaps" between Māori and other New Zealanders. Political and economic redress for historical grievances is also ongoing (see Treaty of Waitangi claims and settlements).

In the 2018 census, there were 775,836 people in New Zealand identifying as Māori, making up 16.5 percent of the national population. They are the second-largest ethnic group in New Zealand, after European New Zealanders ("Pākehā"). In addition, more than 140,000 Māori live in Australia. The Māori language is spoken to some extent by about a fifth of all Māori, representing three percent of the total population. Māori are active in all spheres of New Zealand culture and society, with independent representation in areas such as media, politics, and sport.

Etymology

In the Māori language, the word māori means "normal", "natural", or "ordinary". In legends and oral traditions, the word distinguished ordinary mortal human beings—tāngata māori—from deities and spirits (wairua).[9][i] Likewise, wai māori denotes "fresh water", as opposed to salt water. There are cognate words in most Polynesian languages,[10] all deriving from Proto-Polynesian *ma(a)qoli, which has the reconstructed meaning "true, real, genuine".[11][12]

Naming and self-naming

Early visitors from Europe to New Zealand generally referred to the indigenous inhabitants as "New Zealanders" or as "natives".[13] The Māori used the term Māori to describe themselves in a pan-tribal sense.[ii] Māori people often use the term tangata whenua (literally, "people of the land") to identify in a way that expresses their relationship with a particular area of land; a tribe may be the tangata whenua in one area, but not in another.[14] The term can also refer to the Māori people as a whole in relation to New Zealand (Aotearoa) as a whole.

The official definition of Māori for electoral purposes has changed over time. Before 1974, the government required documented ancestry to determine the status of "a Māori person" and only those with at least 50% Māori ancestry were allowed to choose which seats they wished to vote in. The Māori Affairs Amendment Act 1974 changed this, allowing individuals to self-identify as to their cultural identity.

Until 1986 the census required at least 50 per cent Māori ancestry to claim Māori affiliation. Currently in most contexts authorities require some documentation of ancestry or continuing cultural connection (such as acceptance by others as being of the people); but no minimum ancestry requirement.[15][iii]

History

Main article: Māori history

Origins from Polynesia

 
The Māori settlement of New Zealand represents an end-point of a long chain of island-hopping voyages in the South Pacific.

No credible evidence exists of pre-Māori settlement of New Zealand; on the other hand, compelling evidence from archaeology, linguistics, and physical anthropology indicates that the first settlers migrated from Polynesia and became the Māori.[17][18] Evidence indicates that their ancestry (as part of the larger group of Austronesian peoples) stretches back 5,000 years, to the indigenous peoples of Taiwan. Polynesian people settled a large area encompassing Samoa, Tahiti, Hawaiʻi, Easter Island (Rapa Nui) – and finally New Zealand.[19]

There may have been some exploration and settlement before eruption of Mount Tarawera in about 1315, based on finds of bones from Polynesian rats and rat-gnawed shells,[20] and evidence of widespread forest fires in the decade or so prior;[21][22] but the most recent evidence points to the main settlement occurring as a planned mass migration somewhere between 1320 and 1350.[17] This broadly aligns with analyses from Māori oral traditions, which describe the arrival of ancestors in a number of large ocean-going canoes (waka) in around 1350.[23][24]

They had a profound impact on their environment from their first settlement in New Zealand and voyages further south, and Māori explorers may have been the first humans to discover Antarctica.[25][26][27][28]

Early history

Further information: Archaeology of New Zealand
 
Early Archaic period objects from the Wairau Bar archaeological site, on display at the Canterbury Museum in Christchurch

The earliest period of Māori settlement, known as the "Archaic", "Moahunter" or "Colonisation" period, dates from c. 1300 to c. 1500. A 2022 study using updated radiocarbon technology shows that "early Māori settlement happened in the North Island between AD 1250 and AD 1275".[29][30] The early Māori diet included an abundance of moa and other large birds and fur seals that had never been hunted before. This Archaic period is known for its distinctive "reel necklaces",[31] and also remarkable for the lack of weapons and fortifications typical of the later "Classic" Māori.[32] The best-known and most extensively studied Archaic site, at Wairau Bar in the South Island,[33] shows evidence of occupation from early-13th century to the early-15th century.[34] It is the only known New Zealand archaeological site containing the bones of people who were born elsewhere.[34]

 
Model of a pā (hillfort) built on a headland. Pā proliferated as competition and warfare increased among a growing population.

Factors that operated in the transition to the Classic period (the culture at the time of European contact) include a significantly cooler period from 1500,[35] and the extinction of the moa and of other food species.[36][37][38][39][40]

The Classic period is characterised by finely-made pounamu (greenstone) weapons and ornaments; elaborately carved war canoes and wharenui (meeting houses).[41] Māori lived in autonomous settlements in extended hapū groups descended from common iwi ancestors. The settlements had farmed areas and food sources for hunting, fishing and gathering. Fortified pā were built at strategic locations due to occasional warfare over wrongdoings or resources; this practice varied over different locations throughout New Zealand, with more populations in the far North.[42][43][44] There is a stereotype that Māori were 'natural warriors'; however, warfare and associated practices like cannibalism were not a dominating part of Māori culture.[45][46][47]

Around the year 1500, a group of Māori migrated east to the Chatham Islands and developed into a people known as the Moriori,[48] with pacifism a key part of their culture.[49]

Contact with Europeans

 
The first European impression of Māori, at Murderers' Bay in Abel Tasman's travel journal (1642)

The first European explorers to New Zealand were Abel Tasman, who arrived in 1642; Captain James Cook, in 1769; and Marion du Fresne in 1772. Initial contact between Māori and Europeans proved problematic and sometimes fatal, with Tasman having four of his men killed and probably killing at least one Māori without ever landing.[50] Cook's men shot at least eight Māori within three days of his first landing,[51][52] although he later had good relations with Māori. Three years later, after a promising start, du Fresne and 26 men of his crew were killed. From the 1780s, Māori also increasingly encountered European and American sealers, whalers and Christian missionaries. Relations were mostly peaceful, although marred by several further violent incidents, the worst of which was the Boyd massacre and subsequent revenge attacks.[53]

European settlement in New Zealand began in the early 19th century, leading to an extensive sharing of culture and ideas. Many Māori valued Europeans, whom they called "Pākehā", as a means to acquire Western knowledge and technology. Māori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas, and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form.[54] The introduction of the potato revolutionised agriculture, and the acquisition of muskets[55] by Māori iwi led to a period of particularly bloody intertribal warfare known as the Musket Wars, in which many groups were decimated and others driven from their traditional territory.[56] The pacifist Moriori in the Chatham Islands similarly suffered massacre and subjugation in an invasion by some Taranaki iwi.[57] At the same time, the Māori suffered high mortality rates from Eurasian infectious diseases, such as influenza, smallpox and measles, which killed an estimated 10 to 50 per cent of Māori.[58][59]

 
Depiction of the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, bringing New Zealand and the Māori into the British Empire

By 1839, estimates placed the number of Europeans living in New Zealand as high as 2,000,[60] and the British Crown acceded to repeated requests from missionaries and some Māori chiefs (rangatira) to intervene. The British government sent Royal Navy Captain William Hobson to negotiate a treaty between the British Crown and the Māori, which became known as the Treaty of Waitangi. Starting from February 1840, this treaty was signed by the Crown and 500 Māori chiefs from across New Zealand.[61][62] The Treaty gave Māori the rights of British subjects and guaranteed Māori property rights and tribal autonomy, in return for accepting British sovereignty and the annexation of New Zealand as a colony in the British Empire.[63] However, disputes continue over aspects of the Treaty of Waitangi, including wording differences in the two versions (in English and Māori), as well as misunderstandings of different cultural concepts; notably, the Māori version did not cede sovereignty to the British crown.[64] In an 1877 court case the Treaty was declared a "simple nullity" on the grounds that the signatories had been "primitive barbarians".[65][66]

Nevertheless, relations between Māori and Europeans during the early colonial period were largely peaceful. Many Māori groups set up substantial businesses, supplying food and other products for domestic and overseas markets. When violence did break out, as in the Wairau Affray, Flagstaff War, Hutt Valley Campaign and Wanganui Campaign it was generally limited and concluded with a peace treaty. However, by the 1860s rising settler numbers and tensions over disputed land purchases led to the later New Zealand wars, fought by the colonial government against numerous Māori iwi using local and British Imperial troops, and some allied iwi. These conflicts resulted in the colonial government confiscating tracts of Māori land as punishment for what were called "rebellions". Pākehā (European) settlers would occupy the confiscated land.[67] Several minor conflicts also arose after the wars, including the incident at Parihaka in 1881 and the Dog Tax War from 1897 to 1898. The Native Land Court was also established to transfer Māori land from communal ownership into individual title as a means to assimilation and to facilitate greater sales to European settlers.[68]

Decline and revival

 
Members of the 28th (Māori) Battalion performing a haka, Egypt (July 1941)

By the late 19th century, a widespread belief existed amongst both Pākehā and Māori that the Māori population would cease to exist as a separate race or culture, and become assimilated into the European population.[69] From the late 19th to the mid-20th century various laws, policies, and practices were instituted in New Zealand society with the effect of inducing Māori to conform to Pākehā norms; notable among these are the Tohunga Suppression Act 1907 and the suppression of the Māori language by schools,[70] often enforced with corporal punishment.[71] In the 1896 census, New Zealand had a Māori population of 42,113, by which time Europeans numbered more than 700,000.[72]

The decline did not continue and the Māori population continued to recover in the 20th century. Influential Māori politicians such as James Carroll, Āpirana Ngata, Te Rangi Hīroa and Maui Pomare aimed to revitalise the Māori people after the devastation of the previous century. They believed the future path called for a degree of assimilation,[73] with Māori adopting European practices such as Western medicine and education (especially learning English), while also retaining traditional cultural practices. Māori also fought during both World Wars in specialised battalions (the Māori Pioneer Battalion in WWI and the 28th (Māori) Battalion in WWII). Māori were also badly hit by the 1918 influenza epidemic, with death rates for Māori being 4.5 times higher than for Pākehā. After World War II, te reo Māori use declined steeply in favour of English.

