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Clipperton Island

February 15, 2024

Clipperton Island (French: La Passion–Clipperton [la pasjɔ̃ klipœʁtɔn]; Spanish: Isla de la Pasión), also known as Clipperton Atoll[5] and previously as Clipperton's Rock,[6] is an 8.9 km2 (3.4 sq mi) uninhabited French coral atoll in the eastern Pacific Ocean. The only French territory in the North Pacific, Clipperton is 10,675 km (6,633 mi) from Paris, France; 5,400 km (2,900 nmi) from Papeete, French Polynesia; and 1,280 km (690 nmi) from Acapulco, Mexico.

Clipperton
Native name:
La Passion–Clipperton (French)
Clipperton Atoll with lagoon with depths (metres)
Location of Clipperton Island
Geography
LocationPacific Ocean
Coordinates10°18′N 109°13′W / 10.300°N 109.217°W / 10.300; -109.217[1]
ArchipelagoLagoon
Area8.9 km2 (3.4 sq mi)[2]
Length3 km (1.9 mi)
Width4 km (2.5 mi)
Coastline11.1 km (6.9 mi)
Highest elevation29 m (95 ft)
Highest pointClipperton Rock
Administration
France
State private propertyÎle de Clipperton
Demographics
Population0 (1945)
Additional information
Time zone
Postal code98799[a]

Clipperton was documented by French merchant-explorers in 1711 and formally claimed as part of the French protectorate of Tahiti in 1858. Despite this, American guano miners began working the island in the early 1890s. As interest in the island grew, Mexico asserted a claim to the island based upon Spanish records from the 1520s that may have identified the island. Mexico established a small military colony on the island in 1905, but during the Mexican Revolution contact with the mainland became infrequent, most of the colonists died, and lighthouse keeper Victoriano Álvarez instituted a short, brutal reign as "king" of the island. Eleven survivors were rescued in 1917 and Clipperton was abandoned.

The dispute between Mexico and France over Clipperton was taken to binding international arbitration in 1909. Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy, was chosen as arbitrator and decided in 1931 that the island was French territory. Despite the ruling, Clipperton remained largely uninhabited until 1944 when the U.S. Navy established a weather station on the island to support its war efforts in the Pacific. France protested and as concerns about Japanese activity in the eastern Pacific waned the U.S. abandoned the site in late 1945.

Since the end of World War II, Clipperton has primarily been the site for scientific expeditions to study the island's wildlife and marine life, including its significant masked and brown booby colonies. It has also hosted climate scientists and amateur radio DX-peditions. Plans to develop the island for trade and tourism have been considered, but none have been enacted and the island remains mostly uninhabited with periodic visits from the French navy.

Geography edit

 
Location of Clipperton Island

The coral island is located at 10°18′N 109°13′W / 10.300°N 109.217°W / 10.300; -109.217 (Clipperton Island) in the East Pacific, 1,080 km (583 nmi) southwest of Mexico, 2,424 km (1,309 nmi) west of Nicaragua, 2,545 km (1,374 nmi) west of Costa Rica and 2,390 km (1,290 nmi) northwest of the Galápagos Islands in Ecuador.[7][8] The nearest land is Socorro Island, about 945 km (510 nmi) to the south-east in the Revillagigedo Archipelago.[9] The nearest French-owned island is Hiva Oa in the Marquesas Islands of French Polynesia.[10][11]

Despite its proximity to North America, Clipperton is often considered one of the eastern-most points of Oceania due to being part the French Indo-Pacific,[12][13] and to commonalities between its marine fauna and the marine fauna of Hawaii and Kiribati's Line Islands, with the island sitting along the migration path for animals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region.[14][15][16] The island is the only emerged part of the East Pacific Rise, as well as the only feature in the Clipperton Fracture Zone that breaks the ocean's surface, and it is one of the few islands in the Pacific that lacks an underwater archipelagic apron.[17][18][19]

The atoll is low-lying and largely barren, with some scattered grasses, and a few clumps of coconut palms (Cocos nucifera).[20][21] The land ring surrounding the lagoon measures 1.7 square kilometres (0.66 sq mi) in area with an average elevation of 2 m (6.6 ft), although a small volcanic outcropping, referred to as Clipperton Rock [fr] (Rocher de Clipperton), rises to 29 m (95 ft) on its southeast side.[22] The surrounding 3.7-square-kilometre (1.4 sq mi) reef hosts an abundance of corals and is partly exposed at low tide.[23][24] In 2001 a geodetic marker was placed to evaluate if the land is rising or sinking.[25]

 
1899 sketch of Clipperton Rock from the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, after a photograph

Clipperton Rock is the remains of the island's now extinct volcano's rim;[26] because it includes this rocky outcropping, Clipperton is not a true atoll and is sometimes referred to as a 'near-atoll'.[27][28] The surrounding reef in combination with the weather makes landing on the island difficult and anchoring offshore hazardous for larger ships; in the 1940s American ships reported active problems in this regard.[29][30][31]

Environment edit

The environment of Clipperton Island has been studied extensively with the first recordings and sample collection being done in the 1800s.[32] Modern research on Clipperton is focused primarily on climate science and migratory wildlife.[33][34][35]

The SURPACLIP oceanographic expedition, a joint undertaking by the National Autonomous University of Mexico and the University of New Caledonia Nouméa, made extensive studies of the island in 1997.[36] In 2001, French National Centre for Scientific Research geographer Christian Jost extended the 1997 studies through the French Passion 2001 expedition, which focused on the evolution of Clipperton's ecosystem.[37] In 2003, cinematrographer Lance Milbrand stayed on the island for 41 days, recording the adventure for the National Geographic Explorer and plotting a GPS map of Clipperton for the National Geographic Society.[38]

In 2005, a four-month scientific mission organised by Jean-Louis Étienne made a complete inventory of Clipperton's mineral, plant, and animal species; studied algae as deep as 100 m (328 ft) below sea level; and examined the effects of pollution.[39][40] A 2008 expedition from the University of Washington's School of Oceanography collected sediment cores from the lagoon to study climate change over the past millennium.[41]

Lagoon edit

 
Clipperton Island photographed by the Sentinel-2 satellite.

Clipperton is a ring-shaped atoll that completely encloses a stagnant fresh water lagoon and measures 12 km (7.5 mi) in circumference and 720 hectares (2.8 sq mi) in area.[42][43] The island is the only coral island in the eastern Pacific.[44][45] The lagoon is devoid of fish, and is shallow over parts of the eroded coral heads,[46] but contains some deep basins with depths of 43–72 m (141–236 ft), including a spot known as Trou Sans Fond ('the bottomless hole') with acidic water at its base. The water is described as being almost fresh at the surface and highly eutrophic. Seaweed beds cover approximately 45 per cent of the lagoon's surface. The rim averages 150 m (490 ft) in width, reaching 400 m (1,300 ft) in the west, and narrowing to 45 m (148 ft) in the north-east, where sea waves occasionally spill over into the lagoon.[24] Ten islets are present in the lagoon, six of which are covered with vegetation, including the Egg Islands (les îles aux Œufs).[47]

The closure of the lagoon approximately 170 years ago and prevention of seawater from entering the lagoon has formed a meromictic lake.[48][49][50] The surface of the lagoon has a high concentration of phytoplankton that vary slightly with the seasons.[51] As a result of this the water columns are stratified and do not mix leaving the lagoon with an oxic and brackish upper water layer and a deep sulfuric anoxic saline layer.[50][52][53] At a depth of approximately 15 m (49 ft) the water shifts with salinity rising and both pH and oxygen quickly decreasing.[50] The deepest levels of the lagoon record waters enriched with hydrogen sulfide which prevent the growth of coral. Before the lagoon was closed off to seawater, coral and clams were able to survive in the area as evident by fossilized specimens.[54][55]: 112 

Studies of the water have found that microbial communities on the water's surface are similar to other water samples from around the world with deeper water samples showing a great diversity of both bacteria and archaea.[50] In 2005, a group of French scientists discovered three dinoflagellate microalgae species in the lagoon: Peridiniopsis cristata, which was abundant; Durinskia baltica, which was known to exist previously in other locations, but was new to Clipperton; and Peridiniopsis cristata var. tubulifera, which is unique to the island.[56] The lagoon also harbours millions of isopods, which are reported to deliver a painful sting.[57]

While some sources have rated the lagoon water as non-potable,[58] testimony from the crew of the tuna clipper M/V Monarch, stranded for 23 days in 1962 after their boat sank, indicates otherwise. Their report reveals that the lagoon water, while "muddy and dirty", was drinkable, despite not tasting very good. Several of the castaways drank it, with no apparent ill effects.[59] Survivors of a Mexican military colony in 1917 (see below) indicated that they were dependent upon rain for their water supply, catching it in old boats.[59] American servicemen on the island during World War II had to use evaporators to purify the lagoon's water.[31] Aside from the lagoon and water caught from rain, no freshwater sources are known to exist.[49][50]

Climate edit

The island has a tropical oceanic climate, with average temperatures of 20–32 °C (68–90 °F) and highs up to 37.8 °C (100.0 °F).[32][60] Annual rainfall is 3,000 to 5,000 millimetres (120 to 200 in), and the humidity level is generally between 85 per cent and 95 per cent with December to March being the drier months. The prevailing winds are the southeast trade winds.[37][61] The rainy season occurs from May to October,[32] and the region is subject to tropical cyclones from April to September, but such storms often pass to the northeast of Clipperton.[37] In 1997 Clipperton was in the path of the start of Hurricane Felicia, as well as Hurricane Sandra in 2015.[62] In addition, Clipperton has been subjected to multiple tropical storms and depressions including Tropical Storm Andres in 2003.[63][64] Surrounding ocean waters are warm, pushed by equatorial and counter-equatorial currents and have seen temperature increases due to global warming.[65][66][67]

Flora and fauna edit

See also: List of endemic species of Clipperton Island
 
A bright-orange Clipperton crab (Johngarthia oceanica)

When Snodgrass and Heller visited in 1898, they reported that "no land plant is native to the island".[68] Historical accounts from 1711, 1825, and 1839 show a low grassy or suffrutescent (partially woody) flora. During Marie-Hélène Sachet's visit in 1958, the vegetation was found to consist of a sparse cover of spiny grass and low thickets, a creeping plant (Ipomoea spp.), and stands of coconut palm. This low-lying herbaceous flora seems to be a pioneer in nature, and most of it is believed to be composed of recently introduced species. Sachet suspected that Heliotropium curassavicum, and possibly Portulaca oleracea, were native. Coconut palms and pigs introduced in the 1890s by guano miners were still present in the 1940s.[52] The largest coconut grove is Bougainville Wood (Bois de Bougainville) on the southwestern end of the island.[69] On the northwest side of the atoll, the most abundant plant species are Cenchrus echinatus, Sida rhombifolia, and Corchorus aestuans. These plants compose a shrub cover up to 30 cm (12 in) in height, and are intermixed with Eclipta, Phyllanthus, and Solanum, as well as the taller Brassica juncea. The islets in the lagoon are primarily vegetated with Cyperaceae, Scrophulariaceae, and Ipomoea pes-caprae.[70] A unique feature of Clipperton is that the vegetation is arranged in parallel rows of species, with dense rows of taller species alternating with lower, more open vegetation. This was assumed to be a result of the trench-digging method of phosphate mining used by guano hunters.[24]

The only land animals known to exist are two species of reptiles (the Pacific stump-toed gecko and the copper-tailed skink),[71][72] bright-orange land crabs known as Clipperton crabs (Johngarthia oceanica, prior to 2019 classified as Johngartia planata),[73][74][75] birds, and ship rats. The rats probably arrived when large fishing boats wrecked on the island in 1999 and 2000.[76]