 
Whina Cooper leading the Māori Land March in 1975, seeking redress for historical grievances

Since the 1960s, Māoridom has undergone a cultural revival[74] concurrent with activism for social justice and a protest movement.[75] Kōhanga reo (Māori language pre-schools) were established in 1982 to promote Māori language use and halt the decline in its use.[76] Two Māori language television channels broadcast content in the Māori language,[77][78] while words such as "kia ora" have entered widespread use in New Zealand English.[79]

Government recognition of the growing political power of Māori and political activism have led to limited redress for historic land confiscations. In 1975, the Crown set up the Waitangi Tribunal to investigate historical grievances,[80] and since the 1990s the New Zealand government has negotiated and finalised treaty settlements with many iwi across New Zealand. By June 2008, the government had provided over NZ$900 million in settlements, much of it in the form of land deals.[81] There is a growing Māori leadership who are using these settlements as an investment platform for economic development.[82]

Despite a growing acceptance of Māori culture in wider New Zealand society, treaty settlements have generated significant controversy. Some Māori have argued that the settlements occur at a level of between one and two-and-a-half cents on the dollar of the value of the confiscated lands, and do not represent adequate redress. Conversely, some non-Māori denounce the settlements and socioeconomic initiatives as amounting to race-based preferential treatment.[83] Both of these sentiments were expressed during the New Zealand foreshore and seabed controversy in 2004.[84][85]

Demographics

 
Māori in New Zealand in 2018

Under the Māori Affairs Amendment Act 1974, a Māori is defined as "a person of the Māori race of New Zealand; and includes any descendant of such a person".[86] The Māori population around the late 18th century was estimated by James Cook at 100,000. Historian Michael King suggests a slightly higher figure of 110,000 is more likely.[87] Their numbers declined during the 19th century, to as low as 42,000; the decline has been attributed to the impact of European colonisation, including new diseases.[88] Thereafter the population grew rapidly.

There were 775,836 people identifying as being part of the Māori ethnic group at the 2018 New Zealand census, making up 16.5% of New Zealand's population. This is an increase of 177,234 people (29.6%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 210,507 people (37.2%) since the 2006 census. The large increase between the 2013 and 2018 census was mainly due to Statistics New Zealand adding ethnicity data from other sources (previous censuses, administrative data, and imputation) to the 2018 census data to reduce the number of non-responses.[89]

There were 383,019 males and 392,820 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.975 males per female. The median age was 25.4 years (compared with 37.4 years for New Zealand as a whole), with 248,784 people (32.1%) aged under 15 years, 193,146 (24.9%) aged 15 to 29, 285,657 (36.8%) aged 30 to 64, and 48,252 (6.2%) aged 65 or older.[90]

In terms of population distribution, 85.7% of Māori live in the North Island and 14.2% live in the South Island. The Chatham Islands has the highest concentration of Māori people at 66.1%, followed by the Wairoa District (65.7%), Ōpōtiki District (63.7%), Kawerau District (61.7%) and Gisborne District (52.9%). The Upper Harbour local board area in Auckland has the lowest concentration of Māori people at 5.1%, followed by the Queenstown-Lakes District at 5.3%.[91]

Of those identifying as Māori at the 2018 census, 352,755 people (45.5%) identified as of sole Māori ethnicity while 336,174 people (43.3%) identified as of both European and Māori ethnicity, due to the high rate of intermarriage between the two ethnicities.[92]

The largest iwi by population at the 2013 census was Ngāpuhi (125,601), followed by Ngāti Porou (71,049), Ngāi Tahu (54,819) and Waikato (40,083). However, over 110,000 people of Māori descent could not identify their iwi.[93]

Outside of New Zealand, a large Māori population exists in Australia, estimated at 155,000 in 2011.[94] In 2007 the Māori Party suggested a special seat should be created in the New Zealand parliament representing Māori in Australia.[95] Smaller communities also exist in the United Kingdom (approx. 8,000), the United States (up to 3,500) and Canada (approx. 1,000).[3][96][97]

Culture

Main article: Māori culture
 
Wharenui (meeting house) at Ōhinemutu village, Rotorua (tekoteko on the top)

Māori culture forms a distinctive part of New Zealand culture and, due to a large diaspora and the incorporation of Māori motifs into popular culture, is found throughout the world.[98][99] Contemporary Māori culture comprises traditional as well as 20th-century influences.

Traditional culture

 
A Māori chief with tattoos (moko) seen by James Cook and his crew. Hand-colored engraving by Thomas Chambers after original 1769 drawing by Sydney Parkinson

Archaeological record indicates a gradual evolution of culture.[100] In the course of a few centuries, the growing population led to competition for resources and an increase in warfare and an increased frequency of fortified pā. Various systems also arose aimed to conserve resources; most of these, such as tapu and rāhui, used religious or supernatural threats to discourage people from taking species at particular seasons or from specified areas.

Warfare between tribes was common, and Māori would sometimes eat their conquered enemies.[101] Performing arts such as the haka developed from their Polynesian roots, as did carving and weaving. Regional dialects arose, with differences in vocabulary and in the pronunciation of some words but the language retained enough similarities to other Eastern Polynesian languages for Tupaia, the Tahitian navigator on James Cook's first voyage in the region to act as an interpreter between Māori and the crew of the Endeavour.

Belief and religion

Main articles: Māori mythology and Māori religion
Religious affiliation[102]
No religion
 
 53.5%
Christian
 
 29.9%
Māori religions
 
 7.7%
Other religion
 
 1.4%
Buddhism
 
 0.2%
Islam
 
 0.1%
Hinduism
 
 0.1%

Traditional Māori beliefs have their origins in Polynesian culture. Concepts such as tapu (sacred), noa (non-sacred), mana (authority/prestige) and wairua (spirit) governed everyday Māori living, and there are also many Māori deities. Today, some Māori follow a variety of Christian faiths such as Presbyterianism, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), Māori Christian groups such as Rātana and Ringatū",[103] and also Catholic, Anglican and Methodist denominations.[104][105] At the 2018 New Zealand census, 7.7 per cent of Māori were affiliated with Māori religions, beliefs, and philosophies; 29.9 per cent with Christian denominations and 53.5 per cent of Māori claimed no religion. Proportions of Christian and irreligious Māori are comparable with European New Zealanders.[102]

 
Māori woman with a representation of the Waikato Ancestress "Te Iringa"

Many Māori people observe spiritual traditions such as tapu and noa. Certain objects, areas, or buildings are tapu (spiritually restricted), and must be made noa (unrestricted) by ceremonial action.[106] It is common practice, for instance, to remove one's shoes before entering a wharenui (meeting-house) in token of respect for the ancestors who are represented and spiritually present within the wharenui.[107] Another spiritual ritual is hurihanga takapau (purification), practised when fishing to ensure there is no tapu on the fish.[108]

Performing arts

Cultural performance of waiata (song), haka (dance), tauparapara (chants) and mōteatea (poetry) are used by Māori to express and pass on knowledge and understanding about history, communities, and relationships.[109] Kapa haka is a Māori performance art[110] that originated in the 1880s to perform to tourists including some groups travelling out of New Zealand to perform.[111] It was used in the First World War to raise money for the Maori Soldiers’ Fund encouraged by Apirana Ngata.[111] A haka is often performed in a pōwhiri (welcoming ceremony).[112]

 
A young man performing in a kapa haka group at a Rotorua tourist venue

Since 1972 there has been a regular national kapa haka competition, the Te Matatini National Festival, organised by the Aotearoa Traditional Māori Performing Arts Society. There are kapa haka groups in schools, tertiary institutions, and workplaces, and it is performed at tourist venues across the country.[113][114]

Whare tapere (entertainment houses) were a site of story-telling, dance, and puppetry in pre-European Māori culture.[115][116] Māori theatre and contemporary dance flourished in the 1970s and 1980s with groups such as Te Ohu Whakaari, Te Ika a Maui Players and Taki Rua. Contemporary Māori stage writers, actors and directors include George Henare, Riwia Brown, Hone Kouka, Nancy Brunning, Jim Moriarty, Briar Grace-Smith, and many others.[117] Contemporary performing arts include theatre companies Taki Rua,[118] Tawata Productions who run an annual playwriting festival for indigenous writers called Breaking Ground,[119][120] and dance companies, Atamira Dance Company and Okareka Dance Company.[121] In Auckland is Te Pou 'a kaupapa Māori performing arts venue' a place that develops and partners with Māori theatre makers.[122]

Traditional Māori instruments are taonga pūoro. They fulfilled various roles including storytelling, religious traditions and also daily functions such as the beginning of a new day.[123] Taonga pūoro fall into two areas, melodic instruments such as the flute and rhythmic instruments such as poi "balls of dried flax on string that are swung and tapped".[124]

Literature and media

See also: New Zealand art § Prehistoric art, and New Zealand art § Traditional Māori art

Like other cultures, oral folklore was used by Māori to preserve their stories and beliefs across many centuries. In the 19th century, European-style literacy was brought to the Māori, which led to Māori history documentation in books, novels and later television. Māori language use began to decline in the 20th century with English as the language through which Māori literature became widespread.

Notable Māori novelists include Patricia Grace, Witi Ihimaera and Alan Duff. Once Were Warriors, a 1994 film adapted from a 1990 novel of the same name by Alan Duff, brought the plight of some urban Māori to a wide audience. It was the highest-grossing film in New Zealand until 2006,[125][126] and received international acclaim, winning several international film prizes.[127] While some Māori feared that viewers would consider the violent male characters an accurate portrayal of Māori men, most critics praised it as exposing the raw side of domestic violence.[128]

Prominent Māori film actors include Jemaine Clement, Temuera Morrison, Cliff Curtis, Lawrence Makoare, Manu Bennett, Keisha Castle-Hughes, and Julian Dennison. They appear in films such as Whale Rider, Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith, The Matrix, River Queen, The Lord of The Rings, Rapa Nui, Godzilla vs. Kong, Deadpool 2, and others, and television series like Xena: Warrior Princess, Hercules: The Legendary Journeys, The Lost World and Spartacus: Blood and Sand. In most cases their roles in Hollywood productions have them portraying ethnic groups other than Māori.

In the 2010s Māori actor-director Taika Waititi rose to global fame with the Marvel Cinematic Universe film Thor: Ragnarok, in which he played an alien named Korg,[129] and the Academy Award-winning Jojo Rabbit,[130] in which he played Adolf Hitler as imagined by a ten-year-old Hitler Youth member. Waititi's previous films include Boy[131] and Hunt for the Wilderpeople,[132] both of which feature young Māori protagonists.

Sport

See also: List of New Zealand Māori sportspeople

Māori participate fully in New Zealand's sporting culture, and are well-represented in rugby union, rugby league and netball teams at all levels. As well as participation in national sports teams, there are Māori rugby union, rugby league and cricket representative teams that play in international competitions.

At the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, 41 of the 199 competitors (20.5 per cent) were of Māori descent in the New Zealand delegation, with the rugby sevens squads alone having 17 Māori competitors (out of 24). There were also three competitors of Māori descent in the Australian delegation.[133]

 
A haka performed by the national rugby union team before a game

The New Zealand national rugby union team and many other New Zealand sports people perform a haka, a traditional Māori challenge, before events.[134][135]

Ki-o-rahi and tapawai are two ball sports of Māori origin. Ki-o-rahi received an unexpected boost when McDonald's chose it to represent New Zealand.[136] Waka ama (outrigger canoeing) has also experienced a resurgence of interest in New Zealand since the 1980s.[137]

Language

Main articles: Māori language and Māori language revival
 
Speakers of Māori according to the 2013 census[138]
  Less than 5%
  More than 5%
  More than 10%
  More than 20%
  More than 30%
  More than 40%
  More than 50%

The Māori language, also known as te reo Māori (pronounced [ˈmaːoɾi, te ˈɾeo ˈmaːoɾi]) or simply Te Reo ("the language"), has the status of an official language. Linguists classify it within the Eastern Polynesian languages as being closely related to Cook Islands Māori, Tuamotuan and Tahitian. Before European contact Māori did not have a written language and "important information such as whakapapa was memorised and passed down verbally through the generations".[139] Māori were familiar with the concept of maps and when interacting with missionaries in 1815 could draw accurate maps of their rohe (iwi boundaries), onto paper, that were the equal of European maps. Missionaries surmised that Māori had traditionally drawn maps on sand or other natural materials.[140]

From about 1890, Māori members of Parliament realised the importance of English literacy to Māori and insisted that all Māori children be taught in English.[citation needed] Missionaries, who still ran many Māori schools, had been teaching exclusively in Māori but the Māori MPs insisted this should stop. However attendance at school for many Māori was intermittent. In many areas of New Zealand, Māori lost its role as a living community language used by significant numbers of people in the post-war years. In tandem with calls for sovereignty and for the righting of social injustices from the 1970s onwards, New Zealand schools now teach Māori culture and language as an option, and pre-school kohanga reo ("language-nests") have started, which teach tamariki (young children) exclusively in Māori. These now extend right through secondary schools (kura tuarua). Most preschool centres teach basics such as colours, numerals and greetings in Māori songs and chants.[141]

Māori Television, a government-funded channel committed to broadcasting primarily in Te Reo, began in March 2004.[77] The 1996 census reported 160,000 Māori speakers.[142] At the time of the 2013 census 125,352 Māori (21.3 per cent) reported a conversational level of proficiency.[143]

Social organisation

Historical development

Polynesian settlers in New Zealand developed a distinct society over several hundred years. Social groups were tribal, with no unified society or single Māori identity until after the arrival of Europeans. Nevertheless, common elements could be found in all Māori groups in pre-European New Zealand, including a shared Polynesian heritage, a common basic language, familial associations, traditions of warfare, and similar mythologies and religious beliefs.[144]

Most Māori lived in villages, which were inhabited by several whānau (extended families) who collectively formed a hapū (clan or subtribe). Members of a hapū cooperated with food production, gathering resources, raising families and defence. Māori society across New Zealand was broadly stratified into three classes of people: rangatira, chiefs and ruling families; tūtūā, commoners; and mōkai, slaves. Tohunga also held special standing in their communities as specialists of revered arts, skills and esoteric knowledge.[145][146]

Shared ancestry, intermarriage and trade strengthened relationships between different groups. Many hapū with mutually-recognised shared ancestry formed iwi, or tribes, which were the largest social unit in Māori society. Hapū and iwi often united for expeditions to gather food and resources, or in times of conflict. In contrast, warfare developed as an integral part of traditional life, as different groups competed for food and resources, settled personal disputes, and sought to increase their prestige and authority.[145]

 
Māori whānau from Rotorua in the 1880s.

Early European settlers introduced tools, weapons, clothing and foods to Māori across New Zealand, in exchange for resources, land and labour. Māori began selectively adopting elements of Western society during the 19th century, including European clothing and food, and later Western education, religion and architecture.[147] However, as the 19th century wore on, relations between European colonial settlers and different Māori groups became increasingly strained. Tensions led to widespread conflict in the 1860s, and the confiscation of millions of acres of Māori land. Significant amounts of land were also purchased by the colonial government and later through the Native Land Court.

20th century to present

By the start of the 20th century, a greater awareness had emerged of a unified Māori identity, particularly in comparison to Pākehā, who now overwhelmingly outnumbered the Māori as a whole. Māori and Pākehā societies remained largely separate—socially, culturally, economically and geographically—for much of the 19th and early 20th centuries.[148] The key reason for this was that Māori remained almost exclusively a rural population, whereas increasingly the European population was urban especially after 1900. Nevertheless, Māori groups continued to engage with the government and in legal processes to increase their standing in (and ultimately further their incorporation into) wider New Zealand society.[149] The main point of contact with the government were the four Māori Members of Parliament.

Many Māori migrated to larger rural towns and cities during the Depression and post-WWII periods in search of employment, leaving rural communities depleted and disconnecting many urban Māori from their traditional social controls and tribal homelands. Yet while standards of living improved among Māori, they continued to lag behind Pākehā in areas such as health, income, skilled employment and access to higher levels of education. Māori leaders and government policymakers alike struggled to deal with social issues stemming from increased urban migration, including a shortage of housing and jobs, and a rise in urban crime, poverty and health problems.[150]

In regards to housing, a 1961 census revealed significant differences in the living conditions of Māori and Europeans. That year, out of all the (unshared) non-Māori private dwellings in New Zealand, 96.8 per cent had a bath or shower, 94.1 per cent a hot water service, 88.7 per cent a flush toilet, 81.6 per cent a refrigerator, and 78.6 per cent an electric washing machine. By contrast, for all (unshared) Māori private dwellings that same year, 76.8 per cent had a bath or shower, 68.9 per cent a hot water service, 55.8 per cent a refrigerator, 54.1 per cent a flush toilet, and 47 per cent an electric washing machine.[151]

While the arrival of Europeans had a profound impact on the Māori way of life, many aspects of traditional society have survived into the 21st century. Māori participate fully in all spheres of New Zealand culture and society, leading largely Western lifestyles while also maintaining their own cultural and social customs. The traditional social strata of rangatira, tūtūā and mōkai have all but disappeared from Māori society, while the roles of tohunga and kaumātua are still present. Traditional kinship ties are also actively maintained, and the whānau in particular remains an integral part of Māori life.[152]

Marae, hapū and iwi

 
Whenuakura Marae in Taranaki.

Māori society at a local level is particularly visible at the marae. Formerly the central meeting spaces in traditional villages, marae today usually comprise a group of buildings around an open space, that frequently host events such as weddings, funerals, church services and other large gatherings, with traditional protocol and etiquette usually observed. They also serve as the base of one or sometimes several hapū.[153]

Most Māori affiliate with one or more iwi (and hapū), based on genealogical descent (whakapapa). Iwi vary in size, from a few hundred members to over 100,000 in the case of Ngāpuhi. Many people do not live in their traditional tribal regions as a result of urban migration (see Urban Māori). Iwi are usually governed by rūnanga (tribal councils or assemblies) which represent the iwi in consultations and negotiations with the New Zealand government.[154]

Race relations

See also: Hori (slur) and New Zealanders § Race and ethnic relations
 
Protest hikoi during the foreshore and seabed controversy in 2004

The status of Māori as the indigenous people of New Zealand is recognised in New Zealand law by the term tangata whenua (lit. "people of the land"), which identifies the traditional connection between Māori and a given area of land. Māori as a whole can be considered as tangata whenua of New Zealand entirely (excepting the Chatham Islands, where the tangata whenua are Moriori); individual iwi are recognised as tangata whenua for areas of New Zealand in which they are traditionally based (known in Māori as rohe), while hapū are tangata whenua within their marae. New Zealand law periodically requires consultation between the government and tangata whenua—for example, during major land development projects. This usually takes the form of negotiations between local or national government and the rūnanga of one or more relevant iwi, although the government generally decides which (if any) concerns are acted upon.[citation needed]

 
New Zealand endorsed the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in April 2010.

Māori issues are a prominent feature of race relations in New Zealand. Historically, many Pākehā viewed race relations in their country as being the "best in the world", a view that prevailed until Māori urban migration in the mid-20th century brought cultural and socioeconomic differences to wider attention.[155]

Māori protest movements grew significantly in the 1960s and 1970s seeking redress for past grievances, particularly in regard to land rights. Successive governments have responded by enacting affirmative action programmes, funding cultural rejuvenation initiatives and negotiating tribal settlements for past breaches of the Treaty of Waitangi.[156] Further efforts have focused on reducing socioeconomic disparity.[157]

A 2007 Department of Corrections report found that Māori are disproportionately represented in the criminal justice system: "a number of studies have shown evidence of greater likelihood, associated only with ethnicity, for Māori offenders to have police contact, be charged, lack legal representation, not be granted bail, plead guilty, be convicted, be sentenced to non-monetary penalties, and be denied release to Home Detention".[158] Conversely, critics denounce the scale of assistance given to Māori as amounting to preferential treatment for a select group of people based on race.[83] Both sentiments were highlighted during the foreshore and seabed controversy in 2004, in which the New Zealand government claimed sole ownership of the New Zealand foreshore and seabed, over the objections of Māori groups who were seeking customary title.[159]

Socioeconomic issues

Māori on average have fewer assets than the rest of the population, and run greater risks of many negative economic and social outcomes. Over 50 per cent of Māori live in areas in the three highest deprivation deciles, compared with 24 per cent of the rest of the population.[160]

Although Māori make up 16.5 per cent of the population,[161] they make up 52.71 per cent of the prison population.[162] Māori have higher unemployment rates than other ethnic groups in New Zealand, which is believed to partially account for their over-representation in the criminal justice system; many young Māori, finding themselves unemployed, are picked up for alcohol-related behaviours or small crimes such as vandalism.[163] Underemployment is in turn attributed to persistent institutional racism in New Zealand.[164][165]

"Only 47 per cent of Māori school-leavers finish school with qualifications higher than NCEA Level One; compared to 74 per cent European; 87 per cent Asian."[166] Although New Zealand rates very well globally in the PISA rankings that compare national performance in reading, science and maths, "once you disaggregate the PISA scores, Pakeha students are second in the world and Māori are 34th."[167] At the 2018 New Zealand census, 25.3% of Māori aged 15 and over had no formal qualifications, compared to 17.1% for non-Māori New Zealanders, and only 12.5% of Māori have a bachelor's degree or higher, compared to 26.8% of non-Māori.[168]

Also, a 2008 study by the New Zealand Family Violence Clearinghouse showed that Māori women and children are more likely to experience domestic violence than any other ethnic group.[169]