The pigs introduced in the 1890s reduced the crab population, which in turn allowed grassland to gradually cover about 80 per cent of the land surface.[77] The elimination of these pigs in 1958, the result of a personal project by Kenneth E. Stager, caused most of this vegetation to disappear as the population of land crabs recovered.[76] As a result, Clipperton is virtually a sandy desert with only 674 palms counted by Christian Jost during the Passion 2001 French mission and five islets in the lagoon with grass that the terrestrial crabs cannot reach. A 2005 report by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Southwest Fisheries Science Center indicated that the increased rat presence had led to a decline in both crab and bird populations, causing a corresponding increase in both vegetation and coconut palms. This report urgently recommended eradication of rats, so that vegetation might be reduced, and the island might return to its 'pre-human' state.[76]

In 1825, Benjamin Morrell reported finding green sea turtles nesting on Clipperton, but later expeditions have not found nesting turtles there, possibly due to disruption from guano extraction, as well as the introduction of pigs and rats. Sea turtles found on the island appear to have been injured due to fishing practices.[78] Morrell also reported fur and elephant seals on the island in 1825, but they too have not been recorded by later expeditions.[79][6]

 
The head of a viper moray (Enchelynassa canina)

Birds are common on the island; Morrell noted in 1825: "The whole island is literally covered with sea-birds, such as gulls, whale-birds, gannets, and the booby".[6] Thirteen species of birds are known to breed on the island and 26 others have been observed as visitors.[80] The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because of the large breeding colony of masked boobies, with 110,000 individual birds recorded.[81] Observed bird species include white terns, masked boobies, sooty terns, brown boobies, brown noddies, black noddies, great frigatebirds, coots, martins (swallows), cuckoos, and yellow warblers.[82][83][84] Ducks and moorhens have been reported in the lagoon.[24]

The coral reef on the north side of the island includes colonies more than 2 metres (6.6 ft) high. The 2018 Tara Pacific expedition located five colonies of Millepora platyphylla at depths of 28–32 metres (92–105 ft), the first of this fire coral species known in the region.[85] Among the Porites spp. stony corals, some bleaching was observed, along with other indications of disease or stress, including parasitic worms and microalgae.[86]

The reefs that surround Clipperton have some of the highest concentration of endemic species found anywhere with more than 115 species identified.[87][88][89] Many species are recorded in the area, including five or six endemics, such as Clipperton angelfish (Holacanthus limbaughi), Clipperton grouper (Epinephelus clippertonensis), Clipperton damselfish (Stegastes baldwini) and Robertson's wrasse (Thalassoma robertsoni). Widespread species around the reefs include Pacific creolefish, blue-and-gold snapper, and various species of goatfish. In the water column, trevallies are predominant, including black jacks, bigeye trevally, and bluefin trevally.[90] Also common around Clipperton are black triggerfish;, several species of groupers, including leather bass and starry groupers; Mexican hogfish; whitecheek, convict, and striped-fin surgeonfish; yellow longnose and blacknosed butterflyfish; coral hawkfish; golden pufferfish; Moorish idols; parrotfish; and moray eels, especially speckled moray eels.[91][92] The population of sharks in the waters around the island was noted to have increased in both density and size of individuals in a 2019 expedition, particularly the population of the white tip shark. Galapagos sharks, reef sharks and hammerhead sharks are also present around Clipperton.[93][94]

Three expeditions to Clipperton have collected sponge specimens, including U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt's visit in 1938. Of the 190 specimens collected, 20 species were noted, including nine found only at Clipperton. One of the endemic sponges, collected during the 1938 visit, was named Callyspongia roosevelti in honor of Roosevelt.[26][95][96]

In April 2009, Steven Robinson, a tropical fish dealer from Hayward, California, traveled to Clipperton to collect Clipperton angelfish.[97] Upon his return to the United States, he described the 52 illegally collected fish to federal wildlife authorities as king angelfish,[98][99] not the rarer Clipperton angelfish, which he intended to sell for $10,000.[99][100] On 15 December 2011, Robinson was sentenced to 45 days of incarceration, one year of probation, and a $2,000 fine.[101]

Environmental threats edit

 
Freighter Sichem Osprey grounded on Clipperton Island in 2010.

During the night of 10 February 2010, the Sichem Osprey,[102] a Maltese chemical tanker, ran aground en route from the Panama Canal to South Korea. The 170 m (558 ft) ship contained 10,513 metric tons (11,589 short tons) of xylene, 6,005 metric tons (6,619 short tons) of soybean oil, and 6,000 metric tons (6,600 short tons) of tallow.[103]: 43  All 19 crew members were reported safe, and the vessel reported no leaks.[104][105] The vessel was re-floated on 6 March[106] and returned to service.[107]

In mid-March 2012, the crew from the Clipperton Project noted the widespread presence of refuse, particularly on the northeast shore, and around the Clipperton Rock. Debris, including plastic bottles and containers, create a potentially harmful environment for the island's flora and fauna.[25] This trash is common to only two beaches (northeast and southwest), and the rest of the island is fairly clean. Other refuse has been left after the occupations by Americans 1944–1945, French 1966–1969, and the 2008 scientific expedition.[108] During a 2015 scientific and amateur radio expedition to Clipperton, the operating team discovered a package that contained 1.2 kilograms (2.6 lb) of cocaine. It is suspected that the package washed up after being discarded at sea.[61] In April 2023, the Passion 23 mission by France's Armed Forces in the Antilles [fr] and the surveillance frigate Germinal collected more than 200 kilograms (440 lb) of plastic waste from the island's beaches along with a bale of cocaine.[109]

The Sea Around Us Project estimates the Clipperton EEZ produces a harvest of 50,000 metric tons (55,000 short tons) of fish per year; however, because French naval patrols in the area are infrequent, this includes a significant amount of illegal fishing, along with lobster harvesting and shark finning, resulting in estimated losses for France of €0.42 per kilogram of fish caught.[110]

As deep-sea mining of polymetallic nodules increases in the adjacent Clarion–Clipperton Zone, similar mining activity within France's exclusive economic zone surrounding the atoll may have an impact on marine life around Clipperton. Polymetallic nodules were discovered in the Clipperton EEZ during the Passion 2015 expedition.[111]

Politics and government edit

The island is an overseas state private property of France under direct authority of the Minister of the Overseas.[112][113] Although the island is French territory, it has no status within the European Union.[114] Ownership of Clipperton Island was disputed in the 19th and early 20th centuries between France and Mexico, but was finally settled through arbitration in 1931; the Clipperton Island Case remains widely studied in international law textbooks.[115][116]

In the late 1930s, as flying boats opened the Pacific to air travel, Clipperton Island was noted as a possible waypoint for a trans-Pacific route from the Americas to Asia via the Marquesas Islands in French Polynesia, bypassing Hawaii. However, France indicated no interest in developing commercial air traffic in the corridor.[117]

After France ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in 1996,[118][119] they reaffirmed the exclusive economic zone off Clipperton island which had been established in 1976.[120] After changes were made to the area nations were allowed to claim under the third convention of UNCLOS[121] France in 2018 expanded the outer limits of the territorial sea to 22 km (12 nmi) and the exclusive economic zone off Clipperton Island to 370 km (200 nmi), encompassing 431,273 square kilometres (166,515 sq mi) of ocean.[122][123]

On 21 February 2007, administration of Clipperton was transferred from the High Commissioner of the Republic in French Polynesia to the Minister of Overseas France.[124]: 99 

In 2015, French MP Philippe Folliot set foot on Clipperton becoming the first elected official from France to do so. Folliot noted that visiting Clipperton was something he had wanted to do since he was nine years old.[125][126][127] Following the visit, Folliot reported to the National Assembly on the pressing need to reaffirm French sovereignty over the atoll and its surrounding maritime claims. He also proposed establishing an international scientific research station on Clipperton and administrative reforms surrounding the oversight of the atoll.[128]

In 2022, France passed legislation officially referring to the island as "La Passion–Clipperton".[129]

History edit

 
Sketch of "l'Isle de la Passion" (Clipperton) from La Princesse's ship's diary (1711).

Discovery and early claims edit

There are several claims to the first discovery of the island. The earliest recorded possible sighting is 24 January 1521 when Portuguese-born Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan discovered an island he named San Pablo after turning westward away from the American mainland during his circumnavigation of the globe.[130] On 15 November 1528, Spaniard Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón discovered an island he called Isla Médanos in the region while on an expedition commissioned by his cousin, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés, to find a route to the Philippines.[131][132][133]

Although both San Pablo and Isla Médanos are considered to be possible sightings of Clipperton, the island was first charted by French merchant Michel Dubocage, commanding La Découverte, who arrived at the island on Good Friday, 3 April 1711; he was joined the following day by fellow ship captain Martin de Chassiron [fr] and La Princesse. The island was given the name Île de la Passion ('Passion Island') as the date of rediscovery fell within Passiontide. They drew up the first map of the island and claimed it for France.[134]

In August 1825, American sea captain Benjamin Morrell made the first recorded landing on Clipperton, exploring the island and making a detailed report of its vegetation.[135]

The common name for the island comes from John Clipperton, an English pirate and privateer who fought the Spanish during the early 18th century, and who is said to have passed by the island. Some sources claim that he used it as a base for his raids on shipping.[136]

19th century edit

Mexican claim 1821–1858 edit

After its declaration of independence in 1821, Mexico took possession of the lands that had once belonged to Spain. As Spanish records noted the existence of the island as early as 1528, the territory was incorporated into Mexico.[137] The Mexican constitution of 1917 explicitly includes the island, using the Spanish name La Pasión, as Mexican territory. This would be amended on January 18, 1934, after the sovereignty dispute over the island was settled in favor of France.[138]

 
1895 $1 stamp of Clipperton Island, issued by W. Frese & Co. as an agent of the Oceanic Phosphate Company. The local post stamps were used for mail travelling between Clipperton and San Francisco.[139]
El territorio nacional comprende el de las partes integrantes de la Federación y además el de las islas adyacentes en ambos mares. Comprende, asimismo, la isla de Guadalupe, las de Revillagigedo y la de la Pasión, situadas en el océano Pacífico.
The national territory includes that of the integral parts of the Federation and also that of the adjacent islands in both seas. It also includes the island of Guadalupe, Revillagigedo and La Pasión, located in the Pacific Ocean.