Health

In 2017–2019, life expectancy for Māori in New Zealand was 73.4 years for males and 77.1 years for females, compared to 80.9 years for non-Māori males and 84.4 years for non-Māori females, a difference of 7.5 and 7.3 years respectively.[170][171] However, Māori have a wide range of life expectancies across regions: Māori living in the Marlborough region have the highest life expectancy at 79.9 years for males and 83.4 years for females, while Māori living in the Gisborne region have the lowest life expectancy at 71.2 years for males and 75.2 years for females.[171]

Māori suffer more health problems, including higher levels of alcohol and drug abuse, smoking and obesity. Less frequent use of healthcare services mean that late diagnosis and treatment intervention lead to higher levels of morbidity and mortality in many manageable conditions.[172][173][174] Compared with non-Māori, Māori people experience higher rates of heart disease, strokes, most cancers, respiratory diseases, rheumatic fever, suicide and self-harm, and infant deaths.[175]

In April 2021, the government announced the creation of the first dedicated Māori Health Authority "with the power to directly commission health services for Māori and to partner with Health NZ in other aspects of the health system".[176]

Commerce

See also: Cultural appropriation

Wider commercial exposure has increased public awareness of the Māori culture, but has also resulted in several legal disputes. Between 1998 and 2006, Ngāti Toa attempted to trademark the haka "Ka Mate" to prevent its use by commercial organisations without their permission.[177] In 2001, Danish toymaker Lego faced legal action by several Māori tribal groups opposed to them trademarking Māori words used in the Bionicle product range.[178]

Political representation

Main article: Māori politics
 
The opening of the Māori Parliament at Pāpāwai, Greytown in 1897, with Richard Seddon in attendance
 
the national Māori flag, also known as the Tino rangatiratanga (absolute sovereignty) flag. Designed in 1989,[179] it is widely used by Māori groups.

Māori have been represented to the Crown in New Zealand politics since the Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand, before the Treaty of Waitangi was signed in 1840. Being a traditionally tribal people, no one organisation ostensibly speaks for all Māori nationwide. The Māori King Movement (Kīngitanga) originated in the 1860s as an attempt by several iwi to unify under one leader; in modern times, it serves a largely ceremonial role. Another attempt at political unity was the Kotahitanga Movement, which established a separate Māori Parliament that held annual sessions from 1892 until its last sitting in 1902.[180]

Māori have had reserved seats in the New Zealand Parliament since 1868.[181] Māori received universal suffrage with other New Zealand citizens in 1893.[182] Currently, Māori reserved electorates account for seven of the 120 seats in New Zealand's unicameral parliament, and consideration of and consultation with Māori have become routine requirements for councils and government organisations.[181] The contesting of these seats was the first opportunity for many Māori to participate in New Zealand elections, although the elected Māori representatives initially struggled to assert significant influence. Sir Āpirana Ngata has often been described as the foremost Māori politician to have served in Parliament in the mid-20th century.[183]

Debate occurs frequently as to the relevance and legitimacy of the separate electoral roll and the reserved seats. The National Party announced in 2008 it would abolish the seats when all historic Treaty settlements have been resolved, which it aimed to complete by 2014.[184] However, after the election National reached an agreement with the Māori Party not to abolish the seats until Māori give their approval.[185]

Several Māori political parties have formed over the years to improve the position of Māori in New Zealand society. The present Māori Party, formed in 2004, secured 1.32 per cent of the party vote at the 2014 general election and held two seats in the 51st New Zealand Parliament, with two MPs serving as Ministers outside Cabinet. The party did not achieve any representatives in the 52nd New Zealand Parliament,[186] but regained two seats in the 53rd.[187]

As of the 2020 reelection of the New Zealand Labour Party to government, Labour Minister Nanaia Mahuta is the first female Māori Foreign Minister of New Zealand; she replaced Winston Peters, also Māori, in the role. In 2016 she became the first Member of Parliament to have moko kauae (the traditional Māori female facial tattoo).[188] In the 2020 election more MPs with moko kauae entered Parliament, including Māori Party co-leader Debbie Ngarewa-Packer and Green Party MP Elizabeth Kerekere.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Māori has cognates in other Polynesian languages such as Hawaiian maoli, Tahitian mā'ohi, and Cook Islands Māori māori which all share similar meanings.
  2. ^ The orthographic conventions developed by the Māori Language Commission (Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori) recommend the use of the macron (ā ē ī ō ū) to denote long vowels. Contemporary English-language usage in New Zealand tends to avoid the anglicised plural form of the word Māori with an "s": The Māori language generally marks plurals by changing the article rather than the noun, for example: te waka (the canoe); ngā waka (the canoes).
  3. ^ In 2003, Christian Cullen became a member of the Māori rugby team despite having, according to his father, about 1/64 Māori ancestry.[16]

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Bibliography

  • Hill, Richard S (2009). "Maori and State Policy". In Byrnes, Giselle (ed.). The New Oxford History of New Zealand. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-558471-4.
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  • Lashley, Marilyn E. (2006). "Remedying Racial and Ethnic Inequality in New Zealand: Reparative and Distributive Policies of Social Justice". In Myers, Samuel L.; Corrie, Bruce P. (eds.). Racial and ethnic economic inequality: an international perspective. Vol. 1996. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-0-8204-5656-0.
  • McIntosh, Tracey (2005), 'Maori Identities: Fixed, Fluid, Forced', in James H. Liu, Tim McCreanor, Tracey McIntosh and Teresia Teaiwa, eds, New Zealand Identities: Departures and Destinations, Wellington: Victoria University Press
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Further reading

  • Ballara, Angela (1998). Iwi: the dynamics of Māori tribal organisation from c. 1769 to c. 1945. The Journal of the Polynesian Society. Vol. 108. Wellington: Victoria University Press. pp. 327–329. ISBN 978-0-86473-328-3. JSTOR 20706875.
  • Biggs, Bruce (1994). "Does Māori have a closest relative?" In Sutton (Ed.)(1994), pp. 96–105.
  • Gagne, Natacha. Being Maori in the City: Indigenous Everyday Life in Auckland (University of Toronto Press; 2013) 368 pages;
  • Hiroa, Te Rangi (Sir Peter Buck) (1974). The Coming of the Māori. Second edition. First published 1949. Wellington: Whitcombe and Tombs.
  • Irwin, Geoffrey (1992). The Prehistoric Exploration and Colonisation of the Pacific. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Mclean, Mervyn (1996). "Maori Music". Auckland : Auckland University Press.
  • Simmons, D.R. (1997). Ta Moko, The Art of Māori Tattoo. Revised edition. First published 1986. Auckland: Reed
  • Sutton, Douglas G. (Ed.) (1994). The Origins of the First New Zealanders. Auckland: Auckland University Press. ISBN 1-86940-098-4

External links

 
Look up Māori in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Māori.

January 11, 2023
māori, people, this, article, about, zealand, cook, islands, cook, islanders, maohi, people, society, islands, tahitians, confused, with, maouri, people, mauri, moriori, māori, māori, ˈmaːɔɾi, listen, indigenous, polynesian, people, mainland, zealand, aotearoa. This article is about the Maori people of New Zealand For the Maori people of the Cook Islands see Cook Islanders For the Maohi people of the Society Islands see Tahitians Not to be confused with Maouri people Mauri or Moriori The Maori ˈ m aʊ r i 6 Maori ˈmaːɔɾi listen are the indigenous Polynesian people of mainland New Zealand Aotearoa Maori originated with settlers from East Polynesia who arrived in New Zealand in several waves of canoe voyages between roughly 1320 and 1350 7 Over several centuries in isolation these settlers developed their own distinctive culture whose language mythology crafts and performing arts evolved independently from those of other eastern Polynesian cultures Some early Maori moved to the Chatham Islands where their descendants became New Zealand s other indigenous Polynesian ethnic group the Moriori 8 MaoriMaori performing a haka 2012 Regions with significant populationsNew Zealand775 836 2018 census 1 Australia142 107 2016 census 2 United Kingdomapprox 8 000 2000 3 United States3 500 2000 4 Canada2 500 2016 5 Other regionsapprox 8 000 3 LanguagesMaori EnglishReligionMainly Christian or irreligious Ratana Maori religionsRelated ethnic groupsother Polynesian peoples Maori IndiansInitial contact between Maori and Europeans starting in the 18th century ranged from beneficial trade to lethal violence Maori actively adopted many technologies from the newcomers With the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 the two cultures coexisted for a generation Rising tensions over disputed land sales led to conflict in the 1860s and massive land confiscations to which Maori responded with fierce resistance After the Treaty was declared a legal nullity in 1877 Maori were forced to assimilate into many aspects of Western culture Social upheaval and epidemics of introduced disease took a devastating toll on the Maori population which fell dramatically By the start of the 20th century the Maori population had begun to recover and efforts have been made centring on the Treaty of Waitangi to increase their standing in wider New Zealand society and achieve social justice Traditional Maori culture has thereby enjoyed a significant revival which was further bolstered by a Maori protest movement that emerged in the 1960s However disproportionate numbers of Maori face significant economic and social obstacles and generally have lower life expectancies and incomes compared with other New Zealand ethnic groups They suffer higher levels of crime health problems and educational under achievement A number of socio economic initiatives have been instigated with the aim of closing the gaps between Maori and other New Zealanders Political and economic redress for historical grievances is also ongoing see Treaty of Waitangi claims and settlements In the 2018 census there were 775 836 people in New Zealand identifying as Maori making up 16 5 percent of the national population They are the second largest ethnic group in New Zealand after European New Zealanders Pakeha In addition more than 140 000 Maori live in Australia The Maori language is spoken to some extent by about a fifth of all Maori representing three percent of the total population Maori are active in all spheres of New Zealand culture and society with independent representation in areas such as media politics and sport Contents 1 Etymology 2 Naming and self naming 3 History 3 1 Origins from Polynesia 3 2 Early history 3 3 Contact with Europeans 3 4 Decline and revival 4 Demographics 5 Culture 5 1 Traditional culture 5 2 Belief and religion 5 3 Performing arts 5 4 Literature and media 5 5 Sport 6 Language 7 Social organisation 7 1 Historical development 7 1 1 20th century to present 7 2 Marae hapu and iwi 7 3 Race relations 8 Socioeconomic issues 8 1 Health 9 Commerce 10 Political representation 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Bibliography 15 Further reading 16 External linksEtymology EditIn the Maori language the word maori means normal natural or ordinary In legends and oral traditions the word distinguished ordinary mortal human beings tangata maori from deities and spirits wairua 9 i Likewise wai maori denotes fresh water as opposed to salt water There are cognate words in most Polynesian languages 10 all deriving from Proto Polynesian ma a qoli which has the reconstructed meaning true real genuine 11 12 Naming and self naming EditEarly visitors from Europe to New Zealand generally referred to the indigenous inhabitants as New Zealanders or as natives 13 The Maori used the term Maori to describe themselves in a pan tribal sense ii Maori people often use the term tangata whenua literally people of the land to identify in a way that expresses their relationship with a particular area of land a tribe may be the tangata whenua in one area but not in another 14 The term can also refer to the Maori people as a whole in relation to New Zealand Aotearoa as a whole The official definition of Maori for electoral purposes has changed over time Before 1974 the government required documented ancestry to determine the status of a Maori person and only those with at least 50 Maori ancestry were allowed to choose which seats they wished to vote in The Maori Affairs Amendment Act 1974 changed this allowing individuals to self identify as to their cultural identity Until 1986 the census required at least 50 per cent Maori ancestry to claim Maori affiliation Currently in most contexts authorities require some documentation of ancestry or continuing cultural connection such as acceptance by others as being of the people but no minimum ancestry requirement 15 iii History EditMain article Maori history Origins from Polynesia Edit The Maori settlement of New Zealand represents an end point of a long chain of island hopping voyages in the South Pacific No credible evidence exists of pre Maori settlement of New Zealand on the other hand compelling evidence from archaeology linguistics and physical anthropology indicates that the first settlers migrated from Polynesia and became the Maori 17 18 Evidence indicates that their ancestry as part of the larger group of Austronesian peoples stretches back 5 000 years to the indigenous peoples of Taiwan Polynesian people settled a large area encompassing Samoa Tahiti Hawaiʻi Easter Island Rapa Nui and finally New Zealand 19 There may have been some exploration and settlement before eruption of Mount Tarawera in about 1315 based on finds of bones from Polynesian rats and rat gnawed shells 20 and evidence of widespread forest fires in the decade or so prior 21 22 but the most recent evidence points to the main settlement occurring as a planned mass migration somewhere between 1320 and 1350 17 This broadly aligns with analyses from Maori oral traditions which describe the arrival of ancestors in a number of large ocean going canoes waka in around 1350 23 24 They had a profound impact on their environment from their first settlement in New Zealand and voyages further south and Maori explorers may have been the first humans to discover Antarctica 25 26 27 28 Early history Edit Further information Archaeology of New Zealand Early Archaic period objects from the Wairau Bar archaeological site on display at the Canterbury Museum in Christchurch The earliest period of Maori settlement known as the Archaic Moahunter or Colonisation period dates from c 1300 to c 1500 A 2022 study using updated radiocarbon technology shows that early Maori settlement happened in the North Island between AD 1250 and AD 1275 29 30 The early Maori diet included an abundance of moa and other large birds and fur seals that had never been hunted before This Archaic period is known for its distinctive reel necklaces 31 and also remarkable for the lack of weapons and fortifications typical of the later Classic Maori 32 The best known and most extensively studied Archaic site at Wairau Bar in the South Island 33 shows evidence of occupation from early 13th century to the early 15th century 34 It is the only known New Zealand archaeological site containing the bones of people who were born elsewhere 34 Model of a pa hillfort built on a headland Pa proliferated as competition and warfare increased among a growing population Factors that operated in the transition to the Classic period the culture at the time of European contact include a significantly cooler period from 1500 35 and the extinction of the moa and of other food species 36 37 38 39 40 The Classic period is characterised by finely made pounamu greenstone weapons and ornaments elaborately carved war canoes and wharenui meeting houses 41 Maori lived in autonomous settlements in extended hapu groups descended from common iwi ancestors The settlements had farmed areas and food sources for hunting fishing and gathering Fortified pa were built at strategic locations due to occasional warfare over wrongdoings or resources this practice varied over different locations throughout New Zealand with more populations in the far North 42 43 44 There is a stereotype that Maori were natural warriors however warfare and associated practices like cannibalism were not a dominating part of Maori culture 45 46 47 Around the year 1500 a group of Maori migrated east to the Chatham Islands and developed into a people known as the Moriori 48 with pacifism a key part of their culture 49 Contact with Europeans Edit The first European impression of Maori at Murderers Bay in Abel Tasman s travel journal 1642 The first European explorers to New Zealand were Abel Tasman who arrived in 1642 Captain James Cook in 1769 and Marion du Fresne in 1772 Initial contact between Maori and Europeans proved problematic and sometimes fatal with Tasman having four of his men killed and probably killing at least one Maori without ever landing 50 Cook s men shot at least eight Maori within three days of his first landing 51 52 although he later had good relations with Maori Three years later after a promising start du Fresne and 26 men of his crew were killed From the 1780s Maori also increasingly encountered European and American sealers whalers and Christian missionaries Relations were mostly peaceful although marred by several further violent incidents the worst of which was the Boyd massacre and subsequent revenge attacks 53 European settlement in New Zealand began in the early 19th century leading to an extensive sharing of culture and ideas Many Maori valued Europeans whom they called Pakeha as a means to acquire Western knowledge and technology Maori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form 54 The introduction of the potato revolutionised agriculture and the acquisition of muskets 55 by Maori iwi led to a period of particularly bloody intertribal warfare known as the Musket Wars in which many groups were decimated and others driven from their traditional territory 56 The pacifist Moriori in the Chatham Islands similarly suffered massacre and subjugation in an invasion by some Taranaki iwi 57 At the same time the Maori suffered high mortality rates from Eurasian infectious diseases such as influenza smallpox and measles which killed an estimated 10 to 50 per cent of Maori 58 59 Depiction of the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 bringing New Zealand and the Maori into the British Empire By 1839 estimates placed the number of Europeans living in New Zealand as high as 2 000 60 and the British Crown acceded to repeated requests from missionaries and some Maori chiefs rangatira to intervene The British government sent Royal Navy Captain William Hobson to negotiate a treaty between the British Crown and the Maori which became known as the Treaty of Waitangi Starting from February 1840 this treaty was signed by the Crown and 500 Maori chiefs from across New Zealand 61 62 The Treaty gave Maori the rights of British subjects and guaranteed Maori property rights and tribal autonomy in return for accepting British sovereignty and the annexation of New Zealand as a colony in the British Empire 63 However disputes continue over aspects of the Treaty of Waitangi including wording differences in the two versions in English and Maori as well as misunderstandings of different cultural concepts notably the Maori version did not cede sovereignty to the British crown 64 In an 1877 court case the Treaty was declared a simple nullity on the grounds that the signatories had been primitive barbarians 65 66 Nevertheless relations between Maori and Europeans during the early colonial period were largely peaceful Many Maori groups set up substantial businesses supplying food and other products for domestic and overseas markets When violence did break out as in the Wairau Affray Flagstaff War Hutt Valley Campaign and Wanganui Campaign it was generally limited and concluded with a peace treaty However by the 1860s rising settler numbers and tensions over disputed land purchases led to the later New Zealand wars fought by the colonial government against numerous Maori iwi using local and British Imperial troops and some allied iwi These conflicts resulted in the colonial government confiscating tracts of Maori land as punishment for what were called rebellions Pakeha European settlers would occupy the confiscated land 67 Several minor conflicts also arose after the wars including the incident at Parihaka in 1881 and the Dog Tax War from 1897 to 1898 The Native Land Court was also established to transfer Maori land from communal ownership into individual title as a means to assimilation and to facilitate greater sales to European settlers 68 Decline and revival Edit Members of the 28th Maori Battalion performing a haka Egypt July 1941 By