— Mexican Constitution of 1917 [140]

French claim (1858) edit

On 17 November 1858, Emperor Napoleon III annexed Clipperton as part of the French protectorate of Tahiti.[141] Ship-of-the-line Lieutenant Victor Le Coat de Kervéguen published a notice of this annexation in Hawaiian newspapers to further cement France's claim to the island.[84][142][143]

Guano mining claims (1892–1905) edit

In 1892, a claim on the island was filed with the U.S. State Department under the U.S. Guano Islands Act by Frederick W. Permien of San Francisco on behalf of the Stonington Phosphate Company.[144] In 1893, Permien transferred those rights to a new company, the Oceanic Phosphate Company.[145] In response to the application, the State Department rejected the claim, noting France's prior claim on the island and that the claim was not bonded as was required by law.[146] Additionally during this time there were concerns in Mexico that the British or Americans would lay claim to the island.[147]

Despite the lack of U.S. approval of its claim, the Oceanic Phosphate Company began mining guano on the island in 1895.[148] Although the company had plans for as many as 200 workers on the island, at its peak only 25 men were stationed there.[139] The company shipped its guano to Honolulu and San Francisco where it sold for between US$10 and US$20 per ton.[149] In 1897, the Oceanic Phosphate Company began negotiations with the British Pacific Islands Company to transfer its interest in Clipperton; this drew the attention of both French and Mexican officials.[150]

On 24 November 1897, French naval authorities arrived on the Duguay Trouin and found three Americans working on the island. The French ordered the American flag to be lowered.[150] At that time, U.S. authorities assured the French that they did not intend to assert American sovereignty over the island.[115][151] A few weeks later, on 13 December 1897, Mexico sent the gunboat La Demócrata and a group of marines to assert its claim on the island, evicting the Americans, raising the Mexican flag, and drawing a protest from France.[152][153] From 1898 to 1905, the Pacific Islands Company worked the Clipperton guano deposits under a concession agreement with Mexico.[150][154] In 1898, Mexico made a US$1.5 million claim against the Oceanic Phosphate Company for the guano shipped from the island from 1895 to 1897.[149]

20th century edit

Mexican colonization (1905–1917) edit

In 1905, the Mexican government renegotiated its agreement with the British Pacific Islands Company, establishing a military garrison on the island a year later and erecting a lighthouse under the orders of Mexican President Porfirio Díaz. Captain Ramón Arnaud was appointed governor of Clipperton. At first he was reluctant to accept the post, believing it amounted to exile from Mexico, but he relented after being told that Díaz had personally chosen him to protect Mexico's interests in the international conflict with France. It was also noted that because Arnaud spoke English, French, and Spanish, he would be well equipped to help protect Mexico's sovereignty over the territory.[150][155] He arrived on Clipperton as governor later that year.[156]

By 1914 around 100 men, women, and children lived on the island, resupplied every two months by a ship from Acapulco. With the escalation of fighting in the Mexican Revolution, regular resupply visits ceased, and the inhabitants were left to their own devices.[157] On 28 February 1914, the schooner Nokomis wrecked on Clipperton; with a still seaworthy lifeboat, four members of the crew volunteered to row to Acapulco for help.[158] The USS Cleveland arrived months later to rescue the crew.[159] While there, the captain offered to transport the survivors of the colony back to Acapulco; Arnaud refused as he believed a supply ship would soon arrive.[160]

 
Mexican survivors from Clipperton Island, 1917

By 1917, all but one of the male inhabitants had died. Many had perished from scurvy,[161] while others, including Arnaud, died during an attempt to sail after a passing ship to fetch help.[162] Lighthouse keeper Victoriano Álvarez was the last man on the island, together with 15 women and children.[163] Álvarez proclaimed himself 'king', and began a campaign of rape and murder, before being killed by Tirza Rendón, who was his favourite victim. Almost immediately after Álvarez's death, four women and seven children, the last survivors, were picked up by the U.S. Navy gunship Yorktown on 18 July 1917.[157][164]

Final arbitration of ownership (1931) edit

See also: Clipperton Island case

Throughout Mexico's occupation of Clipperton, France insisted on its ownership of the island, and lengthy diplomatic correspondence between the two countries led to a treaty on 2 March 1909, agreeing to seek binding international arbitration by Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, with each nation promising to abide by his determination.[115][165] In 1931, Victor Emmanuel III issued his arbitral decision in the Clipperton Island Case, declaring Clipperton a French possession.[151][166][167][168] Mexican President Pascual Ortiz Rubio, in response to public opinion that considered the Italian king biased towards France, consulted international experts on the validity of the decision, but ultimately Mexico accepted Victor Emmanuel's findings.[169] France formally took possession of Clipperton on January 26, 1935.[170]

U.S. presidential visit edit

President Franklin D. Roosevelt made a stop over at Clipperton in July 1938 aboard the USS Houston as part of a fishing expedition to the Galápagos Islands and other points along the Central and South American coasts.[171][172] At the island, Roosevelt and his party spent time fishing for sharks,[173] and afterwards Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt of the Smithsonian Institution went ashore with some crew to gather scientific samples and make observations of the island.[174][175][176]

Roosevelt had previously tried to visit Clipperton in July 1934 after transiting through the Panama Canal en route to Hawaii on the Houston; he had heard the area was good for fishing, but heavy seas prevented them from lowering a boat when they reached the island.[172][177] On 19 July 1934, soon after the stop at Clipperton, the rigid airship USS Macon rendezvoused with the Houston, and one of the Macon's Curtiss F9C biplanes delivered mail to the president.[172][178][179]

American occupation (1944–1945) edit

The Government of the United States is aware of the extent to which the French Government is desirous to cooperate, in all domains, to the success of the Allied Armies, in Europe as well as in the Pacific. It will understand, however, its concern that French sovereignty be not disregarded in any part of the empire.

— Georges Bidault, [180]: 789 

 
The U.S. Navy weather station on the northern side of Clipperton. View is from the top of a radio tower, looking northwest.

In April 1944, the USS Atlanta took observations of Clipperton while en route to Hawaii.[181][182] After an overflight of the island by planes from the USS Detroit and USS Nevada to ensure Clipperton was uninhabited,[183] the USS Argus departed San Francisco on 4 December 1944 with aerological specialists and personnel and was followed several days later by USS LST-563 with provisions, heavy equipment, and equipment for construction of a U.S. Navy weather station on the island.[184][185][186] The sailors at the weather station were armed in case of a possible Japanese attack in the region.[180][187] Landing on the island proved challenging. LST-563 grounded on the reef and the salvage ship USS Seize was brought in to help refloat the ship but it too was grounded. Finally, in January 1945, the USS Viking and USS Tenino were able to free the Seize and to offload equipment from LST-563 before it was abandoned.[184]

Once the weather station was completed and sailors garrisoned on the island, the U.S. government informed the British, French, and Mexican governments of the station and its purpose.[188] Every day at 9 a.m., the 24 sailors stationed at the Clipperton weather station sent up weather balloons to gather information.[189][190] Later, Clipperton was considered for an airfield to shift traffic between North America and Australia far from the front lines of Pacific Theater.[191]

In April 1943, during a meeting between presidents Roosevelt of the U.S. and Avila Camacho of Mexico, the topic of Mexican ownership of Clipperton was raised. The American government seemed interested in Clipperton being handed over to Mexico due to the importance the island might play in both commercial and military air travel,[192] as well as its proximity to the Panama Canal.[193][194][195][196]

Although these talks were informal, the U.S. backed away from any Mexican claim on Clipperton as Mexico had previously accepted the 1931 arbitration decision. The U.S. government also felt it would be easier to obtain a military base on the island from France.[197][198] However, after the French government was notified about the weather station, relations on this matter deteriorated rapidly[199] with the French government sending a formal note of protest in defense of French sovereignty.[186][200][201] In response, the U.S. extended an offer for the French military to operate the station or to have the Americans agree to leave the weather station under the same framework previously agreed to with other weather stations in France and North Africa.[202] There were additional concern within the newly formed Provisional Government of the French Republic that notification of the installation was made to military and not civilian leadership.[203]

Video of the crew of the USS Concord on Clipperton Island landing a Jeep and using a radio

French Foreign Minister Georges Bidault said of the incident: "This is very humiliating to us we are anxious to cooperate with you, but sometimes you do not make it easy".[186][204][205] French Vice Admiral Raymond Fenard requested during a meeting with U.S. Admiral Lyal A. Davidson that civilians be given access to Clipperton and the surrounding waters,[206] but the U.S. Navy denied the request because there was an active military installation on the island. Instead Davidson offered to transport a French officer to the installation and reassured the French government that the United States did not wish to claim sovereignty over the island.[207] During these discussions between the admirals, French diplomats in Mexico attempted to hire the Mexican vessel Pez de Plata out of Acapulco to bring a military attaché to Clipperton under a cover story that they were going on a shark fishing trip.[208] At the request of the Americans, the Mexican government refused to allow the Pez De Plata to leave port.[204] French officials then attempted to leave in another smaller vessel and filed a false destination with the local port authorities but were also stopped by Mexican officials.[209]

During this period, French officials in Mexico leaked information about their concerns, as well as about the arrival of seaplanes at Clipperton, to The New York Times and Newsweek; both stories were refused publishing clearance on national security grounds.[210] In February 1945, the U.S. Navy transported French Officer Lieutenant Louis Jampierre to Clipperton out of San Diego[211] where he visited the installation and that afternoon returned to the United States.[212][213] As the war in the Pacific progressed, concerns about Japanese incursions into the Eastern Pacific were reduced and in September 1945 the U.S. Navy began removing from Clipperton.[214][215] During the evacuation, munitions were destroyed, but significant matériel was left on the island.[215][125] By 21 October 1945, the last U.S. Navy staff at the weather station left Clipperton.[184]

Post-World War II developments edit

Since the island was abandoned by American forces at the end of World War II, the island has been visited by sports fishermen, French naval patrols, and Mexican tuna and shark fishermen. There have been infrequent scientific and amateur radio expeditions and, in 1978, Jacques-Yves Cousteau visited with a team of divers and a survivor from the 1917 evacuation to film a television special called Clipperton: The Island that Time Forgot.[216]

The island was visited by ornithologist Ken Stager of the Los Angeles County Museum in 1958. Appalled at the depredations visited by feral pigs upon the island's brown booby and masked booby colonies (reduced to 500 and 150 birds, respectively), Stager procured a shotgun and killed all 58 pigs.[217] By 2003, the booby colonies had grown to 25,000 brown boobies and 112,000 masked boobies, making Clipperton home to the world's second-largest brown booby colony, and its largest masked booby colony.[76] In 1994, Stager's story inspired Bernie Tershy and Don Croll, both professors at the University of California, Santa Cruz Long Marine Lab, to found the non-profit Island Conservation, which works to prevent extinctions through the removal of invasive species from islands.[218]

When the independence of Algeria in 1962 threatened French nuclear testing sites in North Africa, the French Ministry of Defence considered Clipperton as a possible replacement site. This was eventually ruled out due to the island's hostile climate and remote location, but the island was used to house a small scientific mission to collect data on nuclear fallout from other nuclear tests.[125] From 1966 to 1969, the French military sent a series of missions, called "Bougainville," to the island. The Bougainville missions unloaded some 25 tons of equipment, including sanitary facilities, traditional Polynesian dwellings, drinking water treatment tanks, and generators. The missions sought to surveil the island and its surrounding waters, observe weather conditions, and evaluate potential rehabilitation of the World War II era airstrip.[219] By 1978, the structures built during the Bougainville missions had become quite derelict.[20] The French explored reopening the lagoon and developing a harbour for trade and tourism during the 1970s, but this too was abandoned.[220] An automatic weather installation was completed on 7 April 1980, with data collected by the station transmitted via satellite to Brittany.[citation needed]

In 1981, the Académie des sciences d'outre-mer recommended the island have its own economic infrastructure, with an airstrip and a fishing port in the lagoon. This would mean opening the lagoon to the ocean by creating a passage in the atoll rim. To oversee this, the French government reassigned Clipperton from the High Commissioner for French Polynesia to the direct authority of the French government, classifying the island as an overseas state private property administered by France's Overseas Minister. In 1986, the Company for the Study, Development and Exploitation of Clipperton Island (French acronym, SEDEIC) and French officials began outlining a plan for the development of Clipperton as a fishing port,[221] but due to economic constraints, the distance from markets, and the small size of the atoll, nothing beyond preliminary studies was undertaken and plans for the development were abandoned. In the mid-1980s, the French government began efforts to enlist citizens of French Polynesia to settle on Clipperton; these plans were ultimately abandoned as well.[222]

In November 1994, the French Space Agency requested the help of NASA to track the first stage breakup of the newly designed Ariane 5 rocket.[223] After spending a month on Clipperton setting up and calibrating radar equipment to monitor Ariane flight V88, the mission ended in disappointment when the rocket disintegrated 37 seconds after launch due to a software bug.[223][224]

Despite Mexico accepting the 1931 arbitration decision that Clipperton was French territory, the right of Mexican fishing vessels to work Clipperton's territorial waters have remained a point of contention. A 2007 treaty, reaffirmed in 2017, grants Mexican access to Clipperton's fisheries so long as authorization is sought from the French government, conservation measures are followed, and catches are reported; however, the lack of regular monitoring of the fisheries by France makes verifying compliance difficult.[225]