the late 19th century a widespread belief existed amongst both Pakeha and Maori that the Maori population would cease to exist as a separate race or culture and become assimilated into the European population 69 From the late 19th to the mid 20th century various laws policies and practices were instituted in New Zealand society with the effect of inducing Maori to conform to Pakeha norms notable among these are the Tohunga Suppression Act 1907 and the suppression of the Maori language by schools 70 often enforced with corporal punishment 71 In the 1896 census New Zealand had a Maori population of 42 113 by which time Europeans numbered more than 700 000 72 The decline did not continue and the Maori population continued to recover in the 20th century Influential Maori politicians such as James Carroll Apirana Ngata Te Rangi Hiroa and Maui Pomare aimed to revitalise the Maori people after the devastation of the previous century They believed the future path called for a degree of assimilation 73 with Maori adopting European practices such as Western medicine and education especially learning English while also retaining traditional cultural practices Maori also fought during both World Wars in specialised battalions the Maori Pioneer Battalion in WWI and the 28th Maori Battalion in WWII Maori were also badly hit by the 1918 influenza epidemic with death rates for Maori being 4 5 times higher than for Pakeha After World War II te reo Maori use declined steeply in favour of English Whina Cooper leading the Maori Land March in 1975 seeking redress for historical grievances Since the 1960s Maoridom has undergone a cultural revival 74 concurrent with activism for social justice and a protest movement 75 Kōhanga reo Maori language pre schools were established in 1982 to promote Maori language use and halt the decline in its use 76 Two Maori language television channels broadcast content in the Maori language 77 78 while words such as kia ora have entered widespread use in New Zealand English 79 Government recognition of the growing political power of Maori and political activism have led to limited redress for historic land confiscations In 1975 the Crown set up the Waitangi Tribunal to investigate historical grievances 80 and since the 1990s the New Zealand government has negotiated and finalised treaty settlements with many iwi across New Zealand By June 2008 the government had provided over NZ 900 million in settlements much of it in the form of land deals 81 There is a growing Maori leadership who are using these settlements as an investment platform for economic development 82 Despite a growing acceptance of Maori culture in wider New Zealand society treaty settlements have generated significant controversy Some Maori have argued that the settlements occur at a level of between one and two and a half cents on the dollar of the value of the confiscated lands and do not represent adequate redress Conversely some non Maori denounce the settlements and socioeconomic initiatives as amounting to race based preferential treatment 83 Both of these sentiments were expressed during the New Zealand foreshore and seabed controversy in 2004 84 85 Demographics Edit Maori in New Zealand in 2018 Under the Maori Affairs Amendment Act 1974 a Maori is defined as a person of the Maori race of New Zealand and includes any descendant of such a person 86 The Maori population around the late 18th century was estimated by James Cook at 100 000 Historian Michael King suggests a slightly higher figure of 110 000 is more likely 87 Their numbers declined during the 19th century to as low as 42 000 the decline has been attributed to the impact of European colonisation including new diseases 88 Thereafter the population grew rapidly There were 775 836 people identifying as being part of the Maori ethnic group at the 2018 New Zealand census making up 16 5 of New Zealand s population This is an increase of 177 234 people 29 6 since the 2013 census and an increase of 210 507 people 37 2 since the 2006 census The large increase between the 2013 and 2018 census was mainly due to Statistics New Zealand adding ethnicity data from other sources previous censuses administrative data and imputation to the 2018 census data to reduce the number of non responses 89 There were 383 019 males and 392 820 females giving a sex ratio of 0 975 males per female The median age was 25 4 years compared with 37 4 years for New Zealand as a whole with 248 784 people 32 1 aged under 15 years 193 146 24 9 aged 15 to 29 285 657 36 8 aged 30 to 64 and 48 252 6 2 aged 65 or older 90 In terms of population distribution 85 7 of Maori live in the North Island and 14 2 live in the South Island The Chatham Islands has the highest concentration of Maori people at 66 1 followed by the Wairoa District 65 7 Ōpōtiki District 63 7 Kawerau District 61 7 and Gisborne District 52 9 The Upper Harbour local board area in Auckland has the lowest concentration of Maori people at 5 1 followed by the Queenstown Lakes District at 5 3 91 Of those identifying as Maori at the 2018 census 352 755 people 45 5 identified as of sole Maori ethnicity while 336 174 people 43 3 identified as of both European and Maori ethnicity due to the high rate of intermarriage between the two ethnicities 92 The largest iwi by population at the 2013 census was Ngapuhi 125 601 followed by Ngati Porou 71 049 Ngai Tahu 54 819 and Waikato 40 083 However over 110 000 people of Maori descent could not identify their iwi 93 Outside of New Zealand a large Maori population exists in Australia estimated at 155 000 in 2011 94 In 2007 the Maori Party suggested a special seat should be created in the New Zealand parliament representing Maori in Australia 95 Smaller communities also exist in the United Kingdom approx 8 000 the United States up to 3 500 and Canada approx 1 000 3 96 97 Culture EditMain article Maori culture Wharenui meeting house at Ōhinemutu village Rotorua tekoteko on the top Maori culture forms a distinctive part of New Zealand culture and due to a large diaspora and the incorporation of Maori motifs into popular culture is found throughout the world 98 99 Contemporary Maori culture comprises traditional as well as 20th century influences Traditional culture Edit A Maori chief with tattoos moko seen by James Cook and his crew Hand colored engraving by Thomas Chambers after original 1769 drawing by Sydney Parkinson Archaeological record indicates a gradual evolution of culture 100 In the course of a few centuries the growing population led to competition for resources and an increase in warfare and an increased frequency of fortified pa Various systems also arose aimed to conserve resources most of these such as tapu and rahui used religious or supernatural threats to discourage people from taking species at particular seasons or from specified areas Warfare between tribes was common and Maori would sometimes eat their conquered enemies 101 Performing arts such as the haka developed from their Polynesian roots as did carving and weaving Regional dialects arose with differences in vocabulary and in the pronunciation of some words but the language retained enough similarities to other Eastern Polynesian languages for Tupaia the Tahitian navigator on James Cook s first voyage in the region to act as an interpreter between Maori and the crew of the Endeavour Belief and religion Edit Main articles Maori mythology and Maori religion Religious affiliation 102 No religion 53 5 Christian 29 9 Maori religions 7 7 Other religion 1 4 Buddhism 0 2 Islam 0 1 Hinduism 0 1 Traditional Maori beliefs have their origins in Polynesian culture Concepts such as tapu sacred noa non sacred mana authority prestige and wairua spirit governed everyday Maori living and there are also many Maori deities Today some Maori follow a variety of Christian faiths such as Presbyterianism The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints Mormons Maori Christian groups such as Ratana and Ringatu 103 and also Catholic Anglican and Methodist denominations 104 105 At the 2018 New Zealand census 7 7 per cent of Maori were affiliated with Maori religions beliefs and philosophies 29 9 per cent with Christian denominations and 53 5 per cent of Maori claimed no religion Proportions of Christian and irreligious Maori are comparable with European New Zealanders 102 Maori woman with a representation of the Waikato Ancestress Te Iringa Many Maori people observe spiritual traditions such as tapu and noa Certain objects areas or buildings are tapu spiritually restricted and must be made noa unrestricted by ceremonial action 106 It is common practice for instance to remove one s shoes before entering a wharenui meeting house in token of respect for the ancestors who are represented and spiritually present within the wharenui 107 Another spiritual ritual is hurihanga takapau purification practised when fishing to ensure there is no tapu on the fish 108 Performing arts Edit Cultural performance of waiata song haka dance tauparapara chants and mōteatea poetry are used by Maori to express and pass on knowledge and understanding about history communities and relationships 109 Kapa haka is a Maori performance art 110 that originated in the 1880s to perform to tourists including some groups travelling out of New Zealand to perform 111 It was used in the First World War to raise money for the Maori Soldiers Fund encouraged by Apirana Ngata 111 A haka is often performed in a pōwhiri welcoming ceremony 112 A young man performing in a kapa haka group at a Rotorua tourist venue Since 1972 there has been a regular national kapa haka competition the Te Matatini National Festival organised by the Aotearoa Traditional Maori Performing Arts Society There are kapa haka groups in schools tertiary institutions and workplaces and it is performed at tourist venues across the country 113 114 Whare tapere entertainment houses were a site of story telling dance and puppetry in pre European Maori culture 115 116 Maori theatre and contemporary dance flourished in the 1970s and 1980s with groups such as Te Ohu Whakaari Te Ika a Maui Players and Taki Rua Contemporary Maori stage writers actors and directors include George Henare Riwia Brown Hone Kouka Nancy Brunning Jim Moriarty Briar Grace Smith and many others 117 Contemporary performing arts include theatre companies Taki Rua 118 Tawata Productions who run an annual playwriting festival for indigenous writers called Breaking Ground 119 120 and dance companies Atamira Dance Company and Okareka Dance Company 121 In Auckland is Te Pou a kaupapa Maori performing arts venue a place that develops and partners with Maori theatre makers 122 Traditional Maori instruments are taonga puoro They fulfilled various roles including storytelling religious traditions and also daily functions such as the beginning of a new day 123 Taonga puoro fall into two areas melodic instruments such as the flute and rhythmic instruments such as poi balls of dried flax on string that are swung and tapped 124 Literature and media Edit See also New Zealand art Prehistoric art and New Zealand art Traditional Maori art Like other cultures oral folklore was used by Maori to preserve their stories and beliefs across many centuries In the 19th century European style literacy was brought to the Maori which led to Maori history documentation in books novels and later television Maori language use began to decline in the 20th century with English as the language through which Maori literature became widespread Notable Maori novelists include Patricia Grace Witi Ihimaera and Alan Duff Once Were Warriors a 1994 film adapted from a 1990 novel of the same name by Alan Duff brought the plight of some urban Maori to a wide audience It was the highest grossing film in New Zealand until 2006 125 126 and received international acclaim winning several international film prizes 127 While some Maori feared that viewers would consider the violent male characters an accurate portrayal of Maori men most critics praised it as exposing the raw side of domestic violence 128 Prominent Maori film actors include Jemaine Clement Temuera Morrison Cliff Curtis Lawrence Makoare Manu Bennett Keisha Castle Hughes and Julian Dennison They appear in films such as Whale Rider Star Wars Episode III Revenge of the Sith The Matrix River Queen The Lord of The Rings Rapa Nui Godzilla vs Kong Deadpool 2 and others and television series like Xena Warrior Princess Hercules The Legendary Journeys The Lost World and Spartacus Blood and Sand In most cases their roles in Hollywood productions have them portraying ethnic groups other than Maori In the 2010s Maori actor director Taika Waititi rose to global fame with the Marvel Cinematic Universe film Thor Ragnarok in which he played an alien named Korg 129 and the Academy Award winning Jojo Rabbit 130 in which he played Adolf Hitler as imagined by a ten year old Hitler Youth member Waititi s previous films include Boy 131 and Hunt for the Wilderpeople 132 both of which feature young Maori protagonists Witi Ihimaera Taika Waititi Temuera Morrison Keisha Castle HughesSport Edit See also List of New Zealand Maori sportspeople Maori participate fully in New Zealand s sporting culture and are well represented in rugby union rugby league and netball teams at all levels As well as participation in national sports teams there are Maori rugby union rugby league and cricket representative teams that play in international competitions At the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro 41 of the 199 competitors 20 5 per cent were of Maori descent in the New Zealand delegation with the rugby sevens squads alone having 17 Maori competitors out of 24 There were also three competitors of Maori descent in the Australian delegation 133 A haka performed by the national rugby union team before a game The New Zealand national rugby union team and many other New Zealand