Castaways edit

In May 1893, Charles Jensen and "Brick" Thurman of the Oceanic Phosphate Company were left on the island by the company's ship Compeer with 90 days worth of supplies in order to prevent other attempts to claim the island and its guano. Before sailing for Clipperton, Jensen wrote a letter to the Secretary of the Coast Seamen's Union, Andrew Furuseth, instructing him that if the Oceanic Phosphate Company had not sent a vessel to Clipperton six weeks after the return of the Compeer to make it known that they had been stranded there.[226] The Oceanic Phosphate Company denied it had left the men without adequate supplies and contracted the schooner Viking to retrieve them in late August.[227] The Viking rescued the men, who had used seabirds' eggs to supplement their supplies, and returned them to San Francisco on 31 October.[228]

In May 1897, the British cargo vessel Kinkora wrecked on Clipperton;[229] the crew was able to salvage food and water from the ship, allowing them to survive on the island in relative comfort. During the crew's time on the island, a passing vessel offered to take the men to the mainland for $1,500, which the crew refused. Instead eight of the men loaded up a lifeboat and rowed to Acapulco for help.[230][231] After the first mate of the Kinkora, Mr. McMarty, arrived in Acapulco, HMS Comus set sail from British Columbia to rescue the sailors.[231]

In 1947, five American fishermen from San Pedro, California, were rescued from Clipperton after surviving on the island for six weeks.[232]

In early 1962, the island provided a home to nine crewmen of the sunken tuna clipper MV Monarch, stranded for 23 days from 6 February to 1 March.[233] They reported that the lagoon water was drinkable, although they preferred to drink water from the coconuts they found. Unable to use any of the dilapidated buildings, they constructed a crude shelter from cement bags and tin salvaged from Quonset huts built by the American military 20 years earlier. Wood from the huts was used for firewood, and fish caught off the fringing reef combined with potatoes and onions they had saved from their sinking vessel augmented the island's meager supply of coconuts. The crewmen reported they tried eating bird's eggs, but found them to be rancid, and they decided after trying to cook a 'little black bird' that it did not have enough meat to make the effort worthwhile. Pigs had been eradicated, but the crewmen reported seeing their skeletons around the atoll.[59] The crewmen were eventually discovered by another fishing boat, and rescued by the U.S. Navy destroyer USS Robison.[234]

Amateur radio DX-peditions edit

Clipperton has long been an attractive destination for amateur radio groups due to its remoteness, permit requirements, history, and interesting environment. While some radio operation has been part of other visits to the island, major DX-peditions have included FO0XB (1978),[20][235] FO0XX (1985),[236] FO0CI (1992),[237] FO0AAA (2000), TX5C (2008) and TX5S (2024).[238][239]

In March 2014, the Cordell Expedition, organised and led by Robert Schmieder, combined a radio DX-pedition using callsign TX5K with environmental and scientific investigations.[240] The team of 24 radio operators made more than 114,000 contacts, breaking the previous record of 75,000. The activity included extensive operation in the 6-meter band, including Earth–Moon–Earth communication (EME) or 'moonbounce' contacts. A notable accomplishment was the use of DXA, a real-time satellite-based online graphic radio log web page, allowing anyone with a browser to see the radio activity. Scientific work conducted during the expedition included the first collection and identification of foraminifera and extensive aerial imaging of the island using kite-borne cameras. The team included two scientists from the University of Tahiti and a French TV documentary crew from Thalassa.[241]

In April 2015, Alain Duchauchoy, F6BFH, operated from Clipperton using callsign TX5P as part of the Passion 2015 scientific expedition to Clipperton Island. Duchauchoy also researched Mexican use of the island during the early 1900s as part of the expedition.[239][242]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ The island is assigned a French postal code, but there is no post office on the island.[4]

References edit

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External links edit

  •   Wikimedia Atlas of Clipperton Island
  • Isla Clipperton o 'Los náufragos mexicanos − 1914/1917' [Clipperton or 'The Mexican Castaways – 1914/1917'] (in Spanish)

Photo galleries edit

  • The first dive trip to Clipperton Island aboard the Nautilus Explorer — pictures taken during a 2007 visit
  • Clipperton Island 2008 — Flickr gallery containing 94 large photos from a 2008 visit
  • — 3D anaglyphs

Visits and expeditions edit

  • 2000 DXpedition to Clipperton Island — website of a visit by amateur radio enthusiasts in 2000
  • Diving trips to Clipperton atoll — from NautilusExplorer.com