sports people perform a haka a traditional Maori challenge before events 134 135 Ki o rahi and tapawai are two ball sports of Maori origin Ki o rahi received an unexpected boost when McDonald s chose it to represent New Zealand 136 Waka ama outrigger canoeing has also experienced a resurgence of interest in New Zealand since the 1980s 137 Language EditMain articles Maori language and Maori language revival Speakers of Maori according to the 2013 census 138 Less than 5 More than 5 More than 10 More than 20 More than 30 More than 40 More than 50 The Maori language also known as te reo Maori pronounced ˈmaːoɾi te ˈɾeo ˈmaːoɾi or simply Te Reo the language has the status of an official language Linguists classify it within the Eastern Polynesian languages as being closely related to Cook Islands Maori Tuamotuan and Tahitian Before European contact Maori did not have a written language and important information such as whakapapa was memorised and passed down verbally through the generations 139 Maori were familiar with the concept of maps and when interacting with missionaries in 1815 could draw accurate maps of their rohe iwi boundaries onto paper that were the equal of European maps Missionaries surmised that Maori had traditionally drawn maps on sand or other natural materials 140 From about 1890 Maori members of Parliament realised the importance of English literacy to Maori and insisted that all Maori children be taught in English citation needed Missionaries who still ran many Maori schools had been teaching exclusively in Maori but the Maori MPs insisted this should stop However attendance at school for many Maori was intermittent In many areas of New Zealand Maori lost its role as a living community language used by significant numbers of people in the post war years In tandem with calls for sovereignty and for the righting of social injustices from the 1970s onwards New Zealand schools now teach Maori culture and language as an option and pre school kohanga reo language nests have started which teach tamariki young children exclusively in Maori These now update extend right through secondary schools kura tuarua Most preschool centres teach basics such as colours numerals and greetings in Maori songs and chants 141 Maori Television a government funded channel committed to broadcasting primarily in Te Reo began in March 2004 77 The 1996 census reported 160 000 Maori speakers 142 At the time of the 2013 census 125 352 Maori 21 3 per cent reported a conversational level of proficiency 143 Social organisation EditHistorical development Edit Polynesian settlers in New Zealand developed a distinct society over several hundred years Social groups were tribal with no unified society or single Maori identity until after the arrival of Europeans Nevertheless common elements could be found in all Maori groups in pre European New Zealand including a shared Polynesian heritage a common basic language familial associations traditions of warfare and similar mythologies and religious beliefs 144 Most Maori lived in villages which were inhabited by several whanau extended families who collectively formed a hapu clan or subtribe Members of a hapu cooperated with food production gathering resources raising families and defence Maori society across New Zealand was broadly stratified into three classes of people rangatira chiefs and ruling families tutua commoners and mōkai slaves Tohunga also held special standing in their communities as specialists of revered arts skills and esoteric knowledge 145 146 Shared ancestry intermarriage and trade strengthened relationships between different groups Many hapu with mutually recognised shared ancestry formed iwi or tribes which were the largest social unit in Maori society Hapu and iwi often united for expeditions to gather food and resources or in times of conflict In contrast warfare developed as an integral part of traditional life as different groups competed for food and resources settled personal disputes and sought to increase their prestige and authority 145 Maori whanau from Rotorua in the 1880s Early European settlers introduced tools weapons clothing and foods to Maori across New Zealand in exchange for resources land and labour Maori began selectively adopting elements of Western society during the 19th century including European clothing and food and later Western education religion and architecture 147 However as the 19th century wore on relations between European colonial settlers and different Maori groups became increasingly strained Tensions led to widespread conflict in the 1860s and the confiscation of millions of acres of Maori land Significant amounts of land were also purchased by the colonial government and later through the Native Land Court 20th century to present Edit By the start of the 20th century a greater awareness had emerged of a unified Maori identity particularly in comparison to Pakeha who now overwhelmingly outnumbered the Maori as a whole Maori and Pakeha societies remained largely separate socially culturally economically and geographically for much of the 19th and early 20th centuries 148 The key reason for this was that Maori remained almost exclusively a rural population whereas increasingly the European population was urban especially after 1900 Nevertheless Maori groups continued to engage with the government and in legal processes to increase their standing in and ultimately further their incorporation into wider New Zealand society 149 The main point of contact with the government were the four Maori Members of Parliament Many Maori migrated to larger rural towns and cities during the Depression and post WWII periods in search of employment leaving rural communities depleted and disconnecting many urban Maori from their traditional social controls and tribal homelands Yet while standards of living improved among Maori they continued to lag behind Pakeha in areas such as health income skilled employment and access to higher levels of education Maori leaders and government policymakers alike struggled to deal with social issues stemming from increased urban migration including a shortage of housing and jobs and a rise in urban crime poverty and health problems 150 In regards to housing a 1961 census revealed significant differences in the living conditions of Maori and Europeans That year out of all the unshared non Maori private dwellings in New Zealand 96 8 per cent had a bath or shower 94 1 per cent a hot water service 88 7 per cent a flush toilet 81 6 per cent a refrigerator and 78 6 per cent an electric washing machine By contrast for all unshared Maori private dwellings that same year 76 8 per cent had a bath or shower 68 9 per cent a hot water service 55 8 per cent a refrigerator 54 1 per cent a flush toilet and 47 per cent an electric washing machine 151 While the arrival of Europeans had a profound impact on the Maori way of life many aspects of traditional society have survived into the 21st century Maori participate fully in all spheres of New Zealand culture and society leading largely Western lifestyles while also maintaining their own cultural and social customs The traditional social strata of rangatira tutua and mōkai have all but disappeared from Maori society while the roles of tohunga and kaumatua are still present Traditional kinship ties are also actively maintained and the whanau in particular remains an integral part of Maori life 152 Marae hapu and iwi Edit Whenuakura Marae in Taranaki Maori society at a local level is particularly visible at the marae Formerly the central meeting spaces in traditional villages marae today usually comprise a group of buildings around an open space that frequently host events such as weddings funerals church services and other large gatherings with traditional protocol and etiquette usually observed They also serve as the base of one or sometimes several hapu 153 Most Maori affiliate with one or more iwi and hapu based on genealogical descent whakapapa Iwi vary in size from a few hundred members to over 100 000 in the case of Ngapuhi Many people do not live in their traditional tribal regions as a result of urban migration see Urban Maori Iwi are usually governed by runanga tribal councils or assemblies which represent the iwi in consultations and negotiations with the New Zealand government 154 Race relations Edit See also Hori slur and New Zealanders Race and ethnic relations Protest hikoi during the foreshore and seabed controversy in 2004 The status of Maori as the indigenous people of New Zealand is recognised in New Zealand law by the term tangata whenua lit people of the land which identifies the traditional connection between Maori and a given area of land Maori as a whole can be considered as tangata whenua of New Zealand entirely excepting the Chatham Islands where the tangata whenua are Moriori individual iwi are recognised as tangata whenua for areas of New Zealand in which they are traditionally based known in Maori as rohe while hapu are tangata whenua within their marae New Zealand law periodically requires consultation between the government and tangata whenua for example during major land development projects This usually takes the form of negotiations between local or national government and the runanga of one or more relevant iwi although the government generally decides which if any concerns are acted upon citation needed New Zealand endorsed the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in April 2010 Maori issues are a prominent feature of race relations in New Zealand Historically many Pakeha viewed race relations in their country as being the best in the world a view that prevailed until Maori urban migration in the mid 20th century brought cultural and socioeconomic differences to wider attention 155 Maori protest movements grew significantly in the 1960s and 1970s seeking redress for past grievances particularly in regard to land rights Successive governments have responded by enacting affirmative action programmes funding cultural rejuvenation initiatives and negotiating tribal settlements for past breaches of the Treaty of Waitangi 156 Further efforts have focused on reducing socioeconomic disparity 157 A 2007 Department of Corrections report found that Maori are disproportionately represented in the criminal justice system a number of studies have shown evidence of greater likelihood associated only with ethnicity for Maori offenders to have police contact be charged lack legal representation not be granted bail plead guilty be convicted be sentenced to non monetary penalties and be denied release to Home Detention 158 Conversely critics denounce the scale of assistance given to Maori as amounting to preferential treatment for a select group of people based on race 83 Both sentiments were highlighted during the foreshore and seabed controversy in 2004 in which the New Zealand government claimed sole ownership of the New Zealand foreshore and seabed over the objections of Maori groups who were seeking customary title 159 Socioeconomic issues EditMaori on average have fewer assets than the rest of the population and run greater risks of many negative economic and social outcomes Over 50 per cent of Maori live in areas in the three highest deprivation deciles compared with 24 per cent of the rest of the population 160 Although Maori make up 16 5 per cent of the population 161 they make up 52 71 per cent of the prison population 162 Maori have higher unemployment rates than other ethnic groups in New Zealand which is believed to partially account for their over representation in the criminal justice system many young Maori finding themselves unemployed are picked up for alcohol related behaviours or small crimes such as vandalism 163 Underemployment is in turn attributed to persistent institutional racism in New Zealand 164 165 Only 47 per cent of Maori school leavers finish school with qualifications higher than NCEA Level One compared to 74 per cent European 87 per cent Asian 166 Although New Zealand rates very well globally in the PISA rankings that compare national performance in reading science and maths once you disaggregate the PISA scores Pakeha students are second in the world and Maori are 34th 167 At the 2018 New Zealand census 25 3 of Maori aged 15 and over had no formal qualifications compared to 17 1 for non Maori New Zealanders and only 12 5 of Maori have a bachelor s degree or higher compared to 26 8 of non Maori 168 Also a 2008 study by the New Zealand Family Violence Clearinghouse showed that Maori women and children are more likely to experience domestic violence than any other ethnic group 169 Health Edit In 2017 2019 life expectancy for Maori in New Zealand was 73 4 years for males and 77 1 years for females compared to 80 9 years for non Maori males and 84 4 years for non Maori females a difference of 7 5 and 7 3 years respectively 170 171 However Maori have a wide range of life expectancies across regions Maori living in the Marlborough region have the highest life expectancy at 79 9 years for males and 83 4 years for females while Maori living in the Gisborne region have the lowest life expectancy at 71 2 years for males and 75 2 years for females 171 Maori suffer more health problems including higher levels of alcohol and drug abuse smoking and obesity Less frequent use of healthcare services mean that late diagnosis and treatment intervention lead to higher levels of morbidity and mortality in many manageable conditions 172 173 174 Compared with non Maori Maori people experience higher rates of heart disease strokes most cancers respiratory diseases rheumatic fever suicide and self harm and infant deaths 175 In April 2021 the government announced the creation of the first dedicated Maori Health Authority with the power to directly commission health services for Maori and to partner with Health NZ in other aspects of the health