February 15, 2024
clipperton, island, french, passion, clipperton, pasjɔ, klipœʁtɔn, spanish, isla, pasión, also, known, clipperton, atoll, previously, clipperton, rock, uninhabited, french, coral, atoll, eastern, pacific, ocean, only, french, territory, north, pacific, clipper. Clipperton Island French La Passion Clipperton la pasjɔ klipœʁtɔn Spanish Isla de la Pasion also known as Clipperton Atoll 5 and previously as Clipperton s Rock 6 is an 8 9 km2 3 4 sq mi uninhabited French coral atoll in the eastern Pacific Ocean The only French territory in the North Pacific Clipperton is 10 675 km 6 633 mi from Paris France 5 400 km 2 900 nmi from Papeete French Polynesia and 1 280 km 690 nmi from Acapulco Mexico ClippertonNative name La Passion Clipperton French Clipperton Atoll with lagoon with depths metres Location of Clipperton IslandGeographyLocationPacific OceanCoordinates10 18 N 109 13 W 10 300 N 109 217 W 10 300 109 217 1 ArchipelagoLagoonArea8 9 km2 3 4 sq mi 2 Length3 km 1 9 mi Width4 km 2 5 mi Coastline11 1 km 6 9 mi Highest elevation29 m 95 ft Highest pointClipperton RockAdministrationFranceState private propertyIle de ClippertonDemographicsPopulation0 1945 Additional informationTime zoneCIST 3 UTC 8 Postal code98799 a INSEE code 989EEZ 431 273 km2 166 515 sq mi Clipperton was documented by French merchant explorers in 1711 and formally claimed as part of the French protectorate of Tahiti in 1858 Despite this American guano miners began working the island in the early 1890s As interest in the island grew Mexico asserted a claim to the island based upon Spanish records from the 1520s that may have identified the island Mexico established a small military colony on the island in 1905 but during the Mexican Revolution contact with the mainland became infrequent most of the colonists died and lighthouse keeper Victoriano Alvarez instituted a short brutal reign as king of the island Eleven survivors were rescued in 1917 and Clipperton was abandoned The dispute between Mexico and France over Clipperton was taken to binding international arbitration in 1909 Victor Emmanuel III King of Italy was chosen as arbitrator and decided in 1931 that the island was French territory Despite the ruling Clipperton remained largely uninhabited until 1944 when the U S Navy established a weather station on the island to support its war efforts in the Pacific France protested and as concerns about Japanese activity in the eastern Pacific waned the U S abandoned the site in late 1945 Since the end of World War II Clipperton has primarily been the site for scientific expeditions to study the island s wildlife and marine life including its significant masked and brown booby colonies It has also hosted climate scientists and amateur radio DX peditions Plans to develop the island for trade and tourism have been considered but none have been enacted and the island remains mostly uninhabited with periodic visits from the French navy Contents 1 Geography 2 Environment 2 1 Lagoon 2 2 Climate 2 3 Flora and fauna 2 4 Environmental threats 3 Politics and government 4 History 4 1 Discovery and early claims 4 2 19th century 4 2 1 Mexican claim 1821 1858 4 2 2 French claim 1858 4 2 3 Guano mining claims 1892 1905 4 3 20th century 4 3 1 Mexican colonization 1905 1917 4 3 2 Final arbitration of ownership 1931 4 3 3 U S presidential visit 4 3 4 American occupation 1944 1945 4 3 5 Post World War II developments 4 4 Castaways 4 5 Amateur radio DX peditions 5 See also 6 Notes 6 1 References 7 External links 7 1 Photo galleries 7 2 Visits and expeditionsGeography edit nbsp Location of Clipperton IslandThe coral island is located at 10 18 N 109 13 W 10 300 N 109 217 W 10 300 109 217 Clipperton Island in the East Pacific 1 080 km 583 nmi southwest of Mexico 2 424 km 1 309 nmi west of Nicaragua 2 545 km 1 374 nmi west of Costa Rica and 2 390 km 1 290 nmi northwest of the Galapagos Islands in Ecuador 7 8 The nearest land is Socorro Island about 945 km 510 nmi to the south east in the Revillagigedo Archipelago 9 The nearest French owned island is Hiva Oa in the Marquesas Islands of French Polynesia 10 11 Despite its proximity to North America Clipperton is often considered one of the eastern most points of Oceania due to being part the French Indo Pacific 12 13 and to commonalities between its marine fauna and the marine fauna of Hawaii and Kiribati s Line Islands with the island sitting along the migration path for animals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region 14 15 16 The island is the only emerged part of the East Pacific Rise as well as the only feature in the Clipperton Fracture Zone that breaks the ocean s surface and it is one of the few islands in the Pacific that lacks an underwater archipelagic apron 17 18 19 The atoll is low lying and largely barren with some scattered grasses and a few clumps of coconut palms Cocos nucifera 20 21 The land ring surrounding the lagoon measures 1 7 square kilometres 0 66 sq mi in area with an average elevation of 2 m 6 6 ft although a small volcanic outcropping referred to as Clipperton Rock fr Rocher de Clipperton rises to 29 m 95 ft on its southeast side 22 The surrounding 3 7 square kilometre 1 4 sq mi reef hosts an abundance of corals and is partly exposed at low tide 23 24 In 2001 a geodetic marker was placed to evaluate if the land is rising or sinking 25 nbsp 1899 sketch of Clipperton Rock from the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College after a photographClipperton Rock is the remains of the island s now extinct volcano s rim 26 because it includes this rocky outcropping Clipperton is not a true atoll and is sometimes referred to as a near atoll 27 28 The surrounding reef in combination with the weather makes landing on the island difficult and anchoring offshore hazardous for larger ships in the 1940s American ships reported active problems in this regard 29 30 31 Environment editThe environment of Clipperton Island has been studied extensively with the first recordings and sample collection being done in the 1800s 32 Modern research on Clipperton is focused primarily on climate science and migratory wildlife 33 34 35 The SURPACLIP oceanographic expedition a joint undertaking by the National Autonomous University of Mexico and the University of New Caledonia Noumea made extensive studies of the island in 1997 36 In 2001 French National Centre for Scientific Research geographer Christian Jost extended the 1997 studies through the French Passion 2001 expedition which focused on the evolution of Clipperton s ecosystem 37 In 2003 cinematrographer Lance Milbrand stayed on the island for 41 days recording the adventure for the National Geographic Explorer and plotting a GPS map of Clipperton for the National Geographic Society 38 In 2005 a four month scientific mission organised by Jean Louis Etienne made a complete inventory of Clipperton s mineral plant and animal species studied algae as deep as 100 m 328 ft below sea level and examined the effects of pollution 39 40 A 2008 expedition from the University of Washington s School of Oceanography collected sediment cores from the lagoon to study climate change over the past millennium 41 Lagoon edit nbsp Clipperton Island photographed by the Sentinel 2 satellite Clipperton is a ring shaped atoll that completely encloses a stagnant fresh water lagoon and measures 12 km 7 5 mi in circumference and 720 hectares 2 8 sq mi in area 42 43 The island is the only coral island in the eastern Pacific 44 45 The lagoon is devoid of fish and is shallow over parts of the eroded coral heads 46 but contains some deep basins with depths of 43 72 m 141 236 ft including a spot known as Trou Sans Fond the bottomless hole with acidic water at its base The water is described as being almost fresh at the surface and highly eutrophic Seaweed beds cover approximately 45 per cent of the lagoon s surface The rim averages 150 m 490 ft in width reaching 400 m 1 300 ft in the west and narrowing to 45 m 148 ft in the north east where sea waves occasionally spill over into the lagoon 24 Ten islets are present in the lagoon six of which are covered with vegetation including the Egg Islands les iles aux Œufs 47 The closure of the lagoon approximately 170 years ago and prevention of seawater from entering the lagoon has formed a meromictic lake 48 49 50 The surface of the lagoon has a high concentration of phytoplankton that vary slightly with the seasons 51 As a result of this the water columns are stratified and do not mix leaving the lagoon with an oxic and brackish upper water layer and a deep sulfuric anoxic saline layer 50 52 53 At a depth of approximately 15 m 49 ft the water shifts with salinity rising and both pH and oxygen quickly decreasing 50 The deepest levels of the lagoon record waters enriched with hydrogen sulfide which prevent the growth of coral Before the lagoon was closed off to seawater coral and clams were able to survive in the area as evident by fossilized specimens 54 55 112 Studies of the water have found that microbial communities on the water s surface are similar to other water samples from around the world with deeper water samples showing a great diversity of both bacteria and archaea 50 In 2005 a group of French scientists discovered three dinoflagellate microalgae species in the lagoon Peridiniopsis cristata which was abundant Durinskia baltica which was known to exist previously in other locations but was new to Clipperton and Peridiniopsis cristata var tubulifera which is unique to the island 56 The lagoon also harbours millions of isopods which are reported to deliver a painful sting 57 While some sources have rated the lagoon water as non potable 58 testimony from the crew of the tuna clipper M V Monarch stranded for 23 days in 1962 after their boat sank indicates otherwise Their report reveals that the lagoon water while muddy and dirty was drinkable despite not tasting very good Several of the castaways drank it with no apparent ill effects 59 Survivors of a Mexican military colony in 1917 see below indicated that they were dependent upon rain for their water supply catching it in old boats 59 American servicemen on the island during World War II had to use evaporators to purify the lagoon s water 31 Aside from the lagoon and water caught from rain no freshwater sources are known to exist 49 50 Climate edit The island has a tropical oceanic climate with average temperatures of 20 32 C 68 90 F and highs up to 37 8 C 100 0 F 32 60 Annual rainfall is 3 000 to 5 000 millimetres 120 to 200 in and the humidity level is generally between 85 per cent and 95 per cent with December to March being the drier months The prevailing winds are the southeast trade winds 37 61 The rainy season occurs from May to October 32 and the region is subject to tropical cyclones from April to September but such storms often pass to the northeast of Clipperton 37 In 1997 Clipperton was in the path of the start of Hurricane Felicia as well as Hurricane Sandra in 2015 62 In addition Clipperton has been subjected to multiple tropical storms and depressions including Tropical Storm Andres in 2003 63 64 Surrounding ocean waters are warm pushed by equatorial and counter equatorial currents and have seen temperature increases due to global warming 65 66 67 Flora and fauna edit See also List of endemic species of Clipperton Island nbsp A bright orange Clipperton crab Johngarthia oceanica When Snodgrass and Heller visited in 1898 they reported that no land plant is native to the island 68 Historical accounts from 1711 1825 and 1839 show a low grassy or suffrutescent partially woody flora During Marie Helene Sachet s visit in 1958 the vegetation was found to consist of a sparse cover of spiny grass and low thickets a creeping plant Ipomoea spp and stands of coconut palm This low lying herbaceous flora seems to be a pioneer in nature and most of it is believed to be composed of recently introduced species Sachet suspected that Heliotropium curassavicum and possibly Portulaca oleracea were native Coconut palms and pigs introduced in the 1890s by guano miners were still present in the 1940s 52 The largest coconut grove is Bougainville Wood Bois de Bougainville on the southwestern end of the island 69 On the northwest side of the atoll the most abundant plant species are Cenchrus echinatus Sida rhombifolia and Corchorus aestuans These plants compose a shrub cover up to 30 cm 12 in in height and are intermixed with Eclipta Phyllanthus and Solanum as well as the taller Brassica juncea The islets in the lagoon are primarily vegetated with Cyperaceae Scrophulariaceae and Ipomoea pes caprae 70 A unique feature of Clipperton is that the vegetation is arranged in parallel rows of species with dense rows of taller species alternating with lower more open vegetation This was assumed to be a result of the trench digging method of phosphate mining used by guano hunters 24 The only land animals known to exist are two species of reptiles the Pacific stump toed gecko and the copper tailed skink 71 72 bright orange land crabs known as Clipperton crabs Johngarthia oceanica prior to 2019 classified as Johngartia planata 73 74 75 birds and ship rats The rats probably arrived when large fishing boats wrecked on the island in 1999 and 2000 76 The pigs introduced in the 1890s reduced the crab population which in turn allowed grassland to gradually cover about 80 per cent of the land surface 77 The elimination of these pigs in 1958 the result of a personal project by Kenneth E Stager caused most of this vegetation to disappear as the population of land crabs recovered 76 As a result Clipperton is virtually a sandy desert with only 674 palms counted by Christian Jost during the Passion 2001 French mission and five islets in the lagoon with grass that the terrestrial crabs cannot reach A 2005 report by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration s Southwest Fisheries Science Center indicated that the increased rat presence had led to a decline in both crab and bird populations causing a corresponding increase in both vegetation and coconut palms This report urgently recommended eradication of rats so that vegetation might be reduced and the island might return to its pre human state 76 In 1825 Benjamin Morrell reported finding green sea turtles nesting on Clipperton but later expeditions have not found nesting turtles there possibly due to disruption from guano extraction as well as the introduction of pigs and rats Sea turtles found on the island appear to have been injured due to fishing practices 78 Morrell also reported fur and elephant seals on the island in 1825 but they too have not been recorded by later expeditions 79 6 nbsp The head of a viper moray Enchelynassa canina Birds are common on the island Morrell noted in 1825 The whole island is literally covered with sea birds such as gulls whale birds gannets and the booby 6 Thirteen species of birds are known to breed on the island and 26 others have been observed as visitors 80 The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because of the large breeding colony of masked boobies with 110 000 individual birds recorded 81 Observed bird species include white terns masked boobies sooty terns brown boobies brown noddies black noddies great frigatebirds coots martins swallows cuckoos and yellow warblers 82 83 84 Ducks and moorhens have been reported in the lagoon 24 The coral reef on the north side of the island includes colonies more than 2 metres 6 6 ft high The 2018 Tara Pacific expedition located five colonies of Millepora platyphylla at depths of 28 32 metres 92 105 ft the first of this fire coral species known in the region 85 Among the Porites spp stony corals some bleaching was observed along with other indications of disease or stress including parasitic worms and microalgae 86 The reefs that surround Clipperton have some of the highest concentration of endemic species found anywhere with more than 115 species identified 87 88 89 Many species are recorded in the area including five or six endemics such as Clipperton angelfish Holacanthus limbaughi Clipperton grouper Epinephelus clippertonensis Clipperton damselfish Stegastes baldwini and Robertson s wrasse Thalassoma robertsoni Widespread species around the reefs include Pacific creolefish blue and gold snapper and various species of goatfish In the water column trevallies are predominant including black jacks bigeye trevally and bluefin trevally 90 Also common around Clipperton are black triggerfish several species of groupers including leather bass and starry groupers Mexican hogfish whitecheek convict and striped fin surgeonfish yellow longnose and blacknosed butterflyfish coral hawkfish golden pufferfish Moorish idols parrotfish and moray eels especially speckled moray eels 91 92 The population of sharks in the waters around the island was noted to have increased in both density and size of individuals in a 2019 expedition particularly the population of the white tip shark Galapagos sharks reef sharks and hammerhead sharks are also present around Clipperton 93 94 Three expeditions to Clipperton have collected sponge specimens including U S President Franklin Roosevelt s visit in 1938 Of the 190 specimens collected 20 species were noted including nine found only at Clipperton One of the endemic sponges collected during the 1938 visit was named Callyspongia roosevelti in honor of Roosevelt 26 95 96 In April 2009 Steven Robinson a tropical fish dealer from Hayward California traveled to Clipperton to collect Clipperton angelfish 97 Upon his return to the United States he described the 52 illegally collected fish to federal wildlife authorities as king angelfish 98 99 not the rarer Clipperton angelfish which he intended to sell for 10 000 99 100 On 15 December 2011 Robinson was sentenced to 45 days of incarceration one year of probation and a 2 000 fine 101 Environmental threats edit nbsp Freighter Sichem Osprey grounded on Clipperton Island in 2010 During the night of 10 February 2010 the Sichem Osprey 102 a Maltese chemical tanker ran aground en route from the Panama Canal to South Korea The 170 m 558 ft ship contained 10 513 metric tons 11 589 short tons of xylene 6 005 metric tons 6 619 short tons of soybean oil and 6 000 metric tons 6 600 short tons of tallow 103 43 All 19 crew members were reported safe and the vessel reported no leaks 104 105 The vessel was re floated on 6 March 106 and returned to service 107 In mid March 2012 the crew from the Clipperton Project noted the widespread presence of refuse particularly on the northeast shore and around the Clipperton Rock Debris including plastic bottles and containers create a potentially harmful environment for the island s flora and fauna 25 This trash is common to only two beaches northeast and southwest and the rest of the island is fairly clean Other refuse has been left after the occupations by Americans 1944 1945 French 1966 1969 and the 2008 scientific expedition 108 During a 2015 scientific and amateur radio expedition to Clipperton the operating team discovered a package that contained 1 2 kilograms 2 6 lb of cocaine It is suspected that the package washed up after being discarded at sea 61 In April 2023 the Passion 23 mission by France s Armed Forces in the Antilles fr and the surveillance frigate Germinal collected more than 200 kilograms 440 lb of plastic waste from the island s beaches along with a bale of cocaine 109 The Sea Around Us Project estimates the Clipperton EEZ produces a harvest of 50 000 metric tons 55 000 short tons of fish per year however because French naval patrols in the area are infrequent this includes a significant amount of illegal fishing along with lobster harvesting and shark finning resulting in estimated losses for France of 0 42 per kilogram of fish caught 110 As deep sea mining of polymetallic nodules increases in the adjacent Clarion Clipperton Zone similar mining activity within France s exclusive economic zone surrounding the atoll may have an impact on marine life around Clipperton Polymetallic nodules were discovered in the Clipperton EEZ during the Passion 2015 expedition 111 Politics and government editThe island is an overseas state private property of France under direct authority of the Minister of the Overseas 112 113 Although the island is French territory it has no status within the European Union 114 Ownership of Clipperton Island was disputed in the 19th and early 20th centuries between France and Mexico but was finally settled through arbitration in 1931 the Clipperton Island Case remains widely studied in international law textbooks 115 116 In the late 1930s as flying boats opened the Pacific to air travel Clipperton Island was noted as a possible waypoint for a trans Pacific route from the Americas to Asia via the Marquesas Islands in French Polynesia bypassing Hawaii However France indicated no interest in developing commercial air traffic in the corridor 117 After France ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNCLOS in 1996 118 119 they reaffirmed the exclusive economic zone off Clipperton island which had been established in 1976 120 After changes were made to the area nations were allowed to claim under the third convention of UNCLOS 121 France in 2018 expanded the outer limits of the territorial sea to 22 km 12 nmi and the exclusive economic zone off Clipperton Island to 370 km 200 nmi encompassing 431 273 square kilometres 166 515 sq mi of ocean 122 123 On 21 February 2007 administration of Clipperton was transferred from the High Commissioner of the Republic in French Polynesia to the Minister of Overseas France 124 99 In 2015 French MP Philippe Folliot set foot on Clipperton becoming the first elected official from France to do so Folliot noted that visiting Clipperton was something he had wanted to do since he was nine years old 125 126 127 Following the visit Folliot reported to the National Assembly on the pressing need to reaffirm French sovereignty over the atoll and its surrounding maritime claims He also proposed establishing an international scientific research station on Clipperton and administrative reforms surrounding the oversight of the atoll 128 In 2022 France passed legislation officially referring to the island as La Passion Clipperton 129 History edit nbsp Sketch of l Isle de la Passion Clipperton from La Princesse s ship s diary 1711 Discovery and early claims edit There are several claims to the first discovery of the island The earliest recorded possible sighting is 24 January 1521 when Portuguese born Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan discovered an island he named San Pablo after turning westward away from the American mainland during his circumnavigation of the globe 130 On 15 November 1528 Spaniard Alvaro de Saavedra Ceron discovered an island he called Isla Medanos in the region while on an expedition commissioned by his cousin the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes to find a route to the Philippines 131 132 133 Although both San Pablo and Isla Medanos are considered to be possible sightings of Clipperton the island was first charted by French merchant Michel Dubocage commanding La Decouverte who arrived at the island on Good Friday 3 April 1711 he was joined the following day by fellow ship captain Martin de Chassiron fr and La Princesse The island was given the name Ile de la Passion Passion Island as the date of rediscovery fell within Passiontide They drew up the first map of the island and claimed it for France 134 In August 1825 American sea captain Benjamin Morrell made the first recorded landing on Clipperton exploring the island and making a detailed report of its vegetation 135 The common name for the island comes from John Clipperton an English pirate and privateer who fought the Spanish during the early 18th century and who is said to have passed by the island Some sources claim that he used it as a base for his raids on shipping 136 19th century edit Mexican claim 1821 1858 edit After its declaration of independence in 1821 Mexico took possession of the lands that had once belonged to Spain As Spanish records noted the existence of the island as early as 1528 the territory was incorporated into Mexico 137 The Mexican constitution of 1917 explicitly includes the island using the Spanish name La Pasion as Mexican territory This would be amended on January 18 1934 after the sovereignty dispute over the island was settled in favor of France 138 nbsp 1895 1 stamp of Clipperton Island issued by W Frese amp Co as an agent of the Oceanic Phosphate Company The local post stamps were used for mail travelling between Clipperton and San Francisco 139 El territorio nacional comprende el de las partes integrantes de la Federacion y ademas el de las islas adyacentes en ambos mares Comprende asimismo la isla de Guadalupe las de Revillagigedo y la de la Pasion situadas en el oceano Pacifico The national territory includes that of the integral parts of the Federation and also that of the adjacent islands in both seas It also includes the island of Guadalupe Revillagigedo and La Pasion located in the Pacific Ocean Mexican Constitution of 1917 140 French claim 1858 edit On 17 November 1858 Emperor Napoleon III annexed Clipperton as part of the French protectorate of Tahiti 141 Ship of the line Lieutenant Victor Le Coat de Kerveguen published a notice of this annexation in Hawaiian newspapers to further cement France s claim to the island 84 142 143 Guano mining claims 1892 1905 edit In 1892 a claim on the island was filed with the U S State Department under the U S Guano Islands Act by Frederick W Permien of San Francisco on behalf of the Stonington Phosphate Company 144 In 1893 Permien transferred those rights to a new company the Oceanic Phosphate Company 145 In response to the application the State Department rejected the claim noting France s prior claim on the island and that the claim was not bonded as was required by law 146 Additionally during this time there were concerns in Mexico that the British or Americans would lay claim to the island 147 Despite the lack of U S approval of its claim the Oceanic Phosphate Company began mining guano on the island in 1895 148 Although the company had plans for as many as 200 workers on the island at its peak only 25 men were stationed there 139 The company shipped its guano to Honolulu and San Francisco where it sold for between US 10 and US 20 per ton 149 In 1897 the Oceanic Phosphate Company began negotiations with the British Pacific Islands Company to transfer its interest in Clipperton this drew the attention of both French and Mexican officials 150 On 24 November 1897 French naval authorities arrived on the Duguay Trouin and found three Americans working on the island The French ordered the American flag to be lowered 150 At that time U S authorities assured the French that they did not intend to assert American sovereignty over the island 115 151 A few weeks later on 13 December 1897 Mexico sent the gunboat La Democrata and a group of marines to assert its claim on the island evicting the Americans raising the Mexican flag and drawing a protest from France 152 153 From 1898 to 1905 the Pacific Islands Company worked the Clipperton guano deposits under a concession agreement with Mexico 150 154 In 1898 Mexico made a US 1 5 million claim against the Oceanic Phosphate Company for the guano shipped from the island from 1895 to 1897 149 20th century edit Mexican colonization 1905 1917 edit In 1905 the Mexican government renegotiated its agreement with the British Pacific Islands Company establishing a military garrison on the island a year later and erecting a lighthouse under the orders of Mexican President Porfirio Diaz Captain Ramon Arnaud was appointed governor of Clipperton At first he was reluctant to accept the post believing it amounted to exile from Mexico but he relented after being told that Diaz had personally chosen him to protect Mexico s interests in the international conflict with France It was also noted that because Arnaud spoke English French and Spanish he would be well equipped to help protect Mexico s sovereignty over the territory 150 155 He arrived on Clipperton as governor later that year 156 By 1914 around 100 men women and children lived on the island resupplied every two months by a ship from Acapulco With the escalation of fighting in the Mexican Revolution regular resupply visits ceased and the inhabitants were left to their own devices 157 On 28 February 1914 the schooner Nokomis wrecked on Clipperton with a still seaworthy lifeboat four members of the crew volunteered to row to Acapulco for help 158 The USS Cleveland arrived months later to rescue the crew 159 While there the captain offered to transport the survivors of the colony back to Acapulco Arnaud refused as he believed a supply ship would soon arrive 160 nbsp Mexican survivors from Clipperton Island 1917By 1917 all but one of the male inhabitants had died Many had perished from scurvy 161 while others including Arnaud died during an attempt to sail after a passing ship to fetch help 162 Lighthouse keeper Victoriano Alvarez was the last man on the island together with 15 women and children 163 Alvarez proclaimed himself king and began a campaign of rape and murder before being killed by Tirza Rendon who was his favourite victim Almost immediately after Alvarez s death four women and seven children the last survivors were picked up by the U S Navy gunship Yorktown on 18 July 1917 157 164 Final arbitration of ownership 1931 edit See also Clipperton Island case Throughout Mexico s occupation of Clipperton France insisted on its ownership of the island and lengthy diplomatic correspondence between the two countries led to a treaty on 2 March 1909 agreeing to seek binding international arbitration by Victor Emmanuel III of Italy with each nation promising to abide by his determination 115 165 In 1931 Victor Emmanuel III issued his arbitral decision in the Clipperton Island Case declaring Clipperton a French possession 151 166 167 168 Mexican President Pascual Ortiz Rubio in response to public opinion that considered the Italian king biased towards France consulted international experts on the validity of the decision but ultimately Mexico accepted Victor Emmanuel s findings 169 France formally took possession of Clipperton on January 26 1935 170 U S presidential visit edit President Franklin D Roosevelt made a stop over at Clipperton in