system 176 Commerce EditSee also Cultural appropriation Wider commercial exposure has increased public awareness of the Maori culture but has also resulted in several legal disputes Between 1998 and 2006 Ngati Toa attempted to trademark the haka Ka Mate to prevent its use by commercial organisations without their permission 177 In 2001 Danish toymaker Lego faced legal action by several Maori tribal groups opposed to them trademarking Maori words used in the Bionicle product range 178 Political representation EditMain article Maori politics The opening of the Maori Parliament at Papawai Greytown in 1897 with Richard Seddon in attendance the national Maori flag also known as the Tino rangatiratanga absolute sovereignty flag Designed in 1989 179 it is widely used by Maori groups Maori have been represented to the Crown in New Zealand politics since the Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand before the Treaty of Waitangi was signed in 1840 Being a traditionally tribal people no one organisation ostensibly speaks for all Maori nationwide The Maori King Movement Kingitanga originated in the 1860s as an attempt by several iwi to unify under one leader in modern times it serves a largely ceremonial role Another attempt at political unity was the Kotahitanga Movement which established a separate Maori Parliament that held annual sessions from 1892 until its last sitting in 1902 180 Maori have had reserved seats in the New Zealand Parliament since 1868 181 Maori received universal suffrage with other New Zealand citizens in 1893 182 Currently Maori reserved electorates account for seven of the 120 seats in New Zealand s unicameral parliament and consideration of and consultation with Maori have become routine requirements for councils and government organisations 181 The contesting of these seats was the first opportunity for many Maori to participate in New Zealand elections although the elected Maori representatives initially struggled to assert significant influence Sir Apirana Ngata has often been described as the foremost Maori politician to have served in Parliament in the mid 20th century 183 Debate occurs frequently as to the relevance and legitimacy of the separate electoral roll and the reserved seats The National Party announced in 2008 it would abolish the seats when all historic Treaty settlements have been resolved which it aimed to complete by 2014 184 However after the election National reached an agreement with the Maori Party not to abolish the seats until Maori give their approval 185 Several Maori political parties have formed over the years to improve the position of Maori in New Zealand society The present Maori Party formed in 2004 secured 1 32 per cent of the party vote at the 2014 general election and held two seats in the 51st New Zealand Parliament with two MPs serving as Ministers outside Cabinet The party did not achieve any representatives in the 52nd New Zealand Parliament 186 but regained two seats in the 53rd 187 As of the 2020 reelection of the New Zealand Labour Party to government Labour Minister Nanaia Mahuta is the first female Maori Foreign Minister of New Zealand she replaced Winston Peters also Maori in the role In 2016 she became the first Member of Parliament to have moko kauae the traditional Maori female facial tattoo 188 In the 2020 election more MPs with moko kauae entered Parliament including Maori Party co leader Debbie Ngarewa Packer and Green Party MP Elizabeth Kerekere See also EditList of planetary features with Maori namesNotes Edit Maori has cognates in other Polynesian languages such as Hawaiian maoli Tahitian ma ohi and Cook Islands Maori maori which all share similar meanings The orthographic conventions developed by the Maori Language Commission Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Maori recommend the use of the macron a e i ō u to denote long vowels Contemporary English language usage in New Zealand tends to avoid the anglicised plural form of the word Maori with an s The Maori language generally marks plurals by changing the article rather than the noun for example te waka the canoe nga waka the canoes In 2003 Christian Cullen became a member of the Maori rugby team despite having according to his father about 1 64 Maori ancestry 16 References Edit Maori Population Estimates At 30 June 2017 tables www stats govt nz Retrieved 17 November 2018 2016 Census Community Profiles Australia www censusdata abs gov au Retrieved 28 October 2017 a b c Walrond Carl 4 March 2009 Maori overseas Te Ara The Encyclopedia of New Zealand Retrieved 7 December 2010 New Zealand born figures from the 2000 U S Census maximum figure represents sum of Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander and people of mixed race United States Census Bureau 2003 Census 2000 Foreign Born Profiles STP 159 Country of Birth New Zealand PDF 103 KB Washington D C U S Census Bureau Government of Canada Statistics Canada 25 October 2017 Ethnic Origin 279 Single and Multiple Ethnic Origin Responses 3 Generation Status 4 Age 12 and Sex 3 for the Population in Private Households of Canada Provinces and Territories Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations 2016 Census 25 Sample Data www12 statcan gc ca Maori Oxford English Dictionary Online ed Oxford University Press Subscription or participating institution membership required Walters Richard Buckley Hallie Jacomb Chris Matisoo Smith Elizabeth 7 October 2017 Mass Migration and the Polynesian Settlement of New Zealand Journal of World Prehistory 30 4 351 376 doi 10 1007 s10963 017 9110 y Davis Denis Solomon Maui 1 March 2017 Moriori Origins of the Moriori people Te Ara The Encyclopedia of New Zealand Retrieved 13 December 2018 Atkinson A S 1892 What is a Tangata Maori Journal of the Polynesian Society 1 3 133 136 Retrieved 18 December 2007 e g kanaka maoli meaning native Hawaiian In the Hawaiian language the Polynesian letter T regularly becomes a K and the Polynesian letter R regularly becomes an L Entries for MAQOLI PN True real genuine ma a qoli pollex org nz Eastern Polynesian languages Native Land Act New Zealand 1862 Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved 8 July 2017 tangata whenua Maori Dictionary Retrieved 8 July 2017 McIntosh 2005 p 45 Uncovering the Maori mystery BBC Sport 5 June 2003 a b Walters Richard Buckley Hallie Jacomb Chris Matisoo Smith Elizabeth 7 October 2017 Mass Migration and the Polynesian Settlement of New Zealand Journal of World Prehistory 30 4 351 376 doi 10 1007 s10963 017 9110 y Shapiro HL 1940 The physical anthropology of the Maori Moriori The Journal of the Polynesian Society 49 1 193 1 15 JSTOR 20702788 Wilmshurst J M Hunt T L Lipo C P Anderson Atholl 2010 High precision radiocarbon dating shows recent and rapid initial human colonization of East Polynesia Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108 5 1815 1820 Bibcode 2011PNAS 108 1815W doi 10 1073 pnas 1015876108 PMC 3033267 PMID 21187404 Lowe David J November 2008 Polynesian settlement of New Zealand and the impacts of volcanism on early Maori society an update PDF Guidebook for Pre conference North Island Field Trip A1 Ashes and Issues p 142 ISBN 978 0 473 14476 0 Retrieved 18 January 2010 Bunce Michael Beavan Nancy R Oskam Charlotte L Jacomb Christopher Allentoft Morten E Holdaway Richard N 7 November 2014 An extremely low density human population exterminated New Zealand moa Nature Communications 5 5436 Bibcode 2014NatCo 5 5436H doi 10 1038 ncomms6436 ISSN 2041 1723 PMID 25378020 Jacomb Chris Holdaway Richard N Allentoft Morten E Bunce Michael Oskam Charlotte L Walter Richard Brooks Emma 2014 High precision dating and ancient DNA profiling of moa Aves Dinornithiformes eggshell documents a complex feature at Wairau Bar and refines the chronology of New Zealand settlement by Polynesians Journal of Archaeological Science 50 24 30 doi 10 1016 j jas 2014 05 023 Roberton J B W 1956 Genealogies as a basis for Maori chronology Journal of the Polynesian Society 65 1 45 54 Te Hurinui Pei 1958 Maori genealogies Journal of the Polynesian Society 67 2 162 165 Imbler Sabrina 2 July 2021 The Maori Vision of Antarctica s Future The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 19 March 2022 New Zealand Maori may have been first to discover Antarctica study suggests the Guardian 11 June 2021 Retrieved 19 March 2022 Magazine Smithsonian Gershon Livia Maori May Have Reached Antarctica 1 000 Years Before Europeans Smithsonian Magazine Retrieved 19 March 2022 Maori may have been first humans to set eyes on Antarctica study says NBC News Retrieved 19 March 2022 Ashleigh McCaull 8 November 2022 New study suggests Maori settlers arrived in Aotearoa as early as 13th century RNZ Bunbury Magdalena M E Petchey Fiona Bickler Simon H 2022 A new chronology for the Maori settlement of Aotearoa NZ and the potential role of climate change in demographic developments Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119 46 e2207609119 Bibcode 2022PNAS 11907609B doi 10 1073 pnas 2207609119 PMC 9674228 PMID 36343229 Nga Kakano 1100 1300 Te Papa McLintock A H ed 1966 The Moa Hunters An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand Retrieved 17 July 2021 Austin Steve 2008 The Wairau Bar The Prow a b McFadgen Bruce G Adds Peter 18 February 2018 Tectonic activity and the history of Wairau Bar New Zealand s iconic site of early settlement Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 49 4 459 473 doi 10 1080 03036758 2018 1431293 S2CID 134727439 Anderson Atholl The Making of the Maori Middle Ages Open Systems Journal Retrieved 18 August 2019 Rawlence Nicholas J Kardamaki Afroditi Easton Luke J Tennyson Alan J D Scofield R Paul Waters Jonathan M 26 July 2017 Ancient DNA and morphometric analysis reveal extinction and replacement of New Zealand s unique black swans Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 284 1859 20170876 doi 10 1098 rspb 2017 0876 PMC 5543223 PMID 28747476 Till Charlotte E Easton Luke J Spencer Hamish G Schukard Rob Melville David S Scofield R Paul Tennyson Alan J D Rayner Matt J Waters Jonathan M Kennedy Martyn October 2017 Speciation range contraction and extinction in the endemic New Zealand King Shag Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 115 197 209 doi 10 1016 j ympev 2017 07 011 PMID 28803756 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Chapter 13 Old New Zealand being Incidents of Native Customs and Character in the Old Times by A Pakeha Maori Chapter 13 every man in a native hapu of say a hundred men was absolutely forced on pain of death to procure a musket and ammunition at any cost and at the earliest possible moment for if they did not procure them extermination was their doom by the hands of those of their country men who had the effect was that this small hapu or clan had to manufacture spurred by the penalty of death in the shortest possible time one hundred tons of flax scraped by hand with a shell bit by bit morsel by morsel half a quarter of an ounce at a time McLintock A H 1966 Maori health and welfare An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand Retrieved 19 August 2019 Davis Denise Solomon Maui Moriori The impact of new arrivals Te Ara The Encyclopedia of New Zealand Retrieved 29 April 2010 Entwisle Peter 20 October 2006 Estimating a population devastated by epidemics Otago Daily Times Archived from the original on 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Bateman King Michael 1996 Maori A Photographic and Social History 2nd ed Auckland Reed Publishing ISBN 978 0 7900 0500 3 King Michael 2003 The Penguin History of New Zealand Penguin ISBN 978 0 14 301867 4 Lashley Marilyn E 2006 Remedying Racial and Ethnic Inequality in New Zealand Reparative and Distributive Policies of Social Justice In Myers Samuel L Corrie Bruce P eds Racial and ethnic economic inequality an international perspective Vol 1996 New York Peter Lang ISBN 978 0 8204 5656 0 McIntosh Tracey 2005 Maori Identities Fixed Fluid Forced in James H Liu Tim McCreanor Tracey McIntosh and Teresia Teaiwa eds New Zealand Identities Departures and Destinations Wellington Victoria University Press Mead Hirini Moko 2003 Tikanga Maori living by Maori values Wellington Huia Publishers ISBN 978 1 877283 88 8 Orange Claudia 1989 The Story of a Treaty Wellington Allen amp Unwin ISBN 978 0 04 641053 7 Sorrenson M P K 1997 Modern Maori The Young Maori Party to Mana Motuhake In Sinclair Keith ed The Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand 2nd ed Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 558381 6 Further reading EditBallara Angela 1998 Iwi the dynamics of Maori tribal organisation from c 1769 to c 1945 The Journal of the Polynesian Society Vol 108 Wellington Victoria University Press pp 327 329 ISBN 978 0 86473 328 3 JSTOR 20706875 Biggs Bruce 1994 Does Maori have a closest relative In Sutton Ed 1994 pp 96 105 Gagne Natacha Being Maori in the City Indigenous Everyday Life in Auckland University of Toronto Press 2013 368 pages Hiroa Te Rangi Sir Peter Buck 1974 The Coming of the Maori Second edition First published 1949 Wellington Whitcombe and Tombs Irwin Geoffrey 1992 The Prehistoric Exploration and Colonisation of the Pacific Cambridge Cambridge University Press Mclean Mervyn 1996 Maori Music Auckland Auckland University Press Simmons D R 1997 Ta Moko The Art of Maori Tattoo Revised edition First published 1986 Auckland Reed Sutton Douglas G Ed 1994 The Origins of the First New Zealanders Auckland Auckland University Press ISBN 1 86940 098 4External links Edit Look up Maori in Wiktionary the free dictionary Wikimedia Commons has media related to Maori Entry on the Maori people in Te Ara The Encyclopedia of New Zealand Maori people at Curlie Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Maori people amp oldid 1132813463, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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