July 1938 aboard the USS Houston as part of a fishing expedition to the Galapagos Islands and other points along the Central and South American coasts 171 172 At the island Roosevelt and his party spent time fishing for sharks 173 and afterwards Dr Waldo L Schmitt of the Smithsonian Institution went ashore with some crew to gather scientific samples and make observations of the island 174 175 176 Roosevelt had previously tried to visit Clipperton in July 1934 after transiting through the Panama Canal en route to Hawaii on the Houston he had heard the area was good for fishing but heavy seas prevented them from lowering a boat when they reached the island 172 177 On 19 July 1934 soon after the stop at Clipperton the rigid airship USS Macon rendezvoused with the Houston and one of the Macon s Curtiss F9C biplanes delivered mail to the president 172 178 179 American occupation 1944 1945 edit The Government of the United States is aware of the extent to which the French Government is desirous to cooperate in all domains to the success of the Allied Armies in Europe as well as in the Pacific It will understand however its concern that French sovereignty be not disregarded in any part of the empire Georges Bidault 180 789 nbsp The U S Navy weather station on the northern side of Clipperton View is from the top of a radio tower looking northwest In April 1944 the USS Atlanta took observations of Clipperton while en route to Hawaii 181 182 After an overflight of the island by planes from the USS Detroit and USS Nevada to ensure Clipperton was uninhabited 183 the USS Argus departed San Francisco on 4 December 1944 with aerological specialists and personnel and was followed several days later by USS LST 563 with provisions heavy equipment and equipment for construction of a U S Navy weather station on the island 184 185 186 The sailors at the weather station were armed in case of a possible Japanese attack in the region 180 187 Landing on the island proved challenging LST 563 grounded on the reef and the salvage ship USS Seize was brought in to help refloat the ship but it too was grounded Finally in January 1945 the USS Viking and USS Tenino were able to free the Seize and to offload equipment from LST 563 before it was abandoned 184 Once the weather station was completed and sailors garrisoned on the island the U S government informed the British French and Mexican governments of the station and its purpose 188 Every day at 9 a m the 24 sailors stationed at the Clipperton weather station sent up weather balloons to gather information 189 190 Later Clipperton was considered for an airfield to shift traffic between North America and Australia far from the front lines of Pacific Theater 191 In April 1943 during a meeting between presidents Roosevelt of the U S and Avila Camacho of Mexico the topic of Mexican ownership of Clipperton was raised The American government seemed interested in Clipperton being handed over to Mexico due to the importance the island might play in both commercial and military air travel 192 as well as its proximity to the Panama Canal 193 194 195 196 Although these talks were informal the U S backed away from any Mexican claim on Clipperton as Mexico had previously accepted the 1931 arbitration decision The U S government also felt it would be easier to obtain a military base on the island from France 197 198 However after the French government was notified about the weather station relations on this matter deteriorated rapidly 199 with the French government sending a formal note of protest in defense of French sovereignty 186 200 201 In response the U S extended an offer for the French military to operate the station or to have the Americans agree to leave the weather station under the same framework previously agreed to with other weather stations in France and North Africa 202 There were additional concern within the newly formed Provisional Government of the French Republic that notification of the installation was made to military and not civilian leadership 203 source source source source source source source source Video of the crew of the USS Concord on Clipperton Island landing a Jeep and using a radioFrench Foreign Minister Georges Bidault said of the incident This is very humiliating to us we are anxious to cooperate with you but sometimes you do not make it easy 186 204 205 French Vice Admiral Raymond Fenard requested during a meeting with U S Admiral Lyal A Davidson that civilians be given access to Clipperton and the surrounding waters 206 but the U S Navy denied the request because there was an active military installation on the island Instead Davidson offered to transport a French officer to the installation and reassured the French government that the United States did not wish to claim sovereignty over the island 207 During these discussions between the admirals French diplomats in Mexico attempted to hire the Mexican vessel Pez de Plata out of Acapulco to bring a military attache to Clipperton under a cover story that they were going on a shark fishing trip 208 At the request of the Americans the Mexican government refused to allow the Pez De Plata to leave port 204 French officials then attempted to leave in another smaller vessel and filed a false destination with the local port authorities but were also stopped by Mexican officials 209 During this period French officials in Mexico leaked information about their concerns as well as about the arrival of seaplanes at Clipperton to The New York Times and Newsweek both stories were refused publishing clearance on national security grounds 210 In February 1945 the U S Navy transported French Officer Lieutenant Louis Jampierre to Clipperton out of San Diego 211 where he visited the installation and that afternoon returned to the United States 212 213 As the war in the Pacific progressed concerns about Japanese incursions into the Eastern Pacific were reduced and in September 1945 the U S Navy began removing from Clipperton 214 215 During the evacuation munitions were destroyed but significant materiel was left on the island 215 125 By 21 October 1945 the last U S Navy staff at the weather station left Clipperton 184 Post World War II developments edit Since the island was abandoned by American forces at the end of World War II the island has been visited by sports fishermen French naval patrols and Mexican tuna and shark fishermen There have been infrequent scientific and amateur radio expeditions and in 1978 Jacques Yves Cousteau visited with a team of divers and a survivor from the 1917 evacuation to film a television special called Clipperton The Island that Time Forgot 216 The island was visited by ornithologist Ken Stager of the Los Angeles County Museum in 1958 Appalled at the depredations visited by feral pigs upon the island s brown booby and masked booby colonies reduced to 500 and 150 birds respectively Stager procured a shotgun and killed all 58 pigs 217 By 2003 the booby colonies had grown to 25 000 brown boobies and 112 000 masked boobies making Clipperton home to the world s second largest brown booby colony and its largest masked booby colony 76 In 1994 Stager s story inspired Bernie Tershy and Don Croll both professors at the University of California Santa Cruz Long Marine Lab to found the non profit Island Conservation which works to prevent extinctions through the removal of invasive species from islands 218 When the independence of Algeria in 1962 threatened French nuclear testing sites in North Africa the French Ministry of Defence considered Clipperton as a possible replacement site This was eventually ruled out due to the island s hostile climate and remote location but the island was used to house a small scientific mission to collect data on nuclear fallout from other nuclear tests 125 From 1966 to 1969 the French military sent a series of missions called Bougainville to the island The Bougainville missions unloaded some 25 tons of equipment including sanitary facilities traditional Polynesian dwellings drinking water treatment tanks and generators The missions sought to surveil the island and its surrounding waters observe weather conditions and evaluate potential rehabilitation of the World War II era airstrip 219 By 1978 the structures built during the Bougainville missions had become quite derelict 20 The French explored reopening the lagoon and developing a harbour for trade and tourism during the 1970s but this too was abandoned 220 An automatic weather installation was completed on 7 April 1980 with data collected by the station transmitted via satellite to Brittany citation needed In 1981 the Academie des sciences d outre mer recommended the island have its own economic infrastructure with an airstrip and a fishing port in the lagoon This would mean opening the lagoon to the ocean by creating a passage in the atoll rim To oversee this the French government reassigned Clipperton from the High Commissioner for French Polynesia to the direct authority of the French government classifying the island as an overseas state private property administered by France s Overseas Minister In 1986 the Company for the Study Development and Exploitation of Clipperton Island French acronym SEDEIC and French officials began outlining a plan for the development of Clipperton as a fishing port 221 but due to economic constraints the distance from markets and the small size of the atoll nothing beyond preliminary studies was undertaken and plans for the development were abandoned In the mid 1980s the French government began efforts to enlist citizens of French Polynesia to settle on Clipperton these plans were ultimately abandoned as well 222 In November 1994 the French Space Agency requested the help of NASA to track the first stage breakup of the newly designed Ariane 5 rocket 223 After spending a month on Clipperton setting up and calibrating radar equipment to monitor Ariane flight V88 the mission ended in disappointment when the rocket disintegrated 37 seconds after launch due to a software bug 223 224 Despite Mexico accepting the 1931 arbitration decision that Clipperton was French territory the right of Mexican fishing vessels to work Clipperton s territorial waters have remained a point of contention A 2007 treaty reaffirmed in 2017 grants Mexican access to Clipperton s fisheries so long as authorization is sought from the French government conservation measures are followed and catches are reported however the lack of regular monitoring of the fisheries by France makes verifying compliance difficult 225 Castaways edit In May 1893 Charles Jensen and Brick Thurman of the Oceanic Phosphate Company were left on the island by the company s ship Compeer with 90 days worth of supplies in order to prevent other attempts to claim the island and its guano Before sailing for Clipperton Jensen wrote a letter to the Secretary of the Coast Seamen s Union Andrew Furuseth instructing him that if the Oceanic Phosphate Company had not sent a vessel to Clipperton six weeks after the return of the Compeer to make it known that they had been stranded there 226 The Oceanic Phosphate Company denied it had left the men without adequate supplies and contracted the schooner Viking to retrieve them in late August 227 The Viking rescued the men who had used seabirds eggs to supplement their supplies and returned them to San Francisco on 31 October 228 In May 1897 the British cargo vessel Kinkora wrecked on Clipperton 229 the crew was able to salvage food and water from the ship allowing them to survive on the island in relative comfort During the crew s time on the island a passing vessel offered to take the men to the mainland for 1 500 which the crew refused Instead eight of the men loaded up a lifeboat and rowed to Acapulco for help 230 231 After the first mate of the Kinkora Mr McMarty arrived in Acapulco HMS Comus set sail from British Columbia to rescue the sailors 231 In 1947 five American fishermen from San Pedro California were rescued from Clipperton after surviving on the island for six weeks 232 In early 1962 the island provided a home to nine crewmen of the sunken tuna clipper MV Monarch stranded for 23 days from 6 February to 1 March 233 They reported that the lagoon water was drinkable although they preferred to drink water from the coconuts they found Unable to use any of the dilapidated buildings they constructed a crude shelter from cement bags and tin salvaged from Quonset huts built by the American military 20 years earlier Wood from the huts was used for firewood and fish caught off the fringing reef combined with potatoes and onions they had saved from their sinking vessel augmented the island s meager supply of coconuts The crewmen reported they tried eating bird s eggs but found them to be rancid and they decided after trying to cook a little black bird that it did not have enough meat to make the effort worthwhile Pigs had been eradicated but the crewmen reported seeing their skeletons around the atoll 59 The crewmen were eventually discovered by another fishing boat and rescued by the U S Navy destroyer USS Robison 234 Amateur radio DX peditions edit Clipperton has long been an attractive destination for amateur radio groups due to its remoteness permit requirements history and interesting environment While some radio operation has been part of other visits to the island major DX peditions have included FO0XB 1978 20 235 FO0XX 1985 236 FO0CI 1992 237 FO0AAA 2000 TX5C 2008 and TX5S 2024 238 239 In March 2014 the Cordell Expedition organised and led by Robert Schmieder combined a radio DX pedition using callsign TX5K with environmental and scientific investigations 240 The team of 24 radio operators made more than 114 000 contacts breaking the previous record of 75 000 The activity included extensive operation in the 6 meter band including Earth Moon Earth communication EME or moonbounce contacts A notable accomplishment was the use of DXA a real time satellite based online graphic radio log web page allowing anyone with a browser to see the radio activity Scientific work conducted during the expedition included the first collection and identification of foraminifera and extensive aerial imaging of the island using kite borne cameras The team included two scientists from the University of Tahiti and a French TV documentary crew from Thalassa 241 In April 2015 Alain Duchauchoy F6BFH operated from Clipperton using callsign TX5P as part of the Passion 2015 scientific expedition to Clipperton Island Duchauchoy also researched Mexican use of the island during the early 1900s as part of the expedition 239 242 See also editDesert island Lists of islandsNotes edit The island is assigned a French postal code but there is no post office on the island 4 References edit Findlay A G Maury M F 1853 Oceanic Currents and Their Connection with the Proposed Central America Canals Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London 23 217 242 doi 10 2307 1797966 JSTOR 1797966 Archived from the original on 1 April 2023 Retrieved 1 April 2023 Jost Christian H 2003 Clipperton Ile de la Passion une aire francaise du Pacifique a proteger Clipperton Ile de la Passion a French area in the Pacific to be protected In Lebigre Jean Michel Decoudras Pierre Marie eds Les aires protegees insulaires et littorales tropicales Tropical island and coastal protected areas Iles et Archipels Nº32 in French Bordeaux CRET p 244 ISBN 2 905081 45 7 OCLC 492187765 Decret n 2017 292 du 6 mars 2017 relatif au temps legal francais Decree No 2017 292 of March 6 2017 relating to French legal time Decret No 2017 292 of 6 March 2017 in French p 2 Archived from the original on 8 March 2023 Retrieved 6 April 2023 Jullien Pierre 17 April 2020 Clipperton une passion americano franco mexicaine Clipperton An American Franco Mexican Passion Le Monde in French Archived from the original on 31 July 2022 Retrieved 31 July 2022 Glynn P W Veron J E N Wellington G M June 1996 Clipperton Atoll eastern Pacific oceanography geomorphology reef building coral ecology and biogeography Coral Reefs 15 2 71 99 Bibcode 1996CorRe 15 71G doi 10 1007 BF01771897 ISSN 0722 4028 S2CID 33353663 Archived from the original on 10 April 2023 Retrieved 3 April 2023 a b c Morrell Benjamin 1841 A Narrative of Four Voyages to the South Sea North and South Pacific Ocean Chinese Sea Ethiopic and Southern Atlantic Ocean Indian and Antarctic Ocean from the Years 1822 to 1831 New York New York Harper amp Brothers p 219 archived from the original on 1 April 2023 retrieved 1 April 2023 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of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 71 1 1 116 March 1917 doi 10 1177 0002716217071001S03 hdl 2027 hvd 32044058928805 ISSN 0002 7162 S2CID 152529340 Archived from the original on 5 April 2023 Retrieved 5 April 2023 Jost Christian 1 December 2005 Bibliographie de l ile de Clipperton Ile de La Passion 1711 2005 Journal de la societe des oceanistes 120 121 181 197 doi 10 4000 jso 481 ISSN 0300 953X Archived from the original on 2 December 2022 Retrieved 5 April 2023 Empire of France The Pacific Commercial Advertiser Honolulu Hawaii 15 January 1859 Archived from the original on 27 June 2023 Retrieved 26 June 2023 Pardon Daniel 15 May 2020 1858 Napoleon III declenche la guerre des drapeaux a Clipperton 1858 Napoleon III launches the War of the Flags at Clipperton Tahiti Infos in French Archived from the original on 1 June 2023 Retrieved 1 June 2023 Armstrong W N ed 15 February 1898 Cannot Claim Island State Department Says Clipperton Island No Part of U S The Hawaiian 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the original on 10 April 2023 Retrieved 6 April 2023 a b c d Van Dyke Jon Brooks Robert A Fall 1980 Uninhabited Islands Their Impact on Ownership of the Ocean s Resources Sea Grant Quarterly 2 3 19 Archived from the original on 6 April 2023 Retrieved 6 April 2023 via Google Books a b Victor Emmanuel III 1932 Arbitral award on the subject of the difference relative to the sovereignty over Clipperton Island PDF The American Journal of International Law 26 2 390 394 doi 10 2307 2189369 JSTOR 2189369 S2CID 246005364 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Rogers 1933 pp 278 279 Kirchner Stefan Ulatowski Laura 2023 Clipperton Island in Gray Kevin W ed Global Encyclopedia of Territorial Rights Cham Springer International Publishing pp 1 5 doi 10 1007 978 3 319 68846 6 733 1 ISBN 978 3 319 68846 6 retrieved 23 December 2023 Ongay Mendez Alfredo Fernando 1945 El Arbitra de la Isla Clipperton Modos de Adquirir y Enajenar en Derecho International Publico The Clipperton Island 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Boat South Bend News Times Vol 31 no 182 South Bend Indiana 24 June 1914 Archived from the original on 5 April 2023 Retrieved 4 April 2023 As soon as their story had been told to Admiral Howard the cruiser Cleveland was dispatched from Acapulco under full steam to Clipperton Island Bennett Raine 10 January 1954 The Madonna of Passion Isle The American Weekly New York New York pp 12 13 Archived from the original on 28 April 2023 Retrieved 4 April 2023 via Newspapers com Jean Baptiste Philippe Fourre Elise Charlou Jean Luc Donval Jean Pierre Correge Thierry 2009 Gaining insight into Clipperton s lagoon hydrology using tritium Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 83 1 39 46 Bibcode 2009ECSS 83 39J doi 10 1016 j ecss 2009 03 017 S2CID 42281088 Archived from the original on 13 February 2020 Retrieved 1 April 2023 Restrepo Laura 2014 La Isla de la Pasion Alfaguara ISBN 978 84 204 1831 5 OCLC 898062834 Archived from the original on 10 April 2023 Retrieved 1 April 2023 Trip report and photos Clipperton Island April 10 25 2010 ElaineJobin com Elaine Jobin Archived from the original on 1 August 2012 Retrieved 17 June 2012 Navy Talk The New Yorktown and Her Predecessors Great Lakes Bulletin Vol 12 no 45 Great Lakes Illinois 4 December 1937 p 3 Retrieved 30 March 2023 via Newspapers com Original treaty between Mexico and France PDF Pastel Diplomatie gouv fr in French French Foreign Ministry Archives Archived from the original PDF on 25 July 2011 Retrieved 19 June 2009 Affaire de l ile de Clipperton Mexique contre France Case of Clipperton Island Mexico v France PDF Recueil des Sentences Arbitrales Reports of International Arbitral Awards in French Vol II United Nations published 2006 28 January 1931 pp 1105 1111 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Grant John P Barker Craig eds 2009 Clipperton Island case Encyclopaedic Dictionary of International Law 3rd ed Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 acref 9780195389777 001 0001 ISBN 978 0 19 538977 7 Archived from the 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on 6 April 2023 Retrieved 31 March 2023 President and His Fishing Friends Land Five Sharks The Belleville News Democrat Vol 83 no 202 Belleville Illinois 22 July 1938 p 2 Archived from the original on 7 July 2023 Retrieved 1 April 2023 via Newspapers com Oceanographical Results from Central America Nature 144 3647 545 September 1939 Bibcode 1939Natur 144S 545 doi 10 1038 144545c0 ISSN 0028 0836 S2CID 41695266 Scientists Study Island While President Fishes The Baltimore Sun Vol 230 D Baltimore Maryland 22 July 1938 p 11 Retrieved 1 April 2023 via Newspapers com Schmitt Waldo L Presidential Cruise of 1938 diary July 21 1938 Diary Smithsonian Field Books pp 12 14 College Park Maryland Smithsonian Institution Roosevelt Heads for Clipperton Island Where the Fishing Is Reported Excellent The New York Times Vol LXXXIII no 27932 Associated Press 18 July 1934 p 32 Archived from the original on 7 July 2023 Retrieved 14 June 2023 via TimesMachine Grossnick Roy 1987 Kite Balloons to Airships the Navy s Lighter than Air Experience PDF Naval Air Systems Command United States Office of the Chief of Naval Operations p 33 Archived PDF from the original on 1 April 2023 Retrieved 1 April 2023 Grossnick Roy Armstrong William 1997 United States Naval Aviation 1910 1995 4th ed Washington D C US Naval History amp Heritage Command p 87 a b Slany William Reid John Sappington N O Houston Douglas Penkins E Ralph Gleason S Everett eds 1968 22 Foreign Relations of the United States Diplomatic Papers 1945 Europe Report Vol 4 Office of the Historian United States Department of State p 784 Archived from the original on 31 March 2023 Retrieved 31 March 2023 Elliott Thomas F 2005 Clipperton The island of lost toys and other treasures Victoria B C Trafford Publishing p 90 ISBN 1 4120 7032 5 OCLC 70893221 Cressman Robert J 14 February 2017 Atlanta III CL 51 Naval History and Heritage Command Archived from the original on 4 June 2023 Retrieved 12 June 2023 Brown Wilson Memorandum for the President December 4 1944 Textual record Franklin D Roosevelt Papers as President Map Room Papers 1941 1945 Series Military Files Box 162 File Naval Aide s Files A4 3 Air Base Clipperton Island p 134 Poughkeepsie New York Franklin D Roosevelt Presidential Library amp Museum Marist College a b c Lowry George 1962 The Clipperton Operation Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute 88 2 708 Archived from the original on 31 March 2023 Retrieved 31 March 2023 Converse Elliott III 2005 Porter George Moore Mary eds Circling the Earth United States Plans for a Postwar Overseas Military Base System 1942 1948 PDF Montgomery Alabama Air University Press Archived PDF from the original on 10 April 2023 Retrieved 1 April 2023 a b c Thorne Christopher 1978 Allies of a kind the United States Britain and the war against Japan 1941 1945 London Hamish Hamilton pp 77 666 667 OCLC 759160860 Lonely Island Has a Jinx Herald Express No 9458 Torquay Devon England 27 May 1954 p 6 Archived from the original on 7 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original on 28 January 2023 Retrieved 31 March 2023 Diplomatic Papers 1946 p 792 Beakley Wallace Visit of French Naval Officer to Clipperton Island 23 February 1945 Textual record Franklin D Roosevelt Papers as President Map Room Papers 1941 1945 Series Military Files Box 162 File Naval Aide s Files A4 3 Air Base Clipperton Island p 21 Poughkeepsie New York Franklin D Roosevelt Presidential Library amp Museum Marist College Diplomatic Papers 1946 p 794 a b Appelo Burton 25 July 2014 Interview of Burton Appelo PDF National Nordic Museum Interview Interviewed by Strand Gordon Benson Brandon Naselle Washington pp 10 11 Archived PDF from the original on 1 April 2023 Retrieved 1 April 2023 Rogerson Simon 19 July 2006 Cousteau and the Pit Dive Magazine Archived from the original on 15 April 2009 Retrieved 24 June 2008 McLellan Dennis 16 September 2014 Kenneth E Stager dies at 94 curator of birds and mammals at L A County Natural History Museum Los Angeles Times Los Angeles California Archived from the original on 2 April 2023 Retrieved 2 April 2023 Townsend Peggy 9 May 2014 Averting Extinction UC Santa Cruz News Archived from the original on 5 February 2023 Retrieved 7 July 2023 Tchekemian Anthony 15 April 2022 Clipperton seul territoire francais dans l ocean Pacifique nord oriental quels enjeux environnementaux et geopolitiques Clipperton the only French territory in the Northeastern Pacific Ocean What are the environmental and geopolitical issues Etudes caribeennes in French 51 doi 10 4000 etudescaribeennes 23485 ISSN 1779 0980 S2CID 248756261 Archived from the original on 31 May 2023 Retrieved 11 April 2023 Barker Garry ed 28 February 1986 Yacht haven planned on Clipperton Pacific Islands Monthly Vol 57 no 3 Sydney New South Wales Australia Pacific Publications pp 33 34 Auger Alain 1988 L Interet Economique et Strategique pour la France de l ile Clipperton The Economic and Strategic Interest for France of Clipperton Island PDF Report in French Paris France Secretariat General de la Defense Nationale pp 80 83 Retrieved 7 July 2023 van Dyke Jon M Morgan Joseph R Gurish Jonathan The Exclusive Economic Zone of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands When Do Uninhabited Islands Generate an EEZ p 465 Archived from the original on 2 March 2022 Retrieved 2 March 2022 a b Schmidt Karen 17 January 1997 Remote Radar JSC team goes to extreme ends to conduct science Space News Roundup Vol 36 no 3 Houston Texas National Aeronautics and Space Administration p 3 Archived from the original on 1 April 2023 Retrieved 1 April 2023 N 33 1996 Ariane 501 Presentation of Inquiry Board report Press release European Space Agency 23 July 1996 Archived from the original on 27 March 2023 Retrieved 1 April 2023 Clipperton La France des Confins du Pacifique Clipperton France on the Pacific Front PDF Breve marine No 276 in French Centre d Etudes Strategiques de la Marine 2023 Retrieved 27 October 2023 Deserted on a Coral Reef The San Francisco Examiner San Francisco California 2 August 1893 Archived from the original on 6 April 2023 Retrieved 30 March 2023 via Newspapers com Clipperton Island The Viking to Rescue Guano Hunters San Francisco Chronicle Vol LVIII no 28 San Francisco California 12 August 1893 p 13 Archived from the original on 7 July 2023 Retrieved 30 March 2023 via Newspapers com Two Sailors Deserted on an Island The Los Angeles Times Vol 24 Los Angeles California 31 October 1893 p 2 Archived from the original on 7 July 2023 Retrieved 30 March 2023 via Newspapers com The Kinkora in an unidentified port Photograph 8 9 cm x 13 1 cm Adelaide South Australia State Library of South Australia 1890 Retrieved 2 April 2023 Were Stranded on Clipperton San Francisco Call Vol 82 no 51 San Francisco California 21 July 1897 Archived from the original on 2 April 2023 Retrieved 2 April 2023 a b Cameron Don ed 7 February 1898 Strange Ocean Story Remarkable Adventures of a Wrecked Crew Coolgardie Miner Vol 4 no 914 Coolgardie Western Australia Archived from the original on 3 April 2023 Retrieved 2 April 2023 5 Fishermen Lost May 19 Found on Pacific Island The Salt Lake Tribune Vol 155 no 77 Salt Lake CIty Utah 30 June 1947 pp 1 2 Archived from the original on 7 July 2023 via Newspapers com Gius Julius ed 27 February 1962 Lost Ship s Crew Sighted Safe on Isle Ventura County Star Ventura California Archived from the original on 7 July 2023 Retrieved 30 March 2023 via Newspapers com Robison Naval History and Heritage Command 19 October 2005 Archived from the original on 28 April 2023 Retrieved 28 April 2023 Wendland Mike 14 January 1979 Visit to unfriendly Pacific atoll was big ham news San Bernardino Sun San Bernardino Archived from the original on 26 March 2023 Retrieved 24 March 2023 Donham Perry 1985 DX Dream 73 Retrieved 31 December 2023 Bloc Notes De La Radioamateurs Megahertz Magazine France 1991 Retrieved 31 December 2023 Bill Salyers 27 August 2023 Episode 17 Clipperton Island The DX Mentor Podcast Retrieved 31 December 2023 a b Duchauchoy Alain 2007 Clipperton ou ile de la Passion Megahertz Magazine France Retrieved 31 December 2023 Clipperton Island TX5K org 2013 Cordell Expedition Archived from the original on 31 March 2022 Retrieved 5 March 2022 Schmieder Robert W 15 June 2013 Report of the Expedition Leader PDF Cordell org The 2013 Cordell Expedition to Clipperton Island Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 11 January 2018 TX5P Clipperton Island Passion 2015 News dxnews com 18 April 2015 Archived from the original on 15 August 2022 Retrieved 17 June 2022 External links editClipperton Island at Wikipedia s sister projects nbsp Definitions from Wiktionary nbsp Media from Commons nbsp News from Wikinews nbsp Quotations from Wikiquote nbsp Texts from Wikisource nbsp Textbooks from Wikibooks nbsp Resources from Wikiversity nbsp Travel information from Wikivoyage nbsp Wikimedia Atlas of Clipperton Island Isla Clipperton o Los naufragos mexicanos 1914 1917 Clipperton or The Mexican Castaways 1914 1917 in Spanish Photo galleries edit The first dive trip to Clipperton Island aboard the Nautilus Explorer pictures taken during a 2007 visit Clipperton Island 2008 Flickr gallery containing 94 large photos from a 2008 visit 3D photos of Clipperton Island 2010 3D anaglyphsVisits and expeditions edit 2000 DXpedition to Clipperton Island website of a visit by amateur radio enthusiasts in 2000 Diving trips to Clipperton atoll from NautilusExplorer comPortals nbsp France nbsp Islands nbsp Geography nbsp North America Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Clipperton Island amp oldid 1206978338, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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